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# Bosonic string theory in background fields by canonical methods Work supported in part by the Serbian Ministry of Science, Technology and Development under contract No. 1486.

## 1 Introduction

The string propagation in the flat Minkowski space-time has been investigated for a long time and it is well understood . The dynamics of string moving in arbitrary background metric, which can be interpreted as the nonlinear $`\sigma `$-model, has also been studied . The goal of these investigations was to analyze the consistency of string dynamics in the presence of background fields. The condition for two-dimensional conformal invariance on the quantum level, which technically means vanishing of the renormalization group $`\beta `$-function for nonlinear $`\sigma `$-model, produce the field equations for the background fields. The quantization of the theory has been performed expanding the quantum fields $`x^\mu `$ around the expectation value $`x_0^\mu `$, and using background field expansion by standard technique of Riemann normal coordinates. This remarkable connection between the quantum feature of the world-sheet (conformal invariance), and the classical space-time property of the string theory (equations of motion), has been obtained perturbatively.

In this paper, we are going to investigate string propagation in the arbitrary gravitational, antisymmetric tensor, and dilaton background fields. We will make classical nonperturbative investigation of the full nonlinear theory.

In Sec.2, we perform the canonical analysis, treating world-sheet fields as variables in the theory, and space-time fields as a background depending on the coordinates $`x^\mu `$. Because of the presence of the dilaton field, the conformal component of the world-sheet metric survives, and corresponding new currents appear. The energy-momentum tensor obtains the nonlinear realization. It is not in the Sugawara form, but is a more general bilinear combination of the currents, plus linear term in $`\sigma `$ derivative of the currents.

In Sec.3, Poisson bracket algebra of the currents and energy-momentum tensors components has been investigated. Let us stress that, in spite of the fact that some opposite chirality currents do not commute the energy-momentum tensors components, which appear as secondary constraints, satisfy two Virasoro algebras as a consequence of the world-sheet reparametrization invariance.

We also derive the Hamiltonian equations of motion, in Sec.4, using the PB relations between the energy-momentum tensor and the currents. With the help of Lagrangian expressions for the currents we easy convert the above Hamiltonian equations to the Lagrangian ones. Using these world-sheet equations of motion, we introduce the space-time connection and covariant derivative in the presence of the background fields.

In the conclusion, we discus the contribution of the antisymmetric tensor and the dilaton field to the space-time torsion and nonmetricity, respectively.

The Appendix A is devoted to the world-sheet geometry.

## 2 Canonical analysis of the theory

Let us consider bosonic string propagating in the non-trivial background, described by the action -

$$S=\kappa _\mathrm{\Sigma }d^2\xi \sqrt{g}\left\{\left[\frac{1}{2}g^{\alpha \beta }G_{\mu \nu }(x)+\frac{\epsilon ^{\alpha \beta }}{\sqrt{g}}B_{\mu \nu }(x)\right]_\alpha x^\mu _\beta x^\nu +\mathrm{\Phi }(x)R^{(2)}\right\}.$$
(2.1)
Here $`\xi ^\alpha (\alpha =0,1)`$ are coordinates of two dimensional world-sheet $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and $`x^\mu (\xi )(\mu =0,1,\mathrm{},D1)`$ are coordinates of the $`D`$ dimensional space-time $`M`$. The background space-time fields: metric $`G_{\mu \nu }`$, antisymmetric tensor field $`B_{\mu \nu }=B_{\nu \mu }`$ and dilaton field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, depend on the coordinates $`x^\mu `$. The intrinsic world-sheet metric we denote by $`g_{\alpha \beta }`$ and corresponding scalar curvature by $`R^{(2)}`$. Through the paper we will use the notation $`_\alpha \frac{}{\xi ^\alpha }`$ and $`_\mu \frac{}{x^\mu }`$.

If we parameterize the world-sheet metric tensor $`g_{\alpha \beta }`$ with the light-cone variables $`(h^+,h^{},F)`$ (for details see (A.1) and papers ) and introduce the useful combination of background fields

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_{\pm \mu \nu }=B_{\mu \nu }\pm \frac{1}{2}G_{\mu \nu },$$
(2.2)
we can write the action in the form

$$S=\kappa _\mathrm{\Sigma }d^2\xi \sqrt{\widehat{g}}\left[2\mathrm{\Pi }_{+\mu \nu }\widehat{}_+x^\mu \widehat{}_{}x^\nu +\mathrm{\Phi }(\widehat{R}^{(2)}+2\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}F)\right],$$
(2.3)
or more explicitly

$`S`$ $`=`$ $`\kappa {\displaystyle _\mathrm{\Sigma }}d^2\xi {\displaystyle \frac{1}{h^{}h^+}}[G_{\mu \nu }(\dot{x}^\mu +h^{}x^\mu )(\dot{x}^\nu +h^+x^\nu )2(h^{}h^+)B_{\mu \nu }\dot{x}^\mu x^\nu `$ (2.4)
$`+`$ $`2(\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}+h^{}\mathrm{\Phi }^{})(\dot{F}+h^+F^{}+h^+)+2(\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}+h^+\mathrm{\Phi }^{})(\dot{F}+h^{}F^{}+h^{})].`$
Here in agreement with (A.4) we introduce light-cone derivatives $`\widehat{}_\pm =\frac{\sqrt{2}}{h^{}h^+}(_0+h^{}_1)`$. We also use the following notation $`\dot{X}=_\tau X`$ and $`X^{}=_\sigma X`$ for any variable $`X`$.

The momenta corresponding to the fields $`x^\mu ,h^\pm `$ and $`F`$ are

$`\pi _\mu `$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{}{\dot{x}^\mu }}=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa }{h^{}h^+}}\{G_{\mu \nu }[2\dot{x}^\nu +(h^{}+h^+)x^\nu ]2(h^{}h^+)B_{\mu \nu }x^\nu `$ (2.5)
$`+2[2\dot{F}+(h^{}+h^+)F^{}+(h^{}+h^+)^{}]_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }\},`$
$`\pi _\pm `$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{}{\dot{h}^\pm }}=`$ $`0,`$ (2.6)
$`\pi _F`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{}{\dot{F}}}=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\kappa }{h^{}h^+}}\left[2\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}+(h^{}+h^+)\mathrm{\Phi }^{}\right].`$ (2.7)
From the eq. (2.7) we can solve the time derivatives of the field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ as

$$\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}=\frac{1}{4\kappa }(h^{}i_{}^\mathrm{\Phi }h^+i_+^\mathrm{\Phi }),$$
(2.8)
where we introduced the currents

$$i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }=\pi _F\pm 2\kappa \mathrm{\Phi }^{}.$$
(2.9)
We will denote the gradient of the dilaton field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ by $`a_\mu `$

$$a_\mu =_\mu \mathrm{\Phi },a^\mu =G^{\mu \nu }a_\mu ,a^2=G^{\mu \nu }a_\mu a_\nu .$$
(2.10)
We will suppose that the gradient of the dilaton field $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$ is not light-cone vector, and the condition $`a^20`$ is fulfilled in the whole space-time.

Multiplying eq. (2.5) with $`a^\mu `$ we can solve it in terms of $`\dot{F}`$

$$\dot{F}=\frac{1}{4\kappa }(h^{}i_{}^Fh^+i_+^F)\frac{1}{2}(h^{}+h^+)^{},$$
(2.11)
where we define new currents

$$i_\pm ^F=\frac{a^\mu }{a^2}j_{\pm \mu }\frac{1}{2a^2}i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }\pm 2\kappa F^{},$$
(2.12)
and

$$j_{\pm \mu }=\pi _\mu +2\kappa \mathrm{\Pi }_{\pm \mu \nu }x_{}^{\nu }{}_{}{}^{}.$$
(2.13)
We used the relation $`\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}=a_\mu \dot{x}^\mu `$, which allow us to trade $`\dot{x}^\mu `$ for $`\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}`$. Substituting the expression for $`\dot{F}`$ back into (2.5), we can solve the same equation in terms of $`\dot{x}^\mu `$

$$\dot{x}^\mu =\frac{G^{\mu \nu }}{2\kappa }(h^{}J_\nu h^+J_{+\nu }).$$
(2.14)
The corresponding currents $`J_{\pm \mu }`$ are defined as

$$J_{\pm \mu }=P^T{}_{\mu }{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\nu }j_{\pm \nu }^{}+\frac{a_\mu }{2a^2}i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }=j_{\pm \mu }\frac{a_\mu }{a^2}j,$$
(2.15)
and we introduce the variable

$$j=a^\mu j_{\pm \mu }\frac{1}{2}i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }=a^2(i_\pm ^F2\kappa F^{}).$$
(2.16)
The projection operator

$$P^T{}_{\mu \nu }{}^{}=G_{\mu \nu }\frac{a_\mu a_\nu }{a^2},$$
(2.17)
will arise frequently in this article. Let us explain its geometrical interpretation. Note that $`a_\mu `$ is a normal vector to the $`D1`$ dimensional submanifold $`M_{D1}`$, defined by the condition $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=const`$. For $`a^20`$, the corresponding unit vector is $`n_\mu =\frac{a_\mu }{\sqrt{\epsilon a^2}}`$. Here $`\epsilon =1`$ if $`a_\mu `$ is time like vector ($`a^2>0`$), and $`\epsilon =1`$ if $`a_\mu `$ is space like vector ($`a^2<0`$), so that $`n^2=\epsilon `$. Consequently, we can interpret the expression

$$P^T{}_{\mu \nu }{}^{}=G_{\mu \nu }\epsilon n_\mu n_\nu G_{\mu \nu }^{D1},$$
(2.18)
as a induced metric on $`M_{D1}`$.

The time derivatives of the fields $`\mathrm{\Phi },F`$ and $`x^\mu `$ we expressed in terms of the corresponding currents (2.8),(2.11) and (2.14). The $`\sigma `$ derivative of the same fields we can express in terms of the same currents

$$x^\mu =\frac{G^{\mu \nu }}{2\kappa }(J_{+\nu }J_\nu ),F^{}=\frac{1}{4\kappa }(i_+^Fi_{}^F),\mathrm{\Phi }^{}=\frac{1}{4\kappa }(i_+^\mathrm{\Phi }i_{}^\mathrm{\Phi }).$$
(2.19)
Note that we introduce the momenta $`\pi _\mu ,\pi _\pm `$ and $`\pi _F`$ for two dimensional fields $`x^\mu ,h^\pm `$ and $`F`$, respectively. We did not introduce momentum for dilaton background field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, but for convenience we have the currents $`i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ in term of which we expressed the $`\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{}`$. These variables are not independent, because of the relations $`\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}=a_\mu \dot{x}^\mu `$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{}=a_\mu x^\mu `$, which are equivalent to the following connection between the currents $`i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }=2a^\mu J_{\pm \mu }`$. The last one can be confirmed directly from (2.15).

After long but straightforward calculation, the canonical Hamiltonian density obtains the form

$$_c=h^{}T_{}+h^+T_++q^{},$$
(2.20)
where the expressions for the energy momentum tensor components

$$T_\pm =\frac{1}{4\kappa }\left(G^{\mu \nu }J_{\pm \mu }J_{\pm \nu }+i_\pm ^Fi_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }\right)+\frac{1}{2}i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }=\frac{1}{4\kappa }\left(G^{\mu \nu }j_{\pm \mu }j_{\pm \nu }\frac{j^2}{a^2}\right)+i_\pm ,$$
(2.21)
contains the useful combination of the currents

$$i_\pm =\frac{1}{2}(i_{\pm }^{\mathrm{\Phi }}{}_{}{}^{}F^{}i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }).$$
(2.22)
In the expression for the canonical Hamiltonian $`H_c=𝑑\sigma _c`$ the term

$$q=\frac{1}{2}(h^{}i_{}^\mathrm{\Phi }+h^+i_+^\mathrm{\Phi }),$$
(2.23)
appears only on the world-sheet boundary $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and does not contribute to the equations of motion.

## 3 Virasoro algebra in the curved space-time

We shall start with basic Poisson brackets (PB) algebra

$$\{x^\mu ,\pi _\nu \}=\delta _\nu ^\mu \delta .$$
(3.1)
Through the paper, we will understand that the first variable in PB depends on $`\sigma `$ and the second one on $`\overline{\sigma }`$. We will also use the conventions $`\delta \delta (\sigma \overline{\sigma })`$, $`\delta ^{}_\sigma \delta (\sigma \overline{\sigma })`$ and $`\delta ^{\prime \prime }_\sigma ^2\delta (\sigma \overline{\sigma })`$. On the right hand side, all $`\overline{\sigma }`$ dependence we will write explicitly and $`\sigma `$ dependence we will omit.

Let us first calculate PB between the currents $`j_{\pm \mu }`$, $`i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }`$, $`j`$ and $`i_\pm `$

$$\{j_{\pm \mu },j_{\pm \nu }\}=\pm 2\kappa (G_{\mu \nu }\delta ^{}+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu ,\nu \rho }x^\rho \delta ),\{j_{\pm \mu },j_\nu \}=\pm 2\kappa \mathrm{\Gamma }_{\rho ,\mu \nu }x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\rho }\delta ,$$
(3.2)
$$\{j_{\pm \mu },i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }\}=\pm 2\kappa a_\mu \delta ^{},\{j_{\pm \mu },i_{}^\mathrm{\Phi }\}=2\kappa a_\mu \delta ^{},$$
(3.3)
$$\{i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi },i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }\}=0,\{i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi },i_{}^\mathrm{\Phi }\}=0,$$
(3.4)
$$\{j,j\}=0,\{j,i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }\}=\pm 2\kappa a^2\delta ^{},\{j,i_\pm \}=\kappa a^2[\delta ^{\prime \prime }+F^{}(\overline{\sigma })\delta ^{}]+\frac{1}{4}i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }(\overline{\sigma })\delta ^{},$$
(3.5)
$$\{i_\pm ,i_\pm \}=\frac{1}{2}[i_\pm (\sigma )+i_\pm (\overline{\sigma })]\delta ^{},\{i_\pm ,i_{}\}=\frac{1}{2}[i_{}(\sigma )+i_{}(\overline{\sigma })]\delta ^{}\pm \kappa \mathrm{\Phi }^{}(\delta ^{\prime \prime }+F^{}\delta ^{}+F^{\prime \prime }\delta ),$$
(3.6)
$$\{i_\pm ,i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }\}=\frac{1}{2}i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }\delta ^{},\{i_\pm ,i_{}^\mathrm{\Phi }\}=\frac{1}{2}i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }\delta ^{}.$$
(3.7)
The expressions $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \rho ,\mu \nu }`$ are defined as

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \nu \mu }^\rho =\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\nu \mu }^\rho \pm B_{\nu \mu }^\rho ,$$
(3.8)
where the first term is Christoffel connection

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\nu \mu }^\rho =\frac{1}{2}G^{\rho \sigma }(_\nu G_{\mu \sigma }+_\mu G_{\nu \sigma }_\sigma G_{\nu \mu }),$$
(3.9)
and the second one is the antisymmetric tensor field strength

$$B_{\mu \nu \rho }=_\mu B_{\nu \rho }+_\nu B_{\rho \mu }+_\rho B_{\mu \nu }=D_\mu B_{\nu \rho }+D_\nu B_{\rho \mu }+D_\rho B_{\mu \nu }.$$
(3.10)
The ”generalized connection” is expressed in terms of the variables $`G_{\pm \mu \nu }=\pm 2\mathrm{\Pi }_{\pm \mu \nu }=G_{\mu \nu }\pm 2B_{\mu \nu }`$ in the similar way as Christoffel connection is expressed in terms of $`G_{\mu \nu }`$

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \rho ,\nu \mu }=\frac{1}{2}(_\nu G_{\pm \mu \rho }+_\mu G_{\pm \rho \nu }_\rho G_{\pm \mu \nu }).$$
(3.11)
For any momenta independent variables, $`X`$, we have

$$\{X,T_\pm \}=\frac{1}{2\kappa }J_\pm ^\mu _\mu X\delta .$$
(3.12)
Let us write the expression for the energy-momentum tensor components in the form $`T_\pm =t_\pm \pm t`$, where

$$t_\pm =\frac{1}{4\kappa }G^{\mu \nu }j_{\pm \mu }j_{\pm \nu }+i_\pm ,t=\frac{1}{4\kappa }\frac{j^2}{a^2},$$
(3.13)
and let us introduce the combination

$$\tau =\frac{1}{2}(j^{}F^{}j).$$
(3.14)
Then we obtain the following algebra

$$\{t_\pm ,t_\pm \}=[t_\pm (\sigma )+t_\pm (\overline{\sigma })]\delta ^{}[\tau (\sigma )+\tau (\overline{\sigma })]\delta ^{},$$
(3.15)
$$\{t_\pm ,t\}+\{t,t_\pm \}=[t(\sigma )+t(\overline{\sigma })]\delta ^{}\pm [\tau (\sigma )+\tau (\overline{\sigma })]\delta ^{},$$
(3.16)
$$\{t,t\}=0,$$
(3.17)
which produce the Virasoro algebra for the same chirality energy-momentum tensor components

$$\{T_\pm ,T_\pm \}=[T_\pm (\sigma )+T_\pm (\overline{\sigma })]\delta ^{}.$$
(3.18)
Similarly, for the opposite chiralities we have

$$\{t_\pm ,t_{}\}=[\tau (\sigma )+\tau (\overline{\sigma })]\delta ^{},$$
(3.19)
$$\{t_\pm ,t\}\{t,t_\pm \}=\pm [\tau (\sigma )+\tau (\overline{\sigma })]\delta ^{},$$
(3.20)
which contribute to the fact that the opposite chirality energy-momentum tensor components commute

$$\{T_\pm ,T_{}\}=0.$$
(3.21)
Consequently, the expression (2.21) presents new, non-linear realization of the Virasoro algebras. The dilaton field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is the origin of the non-linearity. We want to stress, that the opposite chirality currents generally do not commute in the curved space time, see (3.2)-(3.7), but the opposite chirality energy-momentum tensors components commute.

The momenta $`\pi _\pm `$, defined in (2.6), are primary constraints. The total Hamiltonian takes the form $`H_T=𝑑\sigma (_c+\lambda ^{}\pi _{}+\lambda ^+\pi _+)`$. The consistency conditions $`\dot{\pi }_\pm =\{\pi _\pm ,H_T\}=T_\pm `$ produce the secondary constraints $`T_\pm `$. As a consequence of the Virasoro algebra (3.18) and (3.21), the consistency conditions for the secondary constraints $`T_\pm `$ are satisfied and there are no more constraints. All constraints are first class and they are generators of two dimensional diffeomorphisms . The canonical Hamiltonian is weakly equal to zero.

## 4 Equations of motion

Using the expressions for the energy momentum tensor and for the currents obtained in the previous subsections, we are going to find equations of motion for the action (2.1). First we obtain Hamiltonian equations of motion and then the corresponding Lagrangian ones. It is useful to define the expression $`V_\pm =V^\mu (x)J_{\pm \mu }`$, where $`V^\mu (x)`$ is an arbitrary vector function of the coordinates $`x^\mu `$. Then with the help of (2.20) and (2.21) we have

$$\dot{V}_\pm =\{V_\pm ,H_c\}=(h^\pm V_\pm )^{}+\frac{h^{}h^+}{2\kappa }({}_{}{}^{}D_{\mu }^{}V_\nu )J_\pm ^\nu J_{}^\mu ,$$
(4.1)
where we introduce notation

$`{}_{}{}^{}D_{\pm \mu }^{}V_\nu =_\mu V_\nu {}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \nu \mu }^{\rho }V_\rho =D_{\pm \mu }V_\nu {\displaystyle \frac{a^\rho V_\rho }{a^2}}D_{\pm \mu }a_\nu ,`$
$`{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \nu \mu }^{\rho }=`$ $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \nu \mu }^\rho +{\displaystyle \frac{a^\rho }{a^2}}D_{\pm \mu }a_\nu =P^{T\rho }{}_{\sigma }{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \nu \mu }^{\sigma }+{\displaystyle \frac{a^\rho }{a^2}}_\mu a_\nu =\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\nu \mu }^\rho \pm P^{T\rho }{}_{\sigma }{}^{}B_{\nu \mu }^{\sigma }+{\displaystyle \frac{a^\rho }{a^2}}D_\mu a_\nu .`$ (4.2)
Under space-time general coordinate transformations the expression $`{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \nu \mu }^{\rho }`$ transforms as a connection. It contains the Christoffel connection (3.9), itself. If we consider $`{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \nu \mu }^{\rho }`$ as a space-time connection, then $`{}_{}{}^{}D_{\pm \mu }^{}`$ is corresponding covariant derivative. The consequences of such approach we will explain in detail in the next paper .

We can rewrite (4.1) in the world-sheet covariant way

$$\widehat{}_{}V_\pm =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}\kappa }({}_{}{}^{}D_{\mu }^{}V_\nu )J_\pm ^\nu J_{}^\mu .$$
(4.3)
For $`V_\mu =const`$, the last equation produce the equation of motion for the current $`J_\pm ^\mu `$

$$\widehat{}_{}J_\pm ^\mu +\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}\kappa }{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\rho \sigma }^{\mu }J_\pm ^\rho J_{}^\sigma =0,$$
(4.4)
and for $`V_\mu =a_\mu `$, the equation of motion for the current $`i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }`$

$$\widehat{}_{}i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }=0.$$
(4.5)
From (4.3) and (4.4) we also obtain

$$\widehat{}_{}V_\mu =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}\kappa }_\nu V_\mu J_{}^\nu .$$
(4.6)
Similarly, the equation of motion for the current $`i_\pm ^F`$ has the form

$$\widehat{}_{}i_\pm ^F\pm \frac{2\sqrt{2}\kappa }{h^{}h^+}h^{\pm \prime \prime }=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}\kappa a^2}(D_\mu a_\nu )J_\pm ^\nu J_{}^\mu .$$
(4.7)
So, (4.4), (4.5) and (4.7) are Hamiltonian equations of motion. The equations for the momenta $`\pi _\pm `$ produce the vanishing of the energy momentum tensor components $`T_\pm =0`$.

To obtain corresponding Lagrangian equations, it is possible to substitute the expressions for the momenta into the Hamiltonian equations, but there is equivalent and simpler approach. First we obtain the Lagrangian expressions for the currents

$$J_{\pm \mu }=\sqrt{2}\kappa G_{\mu \nu }\widehat{}_\pm x^\nu ,i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }=2\sqrt{2}\kappa \widehat{}_\pm \mathrm{\Phi },i_\pm ^F=\sqrt{2}\kappa (2\widehat{}_\pm F\widehat{\omega }_\pm \pm \widehat{\omega }_{}),$$
(4.8)
solving linear system of the equations, (2.14), (2.8), (2.11) and (2.19) and eliminating $`\tau `$ and $`\sigma `$ derivatives of the corresponding variables. Then, we substitute them into Hamiltonian equations and find

$$\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}x^\mu 2{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\rho \sigma }^{\mu }\widehat{}_\pm x^\rho \widehat{}_{}x^\sigma =0,$$
(4.9)
$$\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}\mathrm{\Phi }=0,$$
(4.10)
$$\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}F+\frac{1}{2}\widehat{R}^{(2)}+\frac{1}{a^2}(D_\mu a_\nu )\widehat{}_\pm x^\nu \widehat{}_{}x^\mu =0,$$
(4.11)
$$T_\pm =\frac{\kappa }{2}(G_{\mu \nu }\widehat{}_\pm x^\mu \widehat{}_\pm x^\nu 2\widehat{}_\pm \widehat{}_\pm \mathrm{\Phi }+4\widehat{}_\pm F\widehat{}_\pm \mathrm{\Phi }\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}\mathrm{\Phi })=0.$$
(4.12)
Note that equations (4.9) (with $`+`$ and $``$ indices) are equivalent, because of the property $`{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \rho \sigma }^{\mu }={}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\sigma \rho }^{\mu }`$, as well as equations (4.11) are equivalent, because of the property $`D_{\pm \mu }a_\nu =D_\nu a_\mu `$.

The Lagrangian expression for the equation (4.6) produce just the chain rule

$$\widehat{}_\pm V_\mu =\widehat{}_\pm x^\nu _\nu V_\mu .$$
(4.13)
As a consequence of the relation $`i_\pm ^\mathrm{\Phi }=2a^\mu J_{\pm \mu }`$, the equation (4.10) follows from (4.9) and can be obtained just multiplying the last one by $`a_\mu `$.

Finally, we can go from the hat variables to the original ones (see App. A) and obtain the final form of the Lagrangian field equations

$$_{}_\pm x^\mu +{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\rho \sigma }^{\mu }_\pm x^\rho _{}x^\sigma =0,$$
(4.14)
$$G_{\mu \nu }_\pm x^\mu _\pm x^\nu 2_\pm _\pm \mathrm{\Phi }=0,$$
(4.15)
$$R^{(2)}+\frac{2}{a^2}(D_\mu a_\nu )_\pm x^\nu _{}x^\mu =0.$$
(4.16)
## 5 Conclusions and discussion

In this paper, we investigated bosonic string theory in presence of background fields. We used the Hamiltonian method and treated the space-time coordinates $`x^\mu `$ and the world-sheet metric $`g_{\alpha \beta }`$ as variables in the theory. We did the analysis for the arbitrary background fields as functions of the string coordinates.

We obtained a new, nonlinear realization of the energy-momentum tensor components (2.21). They satisfy two independent Virasoro algebras, which is expected because the theory is invariant under world-sheet reparametrization. These components are bilinear in the currents or linear in the $`\sigma `$ derivative of the currents. All currents are linear in the momenta and in the $`\sigma `$ derivative of the fields. Let us stress that the opposite chirality components of the energy-momentum tensor commute, (3.21), in spite of the fact that the corresponding currents do not commute. Using appropriate commutation relations we obtain the Hamiltonian equations of motion which easily produce the Lagrangian ones.

The equations of motion (4.14)-(4.16) offer the possibility to investigate the dynamics of the string, propagating in the curved target space. Starting with the given stringy connection (4.2), let us here shortly discuss the main features of the target space geometry. The space-time observed by the string moving in the background $`G_{\mu \nu }`$, $`B_{\mu \nu }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, we will call stringy space-time.

The antisymmetric part of the stringy connection is the stringy torsion

$${}_{}{}^{}T_{\pm }^{}{}_{\mu \nu }{}^{\rho }{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm }^{}{}_{\mu \nu }{}^{\rho }{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm }^{}{}_{\nu \mu }{}^{\rho }=\pm 2P^{T\rho }{}_{\sigma }{}^{}B_{\mu \nu }^{\sigma },$$
(5.1)
which is the transverse part of the field strength of the antisymmetric tensor field $`B_{\mu \nu }`$.

We define the stringy parallel transport as usual

$${}_{}{}^{}\delta _{\pm }^{}V^\mu ={}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \rho \sigma }^{\mu }V^\rho dx^\sigma .$$
(5.2)
The metric postulate is defined by the demand, that after parallel transport the metric is equal to the local one. The most interesting feature of the stringy geometry is the breaking of the space-time metric postulate. The stringy nonmetricity

$${}_{}{}^{}Q_{\pm \mu \rho \sigma }^{}{}_{}{}^{}D_{\pm \mu }^{}G_{\rho \sigma }=\frac{1}{a^2}D_{\pm \mu }(a_\rho a_\sigma ),$$
(5.3)
is different from zero, which means that metric $`G_{\mu \nu }`$ is not compatible with stringy connection $`{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \nu \rho }^{\mu }`$. Consequently, during parallel transport the length and angle deformations depend on the vector field $`a_\mu `$.

So, with the help of the equations of motion, we recognize the expressions $`{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pm \mu \nu }^{\rho }`$ as stringy connections. It helps us to conclude that the string can feel the space-time torsion and nonmetricity. The more detailed investigation of the stringy geometry and geometrical interpretation of the equations of motion will be presented in .

## Appendix A World-sheet geometry in the light-cone basis

In this appendix we present our notations and conventions concerning intrinsic world sheet geometry in the light-cone basis.

We parameterize the world-sheet metric $`g_{\alpha \beta }`$ with light-cone variables $`(h^+,h^{},F)`$

$$g_{\alpha \beta }=e^{2F}\widehat{g}_{\alpha \beta }=\frac{1}{2}e^{2F}\left(\begin{array}{cc}2h^{}h^+& h^{}+h^+\\ h^{}+h^+& 2\end{array}\right).$$
(A.1)
The interval of the world-sheet $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$

$$ds^2=g_{\alpha \beta }d\xi ^\alpha d\xi ^\beta =2d\xi ^+d\xi ^{},$$
(A.2)
can be expressed in terms of the light-cone coordinates

$$d\xi ^\pm =\frac{\pm 1}{\sqrt{2}}e^F(d\xi ^1h^\pm d\xi ^0)=e^Fd\widehat{\xi }^\pm =e^\pm {}_{\alpha }{}^{}d\xi ^\alpha .$$
(A.3)
The quantities $`e^\pm _\alpha `$ define the light-cone one form basis $`\theta ^\pm =e^\pm {}_{\alpha }{}^{}d\xi ^\alpha `$, and its inverse define the tangent vector basis $`e_\pm =e_\pm {}_{}{}^{\alpha }_{\alpha }^{}=_\pm `$. In this basis, components of the arbitrary vector $`V_\alpha `$ are

$$V_\pm =e^F\widehat{V}_\pm =e_\pm {}_{}{}^{\alpha }V_{\alpha }^{}=\frac{\sqrt{2}e^F}{h^{}h^+}(V_0+h^{}V_1).$$
(A.4)
The world-sheet covariant derivatives on tensor $`X_n`$ are

$$_\pm X_n=(_\pm +n\omega _\pm )X_n,$$
(A.5)
where the number $`n`$ is sum of the indices, counting index $`+`$ with $`1`$ and index $``$ with $`1`$, and

$$\omega _\pm =e^F(\widehat{\omega }_\pm \widehat{}_\pm F),\widehat{\omega }_\pm =\frac{\sqrt{2}}{h^{}h^+}h^{},$$
(A.6)
are two dimensional Riemannian connections. In this notations the world-sheet scalar curvature has the form

$$R^{(2)}=2_{}\omega _+2_+\omega _{}.$$
(A.7)
We also use the relation

$$\sqrt{g}R^{(2)}=\sqrt{\widehat{g}}(\widehat{R}^{(2)}+2\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}F),$$
(A.8)
where

$$\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}=2\widehat{}_\pm \widehat{}_{},$$
(A.9)
is the Laplace operator.


format: text

text:
# M/String Theory, S-branes and Accelerating Universe

## I Introduction

The problem of understanding the origin of a dark energy in the framework of the fundamental M/string theory after the recent WMAP data Bennett:2003bz  became even more urgent than before: the basic conclusion from all previous observations that $`70\%`$ of the energy density of the universe is in a dark energy sector has been confirmed. This implies the existence of a stage of late-time acceleration of the universe. Moreover, the possibility of the early universe acceleration (inflation) is also supported by the data. Thus one would like to derive the accelerated 4-dimensional universe from the fundamental 11/10-dimensional M/string theories.

Recently models of the compactified non-perturbative string theory have been found which have de Sitter space vacua Kachru:2003aw . These models give us a possibility to describe the late-time acceleration in the non-perturbative string theory: the corresponding equation of state $`w=1`$ reflects the fact that a de Sitter minimum is attained and we have a small positive cosmological constant.

Another interesting new development is based on the study of the time-dependent M/string theory solutions, S-branes Gutperle:2002ai -sbunch  with hyperbolic compactification of the internal 7/6-dimensional space TW -Chen:2003ij . It has been discovered in TW  that some solutions of 11d supergravity describe a period of accelerated 4-dimensional cosmology. It was pointed out in ohta  that S-brane solutions in a more general case may also lead to accelerating cosmologies. A natural question arises: what is the equation of state $`w=p/\rho `$ for the dark energy in these models. Here it is important to stress that this function $`w`$ may depend on time $`t`$, or redshift $`z`$. The most recent observational constraint on $`w`$ from WMAP+ supernova requires that $`w<0.78`$. However, this observational constraint is valid only under assumption that $`w=\mathrm{const}`$.

An interpretation of the S-brane solutions with accelerating cosmologies was given in Emparan:2003gg : a 4-dimensional effective action was presented there whose time dependent solutions are exactly the time dependent solutions of the 11-dimensional supergravity with time-dependent compactification. The corresponding 4-dimensional cosmology was studied in Emparan:2003gg  in the setting where the total cosmological evolution at all time is affected only by the dark energy stress-tensor, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D=1`$. We would like to make such models more realistic, i. e. to add matter to describe the observed universe which was matter dominated in the past, and which presently has $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D\frac{\rho _D}{\rho _{\mathrm{total}}}0.7`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M\frac{\rho _M}{\rho _{\mathrm{total}}}0.3`$. For this purpose one should find out where the matter comes from in the compact hyperbolic compactifications. One may think of several possibilities:

1. There is a brane world construction, where one adds a space filling 3-brane which carries the matter fields, as suggested in hyperb .

2. The compact hyperbolic space $`H_n/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is basically given by a freely acting orbifold (no fixed points). One could also consider orbifolds which have fixed points. In the discussion of M-theory on $`G_2`$ manifolds, matter is localized at singularities of the $`G_2`$ manifold Atiyah:2001qf -Acharya:2001gy . The problem is that in the hyperbolic context in M-theory one does not have any clear idea what happens at the orbifold singularities.

3. One could consider CY spaces with metrics which have negative curvature.

At present none of these possibilities is clear and moreover there are conceptual problems in introducing 4d cold dark matter starting with higher dimensional theory Emparan:2003gg . Here we propose to reinterpret the S-brane models of TW -Chen:2003ij  as follows: from the M/string theory we find out the relevant exponential scalar field potentials for the effective 4-dimensional cosmologies. Such potentials serve as a part of the effective cosmological model describing the late-time accelerating universe. Then we introduce density of matter phenomenologically, by adding to the Friedmann equations the energy density $`\rho _M`$ decreasing as $`a^3(t)`$, where $`a(t)`$ is the scale factor. The resulting Friedmann equations are different from the pure dark energy evolution (or S-brane solutions of 11-dimensional theory). We will find the solutions of these equations numerically and identify “today” with the point in time when $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D0.7`$. This will also allow us to calculate the relevant evolution of the equation of state for the M-theory type dark energy, see Section III.

In fact, the calculations of precisely this type have been already performed in Kallosh:2002gf , see Section V on “M-theory and Dark Energy with Exponential Potentials”. Now the new S-brane type models give a specific combination of the exponential potentials. We will study these models following the methods developed in Kallosh:2002gf  and we will find equation of state $`w(t)=p_D/\rho _D`$ for the new models.

This approach can be quite reasonable from the point of view of the effective 4d theory. However, as we will see, investigation of the compactification $`11d4d`$ suggests that the Compton wavelengths $`m_{\mathrm{KK}}^1`$ of the Kaluza-Klein modes in this model are of the same order as the size of the observable part of the universe. If this is the case, our universe would be effectively 11d, see Section II. On the other hand, if one finds a way to make the KK modes heavy, one may encounter large quantum corrections $`O(m_{\mathrm{KK}}^4)`$ to the cosmological constant. These problems may completely rule out this model.

Nevertheless, the models of this type have some interesting features which may deserve further investigation. In particular, in Section IV we will show that if the problems mentioned above can be solved, one can simultaneously find a solution of the cosmological coincidence problem due to relation between the dark energy density and the effective dimensionality of the universe.

## II The model

For M-theory case one starts with 11-dimensional Lagrangian

$$I=\frac{1}{16\pi G_{11}}d^{11}x\sqrt{G}\left(R[G]\frac{1}{2\times 4!}F_{[4]}^2\right).$$
(1)
The time dependent solution is a warped product of a four-dimensional spacetime and an internal compact space with $`R_{ab}(\mathrm{\Sigma })=6g_{ab}r_c^2`$, where $`r_c`$ is the radius of curvature of the internal space:

$$ds^2=e^{7M(x)}g_{\mu \nu }(x)dx^\mu dx^\nu +e^{2M(x)}d\mathrm{\Sigma }^2.$$
(2)
The field strength is taken as $`F_{[4]}=b\mathrm{vol}(\mathrm{\Sigma })`$ and $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ is the Einstein metric in four dimensions. Upon the dimensional reduction we get Emparan:2003gg

$$I=\frac{1}{16\pi G_4}d^4x\sqrt{g}\left(R[g]\frac{63}{2}(M)^22V(M)\right),$$
(3)
where E1

$$V(M)=\frac{b^2}{4}e^{21M}+21e^{9M}r_c^2.$$
(4)
The relation between the gravitational Newton constants in 11 and 4 dimensions is

$$G_{11}=V_7G_4,$$
(5)
where $`V_7`$ is a constant time independent volume of the internal compact space $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. The 4-dimensional metric defining the 11-dimensional solution is given by

$$g_{\mu \nu }(x)dx^\mu dx^\nu =S^6(\xi )d\xi ^2+S^2(\xi )d\stackrel{}{x}^2.$$
(6)
Using $`t`$ as a proper time of the 4d observer with $`dt=\pm S^3(\xi )d\xi `$ it becomes

$$g_{\mu \nu }(x)dx^\mu dx^\nu =dt^2+S^2(\xi (t))d\stackrel{}{x}^2.$$
(7)
Note that we are using a notation $`t`$ for the proper time of the 4d observer to avoid a confusion which notation of TW  may cause, where the proper time of the 4d observer is called $`\eta `$. In standard FRW cosmology $`\eta `$ is reserved for a conformal time $`ds^2=a^2(\eta )(d\eta ^2+d\stackrel{}{x}^2)`$.

We may change variables so that $`\frac{63}{2}M^2=\left(\frac{\varphi }{M_{Pl}}\right)^2`$ and

$$L=\frac{M_{Pl}^2}{2}R[g]\frac{1}{2}(\varphi )^2V[\varphi ],$$
(8)
where

$$V[\varphi ]=\frac{b^2M_{Pl}^2}{4}e^{\sqrt{14}\frac{\varphi }{M_{Pl}}}21e^{\sqrt{\frac{18}{7}}\frac{\varphi }{M_{Pl}}}\left(\frac{M_{Pl}}{r_c}\right)^2$$
(9)
We will now fix the Planck mass $`M_{Pl}^2=(8\pi G_4)^1=1`$ and find a canonical form of the 4-dimensional Lagrangian,

$$\frac{1}{2}R[g]\frac{1}{2}(\varphi )^2\frac{b^2}{4}e^{\sqrt{14}\varphi }21e^{\sqrt{\frac{18}{7}}\varphi }r_c^2,$$
(10)
The solution of equations following from this 4d Lagrangian is the same as the one from 11d.

$$S(\xi )=\left(\frac{b\mathrm{cosh}(3(\xi \xi _0))}{3}\right)^{\frac{1}{4}}\left(\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{28}}}{\mathrm{sinh}(6\sqrt{\frac{3}{28}}|\xi |)}\right)^{\frac{7}{12}},$$
(11)
$`\varphi (\xi )`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{63}{72}}}(\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{b\mathrm{cosh}(3(\xi \xi _0))}{3}}\right)`$ (12)
$`\mathrm{ln}\left(\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{28}{3}}}\mathrm{sinh}(6\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{3}{28}}}|\xi |)\right)).`$
The potential for this model has two exponential terms $`e^{\lambda \varphi }`$ with $`\lambda ^2=14`$ and $`\lambda ^2=\frac{18}{7}2.57`$. One expects to find the current value of the dark energy from the potential

$$V(\varphi )=\frac{b^2}{4}e^{\sqrt{14}\varphi }+21e^{\sqrt{\frac{18}{7}}\varphi }r_c^210^{120}.$$
(13)
The contribution from the 4-form field with $`\lambda ^2=14`$ is way too steep. The only possibility to have a reasonable late-time cosmology is in a regime where this exponent is small, for example at very large positive values of $`\varphi `$ assuming that the factor $`b`$, specifying the form field, is not huge. In this case, which is equivalent to the absence of the 4-form field contribution, we may now study the case $`\lambda ^22.57`$ TW . Note that only the hyperbolic compactification is relevant to get the positive potential in this case. The second exponent has a factor $`\sqrt{\frac{18}{7}}1.6`$. It was explained in LopesFranca:2002ek ; Kallosh:2002gf  that for $`\lambda 1.7`$ a reasonable description of data is possible with fine-tuned initial conditions.

Thus it is not impossible to use M-theory motivated potentials for dark energy. This would mean that the term $`21e^{9M}r_c^2`$ in Eq. (13) is of the order $`10^{120}`$ in 4d Plank units. This raises the following concern: What prevents us to see the extra 7 dimensions? In particular, we would like to establish whether the Kaluza-Klein reduction of the 11-dimensional metric (2) and its interpretation as a 4d cosmology is internally consistent.

The relation between the curvature radius $`r_c`$ and the volume of the seven dimensional manifold $`H_7/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is given by $`V_7=r_c^7e^\alpha `$, where $`\alpha `$ depends on the topology of the manifold hyperb . The mass of the massive Kaluza-Klein modes is determined by the spectrum of Laplace operators on the seven dimensional manifold. It is believed hyperb  that there is a mass gap, and the masses are bounded below by

$$m_{\mathrm{KK}}=ce^{9M/2}r_c^1,$$
(14)
where $`c=O(1)`$ is some constant. In our model, this has an important impact. For $`V(M)21e^{9M}r_c^2`$, the present value of the Hubble constant is given by $`H^2V/37e^{9M}r_c^2`$, so the mass gap is

$$m_{\mathrm{KK}}\sqrt{V}H10^{60}.$$
(15)
This means that the mass gap is practically nonexistent, the Compton wavelengths of KK modes are the same as the size of the cosmological horizon, and therefore particles should be able to freely move in all 10 dimensions of space.

The only possible loophole in this argument that we are able to see is to assume that one can find spaces with $`V_7=r_c^7e^\alpha r_c^7`$, i.e. with $`e^\alpha 1`$. In this case it might happen that the KK masses will be given by $`V_7^{1/7}=r_c^1e^{\alpha /7}`$. To make this mass scale greater than 1 TeV one would need to have an incredibly small volume $`V_710^{315}r_c^7`$. In fact, what really matters is the bound on the lowest eigenvalue of the Laplace operators on the seven dimensional compactified hyperbolic manifold. Not much is known about it at present, and the estimate $`V_7^{1/7}`$ for the KK mass in such spaces is very speculative. Anyway, it seems unlikely that the lowest level of the KK mass in such models is phenomenologically viable E2 .

Even if we were able to find a way to ensure the large values for the KK masses, we would need to encounter another problem related to these masses. There can be an additional contribution to the potential for the scalar field $`\varphi `$ in (13) coming from the Casimir energy of the compact space $`H_n/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ Appelquist:1982zs ; Appelquist:1983vs . For a manifold which breaks supersymmetry the contribution is generically of order $`\lambda _s^4`$, where $`\lambda _s`$ is the supersymmetry breaking scale. In our case this term would be proportional to $`m_{\mathrm{KK}}^4`$. For $`m_{\mathrm{KK}}1`$ TeV, this term would be 60 orders of magnitude greater than the present value of dark energy $`10^{120}`$.

In Kehagias:2000dg ; Nasri:2002rx  it was noted that in principle odd dimensional compact hyperbolic orbifolds could exist which preserve some Killing spinors. It would be very interesting to check this claim by constructing a concrete example. Furthermore there are no calculations of the Casimir energy, going beyond the dimensional analysis given above, for hyperbolic orbifolds in more than three dimensions. For the rest of the paper we will assume that the Casimir energy is vanishing due to existence of Killing spinors or small compared to the dominant term in the potential (13). However, one should remember that if this term is not negligible, it can completely invalidate the model.

Thus we tend to conclude that the model is not really working for the purpose of describing current acceleration of the universe in a way, consistent with the fundamental eleven-dimensional M-theory. It has an advantage in principle over the models of eleven-dimensional supergravity with “non-compactification” Hull:jw  whose 4d cosmology was studied in Kallosh:2002gf . This advantage, the existence of the finite gap for KK states, is invalidated by the extraordinary small value of the dark energy, which the model was designed to explain. Still, as in case of N=8 gauged supergravity studied in Kallosh:2002gf  we may study the 4d cosmology of the 4d model in eq. (10) since it is derived from M-theory and may therefore inherit some of its properties.

## III Accelerating Universe

### III.1 Dark energy without matter

First we will study the S-brane dark energy models in the context of pure dark energy without additional matter, just to get the feeling about the relevant equation of state. Since we know the scale factor $`S(\xi (t))`$ we may find the equation of state of this kind of dark energy

$$w=\frac{p}{\rho }=\frac{1}{3}\frac{2}{3}\frac{\ddot{S}S}{\dot{S}^2}=\frac{12q}{3},$$
(16)
where $`q=\frac{\ddot{S}S}{\dot{S}^2}`$ is the deceleration parameter and $`\dot{S}\frac{dS}{dt}=S^3\frac{dS}{d\xi }`$. It can be also given in terms of the $`\xi `$-time derivatives, $`S^{}\frac{dS}{d\xi }`$

$$w=\frac{5}{3}\frac{2}{3}\frac{S^{^{\prime \prime }}S}{(S^{})^2}$$
(17)
since an analytic expression for $`S(\xi )`$ is known. The function $`w(\xi )`$ is plotted in Fig. 1.

The plot of $`w`$ drops from the value $`1/3`$ till $`1`$ and afterwards raises again towards $`1/3`$. This is in agreement with the observation in TW -Emparan:2003gg  that the acceleration is changing the sign from negative to positive and back. Note also that one can represent $`w`$ as a function of the kinetic energy of the scalar field and a potential energy

$$w=\frac{E_{kin}V}{E_{kin}+V}.$$
(18)
In Emparan:2003gg  this property of the solution was interpreted as follows: the field starts with large kinetic energy and the field runs up the exponential hill, $`w`$ decreases. By the time all kinetic energy is lost $`w=1`$ is achieved when the field stops at some point of the hill. It starts rolling down and $`w`$ increases. Before and after the turning point the universe accelerates for some time.

### III.2 The model including dark matter

To make this model realistic, one should add to the energy momentum tensor of the scalar field (dark energy) the contribution of non-relativistic matter which dominated the evolution of the universe at earlier times. In the phenomenological setting, one can introduce matter by adding the energy density of matter $`\rho _Ma^3(t)`$ to the energy density of the scalar field. We will assume that the matter energy density dominated in the early universe, leading to the expansion of the universe with the Hubble constant $`H=\frac{2}{3t}`$. As a result, in the early universe the friction term $`3H\dot{\varphi }`$ in the equation for the field $`\varphi `$ (see below) was very large. Therefore the field $`\varphi `$ was sitting at the slope of the potential and waiting until the Hubble parameter became sufficiently small Kallosh:2002gf . When the Hubble parameter $`H\frac{2}{3t}`$ becomes small enough, the field $`\varphi `$ starts rolling down with vanishing initial velocity. This means that the field $`\varphi `$ evolves starting with $`w=1`$ with increasing $`w`$. In the language of Emparan:2003gg , the field $`\varphi `$ evolves from the position on the hill downwards only.

We assume that the universe is spatially flat. Our equations are

$`\ddot{\varphi }`$ $`+`$ $`3H\dot{\varphi }=V_{,\varphi }`$ (19)
$`H^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\left(\rho _M+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\dot{\varphi }^2+V(\varphi )\right),`$ (20)
where $`H=\frac{\dot{a}}{a}`$ and

$$\rho _{\mathrm{total}}=\rho _M+\frac{1}{2}\dot{\varphi }^2+V(\varphi ).$$
(21)
Density of matter satisfies the equation $`\dot{\rho }_M+3H\rho _M=0`$ which is solved by $`\rho _M=\frac{C}{a^3}`$ where $`C`$ is a constant. Here $`a(t)`$ is a scale factor on the universe with the metric $`ds^2=dt^2+a(t)^2d\stackrel{}{x}^2`$. Note that $`a(t)`$ is not the same function as $`S(t)`$ since eq. (20) is different from equations following from the 4d action (3) and therefore different from the equations of 11d supergravity.

We solved equations (20) numerically. We found an initial value $`\varphi _0`$ of the field $`\varphi `$, such that at the time when the Hubble constant $`H=\dot{a}/a`$ reaches its presently observed value, the fraction of the energy density concentrated in the field $`\varphi `$ becomes equal to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D=0.7`$. The method used to find such solutions is explained in Kallosh:2002gf . The corresponding solutions for the scale factor of the universe $`a(t)`$, the deviation of the scalar field from its initial value $`\varphi _0`$, dark energy $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D(z)`$, and equation of state $`w(z)`$ are plotted in Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5. Here the redshift is defined via the scale factor as follows: $`z=a^1(t)1`$, and $`a(t)`$ is taken to be 1 at the present time, corresponding to $`z=0`$.

Note that one may also take for the value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D`$ today $`0.73`$ which is one of the possibilities discussed in Bennett:2003bz . For this value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D`$ we have also evaluated the equations of state of the dark energy. It raises today even more that the one for the $`0.7`$ case.

The observational constraint Bennett:2003bz  on a time-independent equation of state is $`w<0.78`$. In our case $`w`$ remains smaller than $`0.78`$ for $`z>0.7`$, but it grows up to $`0.57`$ at $`z=0`$, which makes it rather vulnerable. The future cosmological observations may either rule our this model or show that it is compatible with the data.

One should keep in mind that only the dark energy component of our model was derived directly from M-theory in $`d=11`$. We have added ‘by hand’ the phenomenological CDM component required for the consistency of any cosmological model of late-time acceleration. If not only dark energy but also dark matter were derived from M-theory, it could possibly affect some of our conclusions.

## IV Why $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$ are of the same order of magnitude? A possible solution of the coincidence problem.

Finally, one should discuss the issue of fine-tuning of the initial conditions in this model. We have found cosmological solutions consistent with the present observational data implying that 14 billion years after the big bang one has $`\rho _D10^{120}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D0.7`$. In order to find these solutions it was necessary to choose a proper initial value of the field $`\varphi =\varphi _0`$. One can roughly estimate $`\varphi _0`$ assuming that the field does not change much during the cosmological evolution. This leads to relation $`21e^{\sqrt{\frac{18}{7}}\varphi _0}10^{120}`$, and, consequently $`\varphi _0174`$, in Planck units. Numerical analysis shows that the field $`\varphi `$ grows only by $`0.6`$ during the cosmological evolution up to the present time, see Fig. 3, so the expression $`\varphi _0174`$ gives a good estimate of the numerical magnitude of $`\varphi _0`$.

On the other hand, numerical analysis shows that if the initial value of the field was equal to $`\varphi _00.5`$, then 14 billion years after the big bang one would have $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D0.8`$. Meanwhile, increasing $`\varphi _0`$ by $`0.5`$ would lead to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D=0.54`$. Both values are incompatible with cosmological observations.

Fixing initial value of the field $`\varphi `$ with accuracy $`\pm 0.5M_{Pl}`$ may not seem to be such a terrible thing to do. However, if, in the absence of a better idea, we assume that all initial values of $`\varphi `$ are equally probable, we immediately realize that we have a serious fine-tuning problem.

Indeed, if one takes initial value of $`\varphi `$ in any place of the semi-infinite interval $`\varphi \varphi _0+M_{Pl}`$, one finds $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D1`$. Therefore one may argue that the probability to have $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D0.7`$ in this model is infinitesimally small.

Another way to formulate this problem is to note that for any given initial value of the field $`\varphi =\varphi _0`$, the cosmological time when $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D`$ becomes equal to $`0.7`$ is proportional to $`H^1(\varphi _0)V^{1/2}(\varphi _0)e^{\sqrt{\frac{9}{14}}\varphi _0}`$. Thus the cosmological time when $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D`$ becomes equal to $`0.7`$, and, more generally, the time when $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$ are of the same order of magnitude, is exponentially sensitive to initial conditions. Therefore it looks very surprising that we live at the time when $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$ are of the same order of magnitude (the coincidence problem).

This problem is quite generic for most of the models of dark energy. However, there are some models that do not suffer from this problem. The simplest (and perhaps the first) model of dark energy was proposed in Linde86 . It has a linear potential $`V(\varphi )=\alpha \varphi +C`$. If the slope of the potential is sufficiently small (a condition that should be satisfied in all versions of models of dark energy), the field $`\varphi `$ practically does not move during the last 14 billions of years, so the potential acts as an effective cosmological constant. During eternal inflation, the universe becomes divided into many different exponentially large domains with different values of $`\varphi `$, and, correspondingly, with different values of the effective cosmological constant Linde86 . In those parts of the universe where $`V(\varphi )<10^{119}`$, the universe collapses within the time smaller than 14 billion years Barrow ; Linde86 ; Kallosh:2002gg . In those parts of the universe where $`V(\varphi )10^{119}`$, the probability of formation of galaxies would be strongly suppressed Linde86 ; Weinberg87 ; GarrigaVil . Thus, in the context of this simple model, we can live and make our observations only in those parts of the universe where $`|V(\varphi )|10^{119}`$, which corresponds to a finite range of values of the field $`\varphi `$ Linde86 .

A different anthropic solution of the cosmological constant problem and the coincidence problem was proposed for the dark energy model based on N=8 supergravity Kallosh:2002gf ; Kallosh:2002gg . In that model, the universe collapses very fast, unless the present value of the effective cosmological constant is smaller than $`10^{119}`$.

One could try to use similar arguments for the dark energy model discussed above. Indeed, we would be unable to live in a universe with initial value of the field $`\varphi <\varphi _03`$ because for small $`\varphi `$ one has $`V(\varphi )10^{119}`$. Therefore galaxies would not form in such a universe, in accordance with Linde86 ; Weinberg87 ; GarrigaVil . In fact, the situation here is even better than in the models studied Linde86 ; Weinberg87 ; GarrigaVil . Indeed, in these models the probability distribution was supposed to be constant with respect to the vacuum energy. Therefore the suppression of galaxy formation for $`\rho _D10^{119}`$ did not provide an entirely satisfactory explanation of the present value of the vacuum energy $`\rho _D10^{120}`$. Meanwhile, in our case the situation is somewhat better because the canonically normalized variable is not $`V(\varphi )`$ but $`\varphi `$. The energy density $`V(\varphi )`$ depends on $`\varphi `$ exponentially, so the change of $`V(\varphi )`$ by one or two orders of magnitude occurs within a small range of variation of the field $`\varphi `$. If the probability is constant with respect to the field $`\varphi `$ (which is a reasonable assumption in the context of inflationary cosmology Linde86 ; GarrigaVil ), then the probability to live in a part of the universe with $`V(\varphi )10^{120}`$ becomes much stronger suppressed than in the models studied in Linde86 ; Weinberg87 ; GarrigaVil .

However, at the first glance, in this model we must live in a universe with $`V(\varphi )10^{120}`$. Indeed, galaxies can be formed and the universe does not collapse for all of the initial values $`\varphi \varphi _0`$. The probability to live in a universe with the field $`\varphi `$ belonging to the finite interval $`0.5<\varphi \varphi _0<0.5`$ seems to be infinitesimally small as compared with the probability to live in a universe in the infinitely large interval $`\varphi \varphi _0`$, with dark energy $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D1`$.

One can solve this problem if one finds a true 11d implementation of this model, as discussed in Section II. Indeed, let us remember that the mass gap for the KK modes in our model is given by

$$m_{\mathrm{KK}}c\sqrt{V}(\varphi )ce^{\sqrt{\frac{9}{14}}\varphi }ce^{0.8\varphi }.$$
(22)
If $`c=O(1)`$, then, as we argued, the theory is effectively 11d, and the model does not work E2 . Let us assume for a moment that some resolution of this problem will be found, so that the KK mass gap is large enough for $`\varphi \varphi _0`$. However, this gap exponentially rapidly disappears for $`\varphi \varphi _0`$ and therefore our world becomes effectively 11d for $`\varphi \varphi _0`$. For example, even if the mass gap at $`\varphi \varphi _0`$ is as large as $`M_{Pl}=1`$, it becomes much smaller than 1 TeV and our universe becomes effectively 11d for $`\varphi \varphi _045`$. If the mass gap at $`\varphi \varphi _0`$ is about 1 TeV, the universe becomes effectively 11d for $`\varphi \varphi _01`$.

Life as we know it can exist only under fine-tuned relations between masses and coupling constants, which would be strongly affected by appearance of new low-mass states Barrow . This suggests that life of our type may exist only if the deviation $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi =\varphi \varphi _0`$ of the initial value of the field $`\varphi `$ from $`\varphi _0174`$ was very limited, $`3<\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi <O(10)`$. Therefore it is not very surprising that we live in the universe with $`0.5<\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi <0.5`$. This provides a possible resolution of the cosmological coincidence problem discussed above.

The structure of the universe in this model looks especially interesting if one can incorporate it into the eternal inflation scenario Vil83 ; Lin86 . If the potential of the field $`\varphi `$ remains very flat during inflation, then inflationary quantum fluctuations of the field $`\varphi `$ divide the universe into infinitely large number of exponentially large domains with all possible values of $`\varphi `$ being approximately equally represented, just like in the dark energy models of Refs. Linde86 ; GarrigaVil . The domains with $`\varphi \varphi _0`$ will be effectively 4d, but they will contain no galaxies. The domains with $`\varphi \varphi _0`$ will be effectively 11d, unsuitable for life as we know it. We can live only in domains with $`\varphi \varphi _0`$. In a considerable part of such domains $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$ are of the same order of magnitude. In a distant future, the value of the field $`\varphi `$ in each of these domains will grow, the mass of the KK model will fall down exponentially, the 4d space will gradually decompactify and become 11d.

As we already emphasized, the model of dark energy discussed in our paper suffers from many serious problems. In this respect, this model seems much less satisfactory than the theory of cosmic acceleration in a metastabe de Sitter state in a context of string theory with stabilized moduli Kachru:2003aw . It may still be interesting that the model discussed above provides a possibility to describe the universe marginally consistent with the present observational data. Some of the features of this model may have a more general significance. In particular, the link between the vacuum energy density and the effective dimensionality may appear in other models as well. It may provide a new way towards a solution of the cosmological constant problem.

We are grateful to R. Emparan, J. Garriga, L. Susskind, and E. Silverstein for useful comments. This work was supported by NSF grant PHY-9870115. The work by A.L. was also supported by the Templeton Foundation grant No. 938-COS273.


text:
# On approximation of topological groups by finite algebraic systems. II

## 1 Introduction

This paper is a continuation of the paper . We prove here the statement that was formulated in  as a conjecture, namely, the following theorem.

###### Theorem 1

A locally compact group $`G`$ is unimodular iff it is approximable by finite quasigroups (see Definitions 2 and 3 in ).

Notice that this theorem gives a solution of an old problem, formulated in : to characterize the class of all unimodular locally compact groups.

The sufficiency was proved in  (Corollary 1 of Proposition 5). It was proved also that any discrete group is approximable by finite quasigroups (Proposition 4). So in this paper we prove only the following

###### Proposition 1

Any non-discrete locally compact unimodular group $`G`$ is approximable by finite quasigroups.

The proof of this proposition that will be discussed in the paper is rather complicated. We start with the case of a compact group $`G`$ to outline the main ideas of this proof. The case of locally compact groups requires some technical modification that will be discussed at the end of the paper. A nontrivial combinatorics of latin squares based on a generalization of one result of A.J.W.Hilton  is involved in the proof. This combinatorics is discussed in . As in  we also use the language of nonstandard analysis in some proofs of this paper. It allows to simplify essentially the proofs of Theorems 2 and 5. All theorems are formulated in standard language and we hope that the main ideas of the proofs are understandable for the readers non-familiar with nonstandard analysis.

## 2 A proof of Proposition 1 for a compact group $`G`$.

We assume in this section that $`G`$ is a non-discrete compact group. All subsets of $`G`$ we deal with are assumed to be measurable with respect to the Haar measure $`\nu `$ that is assumed to be normalized — $`\nu (G)=1`$. Recall that any compact group is unimodular and thus $`\nu `$ is left and right invariant. Let $`U`$ be a neighborhood of the unit in $`G`$ and $`𝒫`$ be a finite partition of $`G`$. We say that $`𝒫`$ is $`U`$-fine if $`P𝒫gG(PgU)`$ and $`𝒫`$ is equisize if all sets in $`𝒫`$ have the same Haar measure. The following theorem will be proved in the next section.

###### Theorem 2

There exists a $`U`$-fine equisize partition for any neighborhood of the unit $`UG`$.

Let $`𝒫=\{P_1,\mathrm{},P_n\}`$ be a partition that satisfies the conditions of this theorem for some $`U`$. Consider the following three-index matrix $`w=w_{ijk}|1i,j,kn`$, where

$$w_{ijk}=\underset{G\times G}{}\chi _i(xy^1)\chi _j(y)\chi _k(x)d\nu (x)d\nu (y),$$
$`(1)`$
here $`\chi _m(x)=\chi _{P_m}(x)`$ is the characteristic function of a set $`P_m`$, $`mn`$.

Obviously $`w_{ijk}0`$. Let $`S=\text{supp}w=\{i,j,k|w_{ijk}>0\}`$.

###### Lemma 1

The three-index matrix $`w_{ijk}`$ has the following properties.

1. $`\underset{i}{}w_{ijk}=\underset{j}{}w_{ijk}=\underset{k}{}w_{ijk}=\frac{1}{n^2}`$
2. $`S\{i,j,k|\nu (P_iP_jP_k)>0\}`$

Proof.  The statement 2 follows immediately from the Fubini’s theorem. To prove the statement 1 we need the following identity $`\underset{m}{}\chi _m(t)=1`$ for any $`tG`$, that follows from the fact that $`𝒫`$ is a partition of $`G`$.

Now it is easy to see that, for example,

$$\underset{j}{}w_{ijk}=\underset{G}{}\chi _k(x)𝑑\nu (x)\underset{G}{}\chi _i(xy^1)𝑑\nu (y)=\underset{G}{}\chi _k(x)𝑑\nu (x)\underset{G}{}\chi _i(y)𝑑\nu (y)=\nu (P_k)\nu (P_i).$$

We used here the left invariance of $`\nu `$ and the unimodularity of $`G`$ that implies $`\underset{G}{}f(y)𝑑\nu (y)=\underset{G}{}f(y^1)𝑑\nu (y)`$. Since the partition $`𝒫`$ is equisize we have $`\nu (P_i)=\nu (P_k)=\frac{1}{n}`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

To motivate the following consideration let us use an analogy with two-index matrices. Recall that an $`n\times n`$ matrix $`B=p_{ij}`$ is called is called bistochastic if $`p_{ij}0`$ and $`\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}p_{ij}=\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}p_{ij}=1`$. According to a well-known G.Birkhoff’s theorem (cf., for example, ) in this case $`B`$ is a convex hull of permutations - the matrices that consist of zeros and ones and contain the unique one in an each row and in an each column. Then there exists a permutation $`T`$ such that $`\text{supp}T\text{supp}B`$. Assume for a moment that the similar fact holds for the three-indexed matrices. We say that a three-index matrix is three-stochastic if it is nonnegative and the sum of elements in each line is equal to one. We call a line any set $`L`$ of triples of elements of $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$ such that in all triples in $`L`$ two indexes are fixed and the third run over $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$. Notice that if $`w_{ijk}`$ satisfies Lemma 1 then $`n^2w_{ijk}`$ is three-stochastic. So we assume that the following statement is true.

(A). If $`w_{ijk}`$ satisfies Lemma 1 then there exists a matrix $`\delta _{ijk}`$ that consists of zeros and ones, contains the unique one in each line and such that $`\text{supp}\delta _{ijk}\text{supp}w_{ijk}`$.

By the properties of $`\delta _{ijk}`$ it is easy to see that $`\text{supp}\delta _{ijk}`$ is the graph of the operation $``$ on $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$ such that $`ij=k`$ iff $`\gamma _{ijk}=1`$. Let us denote the algebra $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$ with the operation $``$ by $`Q`$. Since for any $`i`$ and $`k`$ there exists the unique $`j`$ such $`\gamma _{ijk}=1`$ and for any $`j`$ and $`k`$ there exists the unique $`i`$ that $`\gamma _{ijk}=1`$ we have that the left and right cancellation laws hold in $`Q`$ and thus $`Q`$ is a quasigroup.

Fix an arbitrary injection $`\alpha :QG`$ such that for any $`in`$ holds $`\alpha (i)P_i`$. Notice that if $`ij=k`$ then $`i,j,k\text{supp}\gamma _{ijk}\text{supp}w_{ijk}`$ and thus $`P_iP_jP_k\mathrm{}`$ by Lemma 1 (2).

So we proved under assumption (A) the following

###### Lemma 2

For any neighborhood of the unit $`U`$ of a compact group $`G`$ and for any $`U`$-fine equisize partition $`𝒫`$ of $`G`$ there exists a finite quasigroup $`Q`$ and an injection $`\alpha :QG`$ such that

1. $`P𝒫qQ(\alpha (q)P);`$
2. $`q_1,q_2Q(\alpha (q_1)P_1𝒫\alpha (q_2)P_2𝒫\alpha (q_1q_2)P_3𝒫P_1P_2P_3\mathrm{})`$.

Unfortunately the statement (A) is not true in general (see, for example  ) and a proof of Lemma 2 is more difficult. We will discuss it later in this section. At first let us show how Lemma 2 implies Proposition 1 for a compact group $`G`$.

We will use the nonstandard criterion of approximability by finite quasigroups - the Proposition 9 of . According to this Proposition and using the fact that any element of the nonstandard extension $`{}_{}{}^{}G`$ of a compact group $`G`$ is nearstandard , Proposition 8(3), we have to prove the existence of a hyperfinite quasigroup $`Q`$ and an internal map $`\alpha :Q^{}G`$ that satisfy the following conditions

* $`gGqQ(\alpha (q)G);`$
* $`q_1,q_2Q(\alpha (q_1q_2)\alpha (q_1)\alpha (q_2)).`$

Fix an infinitesimal neighborhood of unit $`U^{}G`$ i.e. $`U`$ is an internal open set and $`eU\mu (e)`$, where $`\mu (e)`$ is the monad of $`\epsilon `$. We may assume that $`U`$ is symmetric ($`U=U^1`$) without loss of generality.

By Theorem 2 and the transfer principle there exist a hyperfinite $`U`$-fine equisize partition $`𝒫`$ and thus there exists a hyperfinite quasigroup $`Q`$ and an internal map $`\alpha :QG`$ that satisfy Lemma 2. Let us show that $`Q,\alpha `$ satisfies the conditions (i) and (ii).

It is easy to see that all elements of any $`X𝒫`$ are infinitesimally close to each other since $`U`$ is infinitesimal and $`𝒫`$ is $`U`$-fine. Thus if $`X,Y𝒫`$ then all elements of $`XY`$ are infinitesimally close to each other.

Let $`gG`$. Since $`𝒫`$ is a partition of $`{}_{}{}^{}GG`$ there exists $`P𝒫`$ such that $`gP`$ By the condition (1) of Lemma 2 there exist $`qQ`$ such that $`\alpha (q)P`$. So $`\alpha (q)g`$ and (i) is proved.

Let $`\alpha (q_1)P_1,\alpha (q_2)P_2,\alpha (q_1q_2)P_3`$. By the condition (2) of Lemma 2 there exists $`hP_1P_2P_3`$. Then $`\alpha (q_1)\alpha (q_2)h`$ and $`\alpha (q_1q_2)h`$. This proves (ii) and Proposition 1 for a compact group $`G`$.

We have only to prove Lemma 2.

Let $`Q`$ be a quasigroup and $`\sigma `$ an equivalence relation on $`Q`$ which we will identify with a partition of $`Q`$ by equivalence classes. So $`\sigma =\{Q_1,\mathrm{},Q_n\}`$. Denote by $`Q/\sigma `$ the subset of $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}^3`$ such that $`ijkQ/\sigma `$ iff there exist $`qQ_i`$ and $`q^{}Q_j`$ with $`qq^{}Q_j`$. Notice that if $`\sigma `$ is a congruence relation on $`Q`$ (i.e. it preserves the operation $``$) then the introduced set is exactly the graph of the operation in the quotient quasigroup $`Q`$ by $`\sigma `$ and so we will call the set $`Q/\sigma `$ \- a generalized quotient quasigroup (gqq).

The following weakening of the statement (A) holds.

###### Theorem 3

Let a non-negative three indexes matrix $`u=u_{ijk}|1i,j,kn`$ satisfy the following condition

$$\underset{i}{}u_{ijk}=\underset{j}{}u_{ijk}=\underset{k}{}u_{ijk}=l$$

for some positive $`l`$. Then there exist a finite quasigroup $`Q`$ and its partition $`\sigma =\{Q_1,\mathrm{},Q_n\}`$ such that the gqq $`Q/\sigma \text{supp}u`$.

This theorem easily follows from results of A.J.W.Hilton, . See also  for a proof.

Now we are able to complete the proof of Lemma 2.

Let $`𝒫=\{P_1,\mathrm{},P_n\}`$ be a $`U`$-fine equisize partition of $`G`$. Consider the three indexes matrix $`w`$ defined by formula (1). By Lemma 1 (1) the matrix $`w`$ satisfies the conditions of Theorem 3 and thus there exists a finite quasigroup $`Q`$ and its partition $`\sigma =\{Q_1,\mathrm{},Q_n\}`$ such that $`Q/\sigma \text{supp}w`$. Consider an arbitrary injection $`\alpha :QG`$ such that $`\alpha (Q_i)P_i`$ for any $`1in`$. Since all $`P_i`$ are infinite (our group $`G`$ is non-discrete) such an injection $`\alpha `$ exists. Obviously the first condition of Lemma 2 holds. If $`\alpha (q_1)P_1,\alpha (q_2)P_2,\alpha (q_1q_2)P_3`$ then $`q_1Q_1,q_2Q_2`$ and $`q_1q_2Q_3`$. Then $`123Q/\sigma `$ by the definition of $`Q/\sigma `$ and thus $`123\text{supp}w`$ by Theorem 3. So $`P_1P_2P_3\mathrm{}`$ by Lemma 1. $`\mathrm{}`$

## 3 Proof of Theorem 2

In this section again $`G`$ is a non-discrete compact group and $`\nu `$ the Haar measure on $`G`$ such that $`\nu (G)=1`$

We will use the following version of Marriage Lemma for finite non-atomic measurable spaces due to Rado

###### Theorem 4

Let $`S`$ be a measurable space with a finite non-atomic measure $`\mu `$, $`\{S_1,\mathrm{},S_n\}`$ \- a collection of subsets of $`S`$ such that $`\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}S_i=S`$, $`\epsilon _1,\mathrm{},\epsilon _n𝐑^n`$, $`\epsilon _i>0,\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\epsilon _i=\mu (S)`$. Then the following two statements are equivalent:

1. there exists a partition $`\{P_1,\mathrm{},P_n\}`$ of $`S`$ such that $`\mu (P_i)=\epsilon _i,P_iS_i,i=1,\mathrm{},n`$;
2. for any $`I\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$ holds $`\mu \left(\underset{iI}{}S_i\right)\underset{iI}{}\epsilon _i`$.

###### Remark 1

Indeed, Theorem 4 is a very particular case of the theorem, proved in .

###### Lemma 3

For any neighborhood $`U`$ of the unit in $`G`$ there exists a finite set $`HG`$ such that

1. $`HU=G`$;
2. $`IH\nu (IU)\frac{|I|}{|H|}`$.

Theorem 2 follows immediately from Theorem 4 and Lemma 3. Indeed, let $`H`$ satisfy Lemma 3, $`H=\{h_1,\mathrm{},h_n\}`$. Consider the collection $`\{h_1U,\mathrm{},h_nU\}`$ of subsets of $`G`$ and put $`\epsilon _i=n^1,i=1,\mathrm{},n`$. Then the condition (2) of Theorem 4 is equivalent to the condition (2) of Lemma 3 and thus there exists the partition $`𝒫`$ that satisfies the conditions of Theorem 4. Obviously this partition satisfies Theorem 2.

The remaining part of this section is dedicated to a proof of Lemma 3.

Let $`𝒰`$ be the base of neighborhoods of the unit of $`G`$ that consists of all symmetric ($`V=V^1`$) neighborhoods. For $`V𝒰`$ put

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(V)=\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}V^n.$$

It is well known (cf. for example ) that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(V)`$ is a complete, and thus clopen, subgroup of $`G`$. Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(V)=\mathrm{\Gamma }(V),\mathrm{\Gamma }_2(V),\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Gamma }_m(V)`$ be a collection of all left cosets of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(V)`$. It is easy to see that for any $`im`$ and for any neighborhood of the unit $`WV`$ holds:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(V)W=\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(V).$$
$`(2)`$
###### Proposition 2

Let $`U𝒰`$. Let $`AG`$. If there exists coset $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U)`$ such that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U)A\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U)\backslash \overline{A}\mathrm{}`$, then

$$\nu (\overline{A})<\nu (AU).$$
$`(3)`$
Proof.  It is easy to see that $`AU=\overline{A}U`$ since $`U`$ is open. Let us show that $`AU\overline{A}`$. Indeed, if $`AU=\overline{A}`$ then $`AU^2=\overline{A}U=AU=\overline{A}`$. By induction $`AU^n=\overline{A}`$ and thus $`A\mathrm{\Gamma }(U)=\overline{A}`$. But $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U)=g\mathrm{\Gamma }(U)`$ for any $`g\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U)A`$ and thus $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U)\overline{A}`$. The contradiction. So $`AU\overline{A}\mathrm{}`$ and since this set is open we have $`\nu (AU\overline{A})>0`$. This inequality implies inequality (3) since $`\overline{A}AU`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

In the remaining part of Lemma 3 we use the language of nonstandard analysis (cf. , where this language is discussed).

We will need some modification of theorem about invariant integral introduced in  (cf. formula (6) in ).

Let $`L`$ be a locally compact group, $`CL`$ — a compact set, $`U`$ — a relatively compact neighborhood of the unit. Fix an arbitrary infinitesimal neighborhood of the unit $`O^{}L`$ and an internal $`^{}`$compact set $`K`$ such that $`LK^{}L`$. Since $`U`$ and $`C`$ are standard it is easy to see that the following conditions hold: $`OO^1^{}U;(^{}C)^2K;^{}C^{}UK`$. It was shown in the proof of Lemma 1 of  that if under these conditions a hyperfinite set $`H^{}L`$ is an optimal left $`O`$-grid of $`K`$ then $`H`$ can be endowed with a binary operation $``$, making $`H`$ a left quasigroup that is a $`{}_{}{}^{}(C,U)`$-approximation of $`L`$. Since this holds for all standard $`C`$ and $`U`$ we see that the left quasigroup $`H`$ is a hyperfinite approximation of $`G`$. Now applying Lemmas 2,3 and Proposition 5 of  we obtain the following

###### Proposition 3

Let $`L`$ be a locally compact group, $`VL`$ \- a compact set with the non-empty interior, $`O`$ \- an infinitesimal neighborhood of the unit in $`{}_{}{}^{}L`$, $`K`$ \- an internal compact set such that $`LK^{}L`$, $`HL`$ \- a hyperfinite set that is an optimal left (right) $`O`$-grid for $`K`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=|HV|^1`$. Consider the functional $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_V(f)`$ defined by the formula

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_V(f)=^{}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }\underset{hH}{\overset{}{}}f(h)\right).$$

Then $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_V(f)`$ is a left (right) invariant finite positive functional on $`C_0(L)`$ and thus defines the left (right) Haar measure $`\nu _V`$ on $`L`$.

###### Corollary 1

If under conditions of Proposition 3 $`C`$ is a compact and $`\nu _V(C)=0`$ then $`\nu _V(C)=\mathrm{\Lambda }_V(\chi _C)`$, in particular, if $`\nu _V(V)=0`$ then $`\nu _V(V)=1`$.

Corollary 1 follows immediately from Proposition 1.2.18 of  $`\mathrm{}`$.

###### Corollary 2

Let $`G`$ be a compact group, $`O`$ \- an infinitesimal neighborhood of the unit in $`{}_{}{}^{}G`$ and $`H^{}G`$ an optimal left or right $`O`$-grid in $`{}_{}{}^{}G`$ then the functional $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ defined by the formula

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }(f)=^{}\left(\frac{1}{|H|}\underset{hH}{\overset{}{}}f(h)\right).$$

is a positive invariant finite functional on $`C(G)`$ and thus defines the normalized Haar measure $`\nu `$ on $`G`$.

We are going to proof the existence of a hyperfinite set $`H^{}G`$ such that for any standard neighborhood of the unit $`U𝒰`$ holds

1. $`H^{}U=^{}G`$;
2. $``$ internal $`IH^{}\nu (I^{}U)\frac{|I|}{|H|}`$.

By the transfer principle this implies Lemma 3. Let $`O`$ be an infinitesimal neighborhood of the unit in $`{}_{}{}^{}G`$ and $`H`$ \- an optimal $`O`$-covering of $`{}_{}{}^{}G`$ (see ). We are going to prove that $`H`$ satisfies the conditions (H1) and (H2).

Consider the functional $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(f)`$ defined in Corollary 2. Then for any $`fC(G)`$ holds

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }(f)=\underset{G}{}f𝑑\nu .$$

Now it is easy to see that for any compact set $`CG`$ holds

$$\nu (C)\mathrm{\Lambda }(\chi _C),$$
$`(4)`$
and for any open set $`WG`$ holds

$$\nu (W)\mathrm{\Lambda }(\chi _W).$$
$`(5)`$
Indeed by the general theory of integration on locally compact spaces (see for example )

$$\nu (C)=inf\{\mathrm{\Lambda }(f)|fC(G),f\chi _C\}.$$

By the positivity of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ for any $`f\chi _C`$ holds $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(f)\mathrm{\Lambda }(\chi _C)`$. This proves (4). To prove (5) it is enough to apply (4) to the set $`GW`$.

Remark. The inequalities (4) and (5) hold for an arbitrary locally compact group $`G`$ if an open set $`W`$ is relatively compact. But inequality (5) in this case requires a little bit more complicated proof, using, for example, regularity of a Haar measure.

For an arbitrary (internal or external) set $`IG`$ put $`\text{st}(I)=\{^{}x|xG\}`$.

###### Proposition 4

Let $`WG`$ be a standard open set, $`U`$ \- a standard open neighborhood of the unit in $`G`$ and $`I^{}G`$ \- an internal set. Then the following inclusions hold:

1. $`I^{}W^{}U^{}(\text{st}(I)W)`$;
2. $`{}_{}{}^{}(\text{st}(I)U)I`$.

Proof.  1). We will prove the stronger inclusion $`{}_{}{}^{}(\overline{\text{st}(I)W})I^{}W^{}U`$. We have

$$\overline{\text{st}(I)W}=\overline{\text{st}(I)}\overline{W}=\text{st}(I)\overline{W},$$
$`(6)`$
since $`\text{st}(I)`$ is a closed set for any internal $`I`$ (this follows from saturation - see, for example, ). Let $`x^{}(\overline{\text{st}(I)W})`$ then there exists $`b\overline{\text{st}(I)W}`$ such that $`xb`$ since $`\overline{\text{st}(I)W}`$ is a compact set. By (6) the element $`b`$ can be represented in the form $`b=^{}ia`$ for some $`iI`$ and $`a\overline{W}`$. By the nonstandard characteristic of the closure of a standard set there exists $`w^{}W`$ such that $`wa`$ and thus $`xiw`$. This implies that $`xiw^{}UI^{}W^{}U`$.

2) We will show that $`I\text{st}(I)^{}U^{}(\text{st}(I)U)`$. Indeed, since $`G`$ is a compact set for any $`iI`$ there exists $`{}_{}{}^{}i\text{st}(I)`$ and since $`i^{}i`$, we have $`i^{}i^{}U\text{st}(I)^{}U`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

To complete the proof of Lemma 3 we will prove that the constructed hyperfinite set $`H`$ satisfies the conditions (H1) and (H2). Let $`U`$ be an arbitrary (standard) neighborhood of the unit. Since $`HO=^{}G`$ and $`O`$ is an infinitesimal neighborhood of the unit, and thus $`O^{}U`$ we see that the condition (H1) holds. We have to prove only that $`{}_{}{}^{}\nu (I^{}U)\frac{|I|}{|H|}`$ for any internal $`IH`$.

Fix three neighborhoods of the unit $`U_1,U_2`$ and $`U_3`$ such that $`U_2𝒰`$ and $`U_1U_2U_3U`$. Put $`A=\text{st}(I)U_1`$. There are two possibilities.

1). The set $`\overline{A}`$ is the union of $`k`$ cosets of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2)`$. Let $`G=\underset{i=1}{\overset{m}{}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U_2)`$ be the decomposition of $`G`$ on the left cosets of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2)`$ and $`\overline{A}=\underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U_2)`$. By the equality (2)

$$\overline{A}AU_2\left(\underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U_2)\right)U_2=\underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U_2)=\overline{A}.$$

So $`AU_2=\overline{A}`$ and thus $`\nu (AU_2)=\frac{k}{m}`$

Let $`H_i=^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U_2)H`$. Then all sets $`H_i,i=0,\mathrm{},m`$ have the same cardinality. Indeed, since $`O`$ is infinitesimal and thus $`O^{}U_2`$ we have $`{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{i}^{}(U_2)O=^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U_2)`$ by (2). So $`H_iO^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U_2)`$ and since $`HO=G`$ we have $`H_iO=^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(U_2)`$. Now if $`|H_i|<\frac{1}{m}|H|`$ for some $`i`$ then using the left shifts of $`H_i`$ we obtain the $`O`$-cover of $`G`$ that contains less number of elements than $`H`$, but this contradicts to the optimality of $`H`$.

By Proposition 4 (1) we have $`{}_{}{}^{}\nu (I^{}U)\nu (AU_2)=\frac{k}{m}`$. By Proposition 4 (2) $`I^{}AH\underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}H_i`$. So $`|I|\frac{k|H|}{m}`$ and thus $`{}_{}{}^{}\nu (I^{}U)\frac{|I|}{|H|}.`$

2). The sets $`A`$ and $`U_2`$ satisfy Proposition 2. Then $`{}_{}{}^{}\nu (I^{}U)\nu (AU_2)`$ as above; $`\nu (AU_2)>\nu (\overline{A})`$ by Proposition 2; $`\nu (\overline{A})\mathrm{\Lambda }(\chi _A)=^{}\left(\frac{|^{}AH|}{|H|}\right)`$ by (4). But $`I^{}AH`$ as above. So, $`{}_{}{}^{}(^{}\nu (I^{}U))>^{}(\frac{|I|}{|H|})`$ and, consequently, $`{}_{}{}^{}\nu (I^{}U)\frac{|I|}{|H|}`$ $`\mathrm{}`$

## 4 Proof of Proposition 1 in the general case

In this section we consider the general case of a locally compact unimodular group $`G`$. We denote by $`\nu `$ a (left and right simultaneously) Haar measure and by $`𝒰`$ \- the base of neighborhoods of the unit that consists of all symmetric relatively compact neighborhoods. Our proof of Proposition 1 is based on the following generalization of Theorem 2

###### Theorem 5

For any neighborhood of the unit $`U`$ and any compact set $`BG`$ there exist a compact set $`CB`$ that has a $`U`$-fine equisize partition of $`C`$.

We will prove this theorem in the next section.

Let $`𝒫=\{P_1,\mathrm{},P_n\}`$ be a $`U`$-fine equisize partition of a compact set $`C`$. Similarly to (1) consider the three indexes matrix $`w=w_{ijk}|1i,j,kn`$, where

$$w_{ijk}=\underset{C\times C}{}\chi _i(xy^1)\chi _j(y)\chi _k(x)d\nu (x)d\nu (y),$$
$`(7)`$
Let $`S=\{i,j|P_iP_jC\}`$.

###### Lemma 4

(Compare with Lemma 1) The three-index matrix $`w_{ijk}`$ has the following properties.

1. $`\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk},\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk},\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}\frac{\nu (C)^2}{n^2}`$
2. $`i,jS\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}=\frac{\nu (C)^2}{n^2}`$
3. $`i,jSkw_{ijk}>0`$ and $`i,j,kw_{i,j,k}>0\nu (P_iP_jP_k)>0`$.

Proof.  Notice that since $`𝒫`$ is a partition of $`C`$ we have $`\underset{a=1}{\overset{n}{}}\chi _a(t)=\chi _C(t)`$ and since $`𝒫`$ is equisize $`in\nu (P_i)=\frac{\nu (C)}{n}`$

Now

$$\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}=\underset{C\times C}{}\chi _C(xy^1)\chi _j(y)\chi _k(x)d\nu (x)d\nu (y)\underset{G\times G}{}\chi _j(x)\chi _k(y)d\nu (x)d\nu (y)=\frac{\nu (C)^2}{n^2}$$

$$\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}=\underset{C\times C}{}\chi _i(xy^1)\chi _C(y)\chi _k(x)d\nu (x)d\nu (y)$$

$$\underset{G\times G}{}\chi _i(xy^1)\chi _k(x)d\nu (x)d\nu (y)=\underset{G}{}\chi _k(x)𝑑\nu (x)\underset{G}{}\chi _k(xy^1)𝑑\nu (y)$$

Due to the unimodularity of $`G`$ we have $`\underset{G}{}\chi _k(xy^1)𝑑\nu (y)=\underset{G}{}\chi _k(y)𝑑\nu (y)`$ and thus $`\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}\frac{\nu (C)^2}{n^2}`$. The third inequality in 1) can be proved similarly.

To prove the equality notice that since $`P_iP_jC`$ the equality $`\chi _i(xy^1)\chi _j(y)=1`$ implies $`\chi _C(x)=1`$ and thus

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}=\underset{C\times C}{}\chi _i(xy^1)\chi _j(y)\chi _k(x)d\nu (x)d\nu (y)=\underset{C\times C}{}\chi _i(xy^1)\chi _j(y)\chi _C(x)d\nu (x)d\nu (y)=$$

$$=\underset{G\times G}{}\chi _i(xy^1)\chi _j(y)d\nu (x)d\nu (y)=\frac{\nu (C)^2}{n^2}.$$

In the last equality we used the right invariance of $`\nu `$. The first part of statement 3) follows immediately from the statement 2) and the second - from Fubini’s Theorem. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Remark 2

The proof of this Lemma is the only place in the proof of Proposition 1, where the assumption about the unimodularity of $`G`$ is used.

Since the statements of Lemma 4 are weaker than those of Lemma 1 we need a generalization of combinatorial Theorem 3.

Let $`:\text{dom}()Q`$ be a partial binary operation on a set $`Q`$, i.e. $`\text{dom}()Q\times Q`$. We say that $`Q`$ is a partial quasigroup if for any $`a,bQ`$ each of the equations $`ax=b`$ and $`xa=b`$ has no more than one solution.

###### Lemma 5

Any finite partial quasigroup $`Q`$ can be completed to a finite quasigroup, i.e. there exists a finite quasigroup $`(Q^{},^{})`$ such that $`QQ^{}`$ and $`^{}`$.

The proof of this lemma follows immediately from the fact that any Latin subsquare can be completed to a Latin square . We used this fact in  to prove the approximability of discrete groups by finite quasigroups (Propsition 4 of ).

Let $`\sigma `$ is an equivalence relation on a partial quasigroup $`Q`$ that we identify with the partition $`\{Q_1,\mathrm{},Q_n\}`$ of $`Q`$ by $`\sigma `$-equivalence classes. Then the generalized quotient partial quasigroup $`Q/\sigma \{1,\mathrm{},n\}^3`$ is defined exactly in the same way as the generalized quotient quasigroup (see Section 2).

###### Theorem 6

Let a non-negative three indexes matrix $`w=w_{ijk}|1i,j,kn`$ and a set $`S\{1,\mathrm{},n\}^2`$ satisfy the following conditions:

1. $`\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk},\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk},\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}l`$;
2. $`i,jS\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}=l`$

for some positive real $`l`$.

Then there exists a finite partial quasigroup $`(Q,)`$ and a partition $`\sigma =\{Q_1,\mathrm{},Q_n\}`$ of $`Q`$ that satisfy the following conditions:

1. the set $`\underset{i,jS}{}Q_i\times Q_j\text{dom}()`$;
2. the generalized partial quotient quasigroup $`Q/\sigma \text{supp}w`$

Theorem 6 is proved in . Now we are able to complete the proof of Proposition 1. Similarly to the case of compact groups we will use the nonstandard criterion of approximability of locally compact groups by finite quasigroups. We have to show that there exist a hyperfinite quasigroup $`(Q^{},)`$ and an internal injective map:$`\alpha :Q^{}^{}G`$ such that

1. $`gGqQ^{}\alpha (q)g`$;
2. $`q_1,q_2\alpha ^1\left(\text{ns}(^{}G)\right)\alpha (q_1q_2)\alpha (q_1)\alpha (q_2)`$.

Recall that $`\text{ns}(^{}G)`$ is the set of all nearstandard elements of $`{}_{}{}^{}G`$. Since $`G`$ is a locally compact group, there exists an internal compact set $`C\text{ns}(^{}G)`$. By Theorem 5 and the transfer principle we may assume that $`C`$ has a hyperfinite $`U`$-fine equisize partition $`𝒫=\{P_1,\mathrm{},P_N\}`$ for some infinitesimal neighborhood $`U`$ of the unit in $`{}_{}{}^{}G`$. Let $`w=w_{ijk}|1i,j,k,N`$ be an internal three indexes matrix defined by formula (7) with this partition $`𝒫`$. Notice that if $`P_i`$ contains at least one nearstandard point then $`P_i\text{ns}(^{}G)`$, and if $`P_i,P_j\text{ns}(^{}G)`$ then $`P_iP_j\text{ns}(^{}G)`$. So if $`S\{1,\mathrm{},N\}^2`$ is the set defined before Lemma 4 then

$$S\{i,j|P_i,P_j\text{ns}\}.$$

Let $`(Q,)`$ be a hyprfinite partial quasigroup and $`\sigma =\{Q_1,\mathrm{},Q_N\}`$ — its partition that satisfy the conditions of Theorem 6. Let $`Q^{}`$ be a hyperfinite quasigroup that completes $`Q`$ (see Lemma 5). Now consider an arbitrary internal injection $`\alpha :Q^{}^{}G`$ such that $`\alpha (Q^{}Q)^{}GC`$, $`\alpha (Q_i)P_i`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},N`$. The rest part of the proof is exactly the same as for the case of compact group $`\mathrm{}`$.

## 5 Proof of Theorem 5

Theorem 5 follows immediately from Theorem 4 and the following modification of Lemma 3

###### Lemma 6

For any compact set $`BG`$ and for any neighborhood of the unit $`U`$ there exist a compact set $`CB`$ and a finite set $`FC`$ such that $`CFU`$ and $`IF\nu (IUC)\frac{|I|}{|F|}\nu (C)`$

The proof of this lemma repeats mainly the proof of Lemma 3 but requires some additional considerations.

Once again we assume without loss of generality that $`U`$ is symmetric. This relatively compact symmetric neighborhood of the unit $`U`$ is fixed throughout this section. We say that a set $`SG`$ is $`U`$-disconnected if there exists a set $`AS,A\mathrm{},AS`$ such that $`AUS=A`$. Otherwise $`S`$ is called $`U`$-connected.

###### Lemma 7

Any set $`K`$, such that $`U^nKU^{n+1}`$ for some $`n0`$, is $`U`$-connected.

Proof.  Let $`K`$ satisfy conditions of the Lemma and be $`U`$-disconnected. So there exists a set $`XK`$ such that $`\mathrm{}X,XUK=X,Y=KX\mathrm{}`$. Thus $`\{X,Y\}`$ is a partition of $`K`$ and $`XUY=\mathrm{}`$. The last equality implies that $`XYU^1=\mathrm{}`$ and thus $`XYU=\mathrm{}`$ since $`U`$ is symmetric. Thus $`YUK=Y`$. Consider the map $`\mathrm{\Phi }:2^K2^K`$ such that $`\mathrm{\Phi }(A)=AUK`$. This map obviously has the following properties:

* if $`AB`$ then $`\mathrm{\Phi }(A)\mathrm{\Phi }(B)`$;
* $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{n+1}(\{e\})=K`$, where $`e`$ is the unit of $`G`$
* $`\mathrm{\Phi }(X)=X,\mathrm{\Phi }(Y)=Y`$.

But $`eX`$ or $`eY`$. This brings us to a contradiction. $`\mathrm{}`$

We say that a compact set $`C`$ is regular if it is equal to the closure of its interior. The following lemma is a modification of Proposition 2 for compact case.

###### Lemma 8

Let $`C`$ be a regular compact $`C_0`$ \- its interior. If $`C_0`$ is $`U`$-connected, $`AC_0\mathrm{}`$, and $`C\overline{A}\mathrm{}`$ then $`\nu (\overline{A}C)<\nu (AUC)`$

Proof.  Since $`\overline{A}AU`$ holds $`\nu (\overline{A}C)\nu (AUC)`$. We have only to prove that this inequality is strict. It is enough to prove that $`\nu (\overline{A}C_0)<\nu (AUC_0)`$. It will be proved if we show that $`C_0AUC_0\overline{A}`$. Indeed in this case the set $`(C_0AU)(C_0\overline{A})=C_0AU\overline{A}\mathrm{}`$. And since this set is open holds $`\nu ((C_0AU)(C_0\overline{A})>0`$.

Since $`U`$ is open holds $`AU=\overline{A}U`$. We have

$$C_0\overline{A}UC_0(\overline{A}C_0)UC_0\overline{A}.$$

Suppose that the last inclusion here is indeed the equality. Let us show that $`C_0(C_0\overline{A})=C_0\overline{A}\mathrm{}`$. Indeed, if $`C_0\overline{A}`$ then $`\overline{C}_0\overline{A}`$ and since $`C`$ is regular we have $`C\overline{A}`$, but this contradicts the condition $`C\overline{A}\mathrm{}`$. This implies that $`C_0`$ is $`U`$-disconnected (take $`C_0A`$ for $`A`$ and $`C_0`$ for $`S`$ in the definition of a $`U`$-disconnected set). Contradiction. $`\mathrm{}`$

Proposition 4 also needed to be modified for the case of a locally compact group.

###### Lemma 9

Let $`CG`$ be a compact set, $`WG`$ \- an open relatively compact set, $`UG`$ \- a relatively compact neighborhood of the unit and $`I^{}C`$ \- an internal set. Then $`{}_{}{}^{}(\text{st}(I)WC)I^{}W^{}U^{}C`$ and $`I^{}(\text{st}(I)UC)`$

The proof of this Lemma is exactly the same as the one of Proposition 4 $`\mathrm{}`$.

In the proof of Lemma 3 we used the functional $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(f)`$ that is indeed the functional $`I(f)`$ introduced in  for a locally compact group $`G`$. This functional is defined for all bounded functions on $`G`$ and for $`fC_0(G)`$ holds $`I(f)=\underset{G}{}f𝑑\nu `$. For more general functions $`f`$ the last equality may fail. It may fail even for the characteristic function of a regular compact set $`C`$. But it follows from Proposition 1.2.18 of  that if $`C`$ is a regular compact set and $`\nu (C)=0`$ then $`I(\chi _C)=\nu (C)`$. In what follows we need to deal with a compact set $`C`$ for which the last equality holds. The following Proposition shows that we can always find such a compact set big enough.

###### Proposition 5

For every $`n𝐍`$ there exists a regular compact set $`K`$ such that $`U^nKU^{n+1}`$ and $`\nu (K)=0`$.

Proof.  Let $`(K)_0`$ denote the interior of a set $`K`$. Consider the family $`𝒦`$ of all all compact sets $`K`$ such that $`U^nKU^{n+1}`$. Consider the partial order $``$ on $`𝒦\times 𝒦`$ such that $`K_1K_2`$ iff $`K_1(K_2)_0`$. Let $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ be a maximal chain in $`𝒦`$ with respect to this partial order. If $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ is uncountable then $`Z`$ contains at least one compact set $`K`$ with $`\nu (K)=0`$ since $`\nu (U^{n+1})`$ is finite. So we may assume that $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ is countable. There are three possibilities under this assumption:

1). There exist $`X,Y\mathrm{\Xi }`$ such that $`XY`$ but there does not exist $`Z\mathrm{\Xi }`$ such that $`XZY`$. In this case due to regularity of $`G`$ there exist an open set $`W`$ and a compact set $`K`$ such that $`XWK(Y)_0`$. Due to the maximality of $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ either $`K=X`$ and thus $`X`$ is a clopen set, or $`K=Y`$ and $`Y`$ is a clopen set. Since the boundary of a clopen set is the empty set, we are done in this case.

2). The maximal chain $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ contains the maximal element $`X`$. Then the similar consideration shows that $`X`$ is clopen.

3). The order type of $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ is either $`\eta `$ or $`1+\eta `$, where $`\eta `$ is the order type of $`𝐐`$. Let us show that this case is impossible. Let us discuss the case of $`\eta `$, the case of $`1+\eta `$ is absolutely similar.

Let $`\mathrm{\Xi }=\{X_\alpha |\alpha 𝐐\}`$, and $`X_\alpha X_\beta `$ iff $`\alpha <\beta `$. Fix an arbitrary irrational number $`a`$ and put $`Y=\overline{_{\alpha <a}X_\alpha }`$. Then it is easy to see that for all $`\alpha <a`$ one has $`X_\alpha Y`$ and for $`\alpha >a`$ one has $`YX_\alpha `$. This contradicts the maximality of $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$.

So we proved that there exists a compact set $`K`$ such that $`U^nKU^{n+1}`$ and $`\nu (K)=0`$. If this $`K`$ is not regular we can consider $`K^{}=\overline{(K)_0}`$. It is well known that $`K^{}`$ is always regular, $`K^{}K`$ and thus $`\nu (K^{})=0`$ and $`K^{}U^{n+1}`$. On the other hand an open set $`U^nK`$ and thus $`U^n(K)_0K^{}`$ $`\mathrm{}`$

The proof of Lemma 3 used the finite decomposition of the compact group $`G`$ by the cosets of subgroup $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(U)=\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}U^n`$. In general case this subgroup may not be compact, but it is complete and thus clopen. Also the number of cosets may not be finite. So we need the following modification of the mentioned decomposition.

###### Lemma 10

For any symmetric relatively compact neighborhood of the unit $`V`$ and for any compact set $`BG`$ there exist a regular compact set $`C^{}`$ and a finite set $`\{g_1,\mathrm{},g_n\}G`$ such that

* the interior $`(C^{})_0`$ of $`C^{}`$ is $`V`$-connected;
* $`\nu (C^{})=0`$;
* $`B\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}g_iC^{}`$;
* if $`ij`$ then $`g_iC^{}Vg_jC^{}V=\mathrm{}`$

Proof.  Consider the decomposition of $`G`$ into the family (maybe infinite) of left cosets of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(V)`$. Since the cosets are clopen sets there exist only finitely many cosets $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1=g_1\mathrm{\Gamma }(V),\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Gamma }_n=g_n\mathrm{\Gamma }(V)`$ such that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_iB\mathrm{},i=1,\mathrm{},n`$ and there exists an $`m𝐍`$ such that for all $`in`$ holds $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_iBg_iV^m`$. By Proposition 5 there exist regular compact set $`C^{}`$ with $`\nu (C^{})=0`$ such that $`V^mC^{}V^{m+1}`$. By Lemma 7 the set $`C^{}`$ is $`V`$-connected. It is easy to see that $`C^{}`$ satisfies all other conditions of this lemma. For example, $`g_i\mathrm{\Gamma }(V)V=g_i\mathrm{\Gamma }(V)`$ and thus the last condition holds. $`\mathrm{}`$

We are able now to complete the proof of Lemma 6. Similarly to the proof of Lemma 3 we will show that there exist a compact set $`CB`$ and a hyperfinite set $`F^{}C`$ such that $`{}_{}{}^{}CF^{}U`$ and for any internal $`IF^{}\nu (I^{}U^{}C)\frac{|I|}{|F|}\nu (C)`$. Lemma 6 follows from this statement by Transfer Principle.

Let $`U=U_1U_2U_3`$. We may assume that $`U_2`$ is symmetric without the loss of generality. Let $`C^{}`$ and $`g_1,\mathrm{},g_n`$ satisfy conditions of Lemma 10 for $`B`$ and $`V=U_2`$. Put $`C=g_1C^{}\mathrm{}g_nC^{}`$. Consider an internal compact $`K`$ satisfying $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2)K^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2)`$.

There exists a hyperfinite set $`M`$ such that

* $`\{g_1,\mathrm{},g_n\}M`$;
* $`GMK`$;
* for any $`m_1m_2M`$ holds $`m_1K^{}U_2m_2K^{}U_2=\mathrm{}`$.

Indeed, let $`GX^{}G`$ be an internal compact set. Let $`D=\{E^{}G/^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2)|EX\mathrm{}\}`$. Then $`D`$ is hyperfinite and for any $`gG`$ one has $`{}_{}{}^{}(g\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2))D`$. Consider an internal set $`M^{}`$ of representatives of the internal family $`D\{g_1^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2),\mathrm{},g_n^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2)\}`$ and put $`M=M^{}\{g_1,\mathrm{},g_n\}`$. If $`m_1m_2M`$ then $`m_1^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2)^{}U_2m_2^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2)^{}U_2=\mathrm{}`$ since $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2)U_2=\mathrm{\Gamma }(U_2)`$ and thus $`m_1K^{}U_2m_2K^{}U_2=\mathrm{}`$.

Let $`O^{}G`$ be an infinitesimal neighborhood of the unit and a hyperfinite set $`H`$ be an optimal $`O`$-grid for $`K`$. Then obviously $`MH`$ is an optimal $`O`$-grid for $`MK`$. Put $`F=MHC`$. By Proposition 3 the functional

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }(f)=^{}\left(\frac{1}{|F|}\underset{xMH}{\overset{}{}}f(x)\right)$$

restricted on $`C_0(G)`$ is an invariant functional, which induces the Haar measure $`\nu _C`$ on $`G`$ such that $`\nu _C(C)=1`$, for it is easy to see that $`\nu (C)=0`$. In what follows we identify $`\nu _C`$ and $`\nu `$.

Fix an arbitrary internal $`IF`$. We have to prove that $`{}_{}{}^{}\nu (I^{}U^{}C)\frac{|I|}{|F|}`$.

Let $`A=\text{st}(I)U_1`$. There are two possibilities.

1). The set $`\overline{A}C`$ is the union of $`kn`$ sets $`g_iC^{}`$, say, $`\overline{A}C=\underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}g_iC^{}`$. Then $`AU_2C=\overline{A}C`$. Indeed

$$\overline{A}C=\overline{AC}(AC)U_2C(\underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}g_iC^{}U_2)C=\overline{A}C.$$

The last equality holds since $`g_iC^{}U_2g_jC^{}=\mathrm{}`$ for $`ij`$.

So we have $`\nu (AU_2C)=\frac{k}{n}.`$

Let $`F_i=Fg_i^{}C^{}`$. Then $`F_i=MHg_i^{}C^{}=g_iHg_i^{}C^{}=g_i(^{}C^{}H)`$. Thus all $`F_i`$ have the same cardinality and so $`|F_i|=\frac{|F|}{n}`$. By Lemma 9 $`I\text{st}(I)^{}U_1^{}C`$, thus $`|I|\frac{k|F|}{n}`$.

Again by Lemma 9 $`{}_{}{}^{}(\text{st}(I)U_1U_2C)I^{}UC`$, thus

$${}_{}{}^{}\nu (I^{}U^{}C)\nu (\text{st}(I)U_1U_2C)=\frac{k}{n}\frac{|I|}{|F|}.$$

2). For some $`in`$ the sets $`\text{st}(I)U_1`$, $`g_iC^{}`$ and $`U_2`$ satisfy the conditions of Lemma 8 for $`A,C`$ and $`U`$ respectively. Using Lemma 8, Lemma 9 and inequality (4) we obtain:

$${}_{}{}^{}\nu (I^{}UC)\nu (\text{st}(I)U_1U_2C)>\nu (\overline{\text{st}(I)U_1C})$$

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }(\chi _{\text{st}(I)U_1C})=^{}\left(\frac{|(\text{st}(I)U_1C)F|}{|F|}\right)^{}\left(\frac{|I|}{|F|}\right)\frac{|I|}{|F|}\mathrm{}$$

## 6 Approximation of unimodular groups by loops

In this section we sketch a proof of a result a little bit stronger than Theorem 1, namely, the following

###### Theorem 7

Any locally compact abelian group $`G`$ is approximable by finite loops.

Recall that an element $`e`$ of a quasigroup $`(Q,)`$ is called the unity if $`aQae=ea=a`$. A quasigroup with the unity is called a loop.

Recently, Miloš Ziman  proved that any discrete group is approximable by loops, so we have to prove only the following

###### Proposition 6

Any non-discrete locally compact unimodular group is approximable by finite loops.

To prove this proposition we need the following modifications of Lemma 4 and Theorem 6.

###### Lemma 11

The three-index matrix $`w_{ijk}`$ has the following properties.

1. $`\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk},\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk},\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}\frac{\nu (C)^2}{n^2}`$
2. $`i,jS\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}=\frac{\nu (C)^2}{n^2}`$; $`i,kS^{}\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}=\frac{\nu (C)^2}{n^2}`$; $`j,kS^{\prime \prime }\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}=\frac{\nu (C)^2}{n^2}`$;
3. $`i,j,kw_{ijk}>0\nu (P_iP_jP_k)>0`$,

where $`S^{}=\{i,k|P_i^1P_kC\}`$, $`S^{\prime \prime }=\{j,k|P_kP_j^1C\}`$.

The proof is the same as the one of Lemma 4 (see Section 4).

###### Theorem 8

Let a non-negative three indexes matrix $`w=w_{ijk}|1i,j,kn`$ and sets $`S,S^{},S^{\prime \prime }\{1,\mathrm{},n\}^2`$ satisfy the following conditions:

1. $`\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk},\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk},\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}l`$;
2. $`i,jS\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}=l`$; $`i,kS^{}\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}=l`$; $`j,kS^{\prime \prime }\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}w_{ijk}=l`$.

for some positive real $`l`$.

Then there exists a finite partial quasigroup $`(Q,)`$ and a partition $`\sigma =\{Q_1,\mathrm{},Q_n\}`$ of $`Q`$ that satisfy the following conditions:

1. the set $`\underset{i,jS}{}Q_i\times Q_j\text{dom}()`$;
2. equation $`ax=b`$ ($`xa=b`$) has a solution for $`a,b\underset{i,jS^{}}{}Q_i\times Q_j`$ (for $`a,b\underset{i,jS^{\prime \prime }}{}Q_i\times Q_j`$);
3. the generalized partial quotient quasigroup $`Q/\sigma \text{supp}w`$

The proof is an easy modification of the one of Theorem 6 (see ).

Using Lemma 11 and Theorem 8 one immediately obtains that the quasigroup $`Q^{}`$ and the map $`\alpha :Q^{}^{}G`$ constructed in the proof of Proposition 1 for the general case (see the very end of Section 4) satisfy the following condition.

(I) If $`\alpha (x),\alpha (z)\text{ns}`$ and ($`xy=z`$ or $`yx=z`$) then $`\alpha (y)\text{ns}`$.

Now we introduce a new loop operation $``$ on $`Q^{}`$ such that $`(Q^{},)`$ approximate $`G`$ with the same $`\alpha `$.

Construction:

* Take $`q_0Q^{}`$, such that $`\alpha (q_0)e`$ ($`eG`$ is the unity).
* Find permutation $`a:Q^{}Q^{}`$ such that $`q_0a(x)=x`$. By the property (I) $`a(x)\text{ns}`$ if and only if $`x\text{ns}`$. So, if $`x\text{ns}`$ then $`a(x)x`$.
* Find permutation $`b:Q^{}Q^{}`$ such that $`b(x)a(q_0)=x`$. By the same argument $`b(x)x`$ for $`x\text{ns}`$. It easy to check that $`b(q_0)=q_0`$.
* Define operation $`xy=b(x)a(y)`$. It is easy to see that $`(Q^{},)`$ is a loop with the unity $`q_0`$ and $`(Q^{},)`$ with $`\alpha `$ approximates $`G`$.

This proves Proposition 6 $`\mathrm{}`$

Instituto de Investigación en Communicación Optica de Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, México

Eastern Illinois University, USA

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Mathematics Department 1-00036

Eastern Illinois University

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1991 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary 26E35, 03H05; Secondary 28E05, 42A38