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# Localized behavior in the Lyapunov vectors for quasi-one-dimensional many-hard-disk systems

## I Introduction

The dynamical instability of a system is essentially connected to the unpredictability of that system. It is described by the time-evolution of the difference of two phase space vectors describing nearby trajectories, the so called the Lyapunov vector. If the amplitude of the Lyapunov vector increases (decreases) rapidly in time, then the dynamics is unstable (stable) in the direction of the Lyapunov vector. An unstable orbit implies that a part of the dynamics is unpredictable and a statistical treatment may be required. The Lyapunov exponent, defined as the rate of exponential divergence or contraction of the amplitude of the Lyapunov vector with time, is the most frequently used indicator of the dynamical instability, and a system with a nonzero positive Lyapunov exponent is called chaotic. The Lyapunov exponent is connected to the transport coefficients, such as the conductance and viscosity Gas98 . In general, for each Lyapunov vector there is an individual Lyapunov exponent that is different in magnitude, and this leads to the concept of a sorted set of Lyapunov exponents, the so called Lyapunov spectrum.

Although the significance of the *amplitudes* of the Lyapunov vectors has been emphasized in the discussion of the dynamical instability, the Lyapunov vector itself including the information about its *angle* can play an important role in chaotic dynamics Gas98 ; Gol87 . For example, the Lyapunov vector was used to characterize a high-dimensional chaotic attractor Ike86  and the clustered motion in symplectic coupled map systems Kon92 . One may also mention that the wavelike structure of the Lyapunov vectors associated with the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectra in the small (in absolute value) Lyapunov exponent region has been reported in many-hard-disk systems Pos00 ; Eck00 ; Mcn01b ; Tan02a .

The localization of the Lyapunov vector for high-dimensional chaos, which we call the ”Lyapunov localization” for convenience in this paper, is one of the chaotic behaviors which involves information on all the individual components of the Lyapunov vectors. The Lyapunov localization appears as the spatial localization of the largest components of the Lyapunov vector and is generally associated with the large Lyapunov exponents. Such a phenomenon is reported in the Kuramoto-Sivashinsky model Man85 , in coupled map lattice systems Kan86 ; Gia91 , in a random matrix model Liv89 , in a high-dimensional symplectic map system Fal91  and in many-hard-disk systems Mil02 ; For02 . However it was not so clear whether the Lyapunov localization has its origin in a randomness produced by the chaotic dynamics lep96  (like Anderson localization Lif88 ) or it comes simply from a short range property of particle interactions. Moreover physical meaning and significances of this phenomenon has not been well understood. One of the few suggestions about the importance of the Lyapunov localization is that it may be related to the existence of the thermodynamic limit for the largest Lyapunov exponent Mil02 . If a spatial localized region of the Lyapunov vector corresponding to the largest Lyapunov exponent is independent of the particle number $`N`$ in the thermodynamic limit, then the largest Lyapunov exponent can be $`N`$-independent. This implies that the Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy, which is equal to the sum of all the positive Lyapunov exponents in closed systems, is an extensive quantity like the thermodynamic entropy. Besides, this gives some supporting evidence to the existence of the thermodynamic limit of the Lyapunov spectrum, which has been a subject of study in many-particle chaotic systems Man85 ; Liv87 ; Sin96 ; Tan02b .

The principal aim of this paper is to use the Lyapunov localization as an indicator of the chaotic properties of many-particle systems. For quantitative considerations of the Lyapunov localization we use an entropy-like quantity (or information dimension) of a distribution function of the amplitudes of the Lyapunov vector components for each particle Fal91 ; Gia91 . We introduce the ”localization width” as the quantity whose logarithm is given by this entropy-like quantity. The value of the localization width is in the range $`[1,N]`$, and indicates the number of particles contributing to the localized part of the Lyapunov vector components. Using the localization width we can also distinguish different types of delocalized behaviors of the Lyapunov vectors such as a delocalization associated with a random distribution of particle component amplitudes of the Lyapunov vector, a delocalization associated with a uniform distribution and a delocalization associated with a wave-like structure in the Lyapunov vector. As a concrete system to consider for the study of Lyapunov localization, we use a quasi-one-dimensional system consisting of many hard-disks, in which the system shape is so narrow as to exclude exchange of particle positions. In this system the minimum value of the localization width is given by $`2`$, because particle interactions are given by collisions between *two* particles. In the quasi-one-dimensional systems each particle can interact only with its nearest neighbor particles, so the numerical calculation is less time-consuming than for a fully two-dimensional hard-disk system in which each particle can collide with any other particle. The quasi-one-dimensional system also has an advantage in that the roles of the coordinate directions are strongly separated. In our system the narrow direction (the $`y`$-direction) of the rectangle is very much different from the longer orthogonal direction (the $`x`$-direction). Another advantage of the use of the quasi-one-dimensional system is that there is a wider region of stepwise structure in the Lyapunov spectrum compared to a square two-dimensional system Tan02c . This is a noticeable point because in this paper we show that the localization width is an indicator not only of the Lyapunov localization but also of the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectrum. Calculating the localization width in quasi-one-dimensional systems we show that there are two kinds of dependence of the Lyapunov index on the localization widths: an exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] and a linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\]. (Here we define the Lyapunov spectrum as the set $`\{\lambda ^{(1)},\lambda ^{(2)},\mathrm{},\lambda ^{(4N)}\}`$ of the Lyapunov exponents satisfying the condition $`\lambda ^{(1)}\lambda ^{(2)}\mathrm{}\lambda ^{(4N)}`$ and introduce the the Lyapunov index as the ordering number of the exponents in the Lyapunov spectrum.) The exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization width appears at any particle density, and shows a tail in the spatial localized shape of the Lyapunov vector. On the other hand the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths as a function of Lyapunov index appears only in cases of low particle density, and is characterized by a sharp rectangular localized shape of the Lyapunov vector in space. Next, we consider the effects of the these two kinds of Lyapunov localizations on other quantities, such as the shape of the Lyapunov spectra, the angle between the spatial part and the momentum part of the Lyapunov vector, and the amplitudes of the spatial part of the Lyapunov vector, etc. In particular, it is shown that apart from a prefactor the Krylov relation for the largest Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda \rho \mathrm{ln}\rho `$ as a function of the particle density $`\rho `$ is satisfied in the same density region in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths appears. We also demonstrate a relation between localized regions of the Lyapunov vectors and the positions of colliding particles, suggesting that the Lyapunov localization comes from the short range interaction of the particles. We compare some of our results in quasi-one-dimensional systems with the square system with the same area, and show that the two kinds of localizations also appear in the square case as well.

As the second aim of this paper we investigate how the particle density and system shape affect the Lyapunov vector components. We show that the spatial part and the momentum part of the Lyapunov vectors are in almost the same direction at high density, whereas they are rather close to orthogonal in low density cases, especially in the region of the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths as a function of Lyapunov index. The amplitudes of the spatial part of the Lyapunov vectors are larger (smaller) than the corresponding momentum part in low density cases (high density cases). We also demonstrate that gaps appear in the amplitudes of the $`x`$-components and the $`y`$-components of the spatial part and the momentum part of the Lyapunov vectors, because of the difference of the roles of the directions in the quasi-one-dimensional system. In these amplitudes of the Lyapunov vector components we can also see effects of the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectra.

The outline of this paper is as follows. In Sect. II we compare some quantities that characterize the Lyapunov localization, and discuss the relative merits of the localization width comparing it with the other quantities. The relation between the localized region of Lyapunov vectors and the position of colliding particles is demonstrated. In Sect. III we show that there are two kinds of Lyapunov localizations. These two Lyapunov localizations are distinguished by their Lyapunov index dependences and the shapes of the localized peaks of the Lyapunov vectors. In Sect. IV we investigate the effects of the two kinds of Lyapunov localizations on the shape of the Lyapunov spectra, and angles and amplitudes of the Lyapunov vectors components, etc. The Lyapunov index dependence of the $`x`$ and $`y`$-components of the spatial part and the momentum part of the Lyapunov vectors are shown. In Sect. V we investigate the density dependences of quantities associated with the largest Lyapunov exponent such as the largest Lyapunov exponent itself, the angle of the Lyapunov vectors and the localization width, etc., and specify the density region in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization width on Lyapunov index appears. The region of Lyapunov indices, in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the Lyapunov widths appears, is connected to the region in which the Krylov relation for the density dependence of the largest Lyapunov exponent is satisfied. Sect. VI is our conclusions and further remarks . In Appendix A we give a derivation of an inequality for the localization width. In Appendix B we compare some results for the quasi-one-dimensional systems in the text with those of corresponding square systems.

## II Localization Width of Lyapunov Vectors

We consider the quasi-one-dimensional system which consists of $`N`$ hard-disks with radius $`R`$. The shape of the system is a two-dimensional rectangle satisfying the condition

$`RN\sqrt{3}<L_x\text{and}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}2}R<L_y<4R,`$ (1)
with width $`L_x`$ and height $`L_y`$ . Condition (1) means that the system is so narrow that the positions of particles cannot be exchanged. The systems satisfying this condition are referred to as quasi-one-dimensional systems in this paper. The schematic illustration of such a system is given in Fig. 1. The quasi-one-dimensional system was used to discuss the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectra and the associated wave-like structure of the Lyapunov vectors in Ref. Tan02c .

In this paper we consider the case where the parameter values are given by; the radius of particles is $`R=1`$, the mass of particles is $`M=1`$, and the total energy of system is $`E=N`$. The system size is given by $`L_y=2R(1+10^6)`$ and $`L_x=NL_y(1+d)`$ satisfying the condition (1) with a constant $`d`$, (except in Appendix B where we consider square systems.) Roughly speaking the factor $`1+d`$ is the averaged ratio of the distances that each particle can move in the $`x`$-direction and $`y`$-direction. The constant $`d`$ is connected to the density

$`\rho {\displaystyle \frac{N\pi R^2}{L_xL_y}}={\displaystyle \frac{\pi R^2}{(1+d)L_y^2}}`$ (2)
as $`d=\pi R^2/(\rho L_y^2)1`$ noteDensi .

The quasi-one-dimensional many-hard-disk system has many advantages for numerical investigations of the dynamical properties of many-particle systems. First, in many-hard-disk systems the free flight part of the dynamics is integrable, so the actual numerical calculations of phase space dynamics and tangent space dynamics are simply described by multiplications of the time-evolutional matrices corresponding to free flight and collision. Second, in the quasi-one-dimensional system defined by Eq. (1) each particle can only collide with its two nearest-neighbor particles, so we do not need to search every particle pair to find its colliding particles in numerical calculations. These points lead to a faster numerical calculation of the dynamical properties (especially Lyapunov spectra and Lyapunov vectors) than for other many-particle systems, such as fully two-dimensional particle systems (in which any pair of particles can collide), or with particles with soft core interactions. As another advantage of the quasi-one-dimensional system is that the roles of the $`x`$ and $`y`$-directions are separated, so we can investigate how such a separated role for the directions effects for example, the Lyapunov exponents and Lyapunov vectors. In the quasi-one-dimensional system the information of the particle positions can be roughly replaced by the particle indices, so we can discuss the dynamics of quantities by using three-dimensional graphs as functions of collision number and particle index, which is much simpler than the fully two-dimensional system that requires four-dimensional graphs as functions of the time, the $`x`$ and $`y`$-components of particle positions. Finally in quasi-one-dimensional many-hard-disks, we get a wider stepwise region of the Lyapunov spectra rather than in the fully two-dimensional square systems. This was an essential point in the study of the stepwise structure of Lyapunov spectra and the associated wave-like structure of the Lyapunov vectors in systems with small numbers of particle in Ref. Tan02c .

We introduce the Lyapunov vector as $`\delta 𝚪^{(n)}(t)(\delta 𝚪_1^{(n)}(t),\delta 𝚪_2^{(n)}(t),\mathrm{},\delta 𝚪_N^{(n)}(t))`$ corresponding to the $`n`$-th Lyapunov exponents $`\lambda ^{(n)}`$ at time $`t`$. Here, $`\delta 𝚪_j^{(n)}(t)`$ is the Lyapunov vector component corresponding to the $`j`$-th particle and the Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda ^{(n)}`$ at time $`t`$. We define the normalized amplitude $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ of the Lyapunov vector components $`\delta 𝚪_j^{(n)}(t)`$ by

$`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t){\displaystyle \frac{\left|\delta 𝚪_j^{(n)}(t)\right|^2}{_{k=1}^N\left|\delta 𝚪_k^{(n)}(t)\right|^2}},`$ (3)
so that the conditions

$`{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)=1,`$ (4)
$`0\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)1`$ (5)
are automatically satisfied. Fig. 2(a) and (b) are two typical behaviors of the quantity $`\gamma _j^{(1)}(t)`$ corresponding to largest Lyapunov exponent as functions of the collision number $`n_t`$ and the particle index $`j`$ in the case of (a) $`d=1.5`$ (or density $`\rho =0.314\mathrm{}`$) and (b) $`d=10^5`$ (or density $`\rho =0.00000785\mathrm{}`$). Here we take the particle index $`j`$ so that the $`x`$-component $`q_{xj}(t)`$ of the $`j`$-th particle satisfies the condition $`q_{x1}(t)<q_{x2}(t)<\mathrm{}<q_{xN}(t)`$, and the data is taken every two collisions. (It should be noted that the collision number $`n_t`$ is related to the time $`t`$ approximately by multiplying by the mean free time, and in the quasi-one-dimensional system the particle index $`j`$ has a similar meaning to the $`x`$-component of the particle position.) These graphs show clearly that a non-zero value of the quantity $`\gamma _j^{(1)}(t)`$ is localized in a small spatial region involving a few particles. Localized peak positions stay in almost the same position over several tens of collisions, then seems to hop to another position. Detail of the localized behaviors of the quantity $`\gamma _j^{(1)}(t)`$, especially the differences between Figs. 2(a) and (b), will be discussed in the following sections and are the main purpose of this paper.

To obtain our numerical results we use the algorithm developed by Benettin et al. Ben76  and Shimada et al. Shi79  and so on. This algorithm is characterized by intermittent rescaling and renormalization of Lyapunov vectors, which can be done after each particle collision in a many-hard-disk system. Other articles such as Refs. Ben80a ; Ben80b ; Del96  should be referred to for more details of this algorithm and the Lyapunov vector dynamics of many-hard-disk systems.

Now we discuss methods to characterize the strength of the localization of the Lyapunov vectors like those in Fig. 2(a) and (b) in a quantitative sense. By analogy to the localization length used in Anderson localization Lif88  it may be suggested that the strength of the Lyapunov localization can be characterized by a localization length $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{(n)}`$ defined by

$`\left[\mathrm{\Omega }^{(n)}\right]^1\underset{j\mathrm{}}{lim}\underset{N\mathrm{}}{lim}j^1\mathrm{ln}\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ (6)
as the number of particles $`N`$ goes to infinity, namely in the thermodynamic limit. Here we use the bracket $`𝒳`$ to signify the long time average of the time-dependent quantity $`𝒳`$. (Note that in the definition (6) of the localization length $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{(n)}`$ we used the fact that the system is quasi-one-dimensional. In more general cases like a fully two-dimensional system the limit $`j\mathrm{}`$ in Eq. (6) must be replaced by the limit of the amplitude of the spatial coordinate.) This quantity $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{(n)}`$ characterizes the Lyapunov localization as its spatial exponential decay rate. However this quantity may not be suitable to characterize the localization like that in Fig. 2(b) which does not have an exponential decay. Besides, this quantity requires the thermodynamic limit $`N\mathrm{}`$. The numerical calculation of the Lyapunov spectrum and Lyapunov vectors for many-particle systems is very time-consuming and has so far only been reported for systems of about 1000 particles For02 , so it may be rather difficult to estimate the quantity $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{(n)}`$ defined by Eq. (6) numerically.

Another method to characterize the Lyapunov localization was proposed in Ref. Mil02 . In this method we first introduce a parameter threshold $`\mathrm{\Theta }(0,1)`$ and define the quantity $`C_\mathrm{\Theta }^{(n)}`$ as

$`C_\mathrm{\Theta }^{(n)}\underset{x}{\mathrm{min}}\{x;\mathrm{\Theta }<{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{Nx}{}}}\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_j^{(n)}(t)\}`$ (7)
with an integer $`Nx`$ and the sorted set $`\{\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_1^{(n)}(t),\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_2^{(n)}(t),`$ $`\mathrm{},\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_N^{(n)}(t)\}=\{\gamma _1^{(n)}(t),\gamma _2^{(n)}(t),`$ $`\mathrm{},\gamma _N^{(n)}(t)\}`$ satisfying the condition $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_1^{(n)}(t)\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_2^{(n)}(t)\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_N^{(n)}(t)`$. This quantity $`C_\mathrm{\Theta }^{(n)}`$ is a measure of the number of particle components actively contributing to a localized part of the Lyapunov vector for the $`n`$-th Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda ^{(n)}`$. This quantity $`C_\mathrm{\Theta }^{(n)}`$ does not require the thermodynamic limit, and can be suitable for both types of the Lyapunov localizations shown in Fig. 2. However this quantity is a function of an artificial threshold $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$, which cannot be determined by the dynamics itself.

In this paper we discuss the Lyapunov localization by using an entropy-like quantity for the amplitude distribution $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ of the normalized Lyapunov vector elements, namely the entropy-like quantity $`S^{(n)}`$ defined by

$`S^{(n)}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)\mathrm{ln}\gamma _j^{(n)}(t),`$ (8)
noting that the quantity $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ satisfies the conditions (4) and (5) so it can be regarded as a kind of probability distribution function. Using this quantity $`S^{(n)}`$ we introduce the quantity $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ as

$`𝒲^{(n)}\mathrm{exp}\{S^{(n)}\},`$ (9)
which we call the $`n`$-th ”localization width” corresponding to the $`n`$-th Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda ^{(n)}`$. This localization width has already been used to discuss the Lyapunov localization in a coupled map lattice model Gia91  and a high-dimensional symplectic map system Fal91 .

To understand the physical meaning of the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ defined by Eq. (9) it is useful to discuss some of its properties. The first property of the localization width is the inequality

$`1𝒲^{(n)}N.`$ (10)
The derivation of the inequality (10) is given in Appendix A. The second property of the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ is that the equality $`𝒲^{(n)}=1`$ is satisfied only when one of the quantities $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$, $`j=1,2,\mathrm{}N`$ is equal to 1, namely in the most localized case, and the equality $`𝒲^{(n)}=N`$ is satisfied only when all of these quantities are equal to each other, namely $`\gamma _1^{(n)}(t)=\gamma _2^{(n)}(t)=\mathrm{}=\gamma _N^{(n)}(t)=1/N`$, namely in the most delocalized case (See Appendix A about this point.). These properties suggest that the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ also indicates the number of particles contributing to the localized part of Lyapunov vector, which is analogous to the quantity $`NC_\mathrm{\Theta }^{(n)}`$ derived from Eq. (7). The third property of the localization width comes from the symplectic structure of the Hamiltonian dynamics. To discuss this property we note the conjugate relation Gas98

$`\delta 𝚪_j^{(4Nn+1)}`$ $``$ $`\left(\begin{array}{c}\delta 𝐪_j^{(4Nn+1)}\\ \delta 𝐩_j^{(4Nn+1)}\end{array}\right)`$ (13)
$`=`$ $`\xi ^{(n)}\left(\begin{array}{c}\delta 𝐩_j^{(n)}\\ \delta 𝐪_j^{(n)}\end{array}\right)`$ (16)
for the Lyapunov vector component $`\delta 𝚪_j^{(4Nn+1)}`$ of the $`j`$-th particle corresponding to the $`(4Nn+1)`$-th Lyapunov exponent

$`\lambda ^{(4Nn+1)}=\lambda ^{(n)},`$ (17)
$`n=1,2,\mathrm{},2N`$, where $`\delta 𝐪_j^{(n)}`$ and $`\delta 𝐩_j^{(n)}`$ are the spatial part and the momentum part of the Lyapunov vector $`\delta 𝚪_j^{(n)}`$ of the $`j`$-th particle, respectively, and $`\xi ^{(n)}`$ is a constant depending on the Lyapunov index only. (As a remark, if we use the Benettin algorithm to calculate the Lyapunov spectra, which is characterized by the intermittent normalization (as well as the rescaling) of Lyapunov vectors, the factor $`\xi ^{(n)}`$ in Eq. (16) is given by $`+1`$ or $`1`$ depending on the Lyapunov index $`n`$.) From Eqs. (3) and (16) we derive

$`\gamma _j^{(4Nn+1)}(t)=\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ (18)
at any time $`t`$, where $`j`$ is the particle index and $`n=1,2,\mathrm{},2N`$ is the Lyapunov index. Eqs. (8), (9) and (18) lead to the third property of the localization width

$`𝒲^{(4Nn+1)}=𝒲^{(n)}.`$ (19)
This is the conjugate property for the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$.

Some of the advantages and disadvantages of the use of the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ to discuss the Lyapunov localizations are as follows. An advantage of the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ is that its calculation does not require the thermodynamic limit, different from the localization length $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{(n)}`$ defined by Eq. (6). Beside, the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ is applicable to the Lyapunov localization seen in Fig. 2(b), whereas the localization length $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{(n)}`$ requires that the tail of the quantity $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ decay exponentially in space. Moreover the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ does not require an artificial parameter like the threshold $`\mathrm{\Theta }(0,1)`$ in the quantity $`C_\mathrm{\Theta }^{(n)}`$ defined by Eq. (7), so it can be determined from the dynamics only. On the other hand, a disadvantage of the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ is that using this quantity, for example, we cannot distinguish between *one* peak of height $`\alpha `$ and width $`2\beta `$ with constants $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ and *two* peaks of height $`\alpha `$ and width $`\beta `$ which should be recognized as different localized behaviors. Therefore, in principle we have to look at the concrete shapes of localized peaks to check the relation between this localization width and the peak width in actual numerical calculations, even if we calculate the localization width of the Lyapunov vector. The quantity $`C_\mathrm{\Theta }^{(n)}`$ defined by Eq. (7) also has the same disadvantage.

Fig. 3 are examples of graphs of localization widths as functions of Lyapunov index in quasi-one-dimensional systems. Here we have plotted the localization widths $`𝒲^{(n)}/N`$ normalized by the particle number $`N`$ for quasi-one-dimensional systems of size $`N=25`$ (circles), $`N=50`$ (triangles) and $`N=100`$ (squares) where $`d=0.5`$ (density $`\rho =0.523\mathrm{}`$). In order to take the time-average in Eq. (8) to calculate the localization width, we sample the quantities $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)\mathrm{ln}\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ just after collisions over $`1000N`$ collisions and take arithmetic averages of them. (In this paper we always calculate localization widths in this way.) Fig. 3(a) is the full scale graph of the localization widths as functions of the normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$, and Fig. 3(b) is a part of the localization widths corresponding to the small positive Lyapunov exponent region as functions of the Lyapunov index $`n`$. (Note that we use the normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$ for the $`x`$-axis in Fig. 3(a), which is different from the $`x`$-axis as the Lyapunov index $`n`$ itself in Fig. 3(b).) To plot the values of the localization widths $`𝒲^{(n)}`$, $`j=2N+1,2N+2,\mathrm{},4N`$ is omitted because of the conjugate relation (19). In the region of large positive Lyapunov exponents the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ is an monotonically increasing function of the Lyapunov index $`n`$. This implies that localized behavior of the Lyapunov vector is stronger in the large (in absolute value) Lyapunov exponent region. The shape of the localization width in this region is similar qualitatively to the shape given by the quantity $`C_\mathrm{\Theta }^{(n)}`$ defined by Eq. (7) which was calculated in a square system For02 . Figure 3(a) also shows that the value of the normalized Lyapunov localization widths $`𝒲^{(n)}/N`$ decrease as a function of particle number $`N`$ in the region where Lyapunov spectra change smoothly. Noting that the localization width has a lower bound ($`𝒲^{(n)}/N1/N`$), this suggests the existence of the thermodynamic limit for the spectrum of the localization widths.

Another important point in Fig. 3 is the connection with the stepwise structure of Lyapunov spectra. Fig. 4 is the Lyapunov spectra normalized by the largest Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda ^{(1)}`$ as a function of the Lyapunov index $`n`$ in the case of $`N=25`$ (circles), $`N=50`$ (triangles) and $`N=100`$ (squares) with $`d=0.5`$. These three cases correspond to the three cases of the localization widths in Fig. 3. In this figure the stepwise structures of Lyapunov spectra appear in the small Lyapunov exponent region. The values of the largest Lyapunov exponents are $`\lambda ^{(1)}1.28`$ for $`N=25`$, $`\lambda ^{(1)}1.31`$ for $`N=50`$, $`\lambda ^{(1)}1.31`$ for $`N=100`$. The inset of Fig. 4 is the full scale graphs of the positive branch of the Lyapunov spectra normalized by the largest Lyapunov exponents as functions of the normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$ (Note again that we use the different horizontal axes in the main graphs and the inset in Fig. 4.), and show that the global shapes of these graphs are similar and independent of the particle number $`N`$. Comparing Fig. 4 with Fig. 3(b) for the localization widths in the same region of the Lyapunov index $`n`$, we notice that the localization widths $`𝒲^{(n)}/N`$ normalized by the particle number $`N`$ corresponding to the clear two-point steps of the Lyapunov spectra take almost same value which is almost independent of the sequence of the steps and the particle number $`N`$ (See the symbols with a grey-filled background in Figs. 3(b) and 4 about this point.). A similar thing can be seen for the four-point steps of the Lyapunov spectra. (See the symbols surrounded by a rectangle of broken lines in Figs. 3(b) and 4.) One may also notice that the region of the localization widths corresponding to the stepwise region of the Lyapunov spectra, which is around the region $`n/(2N)>0.8`$ of the Lyapunov index $`n`$ in Figs. 3 approximately, can be distinguished from the other region. These points about the localization widths that connect with the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectra are other merits of the use of the localization width to discuss the behavior of the Lyapunov vectors.

Before finishing this section it is valuable to summarize some specific values of the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ which have clear physical meanings. The first value of the localization width is $`𝒲^{(n)}=𝒲_{max}N`$ which means that the amplitudes $`|\delta 𝚪_j^{(n)}|`$ of the Lyapunov vector components for each particle take the same values as each other, as mentioned before. The Lyapunov localization close to this value actually occurs in one of the zero-Lyapunov exponent, as shown in $`𝒲^{(2N)}/N`$ in Fig. 3(a). The second value is the lower bound of the Lyapunov localization: $`𝒲^{(n)}𝒲_{min}2`$. This is a little stronger condition than the inequality $`𝒲^{(n)}1`$ which we have already shown in the inequality (10). This value of the localization width is shown in Fig. 3 as the dotted line (the three lines of $`𝒲^{(n)}/N=2/N=0.08`$ for $`N=25`$, $`2/N=0.04`$ for $`N=50`$, and $`2/N=0.02`$ for $`N=100`$). This lower bound for the localization width comes from the fact that particle collisions occur between *two* particles, and is partly supported by the fact that the width of the the amplitudes $`\gamma _j^{(n)}`$ of the normalized Lyapunov vector components of the $`j`$-th particle corresponding to the $`n`$-th Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda ^{(n)}`$ is almost $`2`$ in the low density limit and in large Lyapunov exponents, for example, as shown in Fig. 2(b). It should also be emphasized that there is a relation between the localized region of a Lyapunov vector and positions of colliding particle pairs. To show this point, in Fig. 5 we plot colliding particle pairs as well as a contour plot of the amplitude $`\gamma _j^{(1)}`$ as functions of the collision number $`n_t`$ and the particle number $`j`$ in a quasi-one-dimensional system of $`N=50`$ and $`d=10^5`$, which correspond to the three dimensional plot of the Lyapunov localization given in Fig. 2(b). It is clear from this figure that particle collisions occur at the beginning of the sharp rectangular shapes of the localization of the amplitudes $`\gamma _j^{(n)}`$. This suggests that the Lyapunov localization comes from a short interaction range of particle-particle interactions. The minimum value of the localization width will also be discussed in the subsections III.2 and V.3 in this paper. The third value of the localization width is the value for the case in which the amplitudes $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$, $`k=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$ are distributed randomly with an equal probability (the solid line in Fig. 3). It is given by $`𝒲^{(n)}=𝒲_{ran}0.651N`$ approximately, and gives an upper bound on the localization widths of the Lyapunov index corresponding to the continuos part of the Lyapunov spectrum in many cases noteWran . The fourth value of the localization width is the value obtained for a wavelike structure in the Lyapunov vector. The broken line in Fig. 3 is given as the localization width of $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)=|\alpha _j^{(n)}\mathrm{sin}(2\pi jn/N+\beta )|^2`$ where the constant $`\alpha _j^{(n)}`$ is determined by the normalization condition of $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$ means the average over $`\beta `$ randomly chosen by the flat distribution. Our numerical estimate says that the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ in such a case is $`n`$-independent and is given by $`𝒲^{(n)}=𝒲_{wav}0.736N`$ approximately. Fig. 3(b) show that some of the localization widths are in this range (the broken line interrupted by dots) approximately, and they actually correspond to the transverse Lyapunov mode, namely a wavelike-structure of Lyapunov vectors corresponding to the two-point steps of the Lyapunov spectrum Pos00 ; Tan02c .

## III Density Dependence of the Lyapunov Localization

In this section we compare the Lyapunov localization widths $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ as a function of the Lyapunov index at different densities. We concentrate our consideration on the region where the Lyapunov spectra change smoothly as a function of the Lyapunov index, and show that there are two kinds of Lyapunov index dependence of the localization widths: exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] and linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\]. In the remaining sections of this paper the particle number $`N=50`$ is constant, and we change the particle density $`\rho `$ by changing the parameter $`d`$ connected to $`\rho `$ by Eq. (2).

### III.1 Lyapunov Localization at High Density

Figure 6 is the Lyapunov localization widths $`𝒲^{(n)}/N`$ normalized by the particle number $`N`$ as functions of the normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$ in the cases of $`d=0.05`$ (density $`\rho =0.826\mathrm{}`$, circles), $`d=0.3`$ (density $`\rho =0.604\mathrm{}`$, triangles) and $`d=1.5`$ (density $`\rho =0.314\mathrm{}`$, squares). In this figure the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}=𝒲_{ran}0.65N`$ in the case of random components and the minimum localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}=𝒲_{min}=2`$ are indicated by the solid line and the broken line, respectively.

In Fig. 6 we fitted the graphs to exponential functions $`y=\alpha _d+\beta _d\mathrm{exp}(\gamma _dx)`$ with fitting parameters $`\alpha _d`$, $`\beta _d`$ and $`\gamma _d`$. Here we find the best values of the fitting parameters to be $`(\alpha _{0.05},\beta _{0.05},\gamma _{0.05})=(0.627454,0.366969,13.1761)`$, $`(\alpha _{0.3},\beta _{0.3},\gamma _{0.3})=(0.590977,0.469104,9.33407)`$ and $`(\alpha _{1.5},\beta _{1.5},\gamma _{1.5})=(0.572315,0.476522,5.70097)`$. The localization widths $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ are nicely fitted by these exponential functions in the region $`n/(2N)0.6`$ (the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\]).

Figure 6 also shows that the localization widths decrease as the parameter $`d`$ increases (therefore as the density $`\rho `$ decreases). The largest Lyapunov exponent is an increasing function of the particle density, as will be discussed in Sect. V, so this result means that the Lyapunov localization is stronger in a system with weaker chaos characterized by a smaller value of the largest-Lyapunov exponent. It should also be noted that in this region the localization widths are smaller than the localization width of random elements, which is about $`𝒲_{ran}0.65N`$, and larger than $`𝒲_{min}=0.04N`$. Fig. 2(a) in Sect. II was the behavior of the Lyapunov localization corresponding to the localization width indicated by the arrow in Fig. 6. It is important to note that the shape of the quantities $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ as a function of the particle index $`j`$ have a tail like that in Fig. 2(a) in the region showing an exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths.

### III.2 Lyapunov Localization at Low Density

Now we consider the Lyapunov localization in low density cases, given by large values of the parameter $`d`$.

Figure 7(a) is the Lyapunov localization widths $`𝒲^{(n)}/N`$ normalized by the particle number $`N`$ as functions of normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$ in the case of $`d=10^2`$ (density $`\rho =0.00777\mathrm{}`$, squares), $`d=5\times 10^2`$ (density $`\rho =0.00156\mathrm{}`$, triangles) and $`d=10^5`$ (density $`\rho =0.00000785\mathrm{}`$, circles), which correspond to the region where the Lyapunov spectra change smoothly. It is clear that the Lyapunov index dependences of the localization widths in this figure are different from the high density cases shown in Fig. 6 in a couple of senses. First, linear dependences of the localization widths with respect to Lyapunov index appear in the region of small localization widths, which correspond to large Lyapunov exponents. In Fig. 7(b), fits of Lyapunov index dependences of the localization widths by linear functions $`y=\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_dx+\stackrel{~}{\beta }_d`$ are given with fitting parameters $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_d`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }_d`$: $`(\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_{10^2},\stackrel{~}{\beta }_{10^2})=(0.503874,0.046405)`$ in the case of $`d=10^2`$, $`(\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_{5\times 10^2},\stackrel{~}{\beta }_{5\times 10^2})=(0.347437,0.044468)`$ in the case of $`d=5\times 10^2`$, and $`(\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_{10^5},\stackrel{~}{\beta }_{10^5})=(0.224129,0.0427506)`$ in the case of $`d=10^5`$. It is important to note that the localization widths are always larger than $`2`$, namely $`𝒲^{(n)}/N>2/N=0.04`$ in this figure, and the smallest localization widths corresponding to the largest Lyapunov exponents are close to this minimum value in these low density cases. Besides, graphs of the linear dependence of the localization widths is flatter in the lower density case, as shown by the fact that the value of the fitting parameter $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_d`$ decreases as the value of the parameter $`d`$ increases. The existence of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths is one of the main results of this paper. (In Fig. 7(a) the region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] in the low density limit is shaded grey.) Secondly, in Fig. 7(a), we can still recognize a region of localization widths in which the Lyapunov index dependence of the Lyapunov localization widths is exponential (the dependence \[$`𝒟`$\]). To show it clearly we give a fit of an exponential function $`y=\alpha ^{}+\beta ^{}\mathrm{exp}(\gamma ^{}x)`$ with values $`(\alpha ^{},\beta ^{},\gamma ^{})=(0.560814,2.73348,7.50543)`$ of the fitting parameters in Fig. 7(a). It should be emphasized that the shapes of localization widths are almost independent of the particle density $`\rho `$, at least in the three density cases shown in Fig. 7(a). As the third point one may notice that from above characteristics of the localization widths in the low density cases the region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] and the region of the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] are more distinguishable in a lower density case, with an accompanying sharp bending of the localization width profile. Figure 7 suggests that the spectrum of the localization widths as a function of Lyapunov index has a distinct shape in the low density limit $`\rho 0`$ with a critical value $`\zeta _{EL}`$ of the Lyapunov index where the localization width $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ shows a linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] in the Lyapunov index $`n\zeta _{EL}`$ and shows an exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] in the Lyapunov index $`n>\zeta _{EL}`$.

It is important to note that the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] and the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths can also be distinguished by the shapes of the amplitudes $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ of the normalized Lyapunov vector components of each particle. To discuss this point it is important to note that Fig. 2(a) is the localized behavior of the Lyapunov vector corresponding to the Lyapunov width indicated by the black arrow in Figs. 6 and 7(b) and is in the region of exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of localization widths. This localization shows a long tail behavior. On the other hand Fig. 2(b) is a Lyapunov localization corresponding to the localization width indicated by the grey arrow in Fig. 7(b) and is in a region of linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of localization widths. This localization shows a sharp rectangular shape (with width $`2`$). These observations lead to the conjecture that in the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] the amplitudes $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ have a long tail, and in the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] the amplitudes $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ have a rather sharp rectangular shape. To make this point convincing, we compare the behaviors of the amplitudes $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ corresponding to two localization widths which take almost the same value of the localization widths but show different dependences \[$`𝒟`$\] and \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths. For this purpose we choose the $`15`$-th localization width $`𝒲^{(15)}`$ for $`d=5\times 10^2`$. This localization width, indicated by the outlined arrow in Fig. 2(b), is in the region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] and takes almost the same value as the localization width $`𝒲^{(1)}`$ indicated by the black arrow in Figs. 6 and 7(b) in the case $`d=1.5`$, which is in the region of exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths, and whose localized behavior is shown in Fig. 2(a). Figure 8 is the localized behavior of the amplitudes $`\gamma _j^{(15)}(t)`$ as a function of the collision number $`n_t`$ and the particle index $`j`$ in the case $`d=5\times 10^2`$. Here, the data in Fig. 8 is taken after every second collision. This figure shows that some peaks of the amplitudes $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ have flat tops with a width $`2`$ and distinct rectangular shapes, although its corresponding Lyapunov exponent, the 15-th Lyapunov exponent is far from the largest one and it is less localized than in Fig. 2.

It should be noted that the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths as a function of Lyapunov index is not a property of the quasi-one-dimensional systems only. In Appendix B.2 we consider the localization widths in a square system, and show that the linear linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the Lyapunov localization also appears in the square system.

## IV Lyapunov Spectra, and the Angles and Amplitudes of Lyapunov Vector Components

In this section, we consider how differences between the linear \[$`𝒟`$\] and exponential dependences \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths affect other quantities, such as the Lyapunov spectrum, the angle between the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors, and the amplitudes of the $`x`$ and $`y`$-components of the spatial part and the momentum part of the Lyapunov vectors. We also investigate the effects of the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectra on these quantities.

### IV.1 Lyapunov Spectra

Figure 9 is the Lyapunov spectra normalized by their largest Lyapunov exponents $`\lambda ^{(1)}`$ for the systems as functions of the normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$ for $`d=5\times 10^2`$ (white-filled circles), $`d=0.3`$ (white-filled triangles), $`d=1.5`$ (white-filled squares), $`d=10^2`$ (black-filled squares), $`d=5\times 10^2`$ (black-filled triangles) and $`d=10^5`$ (black-filled circles). Here the values of the largest Lyapunov exponents are given by $`\lambda ^{(1)}4.79`$ for $`d=5\times 10^2`$, $`\lambda ^{(1)}1.64`$ for $`d=0.3`$, $`\lambda ^{(1)}0.769`$ for $`d=1.5`$, $`\lambda ^{(1)}0.0579`$ for $`d=10^2`$, $`\lambda ^{(1)}0.0161`$ for $`d=5\times 10^2`$, $`\lambda ^{(1)}0.000157`$ for $`d=10^5`$. The negative branch of the Lyapunov spectra are omitted in this figure, because of the conjugate property (17) of the Lyapunov exponents. The Lyapunov index dependence of the localization widths in these cases were shown in Figs. 6 and 7. It should be emphasized that in the low density cases, in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] appears, we can recognize a sharp bend in the Lyapunov spectra around the normalized Lyapunov index $`n=\zeta _{EL}`$. Such a bending point corresponds to the point that distinguishes the dependences \[$`𝒟`$\] and \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths in Fig. 7. (In this figure the region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of localization widths at low densities has a grey background.) It may be noted that such a bending of the Lyapunov spectrum has also been reported in a fully two-dimensional system Gas02note  (Also see the Lyapunov spectra for the Fermi-Pasta-Ulum models in Refs. Liv87b ; yam98 .).

In Fig. 9 we can see some stepwise structures of the Lyapunov spectra, not only in the high density cases $`d=5\times 10^2`$, $`d=0.3`$ and $`1.5`$, but also in the low density cases $`d=10^2`$, $`d=5\times 10^2`$ and $`d=10^5`$. (See the enlarged graphs in the upper right side of Fig. 9 for the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectra in these low density cases.) The steps of the Lyapunov spectra consist of two-point steps and four point steps, which were considered in Ref. Tan02c  in detail. Different from the high density cases, at low density the separations of the two-point steps and the four-point steps in the Lyapunov spectra are not so clear.

### IV.2 Angle Between the Spatial and the Momentum Parts of the Lyapunov Vectors

As a second example to illustrate the effects of the two dependences \[$`𝒟`$\] and \[$`𝒟`$\] of localization widths, we consider the angle $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ between the spatial part $`\delta 𝐪^{(n)}=(\delta 𝐪_1^{(n)},\delta 𝐪_2^{(n)},\mathrm{},\delta 𝐪_N^{(n)})^T`$ and the momentum part $`\delta 𝐩^{(n)}=(\delta 𝐩_1^{(n)},\delta 𝐩_2^{(n)},\mathrm{},\delta 𝐩_N^{(n)})^T`$ of the Lyapunov vector $`\delta 𝚪^{(n)}`$ corresponding to the $`n`$-th Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda ^{(n)}`$, which is defined by

$`\theta ^{(n)}\mathrm{cos}^1\left({\displaystyle \frac{\delta 𝐪^{(n)}\delta 𝐩^{(n)}}{\left|\delta 𝐪^{(n)}\right|\left|\delta 𝐩^{(n)}\right|}}\right).`$ (20)
Noting the conjugate relations

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\delta 𝐪^{(4Nn+1)}\delta 𝐩^{(4Nn+1)}}{\left|\delta 𝐪^{(4Nn+1)}\right|\left|\delta 𝐩^{(4Nn+1)}\right|}}={\displaystyle \frac{\delta 𝐪^{(n)}\delta 𝐩^{(n)}}{\left|\delta 𝐪^{(n)}\right|\left|\delta 𝐩^{(n)}\right|}}`$ (21)
following from the conjugate property (16) of the Lyapunov vectors, the angle $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ satisfies the condition

$`\theta ^{(4Nn+1)}=\pi \theta ^{(n)}.`$ (22)
This angle has already been investigated in many-particle systems Tan02c ; Mcn01b . It should be noted that some analytical approaches give formula to calculate Lyapunov exponents from the spatial part only (or the momentum part only) of the tangent vector Tan02a ; Bei98 ; Zon98 , so it is important to investigate the relation between the spatial part and the momentum part of the Lyapunov vector.

In Fig. 10 we show the graphs of the time-average $`\theta ^{(n)}/\pi `$ of the angle $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ divided by $`\pi `$ as functions of the normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$ in the cases $`d=5\times 10^2`$ (white-filled circles), $`d=0.3`$ (white-filled triangles), $`d=1.5`$ (white-filled squares), $`d=10^2`$ (black-filled squares), $`d=5\times 10^2`$ (black-filled triangles) and $`d=10^5`$ (black-filled circles). Here the time-average of the angle $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ is the arithmetic average of their values immediately after collision, for $`1000N`$ collisions. The plots of the time-averaged angles $`\theta ^{(n)}`$, $`n=2N+1,2N+2,\mathrm{},4N`$, corresponding to negative branch of the Lyapunov exponents are omitted because of the conjugate property (22) of the angle $`\theta ^{(n)}`$. It is noted that in our numerical calculations the amplitudes $`|\delta 𝐩^{(n)}|`$, $`n=2N2`$, $`2N1`$ and $`2N`$ corresponding to zero-Lyapunov exponents are zero (or extremely small), so the angles $`\theta ^{(n)}`$, $`n=2N2`$, $`2N1`$ and $`2N`$ cannot be defined. This is the reason why we do not plot these angles in Fig. 10 (See the subsection IV.3 about this point.). This figure shows that in the low density cases, in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths appears, the spectra of the averaged angle $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ bends around the value $`n/(2N)=\zeta _{EL}/(2N)`$ of the normalized Lyapunov index. (In Fig. 10 we showed a region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths as a grey region.) In the region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths the time-averaged angles $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ increase monotonically as functions of Lyapunov indices $`n`$, while the time-averaged angles $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ corresponding to the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths is close to $`\pi /2`$, meaning that in this region the vector $`\delta 𝐪^{(n)}`$ is almost orthogonal to the vector $`\delta 𝐩^{(n)}`$ (See the case of $`d=10^5`$ in Fig. 10.).

We can also see the effect of the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectra in the angle $`\theta ^{(n)}`$. As shown in Fig. 10 the values of the time-averaged angles $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ corresponding to the two-point steps of the Lyapunov spectra in Fig. 9 are rather smaller than the values corresponding to their four-point steps, in all densities shown in Fig. 10 (See the upper right side of Fig. 10 for the low density cases). Therefore the Lyapunov index dependence of the time-averaged angles $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ can be used to distinguish the two-point step of the Lyapunov spectra from the other parts.

### IV.3 Amplitudes of the $`x`$ and $`y`$-Components of the Lyapunov Vectors

As shown in the subsection IV.1, in low density cases the positive branch of Lyapunov spectra is separated into three parts: (i) A region in which the Lyapunov spectrum is a rapidly decreasing function of Lyapunov index and corresponds to the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths, (ii) A region in which values of the Lyapunov exponents are very small compared to the largest Lyapunov exponent and corresponds to the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths, and (iii) A region showing the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectra. The boundary of the regions (i) and (ii) of the Lyapunov spectra appear as a sharp bending of the Lyapunov spectra in the low density limit. To understand this characteristic of the Lyapunov spectra we note that a positive Lyapunov exponent is connected to a decorrelation rate in chaotic dynamics, and a larger positive Lyapunov exponent means that a trajectory diverges more rapidly on the energy surface in ergodic systems and loses correlation with its initial value more quickly. This is partly supported by the fact that the Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy, which is equal to the sum of all the positive Lyapunov exponents (Pesin’s identity) in closed systems, is connected to the inverse relaxation time in ergodic systems Gas98 . A relation between a Lyapunov exponent and a decay rate of time-correlation is also discussed in Refs. Col03 ; Del97 . Another example of a relation between a time-scale of the dynamics and a positive Lyapunov exponent is the tracer particle effect in Lyapunov spectra Gas02 . On this subject a many-particle system consisting of a small light particle called the tracer particle moving at high speed (the short time scale) and many big heavy particles moving at low speeds (the long time scale) is considered, and it is shown that the existence of the tracer particle leads to relatively large Lyapunov exponents compared with the Lyapunov exponents corresponding to the other heavy particles. The above considerations suggest that at low density the quasi-one-dimensional systems exhibit a bending of the Lyapunov spectra, which separates the set of positive Lyapunov exponents into two groups (i) and (ii) of relatively different values, and this suggests the existence of a time-scale separation in the dynamics of these systems.

One might think that in the quasi-one-dimensional systems such a time-scale separation may come from the very narrow rectangular shape of the system. In the quasi-one-dimensional system, especially in the large $`d`$ case with a low density, the time-scale of oscillation of each particle in the $`x`$-direction is much larger than the time-scale of that in the $`y`$-direction, and it may be one possibility leading to the time-scale separation mentioned above. (However this possibility may be rather unlikely, because as shown in Appendix B.1 the bending point of the Lyapunov spectra does not change significantly by changing the system from the quasi-one-dimensional system to the square system with the same area $`L_xL_y`$ and the same number of particles $`N`$.) Another possibility to explain this bending of the Lyapunov spectrum may be from the different roles of the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors at low density. The result in the previous subsection supports this point, showing that the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors are not in the same direction at low density.

Motivated by the above considerations, in this subsection we consider the amplitudes of the four parts of the Lyapunov vectors: the $`x`$ and $`y`$-components in the spatial part and the momentum part of the Lyapunov vectors, namely the four kinds of quantities defined by

$`\eta _{qj}^{(n)}(t){\displaystyle \frac{_{k=1}^N\left|\delta q_{jk}^{(n)}(t)\right|^2}{_{k=1}^N\left|\delta 𝚪_k^{(n)}(t)\right|^2}}`$ (23)
$`\eta _{pj}^{(n)}(t){\displaystyle \frac{_{k=1}^N\left|\delta p_{jk}^{(n)}(t)\right|^2}{_{k=1}^N\left|\delta 𝚪_k^{(n)}(t)\right|^2}}`$ (24)
$`j=x`$ and $`y`$, in each Lyapunov index $`n`$. Here $`\delta q_{jk}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\delta p_{jk}^{(n)}(t)`$ are the $`j`$-component of the spatial coordinate part $`\delta 𝐪_k^{(n)}=(\delta q_{xk}^{(n)}(t),\delta q_{yk}^{(n)}(t))`$ and the momentum part $`\delta 𝐩_k^{(n)}=(\delta p_{xk}^{(n)}(t),\delta p_{yk}^{(n)}(t))`$ of the Lyapunov vector $`\delta 𝚪_k^{(n)}=(\delta 𝐪_k^{(n)},\delta 𝐩_k^{(n)})`$ corresponding to the $`k`$-th particle and the $`n`$-th Lyapunov exponent at time $`t`$, respectively. These four quantities are normalized as

$`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)+\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)+\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)+\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)=1`$ (25)
by their definitions. Using the conjugate property (16) of the Lyapunov vector we obtain

$`\eta _{pj}^{(4Nn+1)}(t)=\eta _{qj}^{(n)}(t)`$ (26)
$`\eta _{qj}^{(4Nn+1)}(t)=\eta _{pj}^{(n)}(t).`$ (27)
Therefore we can omit the quantities $`\eta _{pj}^{(4Nn+1)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{qj}^{(4Nn+1)}(t)`$, for $`n=1,2,\mathrm{},2N`$ corresponding to the negative branch of the Lyapunov spectra.

Figure 11 is the graphs of the time-averaged quantities $`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$ (circles), $`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$ (triangles), $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ (crosses) and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$ (diagonal crosses) of the quantities defined by Eqs. (23) and (24) as functions of the normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$ for $`d=5\times 10^2`$ (Fig. 11(a), density $`\rho =0.826\mathrm{}`$), $`d=0.1`$ (Fig. 11(b), density $`\rho =0.713\mathrm{}`$), $`d=1`$ (Fig. 11(c), density $`\rho =0.392\mathrm{}`$) and $`d=10^5`$ (Fig. 11(d), density $`\rho =0.00000785\mathrm{}`$). Here the time-average $`𝒳`$ of the quantities $`𝒳=`$ $`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$, $`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$ $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$ is taken as the arithmetic average of the quantity $`𝒳`$ immediately after collisions, for $`1000N`$ collisions. The cases of $`d=5\times 10^2`$ and $`d=10^5`$ shown in Figs. 11(a) and 11(d) are the cases of the highest density and the lowest density considered in Sect. III and the previous two subsections of this section, respectively, and the other two cases are given to show intermediate situations between the two cases of Figs. 11(a) and 11(d). It is noted that Figs. 11(a), (b) and (c) are for the case of a particle density in which the linear dependences \[$`𝒟`$\] of localization widths do not appear yet, and only in the grey region of Figs. 11(d) does the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] appear. From this figure it is clear that there is a strong asymmetry between the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors in any density region, as well as an asymmetry between the $`x`$ and $`y`$-components of the Lyapunov vectors especially at low density.

The behavior of the graphs in Fig. 11 are different in the region where the Lyapunov spectra change smoothly and in the stepwise region of the Lyapunov spectra. First we discuss the region where the Lyapunov spectra change smoothly, which is the region of the Lyapunov indexes $`n/(2N)<0.8`$ approximately in Fig. 11. In the high density case shown in Fig. 11(a) the momentum parts ($`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$) of the Lyapunov vectors are larger than the corresponding spatial parts ($`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$). As the density decreases, the spatial parts of the Lyapunov vectors increase (and momentum parts decrease), first in the *large* positive Lyapunov exponent region (See Fig. 11(a) $``$ (b).), and then in the *small* Lyapunov exponent region (See Fig. 11(b) $``$ (c) $``$ (d).). At very low density, as shown in Fig. 11(d), the spatial parts of the Lyapunov vectors are much larger than the corresponding momentum parts for Lyapunov vectors of any index, and a linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths appears. In this density region a significant gap in the $`x`$ and $`y`$-components of the spatial part of the Lyapunov vectors appears, and the transverse part ($`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$) is larger than the longitudinal part $`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$ in the large positive Lyapunov exponent region while while the reverse is true in the small positive Lyapunov exponent region. In the low density limit the momentum parts $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$ are extremely small so the spatial parts $`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$ are almost symmetric in the line $`y=0.5`$ as required by the the normalization condition (25). It should be emphasized that in the Lyapunov index of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths the quantities $`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$ are rather flat, shown as the grey region in Fig. 11(d). We can show that these asymmetries between the $`x`$ and $`y`$-components of the Lyapunov vectors actually come from its narrow rectangular shape, because as shown in Appendix B.4 such asymmetries do not appear in the square system, although the asymmetries between the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors still exist there.

As a second point, Fig. 11 also shows some characteristics of the time-averaged amplitudes of the Lyapunov vector components corresponding to the stepwise region of the Lyapunov spectra. In Fig. 11 we can see flat parts consisting of two-points (four-points) for the time-averaged normalized amplitudes $`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$, $`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$, $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$ of the Lyapunov vectors, which are corresponding to the two-point steps (the four-point steps) of the Lyapunov spectra (See Figs. 11(a), (b), (c) and (d) in a region of the Lyapunov index around $`n/(2N)>0.9`$, as well as the small panels in the top right of these figures for enlarged momentum parts $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$ in the small positive Lyapunov exponent regions.). Values of the two-point steps of the transverse part $`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$ of the Lyapunov vectors corresponding to the two-point steps of the Lyapunov spectra are larger than their longitudinal parts $`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ in Figs. 11(a), (b), (c) and (d). On the other hand, values of the four-point steps of the longitudinal part $`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ of the Lyapunov vectors corresponding to the four-point steps of the Lyapunov spectra are larger than their transverse parts $`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$ in Figs. 11(a), (b) and (c), and the spatial parts of the Lyapunov vectors in Figs. 11(d). At any density the spatial parts $`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$ are rather larger than the momentum parts $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$, respectively, in the region of Lyapunov indices indicating the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectra. It should be emphasized that wavelike structure (the transverse Lyapunov modes) in the $`y`$-components of the spatial part and the momentum part of the Lyapunov vectors appears in the two-point steps of the Lyapunov spectra reported by Tan02c ; Pos00 , and Fig. 11 suggests that we may get a rather clear wave-like structure in the spatial part of the Lyapunov vectors than in its momentum part. We can conclude a similar result for the four-point steps of the Lyapunov spectra in which time-depending wavelike-structure in the $`y`$-components of the spatial part of the Lyapunov vectors and in $`x`$-components of the spatial part of the Lyapunov vectors Tan02c ; For02 . It may be noted that the time-averaged amplitudes $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$, $`n=2N2`$, $`2N1`$ and $`2N`$ corresponding to zero-Lyapunov exponents are almost zero at any density (See the small panels in the top right of Figs. 11(a), (b), (c) and (d).).

## V Density Dependence of the Largest Lyapunov Exponent and Related Quantities

As we have already shown in Sect. III, the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of localization widths as a function of Lyapunov index appears in cases of low density, but it was not so clear at what density the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the Lyapunov localization starts to appear as the particle density $`\rho `$ deceases from 1. In this section we discuss this problem by calculating density dependences of the largest Lyapunov exponent, the angle and amplitudes of Lyapunov vector components, and the localization width, which correspond to the largest Lyapunov exponent. Especially, we show that the particle density region in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] appears is almost the same as the density region in which the largest Lyapunov exponent begins to satisfies the Krylov relation.

### V.1 Largest Lyapunov Exponent

Fig. 12 is the largest Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda ^{(1)}`$ as a function of the density $`\rho `$ in the quasi-one-dimensional system. In this figure we showed the numerical error $`ϵ\lambda ^{(1)}+\lambda ^{(4N)}`$ (which must be zero in the Hamiltonian system) at each data point as an error bar of the length $`2|ϵ|`$, showing that the values of the largest Lyapunov exponents at very low densities are less accurate than those at higher densities. The grey region in this figure is the density region in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths appears.

It is known that in the low density limit the largest Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda ^{(1)}`$ should have the form

$`\lambda ^{(1)}\alpha \rho \mathrm{ln}(\beta \rho )`$ (28)
with parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$. Eq. (28) is called the Krylov relation Kry79  and has already been demonstrated numerically in a fully two-dimensional system consisting of many-hard-disks Del96 ; Del97b , apart from a factor. In Fig. 12 we fitted the numerical data to the Krylov relation (28) with parameter values $`\alpha =1.66875`$ and $`\beta =1.28252`$ (the solid line), which gives a good fit for the density dependence of the largest Lyapunov exponent. It is important to note that the density region that satisfies the Krylov relation almost coincides with the density region in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths appears. To test the Krylov relation (28) we also tried to fit the numerical data by a power function $`y=\alpha ^{}\rho ^\beta ^{}`$ (broken line) with fitting parameters $`\alpha ^{}`$ and $`\beta ^{}`$ in Fig. 12. We used the parameter values $`\alpha ^{}=2.55126`$ and $`\beta ^{}=0.808158`$, and it is shown in Fig. 12 that the Krylov relation (28) gives a better fit than this power function in the grey region.

Now we check the values of the fitting parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ used to fit the graph of Fig. 12 by following the rough derivation of the Krylov relation in Ref. Gas98 . (Note that more exact derivations are known for some specific systems, such as the Lorentz gas, etc. See, for example, Refs. Bei95 ; Chi97 .) First we note that after $`n_t`$ particle collisions the amplitude of a Lyapunov vector is stretched by a factor $`(l_f/R)^{n_t}`$ approximately with $`l_f`$ the mean free path. Introducing the collision rate $`\nu n_t/t`$ to connect the mean free path $`l_f`$ with the time $`t`$ we estimate the largest Lyapunov exponent as

$`\lambda ^{(1)}\underset{t+\mathrm{}}{lim}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{t}}\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{l_f}{R}}\right)^{n_t}=\nu \mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{l_f}{R}}.`$ (29)
We approximate the collision rate $`\nu `$ by a thermal velocity $`u_{th}\sqrt{(2/M)(K/N)}`$ as $`\nu u_{th}/l_f`$ because of $`u_{th}tn_tl_f`$, and assume that the mean free path $`l_f`$ is inversely proportional to the density $`\rho `$, so we obtain

$`\lambda ^{(1)}u_{th}\gamma \rho \mathrm{ln}(R\gamma \rho ).`$ (30)
using a constant $`\gamma `$ of $`l_f(\gamma \rho )^1`$. Comparing Eq. (30) with Eq. (28) we obtain the relation

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha }{\beta }}{\displaystyle \frac{u_{th}}{R}},`$ (31)
which is independent of the value of the constant $`\gamma `$. Using the parameter values $`u_{th}=\sqrt{2}`$ and $`R=1`$ in our numerical calculations, we obtain $`\alpha /\beta \sqrt{2}=1.4142\mathrm{}`$, which is consistent of the values of the fitting parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ in Fig. 12: $`\alpha /\beta =1.3011\mathrm{}`$.

Next we proceed to estimate the factor $`\gamma =(l_f\rho )^1`$. Fig. 13 is the graph of the mean free time $`\tau _f`$ as a function of the density $`\rho `$. Noting the relation $`l_fu_{th}\tau _{th}`$, in this figure we fitted the numerical data by the function $`y=1/(u_{th}\gamma x)`$ with the value $`\gamma =13.341`$ for the fitting parameter $`\gamma `$. (It may be emphasized that this function gives a nice fit in the density region in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the Lyapunov localization appears.) However this value $`\gamma =13.341`$, which is $`\beta `$ in Eq. (28) in the case of $`R=1`$, is about 10 times as large as the fitting value of $`\beta `$ used to fit the graph of Fig. 12. It should be noted that because of the quasi-one-dimensional property of the system, a well known relation $`l_f1/(\sqrt{2}\rho )`$ Sea75  for fully two-dimensional hard-disk systems with a Maxellian velocity distribution cannot give a correct relation in the quasi-one-dimensional system, although this gives a parameter value $`\beta `$ which is rather close to the value used in Fig. 12. It may be noted that in order to derive the expression (30) for the largest Lyapunov exponent we neglected some characteristics of the quasi-one-dimensional systems, such as the fact that in the quasi-one-dimensional system with a large value of the parameter $`d`$ particles collide mainly head on and it is rather rare for particles to have grazing collisions with other particles. We should take these points into account to get more precise expressions for the parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ in Eq. (28) than in Eq. (30).

### V.2 Angle and Amplitudes of Lyapunov Vector Components

As the next example we consider the angle $`\theta ^{(1)}`$ defined by Eq. (20) between the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vector corresponding to the largest Lyapunov exponent. Figure 14 is the graph of the time-average of the angle $`\theta ^{(1)}/\pi `$ divided by $`\pi `$ as a function of particle density $`\rho `$. The grey region in this figure is the density region in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths appears. The graph has a local maximum point about $`\rho 0.2`$, which is close to the value of particle density in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths starts to appear as the density decreases from $`1`$. As we have already discussed in Sects. II and III, the existence of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths can be checked by a linear dependence of the localization widths as a function of Lyapunov index and a rectangular shape of the amplitude of the Lyapunov vector, but it is rather hard to use this criterion to distinguish the density region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\], because it is not easy to recognize these behaviors in an intermediate region between the density region of the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] only and the density region of both the dependences \[$`𝒟`$\] and \[$`𝒟`$\]. In this sense the graph of the angle $`\theta ^{(1)}`$ as a function of particle density $`\rho `$ may give a more distinct criterion to distinguish the density region in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] appears. It is noted that the angle $`\theta ^{(1)}`$ does not seems to go to zero in the low density limit as shown in the inset of Fig. 14.

Next we consider the density dependence of the time-average of normalized amplitude of the $`x`$-component and the $`y`$-component in the spatial part and the momentum part of the Lyapunov vector corresponding to the largest Lyapunov exponent, which are defined by Eqs. (23) and (24) in $`n=1`$. Fig. 15 is the graphs of $`\eta _{qx}^{(1)}(t)`$ (circles), $`\eta _{qy}^{(1)}(t)`$ (triangles), $`\eta _{px}^{(1)}(t)`$ (crosses) and $`\eta _{py}^{(1)}(t)`$ (diagonal crosses) as functions of the particle density $`\rho `$. Again the density region in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths appears is indicated as a grey region. This may not be a good criterion to distinguish the density region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\], but it is clear that in the density region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] the spatial parts of the Lyapunov vector is dominant and a gap appears between its $`x`$-component $`\eta _{qx}^{(1)}(t)`$ and the $`y`$-component $`\eta _{qy}^{(1)}(t)`$. On the other hand, in a high density region in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] does not appear, the momentum parts $`\eta _{px}^{(1)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(1)}(t)`$ of the Lyapunov vector are dominant. It should be noted that in the low density in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] appears, the transverse components $`\eta _{qy}^{(1)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(1)}(t)`$ are always larger than the longitudinal components $`\eta _{qx}^{(1)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{px}^{(1)}(t)`$, respectively.

### V.3 Localization Width

As the last quantity in this section, we consider the density dependence of the Lyapunov localization width corresponding to the largest Lyapunov exponent. Figure 16 is the graph of the Lyapunov localization width $`𝒲^{(1)}/N`$ normalized by the particle number $`N`$ as a function of density $`\rho `$. This figure shows that in the low density limit the normalized localization width $`𝒲^{(1)}/N`$ goes to the value $`2/N(=0.04)`$ (solid line in Fig. 16), which is discussed as the minimum localization width $`𝒲_{min}/N`$ in Sect. II. In Fig. 16 we indicate the density region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] as the grey region, but it is not so clear from this figure how to distinguish the density region in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths appears.

## VI Conclusion and Remarks

In this paper we have discussed localized behaviors of Lyapunov vectors (the Lyapunov localization) for quasi-one-dimensional systems consisting of many hard disks (with periodic boundary conditions except in Appendix B.5). The quasi-one-dimensional system was introduced as a particle system whose shape is a very narrow rectangle that does not allow the exchange of particle positions. We compared some methods to characterize the localized behavior of the Lyapunov vectors, and as one of such methods in this paper we used a quantity called the localization width, whose logarithm is given by an entropy for the amplitude distribution of the Lyapunov vector components of each particle. The localization width indicates the number of particles contributing to the localized part of Lyapunov vector components. It could not only be used as an indicator to measure the magnitude of the localized behavior of the Lyapunov vectors, but also be used to distinguish different delocalized properties of the Lyapunov vectors such as the delocalization associated with a random distribution of particle component amplitudes, a delocalization associated with a uniform distribution and a delocalization associated with a wave-like structure (corresponding to stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectra ) in the Lyapunov vector (Figs. 3 and 4). The localized region of the Lyapunov vectors is related to the points of colliding particles (Fig. 5), and this leads to the lower bound $`2`$ of the localization width (Figs. 7 and 16). Using the localization width we showed that there are two kind of the Lyapunov localizations in many-hard-disk systems. The first type of the Lyapunov localization is characterized by an exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths as a function of Lyapunov index (Fig. 6), and by its long tale of localized Lyapunov vectors (Fig. 2(a)). This type of the Lyapunov localization is observed at any particle density. The second type of the Lyapunov localization is characterized by the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths as a function of Lyapunov index (Fig. 7), and by the sharp rectangular shape of the localized Lyapunov vectors (Figs. 2(b) and 8). This type of Lyapunov localization appears only in low density cases and in Lyapunov indices corresponding to the large Lyapunov exponents in absolute values. We showed that in the density region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths the Lyapunov spectra is bent and separated into two parts (except for the stepwise region of the Lyapunov spectra): one corresponding to the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] and take very small values corresponding to the largest Lyapunov exponent, and the other corresponding to the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] and shows a rapid decreasing dependence of Lyapunov index (Fig. 9). It was also shown that differences between the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] and the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] appear in the angle $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ between the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors (Fig. 10) and in the amplitudes of the $`x`$-component and $`y`$-component of the spatial part (Fig. 11(d)). (Here we took the $`y`$-direction as the narrow direction of the rectangle and the $`x`$-direction as the longer orthogonal direction.) The density region, in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of localization widths appears, almost exactly coincides with the density region in which the density dependence of the largest Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda ^{(1)}`$ satisfies the Krylov relation (Fig. 12). We also indicated that at the boundary of the density region of the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] only and the density region of both the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] and the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\], the angle $`\theta ^{(1)}`$ corresponding to the largest Lyapunov exponent shows a local maximum as a function of particle density (Fig. 14).

In this paper we observed differences in the amplitudes of the $`x`$ and $`y`$-components of the Lyapunov vectors (Figs. 11 and 15). These differences come from the difference in the roles of the directions in the quasi-one-dimensional systems. We also observed differences in the amplitudes of the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors. In the region where the Lyapunov spectra are changing smoothly the amplitude of the spatial part of the Lyapunov vectors is larger (smaller) than of the momentum part in low (high) density cases (Figs. 11, 15 and 20). The spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors are in almost the same direction at high density, whereas they are rather close to orthogonal in the low density case, especially in the region of the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths as a function of Lyapunov index (Figs. 10 and 19). These behaviors are found not only in the quasi-one-dimensional systems but also in the square system (Fig. 20). Concerning the stepwise region of the Lyapunov spectra, as shown in Fig. 11, the amplitudes of the $`y`$-component, (transverse component), of the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors are larger than the corresponding $`x`$-components, namely (their longitudinal components) in the two-point steps of the Lyapunov spectra, whereas they are opposite in four-point steps of the Lyapunov spectra (except in very low density cases like in Fig. 11(d)).

The particle number dependence of the Lyapunov localization width normalized by the particle number $`N`$ was investigated a little in this paper. Figure 3 suggests that the Lyapunov localization width normalized by the particle number decreases as a function of the particle number itself, but we need a further calculation to show the existence of its thermodynamical limit ($`N+\mathrm{}`$), as well as its low density limit ($`\rho 0`$).

We suggested that the bending of the Lyapunov spectra in the low density cases accompanying the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths may come from a time-scale separation of the dynamics. As one of the possible to explanations of this point we demonstrate a strong asymmetry of the amplitudes of the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors at low density. However this may not give an enough explanation as to where the bending point of the Lyapunov spectra is, and one may also indicate that the Lyapunov spectrum is related to growing (or reducing) speeds of the amplitudes of the Lyapunov vectors, not the amplitudes of the Lyapunov vectors themselves. This remains an open question.

Results in this paper suggest that the localized behavior of the Lyapunov vectors comes from the short range property of particle interaction (Fig. 5), noting that the hard-core interaction of the systems used in this paper is the shortest range interactions possible. Therefore it should be interesting to compare our results with the Lyapunov localization of systems with long range particle interactions. Moreover, if the Lyapunov localization is connected to the existence of the thermodynamical limit of the largest Lyapunov exponent Mil02 , then it should be interesting to investigate the Lyapunov localization in the Fermi-Pasta-Ulam model in which a numerical calculation suggests a logarithmic divergence of the largest Lyapunov exponent as a function of particle number $`N`$ Sea97 . These remain as future problems on the subject of Lyapunov localizations.

## Acknowledgements

One of the author (T.T) wish to thank to T. Harayama and H. Schomerus for valuable information about localization problems. We are grateful for financial support for this work from the Australian Research Council.

## Appendix A Inequality for the Localization Width

In this appendix we derive the inequality (10) for the localization width of the Lyapunov vector.

First we note the inequality $`0S^{(n)}`$ which comes from Eqs. (5) and (8). This leads to the inequality $`1𝒲^{(n)}`$.

Second, we note

$`\mathrm{ln}N`$ $`+{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)\mathrm{ln}\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$ (32)
$`=N^1{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\left[\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)N\right]\mathrm{ln}\left[\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)N\right]`$
$`=N^1{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\{\left[\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)N\right]\mathrm{ln}\left[\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)N\right]`$
$`\left[\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)N\right]+1\}`$
$`=N^1{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\left(\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)N\right)`$
where we used Eq. (4), and the function $`(x)`$ of $`x`$ is defined by

$`(x)x\mathrm{ln}xx+1.`$ (33)
It is easy to show that the function $`(x)`$ satisfies the inequality

$`(x)0,\text{in}x0.`$ (34)
Eqs. (8) and (32), and the inequality (34) lead to

$`\mathrm{ln}NS^{(n)}=N^1{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\left(\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)N\right)0,`$ (35)
noting the inequality $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)N0`$. Therefore we obtain the inequality $`𝒲^{(n)}N`$ using Eq. (9). From the two inequalities $`1𝒲^{(n)}`$ and $`𝒲^{(n)}N`$ we derive the inequality (10) for the localization width.

We can also show that the function $`(x)`$ defined by Eq. (33) satisfies $`(x)=0`$ only when $`x=1`$. Using this point and Eqs. (9) and (35) we get the fact that the equality $`𝒲^{(n)}=N`$ for the localization width is satisfied only when all the quantities $`\gamma _j^{(n)}(t)`$, $`j=1,2,\mathrm{}N`$ are equal, namely when $`\gamma _j^{(1)}(t)=\gamma _j^{(2)}(t)=\mathrm{}=\gamma _j^{(N)}(t)=1/N`$.

## Appendix B Comparison with Square Cases

In this appendix we discuss differences between quasi-one-dimensional systems and square systems for the Lyapunov localization and its related phenomena. For the quasi-one-dimensional system in this paper we chose the system lengths as

$`L_y`$ $`=`$ $`L_y^{}2R(1+10^6),`$ (36)
$`L_x`$ $`=`$ $`L_x^{}NL_y(1+d)`$
\[in the quasi-one-dimensional cases\]
with a parameter $`d`$ to change the particle density. For meaningful comparisons between the square and quasi-one-dimensional cases we use system lengths for the square systems so that both cases give the same area, for the same value of the parameter $`d`$, namely

$`L_y`$ $`=`$ $`L_x=\sqrt{L_x^{}L_y^{}}`$
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{N(1+d)[2R(1+10^6)]^2}`$
\[in the square cases\].
Except for these lengths $`L_x`$ and $`L_y`$ we use the same parameter values as given in the text, such as $`R=1`$, $`M=1`$ and $`E=N`$. In this appendix we consider systems of $`50`$ particles ($`N=50`$). In Appendixes B.1, B.2, B.3 and B.4 we consider the case of $`d=10^5`$ in which the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of localization widths with respect to Lyapunov index appears. In Appendix B.5 we discuss boundary effects in the localization width in the case of $`d=0.5`$.

### B.1 Lyapunov Spectra

The first example is the Lyapunov spectra of the quasi-one-dimensional case and the square case. Fig. 17 is the positive branch of the Lyapunov spectra normalized by the largest Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda ^{(1)}`$ as functions of the normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$ in the quasi-one-dimensional system (circles) and the square system (triangles) in the case of $`d=10^5`$. Here the values of the largest Lyapunov exponents are given by $`\lambda ^{(1)}0.000157`$ in the quasi-one-dimensional system, and $`\lambda ^{(1)}0.000552`$ in the square system. As shown in Fig. 17, a sharp bending of the Lyapunov spectra occurs in both cases, but it occurs in a slightly smaller Lyapunov index in the square case than in the quasi-one-dimensional case. The Lyapunov spectrum in the quasi-one-dimensional case is also shown in Fig. 9.

There is a difference between the quasi-one-dimensional case and the square cases in the region of small positive Lyapunov exponents. In the inset of Fig. 17, we can recognize two stepwise structures of the Lyapunov spectrum consisting of six Lyapunov exponents in the quasi-one-dimensional system. It should be noted that each of these steplike structures consists of one four-point step and one two-point step although these two steps are too close to be distinguished in Fig. 17. (This is also evidenced by investigating wavelike structures of the Lyapunov vectors, the so called Lyapunov modes Tan02c .) On the other hand we cannot recognize such a stepwise structure in the square case, because $`50`$ particles in the square system with the density $`\rho =0.00000785\mathrm{}`$ are too small to show stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectrum. (It is known that rectangular systems including the quasi-one-dimensional systems show a longer stepwise region of Lyapunov spectra than in the square system with the same area Pos00 .) In the square system the gap between the smallest non-zero positive Lyapunov exponent $`\lambda _{2N4}`$ and the zero Lyapunov exponents is larger than in the quasi-one-dimensional system.

### B.2 Localization Widths

Next we consider the localization width in the quasi-one-dimensional case and the square case. Fig. 18 is the localization widths $`𝒲^{(n)}/N`$, $`n=1,2,\mathrm{},2N`$ normalized by the particle number $`N`$ as functions of the normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$ in the quasi-one-dimensional case (circles) and the square case (triangles) in the case of $`d=10^5`$. In the region of Lyapunov index corresponding to the Lyapunov spectra changing smoothly, qualitative behavior of the localization width are rather similar, and consist of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] in small Lyapunov indices and the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] in other indices, although the region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] in the square case is slightly smaller than in the quasi-one-dimensional case. In Fig. 18 we give only fits of exponential functions $`y=\stackrel{~}{\alpha }+\stackrel{~}{\beta }\mathrm{exp}\{\stackrel{~}{\gamma }x\}`$ for the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] by dotted lines. (The parameter values to fit data are $`(\stackrel{~}{\alpha },\stackrel{~}{\beta },\stackrel{~}{\gamma })=(0.560814,2.73348,7.50544)`$ for the quasi-one-dimensional case, and $`(\stackrel{~}{\alpha },\stackrel{~}{\beta },\stackrel{~}{\gamma })=(0.597656,3.35386,10.9674)`$ for the square case.) The localization widths are larger than their minimum value $`𝒲^{(n)}=𝒲_{min}=2`$ and are smaller than its random component case $`𝒲^{(n)}=𝒲_{ran}0.651N`$ except in the stepwise region of the Lyapunov spectra, and the smallest localization width $`𝒲^{(1)}`$ are close to $`𝒲_{min}`$ in both the cases.

As in the Lyapunov spectra, the localization width shows a different behavior with the Lyapunov index corresponding to the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectra. As we have already mentioned, in the square case of $`N=50`$ there is no stepwise region of the Lyapunov spectrum, so there is not a corresponding structure in the localization width. We can see that in the square case the localization widths $`𝒲^{(n)}`$ decrease as a function of the Lyapunov index $`n`$ in the region of large Lyapunov indices corresponding to small positive Lyapunov exponents. On the other hand we can see the effect of the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectrum on the localization width of the quasi-one-dimensional case. Especially a pair of two dots on the line $`𝒲^{(n)}=𝒲_{wav}`$ correspond to the two-point step of the Lyapunov spectrum shown in Fig. 17, supporting that in the Lyapunov spectrum of Fig. 17 for the quasi-one-dimensional case the first (second) step of the Lyapunov spectrum is a four-point step (a two-point step) looking from the zero-Lyapunov exponents.

### B.3 Angle Between the Spatial and Momentum Parts of the Lyapunov Vector

Fig. 19 is the time-averaged angles $`\theta ^{(n)}/\pi `$, $`n=1,2,\mathrm{},2N`$ divided by $`\pi `$ between the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors in the cases of the quasi-one-dimensional system (circles) and the square system (triangles) as functions of the normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$ for $`d=10^5`$. In both the cases, the angle $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ is a rapidly increasing function of Lyapunov index $`n`$ in the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] region of the localization width, and almost $`\pi /2`$ in the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] region.

We can see the stepwise structure in the angle $`\theta ^{(n)}`$ as a function of Lyapunov index $`n`$ in the quasi-one-dimensional case (See the inset of Fig. 19.). This structure corresponds to the stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectrum shown in Fig. 17.

### B.4 Amplitudes of the $`x`$\- and $`y`$-Components of the Spatial and Momentum Parts of the Lyapunov Vectors

As the next quantities to investigate the difference between the quasi-one-dimensional case and the square case, we consider the amplitudes of the $`x`$\- and $`y`$-components of the spatial and momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors. Fig. 20 is the graphs of the time-averages of normalized amplitudes of the $`x`$-component of the spatial part ($`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$, circles), the $`y`$-component of the spatial part ($`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$, triangles), the $`x`$-component of the momentum part ($`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$, crosses), and its $`y`$-component ($`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$, diagonal crosses) of the Lyapunov vectors as functions of normalized Lyapunov index $`n/(2N)`$ in the square case for $`d=10^5`$. The corresponding graphs for the quasi-one-dimensional case are shown in Fig. 11(d). In the square system there is no difference between the $`x`$\- and $`y`$-directions, so there is no gap between the $`x`$\- and y-components in the spatial part and the momentum part of the Lyapunov vectors (except for those where the spatial part corresponds to the zero-Lyapunov exponents). Although the momentum parts $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$ (the spatial parts $`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$) are rapidly decreasing (increasing) functions of Lyapunov index in the region of the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths (See the small figure in the top right of Fig. 20 for the momentum parts of the Lyapunov vectors. Also note the normalization condition (25) to know the corresponding spatial parts.), the boundary of the two dependences \[$`𝒟`$\] and \[$`𝒟`$\] is not so clear in this figure.

In Fig. 20 we cannot recognize a stepwise structure of the quantities $`\eta _{qx}^{(n)}(t)`$, $`\eta _{qy}^{(n)}(t)`$, $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ and $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$, because there is no stepwise structure of the Lyapunov spectrum in this system. It may be noted that the normalized $`x`$-component $`\eta _{px}^{(n)}(t)`$ and the normalized $`y`$-component $`\eta _{py}^{(n)}(t)`$ of the momentum part of the Lyapunov vectors corresponding to the zero-Lyapunov exponents $`\lambda ^{(2N2)}`$, $`\lambda ^{(2N1)}`$ and $`\lambda ^{(2N)}`$ are almost zero, like in the quasi-one-dimensional case.

### B.5 Boundary Effects in the Localization Widths

As the last example in this appendix we check boundary effects in Lyapunov localizations. In this subsection we calculate the localization widths for square systems and quasi-one-dimensional systems with purely hard-wall boundary conditions or purely periodic boundary conditions. To give reasonable comparisons between the the hard-wall boundary cases and the periodic boundary cases we choose the system lengths $`L_x`$ and $`L_y`$ so that the effective region for a particle to move is the same in both cases. This means that if we choose the system size as $`L_x=\stackrel{~}{L}_x`$ and $`L_y=\stackrel{~}{L}_y`$ for the periodic boundary case then they must be $`L_x=\stackrel{~}{L}_x+2R`$ and $`L_y=\stackrel{~}{L}_y+2R`$ for the corresponding hard-wall boundary case. Except for this point, we chose the same value of the other parameters for these two boundary cases. In this subsection we use the value $`d=0.5`$ for the parameter $`d`$. Note that in this case the linear dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] of the localization widths does not appear.

Figure 21 is the localization widths $`𝒲^{(n)}/N`$, $`n=1,2,\mathrm{},2N`$ normalized by the particle number $`N`$ in the case of the square system with the periodic boundary conditions (circles), the square system with the hard-wall boundary conditions (triangles), the quasi-one-dimensional system with the periodic boundary conditions (crosses), the quasi-one-dimensional system with the hard-wall boundary conditions (diagonal crosses). Fig. 21 shows that the localization widths in the hard-wall boundary conditions are smaller than in the periodic boundary conditions in both of the square cases and the quasi-one-dimensional cases. However it should be noted that differences in the values of the localization widths are rather small in the region of small Lyapunov indices $`n`$ in which the Lyapunov vectors are strongly localized. This is a natural result because the Lyapunov localization is a local behavior so that it should not depend strongly on global conditions such as the boundary conditions. It may be noted that in very narrow systems like the quasi-one-dimensional system a strong boundary effect appears because particles can collide with walls much more often than in square cases, and this could be the reason why the differences in the values of the localization widths from the different boundary conditions are larger in the quasi-one-dimensional system than in the square system. A part of the localization widths as a function of Lyapunov index are nicely fitted by the exponential function $`y=\stackrel{~}{\alpha }+\stackrel{~}{\beta }\mathrm{exp}\{\stackrel{~}{\gamma }x\}`$ for the exponential dependence \[$`𝒟`$\] with fitting parameters $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }`$, shown as the dotted lines in Fig. 21. Here, the values of fitting parameters are chosen as $`(\stackrel{~}{\alpha },\stackrel{~}{\beta },\stackrel{~}{\gamma })=(0.653629,0.377495,10.9742`$ for the square case with the periodic boundary conditions, $`(\stackrel{~}{\alpha },\stackrel{~}{\beta },\stackrel{~}{\gamma })=(0.638696,0.422529,10.3554)`$ for the square case with the hard-wall boundary conditions, $`(\stackrel{~}{\alpha },\stackrel{~}{\beta },\stackrel{~}{\gamma })=(0.578304,0.464099,8.41439)`$ for the quasi-one-dimensional periodic boundary case, and $`(\stackrel{~}{\alpha },\stackrel{~}{\beta },\stackrel{~}{\gamma })=(0.534472,0.449403,6.76248)`$ for the quasi-one-dimensional hard-wall boundary case. It may also be noted that the part of the localization widths corresponding to the Lyapunov spectrum changing smoothly seems to be slightly larger than the value $`𝒲_{ran}`$ for the localization width for random components in the square system with the periodic boundary conditions and $`d=0.5`$ in Fig. 21.

In the quasi-one-dimensional periodic boundary case in Fig. 21 we can recognize two pairs of localization widths on the line $`𝒲^{(n)}=𝒲_{wav}`$ corresponding to the two-point steps of the Lyapunov spectra, but there is not a localization width of such a value in the hard-wall boundary case. This comes from the fact that in the periodic boundary case the system satisfies total momentum conservation leading to the two-point steps of the Lyapunov spectrum whereas the system with hard-wall boundary conditions does not satisfy such a conservation in any direction (Detail of this point was discussed in Ref. Tan02c .).