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# Equivariant versal unfoldings for linear retarded functional differential equations

## 1 Introduction

Symmetry plays an important role in the description of many physical systems. Whether the symmetry is an intrinsic part of the physical system, or whether it is merely a modeling assumption, the mathematical model for any such system must reflect this symmetry. When the mathematical model is a differential equation, this is achieved by imposing equivariance of the differential equation. That is, if $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a group of transformations which represents the symmetries of the physical system, then the differential equation model must commute with an action of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. An important consequence of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariance is that any solution of the differential equation is mapped onto other solutions by the elements of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Thus, the algebraic structure of the group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ yields important information about the geometrical structure of solutions of the differential equation in phase space.

The theory of equivariant dynamical systems is by now well-developed and understood (see, for example  and ). $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariance imposes strong algebraic restrictions on the functional form of the differential equation. This has important implications, for example, in the study of local stability and bifurcation of equilibrium points. In particular, since the linearization of the vector field at the equilibrium point must commute with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, then this linearization usually has eigenvalues of high geometric multiplicity.

In this paper, we will be interested in systems which are modeled by parametrized families of retarded functional differential equations

$$\dot{z}(t)=(\alpha )z_t+F(z_t,\alpha ),\alpha ^p,$$
(1.1)
where $`(\alpha )`$ is a parametrized family of bounded linear functional operators and $`(u,\alpha )F(u,\alpha )`$ is nonlinear and smooth with $`F(0,\alpha )=0`$ and $`D_uF(0,\alpha )=0`$ for all $`\alpha `$, such that (1.1) is equivariant under the action of a compact Lie group of symmetries $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for all $`\alpha `$. Examples of such systems can be found in the study of neural networks modeled by symmetrically coupled cell systems with delays in the coupling (), in the study of semiconductor lasers subject to optical feedback  or symmetrically coupled arrays of lasers . Specifically, we are interested in the following question regarding (1.1): consider the equilibrium $`x=0`$, $`\alpha =0`$ of (1.1), and let $`V`$ be a finite-dimensional invariant manifold for the dynamics of (1.1) which passes through this equilibrium point. Let

$$\dot{x}=B(\alpha )x+G(x,\alpha )$$
(1.2)
be the parametrized family of ordinary differential equations which gives the dynamics of (1.1) restricted to $`V`$, where $`B(\alpha )`$ is a parametrized family of matrices, and $`G`$ is the nonlinearity. Under what conditions on $`(\alpha )`$ in (1.1) can we be assured that $`B(\alpha )`$ is a versal unfolding of the matrix $`B(0)`$ within the space of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant matrices? Recall that, loosely speaking, the family $`B(\alpha )`$ is a versal unfolding of $`B(0)`$ if it is, up to similarity transformations and changes of parameters, the most general $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ perturbation of $`B(0)`$ (a precise definition is given in  in the absence of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariance, and in Section 3 of this paper in the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant case). The above question is especially important in the case where (1.2) represents a center manifold reduction of (1.1). If $`B(\alpha )`$ is not versal, then this could lead to restrictions on the bifurcation behavior of (1.1) near the equilibrium. It is clear that answering this question does not depend on the nonlinearity $`F`$ in (1.1); therefore, we restrict our attention to the class of parametrized families of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant linear retarded functional differential equations.

This problem was studied in  in the absence of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariance. In particular, Theorem 7.4 of that paper gives a method for constructing a parametrized family $`(\alpha )`$ of bounded linear functional operators such that the family of matrices $`B(\alpha )`$ in (1.2) is a versal unfolding of the matrix $`B(0)`$. Our approach in this paper will be to construct a suitable equivariant projection of the family $`(\alpha )`$ of Theorem 7.4 of , and to show that the resulting associated $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant family of matrices $`B(\alpha )`$ in (1.2) is a versal unfolding of $`B(0)`$ within the space of all $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant matrices.

The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we review some basic theory of linear retarded functional equations while Section 3 contains the results concerning versal and mini-versal unfoldings of equivariant matrices. In Section 4, our main result about the construction of equivariant unfoldings for linear retarded functional differential equations is presented. Finally, in Section 5 a detailed computation of the equivariant mini-versal unfolding of a $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant linear delay-differential equation at a double Hopf bifurcation is discussed in both cases of simple and double imaginary eigenvalues.

It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the terminology and results of , , ,  and .

## 2 Reduction of equivariant linear RFDEs

Let $`C_n=C([\tau ,0],^n)`$ be the Banach space of continuous functions from the interval $`[\tau ,0]`$, into $`^n`$ ($`\tau >0`$) endowed with the norm of uniform convergence. We will first consider the linear homogeneous RFDE

$$\dot{z}(t)=_0(z_t),$$
(2.1)
where $`_0`$ is a bounded linear operator from $`C_n`$ into $`^n`$. We write

$$_0(\phi )=_\tau ^0𝑑\eta (\theta )\phi (\theta ),$$

where $`\eta `$ is an $`n\times n`$ matrix-valued function of bounded variation defined on $`[\tau ,0]`$.

We will suppose that (2.1) has certain symmetry properties. Specifically, we let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be a compact group of transformations acting linearly on $`^n`$. We say that (2.1) is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant if

$$\gamma d\eta (\theta )=d\eta (\theta )\gamma ,\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma },\theta [\tau ,0].$$
(2.2)
A consequence of this definition is that if $`x(t)`$ is a solution to (2.1), then so is $`\gamma x(t)`$, for all $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

Suppose that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is a non-empty finite set of eigenvalues of the infinitesimal generator $`A_0`$ for the semi-flow of (2.1), i.e. $`\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }`$ if and only if $`\lambda `$ satisfies the characteristic equation

$$\text{det}\mathrm{\Delta }(\lambda )=0,\text{where}\mathrm{\Delta }(\lambda )=\lambda I_n_\tau ^0𝑑\eta (\theta )e^{\lambda \theta },$$
(2.3)
where $`I_n`$ is the $`n\times n`$ identity matrix. Using adjoint theory, it is known that we can write

$$C_n=PQ$$
(2.4)
where the generalized eigenspace $`P`$ corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and the complementary subspace $`Q`$ are both invariant under the semiflow of (2.1), and invariant under $`A_0`$.

Define $`C_n^{}=C([0,\tau ],^n)`$, where $`^n`$ is the $`n`$-dimensional space of row vectors. We have the adjoint bilinear form on $`C_n^{}\times C_n`$:

$$(\psi ,\phi )_n=\psi (0)\phi (0)_\tau ^0_0^\theta \psi (\xi \theta )𝑑\eta (\theta )\phi (\xi )𝑑\xi .$$
(2.5)
We let $`\mathrm{\Phi }=(\phi _1,\mathrm{},\phi _c)`$ be a basis for $`P`$, and $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\text{col}(\psi _1,\mathrm{},\psi _c)`$ be a basis for the dual space $`P^{}`$ in $`C_n^{}`$, chosen so that $`(\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi })_n`$ is the $`c\times c`$ identity matrix, $`I_c`$. In this case, we have $`Q=\{\phi C_n:(\mathrm{\Psi },\phi )_n=0\}`$. It follows that $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{}=\mathrm{\Phi }B`$ where $`B`$ is a $`c\times c`$ constant matrix. The spectrum of $`B`$ coincides with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. Using the decomposition (2.4), any $`zC_n`$ can be written as $`z=\mathrm{\Phi }x+y`$, where $`x^c`$ and $`yQ`$ is a $`C^1`$ function. The dynamics of (2.1) on $`P`$ are then given by the $`c`$-dimensional linear ordinary differential equation

$$\dot{x}=Bx.$$
(2.6)
The important point, as we will now show, is that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariance of (2.1) forces $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-invariance of the splitting (2.4) and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariance of the reduced ordinary differential equation (2.6).

###### Proposition 2.1

The spaces $`P`$, $`Q`$ and $`P^{}`$ defined above are $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ invariant, and the $`c\times c`$ matrix $`B`$ in (2.6) commutes with a representation $`G:\mathrm{\Gamma }GL(c,)`$ of the group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

Proof We start by noting the following identity which follows trivially from $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariance of (2.1), and from (2.5):

$$(\mathrm{\Psi },\gamma \mathrm{\Phi })_n=(\mathrm{\Psi }\gamma ,\mathrm{\Phi })_n\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }.$$
(2.7)
The functions $`\phi _1,\mathrm{},\phi _c`$ which span $`P`$ are generalized eigenfunctions of the operator $`A`$ defined by $`A\phi =\phi ^{}`$ whose domain is

$$𝒟(A)=\{\phi C_n:\phi ^{}C_n\text{and}\phi ^{}(0)=_\tau ^0𝑑\eta (\theta )\phi (\theta )\}.$$

Let $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$, $`\phi P`$, and consider $`\stackrel{~}{\phi }=\gamma \phi `$. Then obviously $`\stackrel{~}{\phi }^{}C_n`$ since $`\phi ^{}C_n`$. Moreover, from (2.2) and the fact that $`\phi 𝒟(A)`$, we get

$$\stackrel{~}{\phi }^{}(0)=\gamma \phi ^{}(0)=\gamma _\tau ^0𝑑\eta (\theta )\phi (\theta )=_\tau ^0𝑑\eta (\theta )\gamma \phi (\theta )=_\tau ^0𝑑\eta (\theta )\stackrel{~}{\phi }(\theta ),$$

so $`\stackrel{~}{\phi }𝒟(A)`$. Now, there exists an integer $`k`$ and a $`\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`(A\lambda I)^k\phi =0`$. Since $`A(\gamma \phi )=(\gamma \phi )^{}=\gamma \phi ^{}=\gamma A\phi `$, it is easy to see that $`(A\lambda I)^k\stackrel{~}{\phi }=0`$, and we conclude that $`\stackrel{~}{\phi }P`$. Thus, $`P`$ is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-invariant. A similar argument shows that $`P^{}`$ is also $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-invariant. This implies that for all $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$, there exist $`c\times c`$ matrices $`G(\gamma )`$ and $`H(\gamma )`$ such that

$$\gamma \mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }G(\gamma )\text{and}\mathrm{\Psi }\gamma =H(\gamma )\mathrm{\Psi }.$$
(2.8)
In fact, it follows from (2.7) and the fact that $`(\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi })_n=I_c`$ that

$$\begin{array}{c}H(\gamma )=H(\gamma )(\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi })_n=(H(\gamma )\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi })_n=(\mathrm{\Psi }\gamma ,\mathrm{\Phi })_n=(\mathrm{\Psi },\gamma \mathrm{\Phi })_n=\hfill \\ (\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi }G(\gamma ))_n=(\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi })_nG(\gamma )=G(\gamma ).\hfill \end{array}$$

Note that

$$\begin{array}{c}G(\sigma \gamma )=(\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi })_nG(\sigma \gamma )=(\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi }G(\sigma \gamma ))_n=(\mathrm{\Psi },\sigma \gamma \mathrm{\Phi })_n=\hfill \\ (\mathrm{\Psi }\sigma ,\gamma \mathrm{\Phi })_n=(G(\sigma )\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi }G(\gamma ))_n=G(\sigma )(\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi })_nG(\gamma )=G(\sigma )G(\gamma ),\hfill \end{array}$$

so that the mapping

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\mathrm{\Gamma }& \hfill & GL(c,)\\ \gamma & \hfill & G(\gamma )\end{array}$$

is a representation of the group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in the space of invertible $`c\times c`$ matrices.

Now, $`\phi Q`$ if and only if $`(\mathrm{\Psi },\phi )_n=0`$. Then using (2.7), one gets that

$$(\mathrm{\Psi },\gamma \phi )_n=(\mathrm{\Psi }\gamma ,\phi )_n=(G(\gamma )\mathrm{\Psi },\phi )_n=G(\gamma )(\mathrm{\Psi },\phi )_n=0,$$

so $`Q`$ is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-invariant.

Finally, it follows from the fact that $`B=(\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi }^{})_n`$ that

$$BG(\gamma )=G(\gamma )B\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }.$$
(2.9)
## 3 Equivariant versal unfoldings of matrices

Let $`B\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$, where $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$ denotes the space of $`c\times c`$ matrices with entries in $``$. Recall that a $`p`$-parameter unfolding of $`B`$ is a $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ mapping $`:^p\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$ such that $`(\alpha _0)=B`$ for some $`\alpha _0^p`$. We then say that a $`p`$-parameter unfolding $`(\alpha )`$ of $`B`$ is a versal unfolding of $`B`$ if, given any $`q`$-parameter unfolding $`𝒜(\beta )`$ of $`B`$ (with $`𝒜(\beta _0)=B`$), there exists a $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ mapping

$$\varphi :^q^p$$

with $`\varphi (\beta _0)=\alpha _0`$, and a $`q`$-parameter unfolding $`C(\beta )`$ of the identity matrix such that

$$𝒜(\beta )=C(\beta )(\varphi (\beta ))(C(\beta ))^1,\beta \text{near}\beta _0.$$

If $``$ is a versal unfolding which depends on the least number of parameters, then $``$ is called a mini-versal unfolding. Thus, one may view a versal unfolding of $`B`$ as the most general $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ perturbation of $`B`$ up to similarity and change of parameters. One then has the following sufficient criterion  for establishing the versality of a given unfolding of $`B`$:

###### Proposition 3.1

Let $`(\alpha )`$ be a $`p`$-parameter unfolding of $`B\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$. Let $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ denote the similarity orbit of $`B`$, i.e.

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }=\{CBC^1:CGL(c,)\}\text{Mat}_{c\times c}.$$

If

$$\text{Mat}_{c\times c}=T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }+D_\alpha (\alpha _0)^p,$$
(3.1)
where $`T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is the tangent space to $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ at $`B`$, then $``$ is a versal unfolding of $`B`$. If, in addition, the codimension of $`T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ in $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$ is equal to $`p`$, then $``$ is mini-versal.

In this paper, we are not interested in the most general perturbation of $`B`$, since we are only considering matrices in $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$ which commute with the group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. In fact, we need only consider perturbations in the subspace $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ defined by

$$\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }=\{A\text{Mat}_{c\times c}:G(\gamma )A=AG(\gamma ),\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }\},$$

where $`G`$ is the representation of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in $`GL(c,)`$ defined in (2.8). We therefore adopt the following definition:

###### Definition 3.2

A $`p`$-parameter unfolding $`(\alpha )`$ of $`B\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is said to be a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-unfolding of $`B`$ if $`(\alpha )\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for all $`\alpha `$. The $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-unfolding is said to be $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-versal if, given any $`q`$-parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-unfolding $`𝒜(\beta )`$ of $`B`$ (with $`𝒜(\beta _0)=B`$), there exists a $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ mapping

$$\varphi :^q^p$$

with $`\varphi (\beta _0)=\alpha _0`$, and a $`q`$-parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-unfolding $`C(\beta )`$ of the identity matrix such that

$$𝒜(\beta )=C(\beta )(\varphi (\beta ))(C(\beta ))^1,\beta \text{near}\beta _0.$$

If $``$ is a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-versal unfolding which depends on the least number of parameters, then $``$ is called a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-mini-versal unfolding.

The following lemma, which is the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant version of Proposition 3.1, is proved in Appendix A.

###### Lemma 3.3

Let $`(\alpha )`$ be a $`p`$-parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-unfolding of $`B\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Let $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ denote the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-similarity orbit of $`B`$, i.e.

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }=\{CBC^1:CGL(c,)\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }\}\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }.$$

If

$$\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }=T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }+D_\alpha (\alpha _0)^p,$$
(3.2)
where $`T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the tangent space to $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ at $`B`$, then $``$ is a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-versal unfolding of $`B`$. If, in addition, the codimension of $`T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is equal to $`p`$, then $``$ is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-mini-versal.

###### Lemma 3.4

There exists a projection $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }:\text{Mat}_{c\times c}\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ such that

$$\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(AM)=A\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(M)\text{and}\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(MA)=\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(M)A,A\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma },M\text{Mat}_{c\times c}.$$
(3.3)
Proof For $`M\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$, define

$$\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(M)=_\mathrm{\Gamma }G(\gamma )MG(\gamma ^1)𝑑\gamma $$

where the integral denotes the Haar integral on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, which we assume has been normalized so that the measure of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is 1 (recall that we assume that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is compact). Since $`G`$ is a morphism and since the Haar integral is translation invariant, we have that for all $`\sigma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$

$$G(\sigma )\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(M)(G(\sigma ))^1=_\mathrm{\Gamma }G(\sigma \gamma )MG((\sigma \gamma )^1)𝑑\gamma =\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(M),$$

so that $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(M)\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Moreover, we clearly have that $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(M)=M`$ if and only if $`M\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. We then conclude that $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is idempotent, with range $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Finally, (3.3) follows from the definition of $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and the fact that $`A`$ commutes with $`G(\gamma )`$, for all $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

###### Proposition 3.5

Let $``$ be a $`p`$-parameter unfolding of $`B\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ such that (3.1) holds (which implies by Proposition 3.1 that $``$ is a versal unfolding of $`B`$). Let $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be the projection of $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$ onto $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ such as in Lemma 3.3. Then $`^\mathrm{\Gamma }\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }()`$ is a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-versal unfolding of $`B`$.

Proof We first show that $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B)=T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Let $`x=[B,y]T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, where $`y\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Since obviously $`x\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, then $`x=\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(x)=\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }([B,y])\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B)`$, since $`[B,y]`$ is also an element of $`T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B`$. Thus $`T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B)`$. Now let $`x\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B)`$, i.e. $`x=\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(ByyB)`$ for some $`y\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$. Then, from Lemma 3.3, we have

$$x=\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(ByyB)=\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(By)\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(yB)=[B,\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(y)]T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }.$$

Therefore, we have shown that $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B)=T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

Now, we will show that $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(D_\alpha (\alpha _0)^p)=D_\alpha ^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha _0)^p`$. We have that $`xD_\alpha ^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha _0)^p`$, if and only if there exists $`v^p`$ such that

$$\begin{array}{ccc}x\hfill & =\hfill & \frac{d}{d\epsilon }\left(^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha _0+\epsilon v)\right)|_{\epsilon =0}=\frac{d}{d\epsilon }(\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }((\alpha _0+\epsilon v))|_{\epsilon =0}\hfill \\ & =\hfill & \pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{d}{d\epsilon }\left((\alpha _0+\epsilon v)\right)|_{\epsilon =0}\right)\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(D_\alpha (\alpha _0)^p).\hfill \end{array}$$

Therefore, $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(D_\alpha (\alpha _0)^p)=D_\alpha ^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha _0)^p`$.

Finally, we show that

$$\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }=T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }+D_\alpha ^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha _0)^p.$$

Obviously, from the preceding results, we have that

$$T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }+D_\alpha ^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha _0)^p\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }.$$

Let $`x\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, then from (3.1) we have that $`x=x_a+x_b`$, where $`x_aT\mathrm{\Sigma }_B`$ and $`x_bD_\alpha (\alpha _0)^p`$. Therefore

$$x=\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(x)=\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(x_a)+\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(x_b)\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B)+\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(D_\alpha (\alpha _0)^p)=T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }+D_\alpha ^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha _0)^p.$$

Thus, we have shown that $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }=T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }+D_\alpha ^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha _0)^p`$, and by Lemma 3.3, we conclude that $`^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-versal unfolding of $`B`$.

###### Remark 3.6

Let $`B\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, be given, and let $`(\alpha )`$ be a $`p`$-parameter unfolding of $`B`$ which is mini-versal. Then (3.1) holds as a direct sum, and by the previous Proposition, $`^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha )=\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }((\alpha ))`$ is a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-versal unfolding of $`B`$. It should be noted that in general, $`^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha )`$ need not be $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-mini-versal, even though $``$ is mini-versal (in fact it is quite easy to constrct examples to illustrate this fact). However, it is always possible to extract a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-mini-versal unfolding of $`B`$ from $`^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, using a straighforward procedure as we now illustrate.

Let $`𝒲`$ be any direct sum complement of $`T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ in $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$, i.e.

$$\text{Mat}_{c\times c}=T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }𝒲.$$
(3.4)
For example, if $`𝒲`$ is chosen to be the space which is spanned by the matrices $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Omega }_p`$ described in section 6 of , then the decomposition of any $`c\times c`$ matrix using (3.4) is particularly simple to compute. Now, for each $`i=1,\mathrm{},p`$, we define

$$\widehat{B}_i^\mathrm{\Gamma }\frac{d}{d\epsilon }\left(^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha _0+\epsilon e_i)\right)|_{\epsilon =0},$$

where $`e_i`$ is the $`p`$-dimensional vector whose $`i^{th}`$ component is 1 and all other components are zero. Note that

$$D_\alpha ^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha _0)^p=\{\widehat{B}_1^\mathrm{\Gamma },\mathrm{},\widehat{B}_p^\mathrm{\Gamma }\}.$$

Now, decompose these matrices using (3.4), i.e. write

$$\widehat{B}_i^\mathrm{\Gamma }=[B,y_i]+\underset{j=1}{\overset{p}{}}\theta _{ij}\mathrm{\Omega }_j,i=1,\mathrm{},p,$$
(3.5)
where $`y_i\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$, and the $`\theta _{ij}`$ are scalars. Let $`\mathrm{\Theta }=(\theta _{ij})`$ be the $`p\times p`$ matrix coming from the decomposition (3.5). If we then let rows $`i_1,\mathrm{}i_k`$ of the matrix $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ determine a maximal set of linearly independent vectors in the rowspace of the matrix $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$, it follows from simple linear algebra that

$$\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }=T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }\{\widehat{B}_{i_1}^\mathrm{\Gamma },\mathrm{},\widehat{B}_{i_k}^\mathrm{\Gamma }\},$$

and so the following $`k`$-parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-unfolding of $`B`$ is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-mini-versal:

$$\widehat{}^\mathrm{\Gamma }(\beta _1,\mathrm{},\beta _k)^\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\alpha _0+\underset{\mathrm{}=1}{\overset{k}{}}\beta _{\mathrm{}}e_i_{\mathrm{}}\right).$$

Recall that the RFDE (2.1) is defined on $`^n`$, and that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a subgroup of $`GL(n,)`$. It will be useful to define a projection analogous to $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ on $`\text{Mat}_{n\times n}`$.

###### Definition 3.7

Let $`A\text{Mat}_{n\times n}`$. We define

$$\pi _n^\mathrm{\Gamma }(A)=_\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma A\gamma ^1𝑑\gamma .$$

Obviously, it follows that for all $`A\text{Mat}_{n\times n}`$, we have $`\sigma \pi _n^\mathrm{\Gamma }(A)=\pi _n^\mathrm{\Gamma }(A)\sigma `$ for all $`\sigma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

###### Proposition 3.8

Suppose $`C\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$ is such that

$$C=\mathrm{\Psi }(0)A\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau ^{}),$$
(3.6)
where $`A`$ is some $`n\times n`$ matrix, and $`\tau ^{}`$ is some fixed number in $`[\tau ,0]`$. Then

$$\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(C)=\mathrm{\Psi }(0)\pi _n^\mathrm{\Gamma }(A)\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau ^{}).$$

Proof This is just a simple computation, using (2.8):

$$\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(C)=_\mathrm{\Gamma }G(\gamma )\mathrm{\Psi }(0)A\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau ^{})G(\gamma ^1)𝑑\gamma =\mathrm{\Psi }(0)\left(_\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma A\gamma ^1𝑑\gamma \right)\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau ^{}).$$

## 4 Construction of a $`𝚪`$-equivariant $`𝚲`$-versal unfolding

Consider now a $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ parametrized family of linear RFDEs of the form

$$\dot{z}(t)=(\alpha )(z_t),$$
(4.1)
where $`\alpha ^p`$, and $`(\alpha _0)=_0`$ is as in (2.1), for some $`\alpha _0^p`$. In the sequel, we will assume that a translation has been performed in the parameter space $`^p`$ such that $`\alpha _0=0`$. It was shown in  that for a given set $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ of solutions to (2.3), a parameter-dependent reduction of (4.1) to the $`c`$-dimensional generalized eigenspace corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is given by

$$\dot{x}=\stackrel{~}{}(\alpha )x,$$
(4.2)
where

$$\stackrel{~}{}(\alpha )=B+\mathrm{\Psi }(0)[(\alpha )_0](\mathrm{\Phi }+h(\alpha )),$$
(4.3)
where $`h`$ is a smooth $`n\times c`$ matrix-valued function such that $`h(0)=0`$, and $`B`$ is as in (2.6).

###### Remark 4.1

The function $`h`$ is the unique solution (via the implicit function theorem) of a certain nonlinear equation $`N(\alpha ,h)=0`$ (see equation (4.5) in Proposition 4.1 of ). It is a straightforward computation that for all $`h`$ and all $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$, we have

$$N(\alpha ,\gamma hG(\gamma ^1))=\gamma N(\alpha ,h)G(\gamma ^1)$$

so that if $`h(\alpha )`$ is such that $`N(\alpha ,h(\alpha ))=0`$, then by uniqueness of the solution, we must have $`\gamma h(\alpha )G(\gamma ^1)=h(\alpha )`$, i.e.

$$\gamma h(\alpha )=h(\alpha )G(\gamma ^1)$$

for all $`\alpha `$ near $`0`$ and for all $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Thus, if (4.1) is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant for all $`\alpha `$, then it follows from (4.3) that $`\stackrel{~}{}(\alpha )\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for all $`\alpha `$ near 0 in $`^p`$, i.e. $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ is a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-unfolding of $`B`$.

We recall the following definition from .

###### Definition 4.2

The parametrized family of RFDEs (4.1) is said to be a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-versal unfolding (respectively a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-mini-versal unfolding) for the RFDE (2.1) if the matrix $`\stackrel{~}{}(\alpha )`$ defined by (4.3) is a versal unfolding (respectively a mini-versal unfolding) for $`B`$.

In the case where (2.1) is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant, we have

###### Definition 4.3

The parametrized family (4.1) is said to be a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-versal unfolding (respectively a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-mini-versal unfolding) for (2.1) if (4.1) is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant for all $`\alpha `$, and the matrix $`\stackrel{~}{}(\alpha )`$ defined by (4.3) is a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-versal unfolding (respectively a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-mini-versal unfolding) for $`B`$.

In , we showed that given $`B\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$, there exists points $`\tau _0,\tau _1,\mathrm{},\tau _{cq}`$ in $`[\tau ,0]`$, and $`n\times n`$ matrices $`A_j^m`$, $`j=0,\mathrm{},cq`$, $`m=0,\mathrm{},\delta `$ (where $`\delta `$ is the codimension of $`T\mathrm{\Sigma }_B`$ in $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}`$) such that the following $`\delta `$-parameter unfolding of $`B`$

$$(\alpha )=B+\underset{m=1}{\overset{\delta }{}}\alpha _m\left(\underset{j=0}{\overset{cq}{}}\mathrm{\Psi }(0)A_j^m\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _j)\right)$$
(4.4)
satisfies (3.1) as a direct sum (i.e. $``$ is a mini-versal unfolding of $`B`$). From this, it follows (see Theorem 7.4 of ) that if $`(\alpha )`$ is the $`\delta `$-parameter family of bounded linear operators from $`C([\tau ,0],^n)`$ into $`^n`$ defined in the following way:

$$(\alpha )z=_0z+\underset{m=1}{\overset{\delta }{}}\alpha _m\left(\underset{j=0}{\overset{cq}{}}A_j^mz(\tau _j)\right),$$

where the $`\alpha _m`$ are complex parameters and $`_0`$ is as in (2.1), then (4.1) is a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-versal unfolding of (2.1).

We now state and prove the main result of this paper.

###### Theorem 4.4

Suppose $`B\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, and consider the matrices $`A_j^m`$ which appear in the versal unfolding (4.4) of $`B`$. Then the family $`(\alpha )`$ of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant bounded linear operators defined by

$$(\alpha )z=_0z+\underset{m=1}{\overset{\delta }{}}\alpha _m\left(\underset{j=0}{\overset{cq}{}}\pi _n^\mathrm{\Gamma }(A_j^m)z(\tau _j)\right),$$
(4.5)
(where $`\pi _n^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is as in Definition 3.7) is such that (4.1) is a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-versal unfolding of (2.1).

Proof From Propositions 3.5 and 3.8, we conclude that the versal unfolding (4.4) of $`B`$ is such that

$$\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }((\alpha ))=B+\underset{m=1}{\overset{\delta }{}}\alpha _m\left(\underset{j=0}{\overset{cq}{}}\mathrm{\Psi }(0)\pi _n^\mathrm{\Gamma }(A_j^m)\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _j)\right)$$

is a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-versal unfolding of $`B`$. Thus, if we define $`(\alpha )`$ as in (4.5), then $`\stackrel{~}{}(\alpha )`$ (as in (4.3)) is such that

$$\stackrel{~}{}(\alpha )=\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }((\alpha ))+\mathrm{\Psi }(0)[(\alpha )_0](h(\alpha )).$$

We conclude that $`\stackrel{~}{}(\alpha )`$ is also a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-versal unfolding of $`B`$, since $`h(0)=0`$ implies that $`D_\alpha \stackrel{~}{}(0)=D_\alpha \pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }((\alpha ))|_{\alpha =0}`$.

## 5 An example with $`𝚪\mathbf{=}𝔻_\mathrm{𝟑}`$

In this section we compute the versal unfolding of a $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant system of linear delay-differential equations near points of double Hopf bifurcations. Consider the group $`𝔻_3`$ generated by $`\{\kappa ,\gamma \}`$ with $`\kappa ^2=\gamma ^3=1`$ and the representation $`\rho :𝔻_3GL(3,)`$ given by

$$\rho (\kappa )=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\\ 0& 1& 0\end{array}\right),\rho (\gamma )=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\\ 1& 0& 0\end{array}\right).$$
(5.1)
Wu et al.  and Ncube et al.  consider the $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant linear delay-differential equation

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \dot{u}_j(t)& =& u_j(t)+\alpha u_j(t\tau _s)+\beta \left[u_{j1}(t\tau _n)+u_{j+1}(t\tau _n)\right],j=1,2,3\hfill \end{array}$$
(5.2)
where the indices are taken $`\text{mod }3`$. This linear system appears as the linearization at an equilibrium of a coupled system of three multiple-delayed identical neurons. In those papers, the focus is on finding periodic solutions via the Hopf bifurcation theorem.

The spectrum of the linear operator associated to (5.2) is obtained by solving the characteristic equation

$$S(\lambda )=\mathrm{\Delta }_1(\lambda )\mathrm{\Delta }_2(\lambda )^2=0,$$

where

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \mathrm{\Delta }_1(\lambda )& =& \lambda +1\alpha e^{\lambda \tau _s}2\beta e^{\lambda \tau _n},\hfill \\ \hfill \mathrm{\Delta }_2(\lambda )& =& \lambda +1\alpha e^{\lambda \tau _s}+\beta e^{\lambda \tau _n}.\hfill \end{array}$$

We now sketch an argument showing that points of double Hopf bifurcation exist for both factors $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_2`$ of the characteristic equation.

Suppose that we are looking for a point of double Hopf bifurcation solution to $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1=0`$, then the eigenvalues $`i\omega `$ must satisfy

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \omega +\alpha \mathrm{sin}(\omega \tau _s)& =& 2\beta \mathrm{sin}(\omega \tau _n)\hfill \\ \hfill 1\alpha \mathrm{cos}(\omega \tau _s)& =& 2\beta \mathrm{cos}(\omega \tau _n).\hfill \end{array}$$

It is easy to solve these equations for $`\alpha `$ and $`\tau _s`$ in terms of the other parameters, we obtain the following two equations

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \alpha & =& \pm \sqrt{(12\beta \mathrm{cos}(\omega \tau _n))^2+(\omega +2\beta \mathrm{sin}(\omega \tau _n))^2}\hfill \\ \hfill \tau _s& =& \frac{1}{\omega }\mathrm{arctan}\left(\frac{\omega 2\beta \mathrm{sin}(\omega \tau _n)}{12\beta \mathrm{cos}(\omega \tau _n)}\right).\hfill \end{array}$$

Then $`\alpha `$ and $`\tau _s`$ with $`\beta `$ and $`\tau _n`$ fixed represent curves parametrized by $`\omega `$ in $`(\alpha ,\tau _s)`$-space. Note that there are several branches of curves depending on the branch of the arctan which is chosen. Figure 1(a) shows some of these curves for $`\beta =0.5`$ and $`\tau _n=4`$. Points of double Hopf bifurcation lie at the intersection of these curves.

Points of double Hopf bifurcation for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_2=0`$ are found in a similar way by isolating $`\alpha `$ and $`\tau _s`$ as functions of $`\beta `$, $`\tau _n`$ and $`\omega `$. Figure 1(b) shows several curves of imaginary eigenvalues plotted for $`\beta =0.5`$ and $`\tau _n=3`$.

From the graphics in Figure 1, it is reasonable to suppose that the characteristic equation has a point of double Hopf bifurcation at $`(\alpha ^{},\beta ^{},\tau _s^{},\tau _n^{})`$ with $`\tau _s^{}`$, $`\tau _n^{}`$ nonzero, $`\tau _s^{}\tau _n^{}`$ and frequencies $`\omega _1\omega _2`$. Of course, the point $`(\alpha ^{},\beta ^{},\tau _s^{},\tau _n^{})`$ as well as the frequencies are different whether $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1=0`$ or $`\mathrm{\Delta }_2=0`$, however, to keep the notation to a minimum we use this unique label for both cases.

We let $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\{\pm i\omega _1,\pm i\omega _2\}`$ with $`\omega _10`$ and $`\omega _20`$ be the set of eigenvalues on the imaginary axis at a double Hopf bifurcation point. If the double Hopf point occurs for the $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1`$ factor, then the eigenvalues of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ are simple and the restriction of the linear operator to the center eigenspace is given by

$$B=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\omega _1i& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& \omega _1i& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& \omega _2i& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& \omega _2i\end{array}\right).$$

If the double Hopf point occurs for the $`\mathrm{\Delta }_2`$ factor, then the eigenvalues are double and the linear flow on the center eigenspace is given by the following matrix

$$B=\left(\begin{array}{cccccccc}\omega _1i& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& \omega _1i& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& \omega _1i& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& \omega _1i& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& \omega _2i& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& \omega _2i& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& \omega _2i& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& \omega _2i\end{array}\right).$$

We now compute the $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-mini-versal unfolding of the linear bounded operator in both cases. Recall that our goal is to find matrices $`A_j^m`$ from which we can write (4.5). The computations rely on the results in , mainly Section 6 and Lemma 7.1.

### 5.1 Simple imaginary eigenvalues.

The center eigenspace $`P`$ has basis

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \mathrm{\Phi }(\theta )& =& (\varphi (\theta ),\varphi _2(\theta ),\varphi _3(\theta ),\varphi _4(\theta ))\hfill \\ & =& (ue^{i\omega _1\theta },ue^{i\omega _1\theta },ue^{i\omega _2\theta },ue^{i\omega _2\theta })\hfill \end{array}$$

where

$$u=\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 1\\ 1\end{array}\right).$$

Its dual, $`P^{}`$, has basis $`\mathrm{\Psi }(s)=(\psi _1(s),\psi _2(s),\psi _3(s),\psi _4(s))^t`$ where $`\psi _2=\overline{\psi _1}`$, $`\psi _4=\overline{\psi _3}`$ and $`\psi _j(s)=(\psi _{j1}(s),\psi _{j2}(s),\psi _{j3}(s))`$, $`j=1,2,3,4`$.

#### Basis of the unfolding space.

Let $`𝒲`$ be the unfolding space spanned by matrices $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Omega }_p`$ defined in Section 6 of . The dimension of $`𝒲`$ for matrix $`B`$ is given by

$$\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}\underset{\mathrm{}=1}{\overset{k_j}{}}(2\mathrm{}1)n_{j,\mathrm{}}$$
(5.3)
where $`r=4`$ is the number of distinct eigenvalues, $`k_j=1`$ is the number of Jordan blocks for each eigenvalue and $`n_{j,\mathrm{}}=1`$ is the size of each Jordan block, thus the unfolding space is $`4`$-dimensional. The space $`(𝒲)`$ lying in the range of $`\mathrm{\Psi }(0)`$ is linearly isomorphic to $`𝒲`$ and is also an unfolding space, see Section 6 of . A basis of $`(𝒲)`$ is given by $`\mathrm{\Psi }(0)R^j`$ for $`j=1,2,3,4`$ where $`R^1`$, $`R^2`$, $`R^3`$, $`R^4`$ are $`3\times 4`$ matrices defined following the procedure established in , Section 6.3. In  we introduce projections $`\mathrm{\Pi }_j:^3`$ ($`j=1,2,3,4)`$ with

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_j(v)=\psi _{j1}(0)v^1+\psi _{j2}(0)v^2+\psi _{j3}(0)v^3.$$

Let $`v_j=(v_j^1,v_j^2,v_j^3)^t^3`$ ($`j=1,2,3,4`$) be such that $`\mathrm{\Pi }_j(v_j)=1`$ and set $`R^1=(v_1,0,0,0)`$, $`R^2=(0,v_2,0,0)`$, $`R^3=(0,0,v_3,0)`$, and $`R^4=(0,0,0,v_4)`$. Note that since $`\psi _2=\overline{\psi _1}`$ and $`\psi _4=\overline{\psi _3}`$, we choose $`v_2=\overline{v_1}`$ and $`v_4=\overline{v_3}`$.

Since $`\text{rank}\mathrm{\Phi }(0)=1`$, by Theorem 7.2 of  we need $`4`$ distinct delays $`\tau _0,\tau _1,\tau _2,\tau _3`$ to find $`3\times 3`$ matrices $`A_j^i`$ solving

$$R^i=\underset{j=0}{\overset{3}{}}A_j^i\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _j).$$
(5.4)
#### Projection of the basis.

By Theorem 4.4, the solutions to (5.4) are used to write the equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-unfolding by projecting the matrices $`A_j^m`$ with $`\pi _n^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Multiplying (5.4) by $`\mathrm{\Psi }(0)`$ we obtain equation (3.6) with $`C=\mathrm{\Psi }(0)R`$. Then, projecting $`C`$ with $`\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, we obtain

$$\pi _c^\mathrm{\Gamma }(C)=_\mathrm{\Gamma }G(\gamma )\mathrm{\Psi }(0)RG(\gamma ^1)𝑑\gamma =_\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Psi }(0)\rho (\gamma )RG(\gamma ^1)𝑑\gamma =\mathrm{\Psi }(0)_\mathrm{\Gamma }\rho (\gamma )RG(\gamma ^1)𝑑\gamma .$$
(5.5)
We project the matrices $`R^j`$ on the subspace of $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`3\times 4`$ matrices using the projection operator obtained from (5.5); that is, since the $`G`$ representation is trivial on $`P`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=𝔻_3`$ is finite, then the projected matrices are

$$\overline{R}^j\frac{1}{6}\underset{g𝔻_3}{}\rho (g)R^j.$$

Note that the factor $`\frac{1}{6}`$ is not necessary to the projection of the matrices and could be removed without further consequences. Thus, we obtain new matrices

$$\overline{R}^1=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\eta _1& 0& 0& 0\\ \eta _1& 0& 0& 0\\ \eta _1& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),\overline{R}^2=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& \eta _2& 0& 0\\ 0& \eta _2& 0& 0\\ 0& \eta _2& 0& 0\end{array}\right),$$

$$\overline{R}^3=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& \eta _3& 0\\ 0& 0& \eta _3& 0\\ 0& 0& \eta _3& 0\end{array}\right),\overline{R}^4=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& \eta _4\\ 0& 0& 0& \eta _4\\ 0& 0& 0& \eta _4\end{array}\right)$$

where $`\eta _j=\frac{1}{3}(v_j^1+v_j^2+v_j^3)`$ and of course $`\eta _2=\overline{\eta _1}`$ and $`\eta _4=\overline{\eta _3}`$. Because the matrices $`\overline{R}^j`$ are $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant matrices, we may take matrices $`A_j^m`$ $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant with respect to the action of $`𝔻_3`$ on $`^3`$ given by (5.1); that is,

$$A_j^m=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}a_j^m& b_j^m& b_j^m\\ b_j^m& a_j^m& b_j^m\\ b_j^m& b_j^m& a_j^m\end{array}\right).$$
(5.6)
#### $`𝔻_3`$-mini-versal unfolding

Before solving equation (5.4), we verify which of the four matrices $`\overline{R}^j`$ ($`j=1,2,3,4`$) are necessary to obtain a mini-versal unfolding. We follow the steps described after Remark 3.6. Since $`(𝒲)`$ is an unfolding space for $`B`$, we set $`\widehat{B}_j^{𝔻_3}=\mathrm{\Psi }(0)\overline{R}^j`$ for $`j=1,2,3,4`$. The space $`𝒲`$ is spanned by $`4\times 4`$ matrices $`\mathrm{\Omega }_i`$ ($`i=1,2,3,4`$) where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_i`$ has a $`1`$ on the diagonal at $`(i,i)`$ and is zero elsewhere. Then, it is easy to compute that

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \widehat{B}_1^{𝔻_3}& =& [B,y_1]+\eta _1(\psi _{11}(0)+\psi _{12}(0)+\psi _{13}(0))\mathrm{\Omega }_1\hfill \\ \hfill \widehat{B}_2^{𝔻_3}& =& [B,y_2]+\eta _2(\overline{\psi _{11}(0)}+\overline{\psi _{12}(0)}+\overline{\psi _{13}(0)})\mathrm{\Omega }_2\hfill \\ \hfill \widehat{B}_3^{𝔻_3}& =& [B,y_3]+\eta _3(\psi _{31}(0)+\psi _{32}(0)+\psi _{33}(0))\mathrm{\Omega }_3\hfill \\ \hfill \widehat{B}_4^{𝔻_3}& =& [B,y_4]+\eta _4(\overline{\psi _{31}(0)}+\overline{\psi _{32}(0)}+\overline{\psi _{33}(0)})\mathrm{\Omega }_4\hfill \end{array}$$

for some matrices $`y_1,y_2,y_3,y_4\text{Mat}_{4\times 4}`$. Since the matrix $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ (defined using (3.5)) is diagonal, the four rows are needed to span the rowspace of $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$. Hence,

$$\text{Mat}_{4\times 4}^{𝔻_3}=T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^{𝔻_3}\{\widehat{B}_1^{𝔻_3},\widehat{B}_2^{𝔻_3},\widehat{B}_3^{𝔻_3},\widehat{B}_4^{𝔻_3}\}$$

and we need to consider all matrices $`\overline{R}^j`$ ($`j=1,2,3,4`$) in order to compute the $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-mini-versal unfolding.

#### Computation of the matrices $`𝐀_j^m`$.

We now solve for the matrices $`A_j^m`$ using equation (5.4). Since

$$A_j^m\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _j)=(a_j^m+2b_j^m)\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _j),$$

it is sufficient to solve the first line of (5.4) to obtain the matrices $`A_j^m`$. Consider the first line of equation (5.4) for $`\overline{R}^1`$

$$(\eta _1,0,0,0)=\underset{j=0}{\overset{3}{}}(a_j^1,b_j^1,b_j^1)\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _j).$$

This equation can be rewritten as

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}\eta _1\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\end{array}\right)=M\left(\begin{array}{c}a_0^1+2b_0^1\\ a_1^1+2b_1^1\\ a_2^1+2b_2^1\\ a_3^1+2b_3^1\end{array}\right),$$
(5.7)
where

$$M=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}e^{i\omega _1\tau _0}& e^{i\omega _1\tau _1}& e^{i\omega _1\tau _2}& e^{i\omega _1\tau _3}\\ e^{i\omega _1\tau _0}& e^{i\omega _1\tau _1}& e^{i\omega _1\tau _2}& e^{i\omega _1\tau _3}\\ e^{i\omega _2\tau _0}& e^{i\omega _2\tau _1}& e^{i\omega _2\tau _2}& e^{i\omega _2\tau _3}\\ e^{i\omega _2\tau _0}& e^{i\omega _2\tau _1}& e^{i\omega _2\tau _2}& e^{i\omega _2\tau _3}\end{array}\right).$$
(5.8)
Obviously, $`detM=0`$ if any two of the delays are equal or if $`\omega _1=\omega _2`$. Now, since we take our four delays to be distinct and it is assumed that $`\omega _1\omega _2`$, then generically $`M`$ is nonsingular. Thus, we obtain $`L_1=_{j=0}^3A_j^1z(\tau _j)`$ by solving (5.7). Now, the equation for $`\overline{R}^2`$ yields,

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ \overline{\eta }_1\\ 0\\ 0\end{array}\right)=M\left(\begin{array}{c}a_0^2+2b_0^2\\ a_1^2+2b_1^2\\ a_2^2+2b_2^2\\ a_3^2+2b_3^2\end{array}\right),$$

which if we interchange rows $`1`$ with $`2`$ and $`3`$ with $`4`$ corresponds to the complex conjugate of system (5.7). So, we can choose $`a_j^2`$ and $`b_j^2`$ so that $`L_2=\overline{L}_1`$. In a similar manner we obtain $`L_3`$ and $`L_4=\overline{L}_3`$.

Looking at equation (5.7), we see that for each $`j=0,1,2,3`$, either $`a_j^1`$ or $`b_j^1`$ can be chosen arbitrarily. We exploit this freedom to choose constants $`a_j^m`$ and $`b_j^m`$ which preserve the structure of equation (5.2).

#### $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-unfolding.

Take $`\tau _0=0`$, $`\tau _1=\tau _s^{}`$, $`\tau _2=\tau _n^{}`$, $`b_0^m=0`$, $`b_1^m=0`$ and $`a_2^m=0`$ for $`m=1,2,3,4`$ (recall that we have assumed $`\tau _s^{},\tau _n^{}`$ are nonzero and distinct so that matrix $`M`$ in (5.8) is generically nonsingular with this substitution). Hence,

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill L_1z& =& a_0^1Iz(0)+a_1^1Iz(\tau _s^{})+\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& b_2^1& b_2^1\\ b_2^1& 0& b_2^1\\ b_2^1& b_2^1& 0\end{array}\right)z(\tau _n^{})+a_3^1Iz(\tau _3)+\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& b_3^1& b_3^1\\ b_3^1& 0& b_3^1\\ b_3^1& b_3^1& 0\end{array}\right)z(\tau _3)\hfill \\ \hfill L_3z& =& a_0^3Iz(0)+a_1^3Iz(\tau _s^{})+\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& b_2^3& b_2^3\\ b_2^3& 0& b_2^3\\ b_2^3& b_2^3& 0\end{array}\right)z(\tau _n^{})+a_3^3Iz(\tau _3)+\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& b_3^3& b_3^3\\ b_3^3& 0& b_3^3\\ b_3^3& b_3^3& 0\end{array}\right)z(\tau _3),\hfill \end{array}$$

and the complex $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-versal unfolding is defined by

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill (\alpha )z& =& _0z+\underset{m=1}{\overset{4}{}}\alpha _mL_m\hfill \\ & =& _0z+\underset{m=1}{\overset{4}{}}\alpha _ma_0^mIz(0)+\underset{m=1}{\overset{4}{}}\alpha _ma_1^mIz(\tau _s^{})+\underset{m=1}{\overset{4}{}}\alpha _m\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& b_2^m& b_2^m\\ b_2^m& 0& b_2^m\\ b_2^m& b_2^m& 0\end{array}\right)z(\tau _n^{})\hfill \\ & +& \underset{m=1}{\overset{4}{}}\alpha _ma_3^mIz(\tau _3)+\underset{m=1}{\overset{4}{}}\alpha _m\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& b_3^m& b_3^m\\ b_3^m& 0& b_3^m\\ b_3^m& b_3^m& 0\end{array}\right)z(\tau _3).\hfill \end{array}$$

By the form of equation (5.7), we can simplify the unfolding even more by setting for instance $`a_3^m=0`$ for $`m=1,2,3,4`$. Thus a $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-versal unfolding of (5.2) near $`(\alpha ^{},\beta ^{},\tau _s^{},\tau _n^{})`$ is given by

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \dot{u}_1(t)& =& (1+ϵ_1)u_1(t)+(\alpha ^{}+ϵ_2)u_1(t\tau _s^{})+(\beta ^{}+ϵ_3)(u_3(t\tau _n^{})+u_2(t\tau _n^{}))\hfill \\ & +& ϵ_4(u_3(t\tau _3)+u_2(t\tau _3))\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill \dot{u}_2(t)& =& (1+ϵ_1)u_2(t)+(\alpha ^{}+ϵ_2)u_2(t\tau _s^{})+(\beta ^{}+ϵ_3)(u_1(t\tau _n^{})+u_3(t\tau _n^{}))\hfill \\ & +& ϵ_4(u_1(t\tau _3)+u_3(t\tau _3))\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill \dot{u}_3(t)& =& (1+ϵ_1)u_3(t)+(\alpha ^{}+ϵ_2)u_3(t\tau _s^{})+(\beta ^{}+ϵ_3)(u_2(t\tau _n^{})+u_1(t\tau _n^{}))\hfill \\ & +& ϵ_4(u_2(t\tau _3)+u_1(t\tau _3)).\hfill \end{array}$$
(5.9)
where $`ϵ_1=_{m=1}^4\alpha _ma_0^m`$, $`ϵ_2=_{m=1}^4\alpha _ma_1^m`$, $`ϵ_3=_{m=1}^4\alpha _mb_2^m`$ and $`ϵ_4=_{m=1}^4\alpha _mb_3^m`$.

Now, the parameters $`ϵ_i`$ are linearly independent since

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \left(\begin{array}{c}ϵ_1\\ ϵ_2\\ ϵ_3\\ ϵ_4\end{array}\right)& =& \left(\begin{array}{cccc}a_0^1& \overline{a}_0^1& a_0^3& \overline{a}_0^3\\ a_1^1& \overline{a}_1^1& a_1^3& \overline{a}_1^3\\ b_2^1& \overline{b}_2^1& b_2^3& \overline{b}_2^3\\ b_3^1& \overline{b}_3^1& b_3^3& \overline{b}_3^3\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\alpha _1\\ \alpha _2\\ \alpha _3\\ \alpha _4\end{array}\right)=M^1\text{diag}(\eta _1,\overline{\eta _1},\eta _3,\overline{\eta _3})\left(\begin{array}{c}\alpha _1\\ \alpha _2\\ \alpha _3\\ \alpha _4\end{array}\right).\hfill \end{array}$$
(5.10)
We now compute the real $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-versal unfolding. From  we know that the real unfolding is given by

$$(\alpha )=_0+\alpha _1\text{Re}(L_1)+\alpha _2\text{Im}(L_1)+\alpha _3\text{Re}(L_3)+\alpha _4\text{Im}(L_3)$$

so the delay-differential equation is identical to (5.9) with

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill ϵ_1& =& \alpha _1\text{Re}(a_0^1)+\alpha _2\text{Im}(a_0^1)+\alpha _3\text{Re}(a_0^3)+\alpha _4\text{Im}(a_0^3),\hfill \\ \hfill ϵ_2& =& \alpha _1\text{Re}(a_1^1)+\alpha _2\text{Im}(a_1^1)+\alpha _3\text{Re}(a_1^3)+\alpha _4\text{Im}(a_1^3),\hfill \\ \hfill ϵ_3& =& \alpha _1\text{Re}(b_2^1)+\alpha _2\text{Im}(b_2^1)+\alpha _3\text{Re}(b_2^3)+\alpha _4\text{Im}(b_2^3),\hfill \\ \hfill ϵ_4& =& \alpha _1\text{Re}(b_3^1)+\alpha _2\text{Im}(b_3^1)+\alpha _3\text{Re}(b_3^3)+\alpha _4\text{Im}(b_3^3).\hfill \end{array}$$

Moreover, the new parameters $`ϵ_i`$, $`i=1,2,3,4`$ are also linearly independent since

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \left(\begin{array}{c}ϵ_1\\ ϵ_2\\ ϵ_3\\ ϵ_4\end{array}\right)& =& \left(\begin{array}{cccc}\text{Re}(a_0^1)& \text{Im}(a_0^1)& \text{Re}(a_0^3)& \text{Im}(a_0^3)\\ \text{Re}(a_1^1)& \text{Im}(a_1^1)& \text{Re}(a_1^3)& \text{Im}(a_1^3)\\ \text{Re}(b_2^1)& \text{Im}(b_2^1)& \text{Re}(b_2^3)& \text{Im}(b_2^3)\\ \text{Re}(b_3^1)& \text{Im}(b_3^1)& \text{Re}(b_3^3)& \text{Im}(b_3^3)\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\alpha _1\\ \alpha _2\\ \alpha _3\\ \alpha _4\end{array}\right)\hfill \end{array}$$

where the matrix is nonsingular since the four columns of the matrix span the four dimensional real subspace of the four dimensional complex space spanned by the columns of the matrix in (5.10).

### 5.2 Double imaginary eigenvalues.

We now consider the case where the eigenvalues of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ are double. The space $`P`$ has basis

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \mathrm{\Phi }(\theta )& =& (\varphi _1(\theta ),\varphi _2(\theta ),\varphi _3(\theta ),\varphi _4(\theta ),\varphi _5(\theta ),\varphi _6(\theta ),\varphi _7(\theta ),\varphi _8(\theta ))\hfill \\ & =& (ve^{i\omega _1\theta },\overline{v}e^{i\omega _1\theta },\overline{v}e^{i\omega _1\theta },ve^{i\omega _1\theta },ve^{i\omega _2\theta },\overline{v}e^{i\omega _2\theta },\overline{v}e^{i\omega _2\theta },ve^{i\omega _2\theta }),\hfill \end{array}$$

where

$$v=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& & \\ \omega & & \\ \overline{\omega }& & \end{array}\right)$$

and $`\omega =e^{2i\pi /3}`$. We now compute the basis $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ of the adjoint $`P^{}`$. The action of $`𝔻_3`$ on $`^8`$ is generated by matrices

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill G(\gamma )& =& \text{diag}(e^{2\pi i/3},e^{2\pi i/3},e^{2\pi i/3},e^{2\pi i/3},e^{2\pi i/3},e^{2\pi i/3},e^{2\pi i/3},e^{2\pi i/3}),\hfill \\ \hfill G(\kappa )& =& \text{diag}(J,J,J,J)\hfill \end{array}$$
(5.11)
where $`J=\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right]`$. From equation (2.8), we know that $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ commutes with the actions (5.1) and (5.11). Now, recall that $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is chosen such that $`(\mathrm{\Psi },\mathrm{\Phi })=I`$ and note that $`\varphi _3=\overline{\varphi }_1`$, $`\varphi _4=\overline{\varphi }_2`$, $`\varphi _7=\overline{\varphi }_5`$, $`\varphi _8=\overline{\varphi }_6`$, then along with the equivariance condition on $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ we obtain

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(0)=\left(\begin{array}{c}\mu (1\overline{\omega }\omega )\\ \mu (1\omega \overline{\omega })\\ \overline{\mu }(1\omega \overline{\omega })\\ \overline{\mu }(1\overline{\omega }\omega )\\ \zeta (1\overline{\omega }\omega )\\ \zeta (1\omega \overline{\omega })\\ \overline{\zeta }(1\omega \overline{\omega })\\ \overline{\zeta }(1\overline{\omega }\omega )\end{array}\right),$$

where $`\mu `$ and $`\zeta `$ are some nonzero complex numbers.

#### Basis of the unfolding space.

Using (5.3), the dimension of the unfolding space $`𝒲`$ for matrix $`B`$ is $`16`$ since here $`r=4`$ is the number of distinct eigenvalues, $`k_j=2`$ is the number of Jordan blocks for each eigenvalue and $`n_{j,\mathrm{}}=1`$ is the size of each Jordan block.

We now define the $`16`$ matrices which form the basis of $`(𝒲)`$. We define $`3\times 8`$ matrices $`R_{j;\xi ,\vartheta ,m}`$ for each eigenvalue $`\lambda _j`$, where $`\lambda _1=\omega _1i`$, $`\lambda _2=\omega _1i`$, $`\lambda _3=\omega _2i`$, $`\lambda _4=\omega _2i`$. Let $`v_i=(v_i^1,v_i^2,v_i^3)^t`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},8`$ be $`3\times 1`$ complex vectors. The linear mappings $`\mathrm{\Pi }_j`$ are

$$\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{\Pi }_1(v)=\left(\begin{array}{c}\mu (v^1+\overline{\omega }v^2+\omega v^3)\\ \mu (v^1+\omega v^2+\overline{\omega }v^3)\end{array}\right)& \mathrm{\Pi }_2(v)=\left(\begin{array}{c}\overline{\mu }(v^1+\omega v^2+\overline{\omega }v^3)\\ \overline{\mu }(v^1+\overline{\omega }v^2+\omega v^3)\end{array}\right)\\ & \\ \mathrm{\Pi }_3(v)=\left(\begin{array}{c}\zeta (v^1+\overline{\omega }v^2+\omega v^3)\\ \zeta (v^1+\omega v^2+\overline{\omega }v^3)\end{array}\right)& \mathrm{\Pi }_4(v)=\left(\begin{array}{c}\overline{\zeta }(v^1+\omega v^2+\overline{\omega }v^3)\\ \overline{\zeta }(v^1+\overline{\omega }v^2+\omega v^3)\end{array}\right).\end{array}$$
(5.12)
We choose $`\xi ,\vartheta \{1,2\}`$ and $`m=1`$ since each Jordan block is one-dimensional. Then, $`R_{j;\xi ,\vartheta ,m}`$ has vector $`v_{2(j1)+\xi }`$ in column $`2(j1)+\vartheta `$ and all the other columns are zero where

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_j(v_{2j1})=\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\end{array}\right),\mathrm{\Pi }_j(v_{2j})=\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ 1\end{array}\right)$$
(5.13)
and $`v_3=\overline{v_1}`$, $`v_4=\overline{v_2}`$, $`v_7=\overline{v_5}`$, $`v_8=\overline{v_6}`$.

To simplify the notation, we order the $`16`$ matrices $`R_{j;\xi ,\vartheta ,m}`$ in the following way:

$$\{R^{1+8(k1)},\mathrm{},R^{8+8(k1)}\}=\{R_{1;1,k,1},R_{2;1,k,1},R_{3;1,k,1},R_{4;1,k,1},R_{1;2,k,1},R_{2;2,k,1},R_{3;2,k,1},R_{4;2,k,1}\}$$

for $`k=1,2`$. One can verify using a computer algebra package that

$$\text{rank}(\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _0),\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _1),\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _2),\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _3))=8,$$

therefore we need four distinct delays $`\tau _0,\tau _1,\tau _2,\tau _3`$ to solve

$$R^m=\underset{i=0}{\overset{3}{}}A_i^m\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _i).$$
(5.14)
#### Projection of the basis.

We project the matrices $`R^m`$ on the subspace of $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`3\times 8`$ matrices, using the actions on $`^3`$ (5.1) and $`^8`$ (5.11).

###### Proposition 5.1

Let $`\nu =(\nu ^1,\nu ^2,\nu ^3)^t^3`$ and consider the $`3\times 8`$ matrix $`N_p`$ having $`\nu `$ as its $`p^{th}`$ column and all the other columns are zero. From (5.5), we obtain a projection operator from which we compute

$$\overline{N}_p=\underset{g𝔻_3}{}\rho (g)N_pG(g^1).$$

Moreover, let $`\eta _1(\nu )=\nu ^1+\overline{\omega }\nu ^2+\omega \nu ^3`$, $`\eta _2(\nu )=\nu ^1+\omega \nu ^2+\overline{\omega }\nu ^3`$ and recall that $`v=(1,\omega ,\overline{\omega })^t`$.

1. If $`p=1,5`$, then $`\overline{N}_p`$ has only nonzero columns $`p`$ and $`p+1`$ given respectively by $`\eta _1v`$ and $`\eta _1\overline{v}`$,
2. if $`p=4,8`$, then $`\overline{N}_p`$ has only nonzero columns $`p1`$ and $`p`$ given respectively by $`\eta _1\overline{v}`$ and $`\eta _1v`$,
3. if $`p=3,7`$, then $`\overline{N}_p`$ has only nonzero columns $`p`$ and $`p+1`$ given respectively by $`\eta _2\overline{v}`$ and $`\eta _2v`$,
4. and if $`p=2,6`$, then $`\overline{N}_p`$ has only nonzero columns $`p1`$ and $`p`$ given respectively by $`\eta _2v`$ and $`\eta _2\overline{v}`$.

Proof The proof is a straightforward calculation.

From the definition of the matrices $`R^m`$, for $`m=1,\mathrm{},8`$ we have $`\vartheta =1`$ and for $`m=9,\mathrm{},16`$ we have $`\vartheta =2`$. Table 1 shows the correspondence of matrices $`R^m`$ with matrices $`N_p`$ of Proposition 5.1 as well as the information given by (5.12) and (5.13) needed to compute $`\overline{R}^m`$. From Proposition 5.1 and Table 1, we obtain easily that $`\overline{R}^m=0`$ for $`m=5,\mathrm{},12`$ and

$$\begin{array}{cc}\overline{R}^1=\overline{R}^{13}=[\mu ^1v,\mu ^1\overline{v},0,0,0,0,0,0],& \overline{R}^2=\overline{R}^{14}=[0,0,\overline{\mu }^1\overline{v},\overline{\mu }^1v,0,0,0,0],\\ \overline{R}^3=\overline{R}^{15}=[0,0,0,0,\zeta ^1v,\zeta ^1\overline{v},0,0],& \overline{R}^4=\overline{R}^{16}=[0,0,0,0,0,0,\overline{\zeta }^1\overline{v},\overline{\zeta }^1v].\end{array}$$

#### $`𝔻_3`$-mini-versal unfolding

Since $`(𝒲)`$ is an unfolding space for $`B`$, we again set $`\widehat{B}_j^{𝔻_3}=\mathrm{\Psi }(0)\overline{R}^j`$ for $`j=1,\mathrm{},16`$. The space $`𝒲`$ is spanned by sixteen $`8\times 8`$ matrices. For $`i=1,\mathrm{}8`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_i`$ has a $`1`$ at element $`(i,i)`$ and zeroes elsewhere. For $`i=9,10,11,12`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_i`$ has a $`1`$ at element $`(i8,13i)`$ and zeroes elsewhere while for $`i=13,14,15,16`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_i`$ has a $`1`$ at element $`(i8,21i)`$ and zeroes elsewhere. Now, obviously, $`\widehat{B}_j^{𝔻_3}=0`$ for $`j=5,\mathrm{},12`$ and a computation shows that

$$\begin{array}{cc}\widehat{B}_1^{𝔻_3}=\widehat{B}_{13}^{𝔻_3}=\hfill & [B,y_1]+(1+(1+\mu ^1)|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_1+(1+2|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_2+\mu ^1\overline{\mu }(1+2|\omega |^2)(\mathrm{\Omega }_{11}+\mathrm{\Omega }_{12})\hfill \\ \widehat{B}_2^{𝔻_3}=\widehat{B}_{14}^{𝔻_3}=\hfill & [B,y_2]+(1+2|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_3+(1+2|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_4+(\mu \overline{\mu }^1(1+|\omega |^2)+\overline{\mu }^1|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_9\hfill \\ & +\mu \overline{\mu }^1(1+2|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_{10}\hfill \\ \widehat{B}_3^{𝔻_3}=\widehat{B}_{15}^{𝔻_3}=\hfill & [B,y_3]+(1+(1+\zeta ^1)|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_5+(1+2|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_6+\zeta ^1\overline{\zeta }(1+2|\omega |^2)(\mathrm{\Omega }_{15}+\mathrm{\Omega }_{16})\hfill \\ \widehat{B}_4^{𝔻_3}=\widehat{B}_{16}^{𝔻_3}=\hfill & [B,y_4]+(1+2|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_7+(1+2|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_8+(\zeta \overline{\zeta }^1(1+|\omega |^2)+\overline{\zeta }^1|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_{13}\hfill \\ & +\zeta \overline{\zeta }^1(1+2|\omega |^2)\mathrm{\Omega }_{14}.\hfill \end{array}$$

for some matrices $`y_1,y_2,y_3,y_4\text{Mat}_{8\times 8}`$. The four first rows of $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ are

$$\begin{array}{c}v_1=(1+(1+\mu ^1)|\omega |^2,1+2|\omega |^2,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,\mu ^1\overline{\mu }(1+2|\omega |^2),\mu ^1\overline{\mu }(1+2|\omega |^2),0,0,0,0)\hfill \\ v_2=(0,0,1+2|\omega |^2,1+2|\omega |^2,0,0,0,0,\overline{\mu }^1(\mu (1+|\omega |^2)+|\omega |^2),\mu \overline{\mu }^1(1+2|\omega |^2),0,0,0,0,0,0)\hfill \\ v_3=(0,0,0,0,1+(1+\zeta ^1)|\omega |^2,1+2|\omega |^2,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,\zeta ^1\overline{\zeta }(1+2|\omega |^2),\zeta ^1\overline{\zeta }(1+2|\omega |^2))\hfill \\ v_4=(0,0,0,0,0,0,1+2|\omega |^2,1+2|\omega |^2,0,0,0,0,\overline{\zeta }^1(\zeta (1+|\omega |^2)+|\omega |^2),\zeta \overline{\zeta }^1(1+2|\omega |^2),0,0),\hfill \end{array}$$

rows $`5`$ to $`12`$ are zero and rows $`13`$ to $`16`$ are identical to rows $`1`$ to $`4`$. Thus, $`\{v_1,v_2,v_3,v_4\}`$ determine a maximal set of linearly independent vectors in the rowspace of $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$. Hence,

$$\text{Mat}_{8\times 8}^{𝔻_3}=T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^{𝔻_3}\{\widehat{B}_1^{𝔻_3},\widehat{B}_2^{𝔻_3},\widehat{B}_3^{𝔻_3},\widehat{B}_4^{𝔻_3}\}$$

and we need only consider matrices $`\overline{R}^j`$ for $`j=1,2,3,4`$ in order to compute the $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-mini-versal unfolding.

#### Computation of the matrices $`𝐀_j^m`$.

We take $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant matrices $`A_j^m`$ as in (5.6) and we compute

$$A_j^m\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _j)=(a_j^m+b_j^m(\overline{\omega }+\omega ))\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _j).$$

Thus, equations $`\overline{R}^m=_{j=0}^3A_j^m\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau _j)`$ for $`m=1,\mathrm{},4`$ can be solved by finding the solution to the first row only.

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}\mu ^1\\ 0\\ 0\\ 0\end{array}\right)=M\left(\begin{array}{c}a_0^1+b_0^1(\overline{\omega }+\omega )\\ a_1^1+b_1^1(\overline{\omega }+\omega )\\ a_2^1+b_2^1(\overline{\omega }+\omega )\\ a_3^1+b_3^1(\overline{\omega }+\omega )\end{array}\right)$$
(5.15)
where $`M`$ is the generically nonsingular matrix (5.8).

###### Remark 5.2

Note that, as in the previous example, from the form of equations (5.15) we can choose $`a_j^2=\overline{a}_j^1`$, $`a_j^4=\overline{a}_j^3`$, $`b_j^2=\overline{b}_j^1`$ and $`b_j^4=\overline{b}_j^3`$ for $`j=0,1,2,3`$.

#### $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-unfolding.

For $`m=1,2,3,4`$, define

$$L_mz=\underset{j=0}{\overset{3}{}}A_j^mz(\tau _j)=\underset{j=0}{\overset{3}{}}\left(\begin{array}{ccc}a_j^m& b_j^m& b_j^m\\ b_j^m& a_j^m& b_j^m\\ b_j^m& b_j^m& a_j^m\end{array}\right)z(\tau _j),$$

and then the complex $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-versal unfolding is defined by:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill (\alpha )z& =& _0z+\underset{j=0}{\overset{3}{}}\left(\underset{m=1}{\overset{4}{}}\alpha _m\left(\begin{array}{ccc}a_j^m& b_j^m& b_j^m\\ b_j^m& a_j^m& b_j^m\\ b_j^m& b_j^m& a_j^m\end{array}\right)\right)z(\tau _j).\hfill \end{array}$$

As in the previous example, setting $`\tau _0=0`$, $`\tau _1=\tau _s^{}`$, $`\tau _2=\tau _n^{}`$ and $`b_0^m=b_1^m=a_2^m=a_3^m=0`$ for $`m=1,2,3,4`$ preserves the structure of the delay-differential equation. Then as a delay-differential equation, the complex unfolding is given exactly by (5.9) with again $`ϵ_1=_{m=1}^4\alpha _ma_0^m`$, $`ϵ_2=_{m=1}^4\alpha _ma_1^m`$, $`ϵ_3=_{m=1}^4\alpha _mb_2^m`$, and $`ϵ_4=_{m=1}^4\alpha _mb_3^m`$.

Note that the unfolding parameters $`ϵ_1,ϵ_2,ϵ_3,ϵ_4`$ are linearly independent by Remark 5.2 and from the same calculation as in the previous example. Moreover, from Remark 5.2, the real $`𝔻_3`$-equivariant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-versal unfolding is also given by (5.9).

Appendix

## Appendix A Proof of Lemma 3.3

We will prove the result in the case where (3.2) holds with $`p`$ equal to the codimension of $`T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. The proof follows along the same lines as the non-equivariant case (which can be found, for example in ). We first define the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-centralizer of $`u\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ as the linear subspace $`Z_u^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of all matrices in $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ which commute with $`u`$. Consider now the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-centralizer $`Z_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of the matrix $`B`$. In the space $`GL(c,)\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, let $`𝒫`$ be a smooth surface transversal to $`I_{c\times c}+Z_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ at $`I_{c\times c}`$, and such that the dimension of $`𝒫`$ is equal to the codimension of $`Z_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. We then define a mapping

$$:𝒫\times ^p\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma },(p,\alpha )=p(\alpha )p^1.$$

The key result we need is

###### Lemma A.1

$``$ is a local diffeomorphism in a neighborhood of $`(I_{c\times c},\alpha _0)`$.

Proof First, we note that the mapping

$$\begin{array}{c}f:GL(c,)\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma },\\ f(C)=CBC^1\end{array}$$

is such that the derivative of $`f`$ evaluated at $`I_{c\times c}`$ is

$$\begin{array}{c}Df(I_{c\times c}):T_{I_{c\times c}}\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }T_B\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma },\\ Df(I_{c\times c})(u)=[u,B],\end{array}$$

which is onto $`T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. It follows from the above that the dimension of $`Z_B^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is equal to the codimension of $`T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, which is equal to $`p`$. Also, the dimension of $`𝒫`$ is equal to the dimension of $`T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

Now, the mapping $``$ is such that

$$D_p(I_{c\times c},\alpha _0)(u,\alpha )=Df(I_{c\times c})(u)=[u,B],D_\alpha (I_{c\times c},\alpha _0)(u,\alpha )=D_\alpha (\alpha _0)\alpha .$$

By construction of $`𝒫`$, we have that

$$D_p(I_{c\times c},\alpha _0)=Df(I_{c\times c})|_{T_{I_{c\times c}}𝒫}$$

maps $`T_{I_{c\times c}}𝒫`$ isomorphically onto $`T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Also, by the hypothesis of Lemma 3.3, $`D_\alpha (\alpha _0)`$ maps $`T_{\alpha _0}^p^p`$ isomorphically onto a space which is a direct sum complement of $`T_B\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in $`\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. It thus follows that $`D(I_{c\times c},\alpha _0)`$ is an isomorphism between vector spaces of dimension $`\text{dim}(\text{Mat}_{c\times c}^\mathrm{\Gamma })`$, so $``$ is a local diffeomorphism by the inverse function theorem.

Now, let $`𝒜(\beta )`$ be a $`q`$-parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-unfolding of $`B`$ (with $`𝒜(\beta _0)=B`$). Define $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_2`$ as the projections of $`𝒫\times ^p`$ onto $`𝒫`$ and $`^p`$ respectively.

For all $`\beta `$ sufficiently close to $`\beta _0`$ in $`^q`$, define

$$\begin{array}{c}C(\beta )=\mathrm{\Pi }_1^1(𝒜(\beta ))\\ \varphi (\beta )=\mathrm{\Pi }_2^1(𝒜(\beta )).\end{array}$$

It follows that for all $`\beta `$ sufficiently close to $`\beta _0`$,

$$𝒜(\beta )=(C(\beta ),\varphi (\beta ))=C(\beta )(\varphi (\beta ))(C(\beta ))^1,$$

which proves the lemma.

Acknowledgements

This research is partly supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada in the form of a postdoctoral fellowship and the CRM (PLB) and an individual research grant (VGL). The authors are grateful to David Handelman for some very helpful suggestions.