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# Differential Isomorphism and Equivalence of Algebraic Varieties

## 1. Introduction

Let $`X`$ be an irreducible complex affine algebraic variety, and let $`𝒟(X)`$ be the ring of (global, linear, algebraic) differential operators on $`X`$ (we shall review the definition in Section 2). This ring has a natural filtration (by order of operators) in which the elements of order zero are just the ring $`𝒪(X)`$ of regular functions on $`X`$. Thus, if we are given $`𝒟(X)`$ together with its filtration, we can at once recover the variety $`X`$. But now suppose we are given $`𝒟(X)`$ just as an abstract noncommutative $``$-algebra, without filtration; then it is not clear whether or not we can recover $`X`$. We shall call two varieties $`X`$ and $`Y`$ differentially isomorphic if $`𝒟(X)`$ and $`𝒟(Y)`$ are isomorphic.

The first examples of nonisomorphic varieties with isomorphic rings of differential operators were found by Levasseur, Smith and Stafford (see \[LSS\] and Section 9 below). These varieties arise in the representation theory of simple Lie algebras; they are still the only examples we know in dimension $`>1`$ (if we exclude products of examples in lower dimensions). For curves, on the other hand, there is now a complete classification up to differential isomorphism; the main purpose of this article is to review that case. The result is very strange. It turns out that for curves, $`𝒟(X)`$ determines $`X`$ (up to isomorphism) except in the very special case when $`X`$ is homeomorphic to the affine line $`𝔸^1`$ (we call such a curve a framed curve). There are uncountably many nonisomorphic framed curves (we can insert arbitrarily bad cusps at any finite number of points of $`𝔸^1`$). However, the differential isomorphism classes of framed curves are classified by a single non-negative integer $`n`$. This invariant $`n`$ seems to us the most interesting character in our story: it appears in many guises, some of which we describe in Section 8.

We can also ask to what extent $`X`$ is determined by the Morita equivalence class of $`𝒟(X)`$: we call two varieties $`X`$ and $`Y`$ differentially equivalent if $`𝒟(X)`$ and $`𝒟(Y)`$ are Morita equivalent (as $``$-algebras). A complete classification of curves up to differential equivalence is not available; however, it is known that the differential equivalence class of a smooth affine curve $`X`$ consists of all the curves homeomorphic to $`X`$. In particular, all framed curves are differentially equivalent to each other: that is one reason why the invariant $`n`$ which distinguishes them has to be somewhat unusual. In dimension $`>1`$, there are already some interesting results about differential equivalence; we include a (very brief) survey in Section 9, where we also mention some generalizations of our questions to non-affine varieties.

At the risk of alienating some readers, we point out that most of the interest in this paper is in singular varieties. For smooth varieties it is a possible conjecture that differential equivalence implies isomorphism: indeed, that is true for curves. However, in dimension $`>1`$ the conjecture would be based on no more than lack of counterexamples.

Our aim in this article has been to provide a readable survey, suitable as an introduction to the subject for beginners; most of the material is already available in the literature. For the convenience of readers who are experts in this area, we point out a few exceptions to that rule: Theorem 8.7 is new, and perhaps Theorem 3.3; also, the formulae (7.1) and (8.3) have not previously appeared explicitly.

## 2. Generalities on Differential Operators

We first recall the definition of (linear) differential operators, in a form appropriate for applications in algebraic geometry (see \[G\]). If $`A`$ is a (unital associative) commutative algebra over (say) $``$, the filtered ring

$$𝒟(A)=\underset{r0}{}𝒟^r(A)\text{End}_{}(A)$$

of differential operators on $`A`$ may be defined inductively as follows. First, we set $`𝒟^0(A):=A`$ (here the elements of $`A`$ are identified with the corresponding multiplication operators); then, by definition, a linear map $`\theta :AA`$ belongs to $`𝒟^r(A)`$ if

$$\theta aa\theta 𝒟^{r1}(A)\mathrm{for}\mathrm{all}aA.$$

The elements of $`𝒟^r(A)`$ are called differential operators of order $`r`$ on $`A`$. The commutator of two operators of orders $`r`$ and $`s`$ is an operator of order at most $`r+s1`$; it follows that the associated graded algebra

$$\text{gr}𝒟(A):=\underset{r0}{}𝒟^r(A)/𝒟^{r1}(A)$$

is commutative (we set $`𝒟^1(A):=0`$).

Slightly more generally, we can define the ring $`𝒟_A(M)`$ of differential operators on any $`A`$-module $`M`$: the operators of order zero are the $`A`$-linear maps $`MM`$, and operators of higher order are defined inductively just as in the special case above (where $`M=A`$).

###### Example 2.1.

If $`A=[z_1,\mathrm{},z_m]`$, then $`𝒟(A)=[z_i,/z_i]`$ is the $`m`$th Weyl algebra (linear differential operators with polynomial coefficients).

###### Example 2.2.

Similarly, if $`A=(z_1,\mathrm{},z_m)`$, then $`𝒟(A)=(z_i)[/z_i]`$ is the algebra of linear differential operators (in $`m`$ variables) with rational coefficients.

The definition of $`𝒟(A)`$ makes sense for an arbitrary $``$-algebra $`A`$; however, in this paper we shall use it only in the cases when $`A`$ is either the coordinate ring $`𝒪(X)`$ of an irreducible affine variety $`X`$, or the field $`𝕂(X)`$ of rational functions on such a variety. Let us consider first the latter case. If we choose a transcendence basis $`\{z_1,\mathrm{},z_m\}`$ for $`𝕂`$ over $``$ (where $`m=dimX`$), then there are (unique) $``$-derivations $`_1,\mathrm{},_m`$ of $`𝕂`$ such that $`_i(z_j)=\delta _{ij}`$, and each element of $`𝒟^r(𝕂)`$ has a unique expression in the form

$$\theta =\underset{|\alpha |r}{}f_\alpha ^\alpha $$

(with $`f_\alpha 𝕂`$), as in Example 2.2 above, in which $`X`$ is the affine space $`𝔸^m`$. In particular, $`𝒟(𝕂)`$ is generated by $`𝒟^1(𝕂)`$, as one would expect, and an element of $`𝒟^1(𝕂)`$ is just the sum of a derivation and a multiplication operator. Indeed, it is easy to show that this last fact is true for an arbitrary algebra $`A`$.

The case where the ring $`A`$ is $`𝒪(X)`$ is more subtle; in this case $`𝒟(A)`$ is denoted by $`𝒟(X)`$ and is called the ring of differential operators on $`X`$. Thus the $`m`$th Weyl algebra (see Example 2.1) is the ring of differential operators on $`𝔸^m`$. In general one does not have global coordinates on $`X`$, as in this example; nevertheless, if $`X`$ is smooth, the structure of $`𝒟(X)`$ is still well understood.

###### Proposition 2.3.

Let $`X`$ be a smooth (irreducible) affine variety. Then
(i) $`𝒟(X)`$ is a simple (left and right) Noetherian ring without zero divisors;
(ii) $`𝒟(X)`$ is generated as a $``$-algebra by finitely many elements of $`𝒟^1(X)`$;
(iii) the associated graded algebra $`\text{gr}𝒟(X)`$ is canonically isomorphic to $`𝒪(T^{}X)`$;
(iv) $`𝒟(X)`$ has global (that is, homological) dimension equal to $`dimX`$.

If $`X`$ is singular, the situation is less clear. We can still consider the ring $`\mathrm{\Delta }(X)`$ of ($``$-linear) operators on $`𝒪(X)`$ generated by the multiplication operators and the derivations of $`𝒪(X)`$; however, in general $`\mathrm{\Delta }(X)`$ is smaller than $`𝒟(X)`$. Our main reason to prefer $`𝒟(X)`$ to $`\mathrm{\Delta }(X)`$ is the following. Each differential operator on $`𝒪(X)`$ has a unique extension to a differential operator (of the same order) on $`𝕂`$, so we may view $`𝒟(X)`$ as a subalgebra of $`𝒟(𝕂)`$. Furthermore, a differential operator on $`𝕂`$ which preserves $`𝒪(X)`$ is a differential operator on $`𝒪(X)`$ (this last statement would in general not be true for $`\mathrm{\Delta }(X)`$). Thus we have:

###### Proposition 2.4.

Let $`X`$ be an affine variety with function field $`𝕂`$. Then

$$𝒟(X)=\{D𝒟(𝕂):D.𝒪(X)𝒪(X)\}.$$

For the purposes of the present paper we could well take this as the definition of $`𝒟(X)`$. It follows from Proposition 2.4 that $`𝒟(X)`$ is without zero divisors also for (irreducible) singular varieties $`X`$.

###### Example 2.5.

Let $`X`$ be the rational curve with coordinate ring $`𝒪(X):=[z^2,z^3]`$ (thus $`X`$ has just one simple cusp at the origin). Then $`\mathrm{\Delta }(X)`$ is generated by $`𝒪(X)`$ and the derivations $`\{z^r:r1\}`$ (we set $`:=/z`$). But $`𝒟^2(X)`$ contains the operators $`^22z^1`$ and $`z^2`$, neither of which belongs to $`\mathrm{\Delta }(X)`$.

To obtain a concrete realization of $`𝒟_A(M)`$ similar to that in Proposition 2.4, we need to suppose that $`M`$ is embedded as an $`A`$-submodule of some $`𝕂`$-vector space; to fix ideas, we formulate the result in the case that will concern us, where $`M`$ has rank 1.

###### Proposition 2.6.

Suppose $`M𝕂`$ is a (nonzero) $`A`$-submodule of $`𝕂`$. Then

$$𝒟_A(M)=\{D𝒟(𝕂):D.MM\}.$$

### Notes

1. To part (iii) of Proposition 2.3 we should add that the commutator on $`𝒟(X)`$ induces on $`\text{gr}𝒟(X)`$ the canonical Poisson bracket coming from the symplectic structure of $`T^{}X`$; that is, $`𝒟(X)`$ is a deformation quantization of $`𝒪(T^{}X)`$.
2. For singular varieties, the rings $`\mathrm{\Delta }(X)`$ and $`𝒟(X)`$ have quite different properties: for example, $`\mathrm{\Delta }(X)`$ is simple if and only if $`X`$ is smooth (cf. Theorem 3.2 below). It follows that if $`X`$ is smooth, then $`\mathrm{\Delta }(X)`$ is never isomorphic, or even Morita equivalent, to $`\mathrm{\Delta }(Y)`$ for any singular variety $`Y`$. Thus the present paper would probably be very short and dull if we were to work with $`\mathrm{\Delta }(X)`$ rather than with $`𝒟(X)`$.
3. Nakai (cf. \[Na\]) has conjectured that $`𝒟(X)=\mathrm{\Delta }(X)`$ if and only if $`X`$ is smooth. The conjecture has been proved for curves (see \[MV\]) and, more generally, for varieties with smooth normalization (see \[T\]). In \[Be\] and \[R\] it is shown that Nakai’s conjecture would imply the well known Zariski-Lipman conjecture: if the module of derivations of $`𝒪(X)`$ is projective, then $`X`$ is smooth.
4. If $`X`$ is singular, then in general $`𝒟(X)`$ may have quite bad properties. In \[BGG\] it is shown that if $`X`$ is the cone in $`𝔸^3`$ with equation $`x^3+y^3+z^3=0`$, then $`𝒟(X)`$ is not a finitely generated algebra, nor left or right Noetherian. In this example $`X`$ is a normal variety, and has only one singular point (at the origin). In \[SS\], Section 7, it is shown that if $`X`$ is a variety of dimension $`2`$ with smooth normalization and isolated singularities, then $`𝒟(X)`$ is right Noetherian but not left Noetherian.
5. In the situation of Proposition 2.6, it may happen that the ring $`B:=𝒟_A^0(M)`$ is larger than $`A`$. In that case the ring $`𝒟_A(M)𝒟(𝕂)`$ would not change if we replaced $`A`$ by $`B`$; thus there is no loss of generality if we restrict attention to modules $`M`$ for which $`B=A`$. We call such $`A`$-modules maximal.
6. Of course, all the statements in this section (and, indeed, in most of the other sections) would remain true if we replaced $``$ by any algebraically closed field of characteristic zero. If we work over a field of positive characteristic, the above definition of differential operators is still generally accepted to be the correct one, but some of the properties of the rings $`𝒟(X)`$ are very different: for example, $`𝒟(X)`$ is not Noetherian, or finitely generated, or without zero divisors (see, for example, \[Sm\]). In particular, in positive characteristic $`𝒟(𝔸^1)`$ is not at all like the Weyl algebra.
7. A convenient reference for this section is the last chapter of the book \[MR\], where one can find proofs of all the facts we have stated (except for Proposition 2.6, whose proof is similar to that of Proposition 2.4).

## 3. Differential equivalence of curves

From now on until Section 9, $`X`$ will be an affine curve, probably singular. In this case the problems mentioned in Section 2, Note 4 do not occur.

###### Proposition 3.1.

Let $`X`$ be an (irreducible) affine curve. Then $`𝒟(X)`$ is a (left and right) Noetherian ring, and is finitely generated as a $``$-$`algebra`$.

However, the associated graded ring $`\text{gr}𝒟(X)`$ is in general not a Noetherian ring (and hence not a finitely generated algebra either). The following theorem of Smith and Stafford shows that for our present purposes there is a very stark division of curve singularities into “good” and “bad”.

###### Theorem 3.2.

Let $`X`$ be an affine curve, and let $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$ be its normalization. Then the following are equivalent.

1. The normalization map $`\pi :\stackrel{~}{X}X`$ is bijective.
2. The algebras $`𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X})`$ and $`𝒟(X)`$ are Morita equivalent.
3. The ring $`𝒟(X)`$ has global dimension $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ (that is, the same as $`𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X})`$).
4. The ring $`𝒟(X)`$ is simple.
5. The algebra $`\text{gr}𝒟(X)`$ is finitely generated.
6. The ring $`\text{gr}𝒟(X)`$ is Noetherian.

Perhaps the most striking thing about Theorem 3.2 is that the “good” singularities (from our present point of view) are the cusps (as opposed to double points, or higher order multiple points). If $`X`$ has even one double point, the ring $`𝒟(X)`$ is somewhat wild; whereas if $`X`$ has only cusp singularities, no matter how “bad”, then $`𝒟(X)`$ is barely distinguishable from the ring of differential operators on the smooth curve $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$.

Theorem 3.2 does not address the question of when two smooth affine curves are differentially equivalent. However, the answer to that is very simple.

###### Theorem 3.3.

Let $`X`$ and $`Y`$ be smooth affine curves. Then $`𝒟(X)`$ and $`𝒟(Y)`$ are Morita equivalent (if and) only if $`X`$ and $`Y`$ are isomorphic.

Theorems 3.2 and 3.3 together determine completely the differential equivalence class of a smooth curve $`X`$: it consists of all curves obtained from $`X`$ by pinching a finite number of points to (arbitrarily bad) cusps.

### Notes

1. Apparently, not much is known about the differential equivalence class of a curve with multiple points. From Theorem 3.2 one might guess that if $`\pi :YX`$ is regular surjective of degree one, then $`X`$ and $`Y`$ are differentially equivalent if and only if $`\pi `$ is bijective. However, in \[SS\] (5.8) there is a counterexample to the “if” part of this statement. The paper \[CH2\] contains some curious results about the Morita equivalence class of $`𝒟(A)`$ when $`A`$ is the local ring at a multiple point of a curve.
2. Another natural question that is not addressed by Theorem 3.2 is: what is the global dimension of $`𝒟(X)`$ if $`X`$ has multiple points? In \[SS\] it is proved that if the singularites are all ordinary multiple points, then the answer is 2; but for more complicated singularities it seems nothing is known.
3. We have not found Theorem 3.3 stated explicitly in the literature, but it is an easy consequence of the results of \[CH1\] and \[M-L\]: we will sketch a proof in Section 6, Note 5.
4. Proposition 3.1 is proved in \[SS\] and (also in the case of a reducible (but reduced) curve) in \[M\].
5. We refer to \[SS\] for the proofs of the various assertions in Theorem 3.2. Here we mention only that a key role is played by the space

(3.1)
$$P𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X},X):=\{D𝒟(𝕂):D.𝒪(\stackrel{~}{X})𝒪(X)\}.$$

Clearly, $`P`$ is a right ideal in $`𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X})`$ and a left ideal in $`𝒟(X)`$; the Morita equivalence in Theorem 3.2 is defined by tensoring with the bimodule $`P`$. Another notable property of $`P`$ is the following: each of the statements in Theorem 3.2 is equivalent to the condition

(3.2)
$$P.𝒪(\stackrel{~}{X})=𝒪(X).$$

The formulae (3.1) and (3.2) provide the starting point for the theory of Cannings and Holland which we explain in Section 6 ; there $`P`$ is replaced by an arbitrary right ideal in $`𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X})`$.

## 4. Differential Isomorphism of Curves

We now turn to our main question, concerning differential isomorphism. We begin by sketching the history of this subject.

To our knowledge, the papers \[St\], \[Sm\] are the first that explicitly pose the question: does $`𝒟(X)𝒟(Y)`$ imply $`XY`$? In \[St\], Stafford proved that this is true if $`X`$ is the affine line $`𝔸^1`$ (in which case $`𝒟(X)`$ is the Weyl algebra), and also if $`X`$ is the plane curve with equation $`y^2=x^3`$, that is, the rational curve obtained from $`𝔸^1`$ by introducing a simple cusp at the origin. The first general result in the subject is due to L. Makar-Limanov (see \[M-L\]). His idea was as follows. Recall that if we take the commutator $`(\text{ad}f)L:=fLLf`$ of a function $`f𝒪(X)`$ with an operator $`L𝒟(X)`$ of order $`n`$, then we get an operator of order at most $`n1`$ (indeed, this is essentially the definition of $`𝒟(X)`$, see Section 2 above). It follows that $`(\text{ad}f)^{n+1}L=0`$, so that $`f`$ is a (locally) ad-nilpotent element of $`𝒟(X)`$. If it happens (as seems likely) that the set $`𝒩(X)`$ of all ad-nilpotent elements of $`𝒟(X)`$ coincides with $`𝒪(X)`$, then we have a purely ring-theoretical description of $`𝒪(X)𝒟(X)`$, namely, it is the unique maximal abelian ad-nilpotent subalgebra (for short: mad subalgebra) of $`𝒟(X)`$. So in this way $`𝒟(X)`$ determines $`X`$. Makar-Limanov’s main remark was the following.

###### Lemma 4.1.

Let $`𝕂`$ be the function field of a curve, and let $`D𝒟(𝕂)`$ have positive order. Let $`N𝕂`$ be the set of elements of $`𝕂`$ on which $`D`$ acts ad-nilpotently. Then there is an element $`q`$ in some finite extension field of $`𝕂`$ such that $`N[q]`$.

If now $`X`$ is a curve such that $`𝒩(X)𝒪(X)`$, that is, such that $`𝒩(X)`$ contains an operator of positive order, then it follows from Lemma 4.1 that $`𝒪(X)[q]`$ for suitable $`q`$. Equivalently:

###### Theorem 4.2.

If $`𝒩(X)𝒪(X)`$, then the normalization $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$ of $`X`$ is isomorphic to $`𝔸^1`$.

In his thesis (see \[P1\]), P. Perkins refined this result.

###### Theorem 4.3.

Let $`X`$ be an affine curve. Then $`𝒩(X)𝒪(X)`$ if and only if

> $`(i)`$ $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$ is isomorphic to $`𝔸^1`$ ; and
>
> $`(ii)`$ the normalization map $`\pi :\stackrel{~}{X}X`$ is bijective.

In other words, the differential isomorphism class of a curve $`X`$ consists just of (the class of) $`X`$ itself, except, possibly, when $`X`$ has the properties $`(i)`$ and $`(ii)`$ above.

For short, we shall call a curve with these two properties a framed curve. More precisely, by a framed curve we shall mean a curve $`X`$ together with a regular bijective map $`\pi :𝔸^1X`$: the choice of “framing” (that is, of the isomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{X}𝔸^1`$) is fairly harmless, because any two choices differ only by an automorphism $`zaz+b`$ of $`𝔸^1`$. The two curves considered by Stafford are certainly framed curves: Stafford’s results do not contradict those of Perkins, because although the rings $`𝒟(X)`$ in these examples have many ad-nilpotent elements not in $`𝒪(X)`$, their mad subalgebras are all isomorphic, so we can still extract $`𝒪(X)`$ (up to isomorphism) from $`𝒟(X)`$. For a while it might have seemed likely that the situation is similar for any framed curve; but counterexamples were found by Letzter \[L\] and by Perkins \[P2\]. The following example of Letzter is perhaps the simplest and most striking. Let $`X`$ and $`Y`$ be the curves with coordinate rings

$$𝒪(X)=+z^4[z];𝒪(Y)=[z^2,z^5].$$

Each of $`X`$ and $`Y`$ is obtained from $`𝔸^1`$ by introducing a single cusp at the origin; $`X`$ and $`Y`$ are clearly not isomorphic. Indeed, we have $`𝒪(X)𝒪(Y)`$, so the singularity of $`X`$ is strictly “worse” than that of $`Y`$. Nevertheless, Letzter proved that $`X`$ and $`Y`$ are differentially isomorphic. This example, and others in \[P2\], \[L\], shows that the problem of classifying framed curves up to differential isomorphism is nontrivial.

This problem was solved completely in the thesis \[K\] of K. Kouakou. The simplest way to state his result is as follows. For each $`n0`$, let $`X_n`$ denote the curve with coordinate ring

(4.1)
$$𝒪(X_n):=+z^{n+1}[z].$$

(Thus the curves considered by Stafford are $`X_0𝔸^1`$ and $`X_1`$, while the curve $`X`$ in Letzter’s example above is $`X_3`$).

###### Theorem 4.4 (Kouakou).

Every framed curve $`X`$ is differentially isomorphic to one of the above curves $`X_n`$.

On the other hand, Letzter and Makar-Limanov (see \[LM\]) have proved the following.

###### Theorem 4.5.

No two of the curves $`X_n`$ are differentially isomorphic to each other.

It follows that each framed curve $`X`$ is differentially isomorphic to exactly one of the special curves $`X_n`$: we shall call this number $`n`$ the differential genus of $`X`$, and denote it by $`d(X)`$.

### Notes

1. Of course, this is very unsatisfactory as a definition of the differential genus, because it does not make sense until after we have proved the two nontrivial Theorems 4.4 and 4.5. In Section 8 we discuss several more illuminating ways to define $`d(X)`$. We use the term “genus” because $`d(X)`$ is in some ways reminiscent of the arithmetic genus of a curve: it turns out that it is a sum of local contributions from each singular point, so it simply counts the cusps of our framed curve with appropriate weights. In Section 8 we shall explain how to calculate these weights: here we just mention that the weight of a simple (that is, of type $`y^2=x^3`$) cusp is equal to 1, so if all the cusps of $`X`$ are simple, then $`d(X)`$ is just the number of cusps.
2. Recall from Theorem 3.2 that the algebras $`𝒟(X)`$ (for $`X`$ a framed curve) are all Morita equivalent to each other: thus the invariant $`d(X)`$ that distinguishes them must be fairly subtle.
3. Makar-Limanov’s Lemma 4.1 (in a slightly disguised form) plays a basic role also in the theory of bispectral differential equations (compare the proof in \[M-L\] with similar arguments in \[DG\] or \[W1\]).
4. There is no convenient reference where the reader can find a complete proof of Kouakou’s theorem: Kouakou’s thesis has never been published, and the (different) proof in \[BW1\] is mostly omitted. The proof that we shall explain in the next three sections amplifies the sketch given in \[W3\]: it is not the most elementary possible, but it seems to us the most natural available at present.

## 5. The Adelic Grassmannian

It is actually easier to prove a more general theorem than Theorem 4.4, as follows. Let $`X`$ be a framed curve, and let $``$ be any rank 1 torsion-free coherent sheaf over $`X`$; it corresponds to a rank 1 torsion-free $`𝒪(X)`$-module $`M`$. Then we have the ring $`𝒟_{}(X)𝒟_{𝒪(X)}(M)`$ of differential operators on (global) sections of $``$. If $`=𝒪_X`$ is the sheaf of regular functions on $`X`$, then $`𝒟_{}(X)`$ is just the ring $`𝒟(X)`$ discussed previously. Generalizing Theorem 4.4, we have the following.

###### Theorem 5.1.

Every algebra $`𝒟_{}(X)`$ is isomorphic to one of the algebras $`𝒟(X_n)`$.

Of course, Theorem 4.5 shows that the integer $`n`$ in this assertion is unique: we call it the differential genus of the pair $`(X,)`$ and denote it by $`d_{}(X)`$.

The reason Theorem 5.1 is easier to prove than Theorem 4.4 is that the space of pairs $`(X,)`$ has a large group of symmetries that preserves the isomorphism class of the algebra $`𝒟_{}(X)`$ (but does not preserve the subset of pairs of the form $`(X,𝒪_X)`$). In fact the isomorphism classes of these pairs form the adelic Grassmannian $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$, a well-studied space that occurs in at least two other contexts, namely, in the theory of the Kadomtsev-Petviashvili hierarchy (cf. \[Kr\]) and in the problem of classifying bispectral differential operators (see \[DG\], \[W1\]). The adelic Grassmannian is a subspace<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1It is perhaps the most interesting Grassmannian not mentioned explicitly in \[SW\] . of the much larger Grassmannian Gr studied in \[SW\]. We recall the definition of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$. For each $`\lambda `$, we choose a $`\lambda `$-primary subspace of $`[z]`$, that is, a linear subspace $`V_\lambda `$ such that

$$(z\lambda )^N[z]V_\lambda \text{for some}N.$$

We suppose that $`V_\lambda =[z]`$ for all but finitely many $`\lambda `$. Let $`V=_\lambda V_\lambda `$ (such a space $`V`$ is called primary decomposable) and, finally, let

$$W=\underset{\lambda }{}(z\lambda )^{k_\lambda }V(z),$$

where $`k_\lambda `$ is the codimension of $`V_\lambda `$ in $`[z]`$. By definition, $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ consists of all $`W(z)`$ obtained in this way. The correspondence between points of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ and pairs $`(X,)`$ is a special case of the construction explained in \[SW\]. Given $`W`$, we obtain $`(X,)`$ by setting

$$𝒪(X):=\{f[z]:fWW\};$$

and $`W`$ is then the rank 1 $`𝒪(X)`$-module corresponding to $``$. Conversely, given $`(X,)`$, we let $`W`$ be the space of global sections of $``$, regarded as a subspace of $`(z)`$ by means of a certain distinguished rational trivialization of $``$ (implicitly described above).

###### Proposition 5.2.

This construction defines a bijection between $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ and the set of isomorphism classes of pairs $`(X,)`$, where $`X`$ is a framed curve and $``$ is a maximal rank 1 torsion-free sheaf over $`X`$.

“Maximal” here means that the $`𝒪(X)`$-module corresponding to $``$ is maximal in the sense of Note 5, Section 2.

###### Example 5.3.

If $`X_n`$ is the curve defined by (4.1), then $`𝒪(X_n)`$ is $`0`$-primary, and the corresponding point of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ is $`W_n=z^n𝒪(X_n)`$. More generally, let $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ be any (additive) semigroup obtained from $``$ by deleting a finite number of positive integers, and let $`𝒪(X)`$ be the subring of $`[z]`$ spanned by $`\{z^i:i\mathrm{\Lambda }\}`$. Such a curve $`X`$ is called a monomial curve; the corresponding point of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ is $`z^m𝒪(X)`$, where $`m`$ is the number of elements of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$.

###### Example 5.4.

If $`X`$ has simple cusps at the (distinct) points $`\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _r`$, then $`𝒪(X)`$ consists of all polynomials whose first derivatives vanish at these points, and the corresponding point of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ is

$$W=\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}(z\lambda _i)^1𝒪(X).$$

More generally, if in addition we choose $`\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _r`$, then

$$V=\{f[z]:f^{}(\lambda _i)=\alpha _if(\lambda _i)\text{for}1ir\}$$

is primary decomposable, and the corresponding point of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ is

$$W=\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}(z\lambda _i)^1V.$$

In the pairs $`(X,)`$ here, the curve $`X`$ is the same as before, and as we vary the parameters $`\alpha _i`$ we get the various line bundles $``$ over $`X`$.

The rings $`𝒟_{}(X)`$ that interest us are easy to describe in terms of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$. If $`W\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$, we define the ring of differential operators on $`W`$ by

$$𝒟(W):=\{D(z)[]:D.WW\}$$

(as in Section 2, the dot denotes the natural action of differential operators on functions). Proposition 2.6 shows:

###### Proposition 5.5.

Let $`W\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ correspond to the pair $`(X,)`$ as in Proposition 5.2. Then there is a natural identification

$$𝒟(W)𝒟_{}(X).$$

It remains to discuss the symmetries of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$. Some of them are fairly obvious. First, we have the commutative group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of the KP flows: it corresponds to the action $`(X,)(X,L)`$ of the Jacobian (that is, the group of line bundles $`L`$ over $`X`$) on the space of pairs $`(X,)`$. If $`W^{\text{an}}W`$ is the space of analytic sections of $``$, then $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the group of maps of the form $`W^{\text{an}}e^{p(z)}W^{\text{an}}`$, where $`p`$ is a polynomial. Another fairly evident symmetry is the adjoint involution $`c`$ defined by

$$c(W)=\{f(z):\text{res}_{\mathrm{}}f(z)g(z)dz=0\text{for all}gW\}.$$

Like the KP flows, $`c`$ is just the restriction to $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ of a symmetry of the Grassmannian Gr of \[SW\]. A more elusive symmetry of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ is the bispectral involution $`b`$ introduced in \[W1\]; it does not make sense on Gr , and does not have a simple description in terms of the pairs $`(X,)`$. It can be characterized by the formula

$$\psi _{bW}(x,z)=\psi _W(z,x),$$

where $`\psi `$ is the stationary Baker function of $`W`$ (see, for example, \[SW\]). Let $`\phi =bc`$, and let $`G`$ be the group of symmetries of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ generated by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\phi `$. In view of Proposition 5.5, Theorems 4.4, 4.5 and 5.1 are all consequences of

###### Theorem 5.6.

(i) Let $`V,W\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$. Then $`𝒟(V)`$ and $`𝒟(W)`$ are isomorphic if and only if $`V`$ and $`W`$ belong to the same $`G`$-orbit in $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$.
(ii) Each orbit contains exactly one of the points $`W_n`$ from Example 5.3.

Although it is possible to formulate a proof of Theorem 5.6 within our present context, the proof will appear more natural if we use two alternative descriptions of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$: we explain these in the next sections. First, in Section 6 we shall see that $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ can be identified with the space of ideals in the Weyl algebra $`𝒟(𝔸^1)`$: the ring $`𝒟(W)`$ then becomes the endomorphism ring of the corresponding ideal, and $`G`$ becomes the automorphism group of the Weyl algebra. Part (i) of Theorem 5.6 then turns into a theorem of Stafford (see \[St\]). In Section 7 we explain how $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ decomposes into the union of certain finite-dimensional varieties $`𝒞_n`$ that have a simple explicit description in terms of matrices; part (ii) of Theorem 5.6 then follows from the more precise assertion that these spaces $`𝒞_n`$ are exactly the $`G`$-orbits. Since the action of $`G`$ also has a simple description in terms of matrices, part (ii) of the Theorem becomes a problem in linear algebra.

### Notes

1. The fact that the action of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }G`$ preserves the isomorphism class of $`𝒟(W)`$ is almost trivial. Indeed, if $`g\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is given (as above) by multiplication by $`e^{p(z)}`$, then $`𝒟(gW)=e^{p(z)}𝒟(W)e^{p(z)}`$. It follows that $`𝒟(gW)`$ is even isomorphic to $`𝒟(W)`$ as a filtered algebra. Thus the (filtered) isomorphism class of $`𝒟_{}(X)`$ depends only on the orbit of the Jacobian of $`X`$ in the space of rank 1 torsion-free sheaves; for example, if $``$ is locally free, then $`𝒟_{}(X)`$ is isomorphic to $`𝒟(X)`$. A direct proof that $`\phi `$ preserves the isomorphism class of $`𝒟(W)`$ is also not too difficult: it follows from the facts that $`𝒟(bW)`$ and $`𝒟(cW)`$ are anti-isomorphic to $`𝒟(W)`$ (cf. \[BW2\], Sections 7 and 8). We regard the main assertions in Theorem 5.6 to be part (ii) and the “only if” statement in part (i).
2. The spaces $`W_n`$ are fixed by $`b`$, so $`b`$ induces an involutory anti-automorphism on each of the rings $`𝒟(X_n)`$. Thus Theorem 5.1 shows that the distinction between isomorphism and anti-isomorphism in the preceding note was immaterial.
3. If $``$ is not locally free, then in general $`𝒟_{}(X)`$ is not isomorphic to $`𝒟(X)`$ (see Example 8.4 below).
4. Details of the proof of Proposition 5.2 can be found in \[W1\]; see also \[CH4\], 1.4 and \[E\], p. 945.

## 6. The Cannings-Holland correspondence

In this section we explain a different realization of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ (due to Cannings and Holland) as the space of ideals in the Weyl algebra. Let $`A:=[z,]`$ from now on denote the (first) Weyl algebra, and let $``$ be the set of nonzero right ideals of $`A`$. Let $`𝒮`$ be the set of all linear subspaces of $`[z]`$. If $`V,W𝒮`$, (or, later, also if $`V`$ and $`W`$ are subspaces of $`(z)`$) we set

(6.1)
$$𝒟(V,W):=\{D(z)[]:D.VW\}.$$

We define maps $`\alpha :𝒮`$ and $`\gamma :𝒮`$ as follows. If $`V𝒮`$, we set

(6.2)
$$\alpha (V):=𝒟([z],V);$$

and if $`I`$, we set

(6.3)
$$\gamma (I):=\{D.[z]:DI\}.$$

###### Theorem 6.1.

(i) We have $`\alpha \gamma (I)=I`$ if and only if $`I[z]\{0\}`$.
(ii) We have $`\gamma \alpha (V)=V`$ if and only if $`V`$ is primary decomposable.
(iii) The maps $`\alpha `$ and $`\gamma `$ define inverse bijections between the set of primary decomposable subspaces of $`[z]`$ and the set of right ideals of $`A`$ that intersect $`[z]`$ nontrivially.
(iv) If $`V`$ and $`W`$ are primary decomposable and $`I:=\alpha (V)`$, $`J:=\alpha (W)`$ are the corresponding (fractional) ideals, then

$$𝒟(V,W)=\{D(z)[]:DIJ\}\text{Hom}_A(I,J).$$

###### Example 6.2.

Let $`I_n`$ be the right ideal

$$I_n:=z^{n+1}A+\underset{r=1}{\overset{n}{}}(zr)A.$$

The second generator kills $`z,z^2,\mathrm{},z^n`$, so we find that $`\gamma (I_n)=𝒪(X_n)`$.

The assertions (iii) and (iv) in Theorem 6.1 follow at once from (i) and (ii). Now, not every right ideal of $`A`$ intersects $`[z]`$ nontrivially; but every ideal is isomorphic (as right $`A`$-module) to one with this property (see \[St\], Lemma 4.2). Furthermore, two such ideals $`I,J`$ are isomorphic if and only if $`pI=qJ`$ for some polynomials $`p(z),q(z)`$. On the other hand, two primary decomposable subspaces $`V,W`$ determine the same point of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ if and only if $`pV=qW`$ for some polynomials $`p(z),q(z)`$; and the bijections $`\alpha `$ and $`\gamma `$ are clearly compatible with multiplication by polynomials. Let $``$ denote the set of isomorphism classes of nonzero right ideals of $`A`$ (equivalently, of finitely generated torsion-free rank 1 right $`A`$-modules). Combining the remarks above with Theorem 6.1, we get the following.

###### Theorem 6.3.

(i) The maps defined by the formulae (6.2) and (6.3) define inverse bijections

$$\alpha :\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}\text{and}\gamma :\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}.$$

(ii) For $`V,W\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$, there is a natural identification

$$𝒟(V,W)\text{ }\text{Hom}_A(\alpha (V),\alpha (W)).$$

As a special case of (ii), we see that if $`W\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ and $`I:=\alpha (W)`$ is the corresponding ideal in $`A`$, then the algebra $`𝒟(W)𝒟(W,W)`$ is identified with $`\text{End}_A(I)`$. On the other hand, if $`W`$ corresponds to the pair $`(X,)`$, then according to Proposition 5.5, $`𝒟(W)`$ is just the algebra $`𝒟_{}(X)`$ that interests us. In this way Theorem 6.3 translates any question about the algebras$`𝒟_{}(X)`$ into a question about ideals in the Weyl algebra. It remains to give the translation into these terms of the group $`G`$ of symmetries of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$. Note that if $`\sigma `$ is an automorphism of $`A`$ and $`I`$ ia finitely generated torsion-free rank 1 $`A`$-module, then $`\sigma _{}(I)`$ is a module of the same type: thus the automorphism group $`\text{Aut}(A)`$ acts naturally on $``$.

###### Theorem 6.4.

Under the bijection $`\alpha `$, the action of the group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of KP flows corresponds to the action on $``$ induced by the automorphisms $`De^{p(z)}De^{p(z)}`$ of $`A`$; while the map $`\phi `$ corresponds to the map on $``$ induced by the formal Fourier transform $`(z,z)`$ of $`A`$.

Now, if $`\sigma `$ is an automorphism of (any algebra) $`A`$, and $`M`$ is any $`A`$-module, then it is trivial that $`\text{End}_A(M)\text{End}_A(\sigma _{}M)`$. Thus Theorem 6.4 makes the “if” part of Theorem 5.6(i) transparent.

### Notes

1. According to Dixmier (see \[D\]), the automorphisms mentioned in Theorem 6.4 generate the full automorphism group of $`A`$; thus we may identify our symmetry group $`G`$ with $`\text{Aut}(A)`$.
2. There are two routes available to prove the “only if” part of Theorem 5.6(i). If we use Dixmier’s theorem, we can simply note that it translates into a known theorem of Stafford (see \[St\]): if $`I`$ and $`J`$ are two ideal classes of $`A`$, then their endomorphism rings are isomorphic (if and) only if $`I`$ and $`J`$ belong to the same orbit of $`\text{Aut}(A)`$ in $``$. Alternatively, after we have classified the orbits, this fact will follow from Theorem 4.5 (whose proof in \[LM\] does not use Stafford’s theorem, nor Dixmier’s).
3. To get an idea of the depth of Stafford’s theorem, let us give a proof (following \[CH3\]) of a crucial special case: if $`I`$ is an ideal of $`A`$ whose endomorphism ring is isomorphic to $`\text{End}_A(A)=A`$, then $`IA`$. Let $`(X,)`$ be the pair corresponding to $`I`$; then $`𝒟_{}(X)`$ is isomorphic to $`A`$, hence $`𝒪(X)`$ is isomorphic to a mad subalgebra of $`A`$. Another (nontrivial) theorem of Dixmier (see \[D\]) says that all the mad subalgebras of $`A`$ are isomorphic to $`[z]`$; hence $`X𝔸^1`$ and $``$ is the trivial line bundle (because this is the only rank 1 torsion-free sheaf over $`𝔸^1`$). According to Theorem 6.3, it follows that $`IA`$. The general case of Stafford’s theorem is a relatively formal consequence of this special case (see \[St\], Corollary 3.2).
4. If we introduce the category $`𝔓`$ with objects the primary decomposable subspaces of $`[z]`$ and morphisms $`𝒟(V,W)`$, then we could summarize Theorem 6.1 by saying that we have an equivalence of categories between $`𝔓`$ and the category of ideals in $`A`$ (regarded as a full subcategory of the category of right $`A`$-modules).
5. Theorems 6.1 and 6.3 remain true (mutatis mutandis) if we replace the Weyl algebra by the ring of differential operators on any smooth affine curve (see \[CH1\]). Using this fact, we can sketch a proof of Theorem 3.3. Suppose that $`X`$ and $`Y`$ are smooth affine curves such that $`𝒟(X)`$ is Morita equivalent to $`𝒟(Y)`$. Since these are Noetherian domains, that means that $`𝒟(Y)`$ is isomorphic to the endomorphism ring of some ideal in $`𝒟(X)`$, and hence to $`𝒟(V)`$ for some primary decomposable subspace $`V`$ of $`𝒪(X)`$. This in turn is isomorphic to some ring $`𝒟_{}(X^{})`$, where $`X^{}`$ is a curve with bijective normalization $`XX^{}`$. If $`Y`$ is not isomorphic to $`𝔸^1`$, then Theorem 4.2 shows that $`𝒟(Y)`$ has only one mad subalgebra. The same is therefore true of $`𝒟_{}(X^{})`$; extracting these mad subalgebras gives $`𝒪(Y)𝒪(X^{})`$, hence $`YX^{}`$. Since $`Y`$ is smooth, this implies $`X=X^{}`$, hence $`YX`$. Finally, if $`Y`$ is isomorphic to $`𝔸^1`$, then $`𝒟(Y)`$, and hence also $`𝒟_{}(X^{})`$, has more than one mad subalgebra, so Lemma 4.1 implies that $`X𝔸^1`$.
6. Theorem 6.1 is proved in \[CH1\]; Theorem 6.4 is proved in \[BW2\].
7. A different view of the construction of Cannings and Holland, and some further generalizations, can be found in \[BGK2\].

## 7. The Calogero-Moser spaces

Our third realization of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ involves the Calogero-Moser spaces $`𝒞_n`$. For each $`n0`$, let $`\stackrel{~}{𝒞}_n`$ be the space of pairs $`(X,Y)`$ of complex $`n\times n`$ matrices such that

$$[X,Y]+I\text{has rank}1,$$

and let $`𝒞_n:=\stackrel{~}{𝒞}_n/\text{GL}(n,)`$, where the action of $`g\text{GL}(n,)`$ is by simultaneous conjugation: $`(X,Y)(gXg^1,gYg^1)`$. One can show that $`𝒞_n`$ is an smooth irreducible affine variety of dimension $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}n`$ ($`𝒞_0`$ is supposed to be a point).

###### Theorem 7.1.

There is a natural bijection

$$\beta :𝒞:=\underset{n0}{}𝒞_n\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}$$

such that
(i) the action of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ on $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ corresponds to the maps $`(X,Y)(X+p^{}(Y),Y)`$ on $`𝒞_n`$;
(ii) the action of $`\phi `$ on $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ corresponds to the map $`(X,Y)(Y,X)`$ on $`𝒞_n`$;
(iii) the action of the group $`G`$ on each $`𝒞_n`$ is transitive.

It follows from part (iii) of this Theorem that the spaces $`\beta (𝒞_n)`$ are the orbits of $`G`$ in $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$. To complete the proof of Theorem 5.6 we have only to check that $`\beta ^1(W_n)`$ belongs to $`𝒞_n`$: that is done in Example 8.2 below.

The decomposition of $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ in Theorem 7.1 was originally obtained using ideas from the theory of integrable systems (see \[W2\]). Here we sketch a different method. In view of Theorem 6.3, it is enough to see why the space $``$ of ideals in the Weyl algebra should decompose into the finite-dimensional spaces $`𝒞_n`$. That can be understood by analogy with the corresponding commutative problem, namely, to describe the space $`_0`$ of isomorphism classes of ideals in $`A_0:=[x,y]`$. This problem is easy, because each ideal class in $`A_0`$ has a unique representative of finite codimension; hence $`_0`$ decomposes into the disjoint union of the point Hilbert schemes $`\text{Hilb}_n(𝔸^2)`$ (that is, the spaces of ideals of codimension $`n`$) for $`n0`$. It is elementary that $`\text{Hilb}_n(𝔸^2)`$ can be identified with the space of pairs $`(X,Y)`$ of commuting $`n\times n`$ matrices possessing a cyclic vector (see \[N\], 1.2); thus $`\text{Hilb}_n(𝔸^2)`$ is the commutative analogue of the Calogero-Moser space $`𝒞_n`$. Because the Weyl algebra has no nontrivial ideals of finite codimension, it is not immediately clear how to adapt this discussion to the noncommutative case; however, there is a less elementary point of view which generalizes more easily. We may regard an ideal of $`A_0`$ as a rank 1 torsion-free sheaf over $`𝔸^2`$; it has a unique extension to a torsion-free sheaf over the projective plane $`^2`$ trivial over the line at infinity. The classification of ideals by pairs of matrices can then be regarded as (trivial) special case of Barth’s classification of framed bundles (of any rank) over $`^2`$ (see \[N\], Ch. 2). In a similar way, an ideal of the Weyl algebra determines a rank 1 torsion-free sheaf over a suitably defined quantum projective plane $`_q^2`$; these can then be classified much as in the commutative case.

### Notes

1. Let us try to give something of the flavour of the noncommutative projective geometry needed to carry out the plan sketched above (see, for example \[A\], \[AZ\] for more details). Let $`X^N`$ be a projective variety, and let $`𝑨=_{k0}A_k`$ be its (graded) homogeneous coordinate ring. To any quasicoherent sheaf $``$ over $`X`$ we can assign the graded $`𝑨`$-module

$$𝑴:=\underset{k}{}H^0(X,(k)).$$

A theorem of Serre (see \[S\]) states that this defines an equivalence between the category of quasicoherent sheaves over $`X`$ and a certain quotient of the category of graded $`𝑨`$-modules (we have to divide out by the so-called torsion modules, in which each element is killed by some $`A_k`$). Thus many results about projective varieties can be formulated in a purely algebraic way, in terms of graded $`𝑨`$-modules; in this form the theory makes sense also for a noncommutative graded ring $`𝑨`$. The coordinate ring of the space $`_q^2`$ referred to above is the ring of noncommutative polynomials in three variables $`x,y,z`$ of degree 1 , where $`z`$ commutes with everything, but $`[x,y]=z^2`$. It turns out that the homological properties of this ring are similar to those of the commutative graded ring $`[x,y,z]`$; in particular, the classification of bundles (of any rank) over $`_q^2`$ is similar to that of bundles over $`^2`$ (see \[KKO\]).
2. The idea of using $`_q^2`$ to classify the ideals in the Weyl algebra is due to L. Le Bruyn (see \[LeB\]). However, Le Bruyn’s chosen extension of an ideal in $`A`$ to a sheaf over $`_q^2`$ was in general not trivial over the line at infinity, so he did not obtain the decomposition of $``$ into the Calogero-Moser spaces. That was done in \[BW3\] and (in a different way) in \[BGK1\].
3. The connection between the spaces $`\text{Hilb}_n(𝔸^2)`$ and $`𝒞_n`$ is actually much closer than we have indicated: $`\text{Hilb}_n(𝔸^2)`$ is a hyperkähler variety, and $`𝒞_n`$ is obtained by deforming the complex structure of $`\text{Hilb}_n(𝔸^2)`$ within the hyperkähler family. See \[N\], Ch. 3, especially 3.45.
4. The assertions (i) and (ii) in Theorem 7.1 are proved in \[BW2\] (using the original construction of $`\beta `$), and in \[BW3\] (using the construction sketched above). The fact that the two constructions agree is also proved in \[BW3\].
5. Parts (i) and (ii) of Theorem 7.1 reduce the proof of part (iii) (transitivity of the $`G`$-action) to an exercise in linear algebra. Unfortunately, the exercise seems to be quite difficult, and the published solution in \[BW2\] strays outside elementary linear algebra at one point (see Lemma 10.3 in \[BW2\]). P. Etingof has kindly pointed out to us that transitivity also follows easily from the fact that the functions $`(X,Y)\text{tr}(X^k)`$ and $`(X,Y)\text{tr}(Y^k)`$ generate $`𝒪(𝒞_n)`$ as a Poisson algebra (see \[EG\], 11.33).
6. In \[BW3\], Section 5 we have given an elementary construction of the map $`𝒞`$, in a similar spirit to the elementary treatment of the commutative case. It turns out that the inverse map $`𝒞`$ can also be written down explicitly, as follows. Let $`(X,Y)𝒞_n`$, and choose column and row vectors $`v,w`$ such that $`[X,Y]+I=vw`$. Define<sup>2</sup><sup>2</sup>2We get this formula by combining Remark 5.4 in \[BW3\] with formula (3.5) in \[W2\].

$$\kappa :=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}w(YzI)^1(XI)^1v$$

(thus $`\kappa `$ belongs to the quotient field of the Weyl algebra $`A`$). Then the (fractional) right ideal

(7.1)
$$det(YzI)A+\kappa det(XI)A(z)[]$$

represents the class in $``$ corresponding to $`(X,Y)`$. Using these formulae, it is possible to give a completely elementary proof that $``$ decomposes into the spaces $`𝒞_n`$. More details will appear elsewhere.

## 8. The invariant $`n`$

Theorem 7.1 assigns to each $`W\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ a non-negative integer $`n`$, namely, the index of the “stratum” $`𝒞_n`$ containing $`\beta ^1(W)`$. Using Proposition 5.2 and Theorem 6.3, we may equally well regard $`n`$ as an invariant of a pair $`(X,)`$, or of an ideal (class) in the Weyl algebra $`A`$. In this section we discuss various descriptions of this invariant. The first two begin with an ideal class in $`A`$.

### $`n`$ as a Chern class

We return to the quantum projective plane $`_q^2`$ explained at the end of Section 7. Let $`M`$ be an ideal class of $`A`$, and let $``$ denote its unique extension to a sheaf over $`_q^2`$ trivial over the line at infinity. Then we claim that

(8.1)
$$n=dim_{}H^1(_q^2,(1)).$$

To see that, we need to give more details of the construction of the map $`𝒞`$. Recall that the homogeneous coordinate ring of $`_q^2`$ has three generators $`x,y,z`$. It turns out that multiplication by $`z`$ induces an isomorphism

$$H^1(_q^2,(2))H^1(_q^2,(1):=V.$$

If we use this isomorphism to identify these spaces, then multiplication by $`x`$ and $`y`$ gives us a pair $`(X,Y)`$ of endomorphisms of $`V`$: this is the point of $`𝒞`$ associated with $`M`$. Obviously, the size of the matrices $`(X,Y)`$ is given by (8.1).

### Note

By analogy with the commutative case (see \[N\], Ch. 2), we would like to interpret $`n`$ as the second Chern class $`c_2()`$. However, at the time of writing, Chern classes have not yet been discussed in noncommutative projective geometry.

### $`n`$ as a codimension

Again, let $`M`$ be an ideal of $`A`$. By \[St\], Lemma 4.2, we may suppose that $`M`$ intersects $`[z]A`$ nontrivially; let $`I`$ be the ideal in $`[z]`$ generated by the leading coefficients of the operators in $`M`$, and let $`p(z)`$ be a generator of $`I`$. Then $`p^1M(z)[]`$ is a fractional ideal representing the class of $`M`$. Define a map $`DD_+`$ from $`(z)[]`$ to $`A`$ by

$$\left(\underset{i}{}f_i^i\right)_+=\underset{i}{}(f_i)_+^i;$$

here $`f_+`$ denotes the polynomial part of a rational function $`f`$ (that is, the polynomial such that $`ff_+`$ vanishes at infinity). Then we claim that

$$n\text{is the codimension of}(p^1M)_+\text{in}A.$$

A proof can be found in \[BW3\], Section 6, where it is shown that the quotient space $`A/(p^1M)_+`$ can be identified with the (Čech) cohomology group on the right of (8.1).

### Note

The special representative for an ideal class that we used in this subsection is the same one as is given by the formula (7.1). It is the unique representative of the form $`𝒟([z],W)`$ with $`W\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ (cf. Theorem 6.3).

### The differential genus of a framed curve

The following characterization of $`n`$ was one of the main results of \[W2\].

###### Theorem 8.1.

Let $`W\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$. Then the integer $`n`$ that we have associated to $`W`$ is equal to the dimension of the open cell in $`\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ containing $`W`$.

This theorem leads easily to a simple formula for calculating $`n`$ in concrete examples (cf. \[PS\], 7.4). Recall from Section 5 that $`W`$ is constructed from a family of $`\lambda `$-primary subspaces $`V_\lambda [z]`$ (one for each $`\lambda `$, and almost all of them equal to $`[z]`$). In terms of these $`V_\lambda `$, we can calculate $`n`$ as follows. First, we have $`n=_\lambda n_\lambda `$, where $`n_\lambda `$ depends only on $`V_\lambda `$ (and is zero if $`V_\lambda =[z]`$). To find $`n_\lambda `$, let

(8.2)
$$r_0<r_1<r_2<\mathrm{}$$

be the numbers $`r`$ such that $`V_\lambda `$ contains a polynomial that vanishes exactly to order $`r`$ at $`\lambda `$. For large $`i`$ we have $`r_i=g+i`$, where $`g`$ is the number of “gaps” (non-negative integers that do not occur) in the sequence (8.2). Then we have

(8.3)
$$n_\lambda =\underset{i0}{}(g+ir_i).$$

###### Example 8.2.

For the $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$-primary space $`V:=𝒪(X_n)`$ defined by (4.1), the sequence (8.2) is

$$0<n+1<n+2<\mathrm{},$$

whence $`g=n`$, and the right hand side of (8.3) is equal to $`n`$.

This calculation completes the proof of Theorem 5.6(ii), and shows that we can identify the number $`n`$ associated with a pair $`(X,)`$ with the differential genus $`d_{}(X)`$ introduced in Section 5.

###### Example 8.3.

If $`Y_r`$ is the curve with coordinate ring $`𝒪(Y_r):=[z^2,z^{2r+1}]`$ , then again $`𝒪(Y_r)`$ is $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$-primary, and the sequence (8.2) is

$$0<2<4<\mathrm{}<2r<2r+1<\mathrm{}.$$

Hence $`g=r`$, and $`d(Y_r)=r+(r1)+\mathrm{}+2+1=r(r+1)/2`$.

In particular, $`d(Y_2)=3`$ so $`Y_2`$ is differentially isomorphic to $`X_3`$, in agreement with G. Letzter (see \[L\]).

###### Example 8.4.

Here is the simplest example to show that in general $`d_{}(X)`$ depends on $``$, not just on $`X`$. Let $`V`$ be the $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$-primary space spanned by $`\{z^i:i2,3\}`$. Then the the sequence (8.2) is

$$0<1<4<5<\mathrm{},$$

whence $`n=4`$. Clearly, $`V`$ is a maximal module over the ring $`𝒪(X_3)`$, and thus corresponds to a maximal torsion-free (but not locally free) sheaf $``$ over $`X_3`$. For this sheaf $``$ we therefore have $`d_{}(X_3)=4`$, and the ring $`𝒟_{}(X_3)`$ is isomorphic to $`𝒟(X_4)`$.

### The Letzter-Makar-Limanov invariant

Next, we describe the invariant originally used in \[LM\] to distinguish the rings $`𝒟(X_n)`$. We return temporarily to the case of any affine curve $`X`$, with normalization $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$ and function field $`𝕂`$; as usual (see Proposition 2.4), we view $`𝒟(X)`$ and $`𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X})`$ as subalgebras of $`𝒟(𝕂)`$. In general, $`𝒟(X)`$ is not contained in $`𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X})`$; however, the associated graded algebra $`\text{gr}𝒟(X)`$ is always contained in $`\text{gr}𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X})`$ (see \[SS\], 3.11). In the case that most concerns us when $`\stackrel{~}{X}=𝔸^1`$, this simply means that the leading coefficient of each operator in $`𝒟(X)`$ is a polynomial (although the other coefficients may be rational functions, as we saw in Example 2.5). Continuing Theorem 3.2, we have

###### Theorem 8.5.

Each of the conditions in Theorem 3.2 is equivalent to:

$$\text{gr}𝒟(X)\text{has finite codimension in}\text{gr}𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X}).$$

In our case, when $`\stackrel{~}{X}=𝔸^1`$ and $`X`$ is a framed curve, $`\text{gr}𝒟(X)`$ is a subalgebra of finite codimension in $`[z,\zeta ]`$; we call its codimension the Letzter-Makar-Limanov invariant of $`X`$, and denote it by $`LM(X)`$. The definition of $`LM(X)`$ uses the standard filtration on $`𝒟(X)`$; nevertheless, in \[LM\] it is proved that it depends only on the isomorphism class of the algebra $`𝒟(X)`$; that is, if $`X`$ and $`Y`$ are differentially isomorphic framed curves, then $`LM(X)=LM(Y)`$. On the other hand, it is not hard to calculate that $`LM(X_n)=2n`$ (see \[LM\], Section 5). Combined with Theorem 5.6, that gives

###### Theorem 8.6.

Let $`X`$ be any framed curve. Then $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}d(X)=LM(X)`$.

### Notes

1. Theorem 8.5 is proved (though not explicitly stated) in \[SS\], 3.12.
2. In \[LM\] the rings $`𝒟_{}(X)`$ (for $`𝒪_X`$) are not considered; however, it is not hard to extend the discussion to include that case. Thus we can define the invariant $`LM(𝒟(W))`$ for any $`W\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$, and Theorem 5.6 shows that it is equal to $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}n`$.
3. It is possible to prove directly (that is, without using Theorem 5.6) that $`LM(𝒟)`$ is twice the number $`n`$ defined by (8.1). The interested reader may see \[B\].

All our descriptions of $`n`$ so far have been specific to our particular situation. It is natural to ask whether $`n`$ is a special case of some general invariant of rings that is able to distinguish between different Morita equivalent domains. Our last two subsections are attempts in that direction.

### Pic and Aut

Let $`𝒟`$ momentarily be any domain (associative algebra without zero divisors) over $``$. The following idea for obtaining subtle invariants of the isomorphism class of $`𝒟`$ is due to Stafford (see \[St\]). Consider the group<sup>3</sup><sup>3</sup>3More properly, we should write $`\text{Pic}_{}(𝒟)`$ to indicate that we consider only equivalences that commute with multiplication by scalars. For a similar reason, we should write $`\text{Aut}_{}`$ too. $`\text{Pic}(𝒟)`$ of all Morita equivalences of $`𝒟`$ with itself, that is, of all self-equivalences of the category Mod-$`𝒟`$ of (say right) $`𝒟`$-modules. Each such equivalence is given by tensoring with a suitable $`𝒟`$-bimodule, so we may also think of $`\text{Pic}(𝒟)`$ as the group of all invertible $`𝒟`$-bimodules. Each automorphism of $`𝒟`$ induces a self-equivalence of Mod-$`𝒟`$, so there is a natural map

(8.4)
$$\omega :\text{Aut}(𝒟)\text{Pic}(𝒟).$$

Although the group $`\text{Pic}(𝒟)`$ is a Morita invariant of $`𝒟`$, the automorphism group and the map $`\omega `$ are not.

We return to our case, where $`𝒟`$ is one of the algebras $`\text{End}_A(I)`$ (or $`𝒟_{}(X)`$). In general, the kernel of $`\omega `$ consists of the inner automorphisms of $`𝒟`$; in our case these are trivial, so $`\omega `$ is injective. For the Weyl algebra $`A`$, Stafford showed that $`\omega `$ is an isomorphism. We thus have a natural inclusion

$$\text{Aut}(𝒟)\text{Pic}(𝒟)\text{Pic}(A)=\text{Aut}(A)$$

(the isomorphism from $`\text{Pic}(𝒟)`$ to $`\text{Pic}(A)`$ is defined by tensoring with the $`𝒟`$-$`A`$-bimodule $`I`$). Recalling that the group $`\text{Aut}(A)`$ acts transitively on $`𝒞_n`$, one can calculate that the isotropy group of the point in $`𝒞_n`$ corresponding to $`I`$ is exactly this subgroup $`\text{Aut}(𝒟)`$. It follows that we have a natural bijection

$$𝒞_n\text{Pic}(𝒟)/\text{Aut}(𝒟),$$

so it is tempting to claim that our invariant $`n`$ is given by

(8.5)
$$2n=dim_{}\text{Pic}(𝒟)/\text{Aut}(𝒟).$$

The flaw in this is that the structure of algebraic variety on the quotient “space” in (8.5) has been imposed a posteriori, and has not been extracted intrinsically from the algebra $`𝒟`$.

### Note

In view of the above, we may hope that there should be (at least for some algebras $`𝒟`$) a natural structure of (infinite-dimensional) algebraic group on $`\text{Pic}(𝒟)`$ for which $`\text{Aut}(𝒟)`$ would be a closed subgroup. In our case, we can identify $`\text{Pic}(𝒟)`$ with $`\text{Aut}(A)`$, which does indeed have a natural structure of algebraic group; however, for this structure $`\text{Aut}(𝒟)`$ is not a closed subgroup (see \[BW2\], Section 11 for more details).

### Mad subalgebras

The idea behind our final description of $`n`$ is very simple, namely: $`n`$ should measure the “number” of mad subalgebras of $`𝒟(X)`$. Let us formulate a precise statement. For each $`W\text{Gr}^{\text{ad}}`$ with invariant $`n`$, we may choose an isomorphism

$$\varphi :𝒟(W)𝒟(X_n).$$

Since $`𝒟^0(W)`$ is a mad subalgebra of $`𝒟(W)`$, $`B:=\varphi (𝒟^0(W))`$ is a mad subalgebra of $`𝒟(X_n)`$. Furthermore, $`\varphi `$ extends to an isomorphism of quotient fields, in particular, it maps $`z(z)[]`$ to some element $`u:=\varphi (z)`$ in the quotient field of $`B`$. Clearly, $`[u]`$ is the integral closure of $`B`$. According to \[LM\], the integral closure $`\overline{B}`$ of any mad subalgebra $`B`$ is isomorphic to $`[u]`$: we shall call a choice of generator for $`\overline{B}`$ a framing of $`B`$. Thus the above isomorphism $`\varphi `$ gives us a framed mad subalgebra $`(B,u)`$ of $`𝒟(X_n)`$. Any two choices of $`\varphi `$ differ only by an automorphism of $`𝒟(X_n)`$, so the class (modulo the action of $`\text{Aut}𝒟(X_n)`$) of the framed mad subalgebra we have obtained depends only on $`W`$. Moreover (cf. Section 5, Note 1), if we replace $`W`$ by $`gW`$, where $`g`$ belongs to the group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of KP flows, then conjugation by $`g`$ defines an isomorphism of $`𝒟(gW)`$ with $`𝒟(W)`$ which is the identity on $`𝒟^0`$, so the isomorphism

$$𝒟(gW)𝒟(W)\stackrel{\varphi }{}𝒟(X_n)$$

defines the same framed mad subalgebra as $`\varphi `$. It follows that we have constructed a well-defined map

(8.6)
$$𝒞_n/\mathrm{\Gamma }\{\text{classes of framed mad subalgebras in}𝒟(X_n)\}.$$

###### Theorem 8.7.

The map (8.6) is a set-theoretical bijection.

We will explain the proof elsewhere. Since the (categorical) quotient $`𝒞_n//\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is $`n`$-dimensional, we should like to interpret $`n`$ as the dimension of the “space” of (classes of framed) mad subalgebras of $`𝒟(X_n)`$. However, the word “space” here is open to even more serious objections than in the preceding subsection.

### Notes

1. In the definition of a framed mad subalgebra $`(B,u)`$ we did not assume a priori that the curve $`\text{Spec}B`$ was free of multiple points (indeed, that was not proved in \[LM\]). This momentary inconsistency of terminology is resolved by Theorem 8.7, which asserts (inter alia) that every mad subalgebra $`B`$ arises from the construction described above; in particular, that $`\text{Spec}B`$ is a framed curve as defined earlier.
2. In the case $`n=0`$, the left hand side of (8.6) is a point, so Theorem 8.7 becomes a well known result of Dixmier: in the Weyl algebra there is only one class of mad subalgebras (see \[D\]).

## 9. Higher dimensions

### The examples of Levasseur, Smith and Stafford

Let $`𝔤`$ be a simple complex Lie algebra, and let $`O`$ be the closure of the minimal nilpotent orbit in $`𝔤`$. Let $`𝔤=𝔫_{}𝔥𝔫_+`$ be a triangular decomposition of $`𝔤`$; then $`O𝔫_+`$ breaks up into several irreducible components $`X_i`$. In \[LSS\] it is shown that in some cases the ring $`𝒟(X_i)`$ can be identified with $`U(𝔤)/J`$, where $`J`$ is a certain distinguished completely prime primitive ideal of $`U(𝔤)`$ (the Joseph ideal). The examples of differential isomorphism arise in the case $`𝔤=𝔰𝔬(2n,)`$ (with $`n5`$), because in that case there are two nonisomorphic components $`X_1`$ and $`X_2`$ of this kind. They can be described quite explicitly: $`X_1`$ is the quadric cone $`z_i^2=0`$ in $`^{2n2}`$, and $`X_2`$ is the space of skew-symmetric $`n\times n`$ matrices of rank $`2`$. In contrast to what we saw for curves, these spaces $`X_1`$ and $`X_2`$ are quite different topologically.

### Morita equivalence

There are several papers that study differential equivalence in dimension $`>1`$. In view of Theorem 3.2, attention has focused on the question of when a variety $`X`$ is differentially equivalent to its normalization $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$. Of course, in dimension $`>1`$ the normalization is not necessarily smooth: in \[J1\] there are examples of differential equivalence in which $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$ is not smooth (they can be thought of as generalizations of the monomial curves of Example 5.3). Another point that does not arise for curves is that the condition that $`X`$ be Cohen-Macaulay plays an important role (we recall that every curve is Cohen-Macaulay). For example, a theorem of Van den Bergh states that if $`𝒟(X)`$ is simple, then $`X`$ must be Cohen-Macaulay (see \[VdB\], Theorem 6.2.5). For varieties with smooth normalization, there are good generalizations of at least some parts of Theorem 3.2. For example, piecing together various results scattered through the literature, we can get the following.

###### Theorem 9.1.

Let $`X`$ be an (irreducible) affine variety with smooth normalization $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$. Then the following are equivalent.

1. The normalization map $`\pi :\stackrel{~}{X}X`$ is bijective and $`X`$ is Cohen-Macaulay.
2. The algebras $`𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X})`$ and $`𝒟(X)`$ are Morita equivalent.
3. The ring $`𝒟(X)`$ is simple.

Beautiful examples are provided by the varieties of quasi-invariants of finite reflection groups (see \[BEG\], \[BC\]): here $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$ is the affine space $`𝔸^m`$, so these examples are perhaps the natural higher-dimensional generalizations of our framed curves.

#### References for the proof of Theorem 9.1

For the implication “(1) $``$ (2)” in Theorem 9.1 we are relying on the recent preprint \[BN\] (at least in dimension $`>2`$: for surfaces it was proved earlier in \[HS\]). For the rest, the implication “(2) $``$ (3)” is trivial, and the fact that $`𝒟(X)`$ simple implies $`X`$ Cohen-Macaulay is the theorem of Van den Bergh mentioned above. The only remaining assertion in Theorem 9.1 is that if $`𝒟(X)`$ is simple then $`\pi `$ is bijective. Suppose $`𝒟(X)`$ is simple. Then by \[SS\], 3.3, $`𝒟(X)`$ is isomorphic to the endomorphism ring of the right $`𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X})`$-module $`P`$ defined by (3.1); the dual basis lemma then implies that $`P`$ is a projective $`𝒟(\stackrel{~}{X})`$-module. It now follows from \[CS\], Theorem 3.1 that $`𝒟(X)`$ is a maximal order, then from \[CS\], Corollary 3.4 that $`\pi `$ is bijective.

### Non-affine varieties

In this paper we have considered only affine varieties. However, the problem of differential equivalence has an obvious generalization to arbitrary (for example, projective) varieties $`X`$. Namely: on $`X`$ we have the sheaf $`𝒟_X`$ of differential operators (whose sections over an affine open set $`\text{Spec}A`$ are the ring $`𝒟(A)`$), and given two varieties $`X`$ and $`Y`$, we can ask whether the categories of $`𝒪`$-quasicoherent sheaves of modules over $`𝒟_X`$ and $`𝒟_Y`$ are equivalent. For $`X`$ affine, the global section functor gives an equivalence between the categories of $`𝒟_X`$-modules and of $`𝒟(X)`$-modules, so we recover our original problem. The available evidence (namely \[SS\] and \[BN\]) suggests that results about the affine case carry over to this more general situation.

The question of differential isomorphism does not make sense for sheaves; however, we can always consider the ring $`𝒟(X)`$ of global sections of $`𝒟_X`$, and ask when $`𝒟(X)`$ and $`𝒟(Y)`$ are isomorphic. In general, $`𝒟(X)`$ may be disappointingly small: for example, if $`X`$ is a smooth projective curve of genus $`>1`$, then we have no global vector fields, so $`𝒟(X)=`$. Probably the question is a sensible one only if $`X`$ is close to being a $`𝒟`$-affine variety (for which the global section functor still gives an equivalence between $`𝒟_X`$-modules and $`𝒟(X)`$-modules). As far as we know, there are not yet any papers on this subject: however, the question of Morita eqivalence of rings $`𝒟(X)`$ has been studied in \[HoS\] (where $`X=^1`$, this being the only $`𝒟`$-affine smooth projective curve); and in \[J2\] (where $`X`$ is a weighted projective space). We should like to state one of the results of \[HoS\], since it is very close to our framed curves. Let $`X`$ be a “framed projective curve”, that is, we have a bijective normalization map $`^1X`$. Then Holland and Stafford show that the rings $`𝒟(X)`$ (for $`X`$ singular) are all Morita equivalent to each other, but not to $`𝒟(^1)`$. A key point is that the although $`^1`$ is $`𝒟`$-affine, the singular curves $`X`$ are not.

Acknowledgments. The authors were partially supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) grant DMS 00-71792 and an A. P. Sloan Research Fellowship. The second author is grateful to the Mathematics Department of Cornell University for its hospitality during the preparation of this article.


text:
# 1 The dependence of the full energy of the charge-dyon system via the radius of infinitely high quantum dot for ℓ={0;0.5;1;1.5} cases (left figure).

L.G. Mardoyan1, L.S. Petrosyan2, H.A. Sarkisyan3

The charge-dyon bound system in the spherical quantum well

Yerevan State University,

1, Alex Manoogian, 375025, Yerevan, Armenia

The spherical wave functions of charge-dyon bounded system in a rectangular spherical quantum dot of infinitely and finite height are calculated. The transcendent equations, defining the energy spectra of the systems are obtained. The dependence of the energy levels from the wall sizes is found.

11footnotetext: e-mail: mardoyan@icas.ysu.am33footnotetext: e-mail: lpetros@www.physdep.r.am22footnotetext: e-mail: shayk@www.physdep.r.am

It is known , that the charge-dyon system possesses the hidden symmetry, and the group of hidden symmetry for discrete spectrum is $`SO(4)`$, and for the continuous spectrum is $`SO(3,1)`$. Let’s remind, that the dyon is a hypothetical particle, introduced by Schwinger , which serves as a source of both electrical and magnetic fields. The problem of charge-dyon system due to the hidden symmetry can be factorized not only in spherical but also in parabolic coordinates.

In the present article the charge-dyon bounded system is considered in a spherical quantum dot of finite height. As a cause of such investigation on the one hand served the recently established fact (named dyon-oscillator duality). According to this fact 4-dimensional isotropic oscillator is dual to the 3-dimensional charge-dyon system \[3-5\]. However, the property of dyon-oscillator duality is inherent not only to $`\mathrm{I}\mathrm{R}^4\mathrm{I}\mathrm{R}^3`$ mapping, but to $`\mathrm{I}\mathrm{R}^1\mathrm{I}\mathrm{R}^1`$, $`\mathrm{I}\mathrm{R}^2\mathrm{I}\mathrm{R}^2`$ $`\mathrm{I}\mathrm{R}^8\mathrm{I}\mathrm{R}^5`$, mappings as well. In the first two cases one-dimensional and two-dimensional anyons are obtained at the output , in third case non-Abelian Yang monopole arise .

On the other hand, due to the Hamiltonian of the system, factorable in the same coordinates, as in the case of the hydrogen-like system, it becomes possible to state that this Hamiltonian serves as a generalization of the hydrogen-like system in case of magnetic charge. From this point of view the considered problem is the generalization of the well- known problem of the hydrogen-like system behavior inside semiconductor quantum dots with different confinement potentials \[9-13\]. In other words it should be expected, that in some cases energy levels of charge-dyon system are analogical to hydrogen-like levels inside quantum dot. In this connection let’s mention that the behavior of the hydrogen-like system in a rectangular spherical quantum dot of finite height has been investigated in .

Let’s consider the charge-dyon bounded system inside potential sphere with confinement potential, which looks like

$`U(r)=\{\begin{array}{cc}0,r<r_0;\hfill & \\ U_0,rr_0.\hfill & \end{array}`$
The Schrödinger equation of such system can be written as

$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{}{x_j}}i{\displaystyle \frac{e}{\mathrm{}c}}A_j\right)^2\psi +{\displaystyle \frac{2\mu }{\mathrm{}^2}}\left[E+{\displaystyle \frac{e^2}{r}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2s^2}{2\mu r^2}}U(r)\right]\psi =0,`$ (1)
with the vector potential

$`\stackrel{}{A}={\displaystyle \frac{g}{r(r+z)}}(y,x,0)`$
which corresponds to the Dirac monopole  with the magnetic charge $`g=\frac{\mathrm{}cs}{e}`$ ($`s=0,\pm \frac{1}{2},\pm 1,\mathrm{}`$), and singularity axis at $`z>0`$.

We look for the solution of Eq.(1) in spherical coordinates as

$`\psi (r,\theta ,\phi )=R(r)Z(\theta ){\displaystyle \frac{e^{im\phi }}{\sqrt{2\pi }}},`$ (2)
where $`m=|s|,|s|+1,\mathrm{},|s|1,|s|`$. Now, inserting Eq.(2) into Eq.(1), which is the Schrödinger equation in spherical coordinates we come to the following pair of ordinary differential equations

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}\theta }}{\displaystyle \frac{d}{d\theta }}\left(\mathrm{sin}\theta {\displaystyle \frac{dZ}{d\theta }}\right)\left[{\displaystyle \frac{(ms)^2}{2(1\mathrm{cos}\theta )}}+{\displaystyle \frac{(m+s)^2}{2(1+\mathrm{cos}\theta )}}\right]Z+\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)Z=0,`$ (3)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dr}}\left(r^2{\displaystyle \frac{dR}{dr}}\right){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)}{r^2}}R+{\displaystyle \frac{2\mu }{\mathrm{}^2}}\left(E+{\displaystyle \frac{e^2}{r}}U(r)\right)R=0,`$ (4)
where $`\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)`$ is a separation constant, and $`\mathrm{}`$ is a non-negative integer or a half-integer which accepts the following values

$`\mathrm{}={\displaystyle \frac{|ms|+|m+s|}{2}},{\displaystyle \frac{|ms|+|m+s|}{2}}+1,\mathrm{}.`$
Fermion values of orbital moment are conditioned by the dyon magnetic charge.

The solution of Eq.(3) normalized by the condition

$`{\displaystyle _0^\pi }Z_{\mathrm{}ms}(\theta )Z_{\mathrm{}^{}ms}(\theta )\mathrm{sin}\theta d\theta =\delta _{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}^{}}`$
is the form

$`Z_{\mathrm{}ms}(\theta )=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2\mathrm{}+1)}{4\pi }}}d_{ms}^{\mathrm{}}(\theta ),`$
where $`d_{ms}^{\mathrm{}}(\theta )`$ is the Wigner function .

For the radial equation (4) we obtain two solutions, which satisfy standard conditions inside quantum dot ($`r<r_0`$) and outside it ($`rr_0`$)

$`R(r)=\{\begin{array}{cc}R_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}(r)=C_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}e^{\gamma _1r}r^{\mathrm{}}F(\mathrm{}+1k_1;2\mathrm{}+2;2\gamma _1r),r<r_0;\hfill & \\ & \\ R_{k_2\mathrm{}}^{(2)}(r)=C_{k_2\mathrm{}}^{(2)}e^{\gamma _2r}r^{\mathrm{}}U(\mathrm{}+1k_2;2\mathrm{}+2;2\gamma _2r),rr_0,\hfill & \end{array}`$ (5)
where

$`\gamma _1^2={\displaystyle \frac{2\mu E}{\mathrm{}^2}},\gamma _2^2={\displaystyle \frac{2\mu (EU_0)}{\mathrm{}^2}},k_1^2={\displaystyle \frac{\mu e^4}{2\mathrm{}^2E}},k_2^2={\displaystyle \frac{\mu e^4}{2\mathrm{}^2(EU_0)}},`$
$`F(\alpha ;\beta ;x)`$ and $`U(\alpha ;\beta ;x)`$ are confluent hypergeometrical functions of the first and the second kind, consequently.

Radial wave function normality condition can be written as

$`{\displaystyle _0^{r_0}}r^2\left[R_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}(r)\right]^2𝑑r+{\displaystyle _{r_0}^{\mathrm{}}}r^2\left[R_{k_2\mathrm{}}^{(2)}(r)\right]^2𝑑r=1.`$ (6)
From the continuity condition for the logarithmic derivative of the radial wave functions $`R_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}(r)`$ and $`R_{k_2\mathrm{}}^{(2)}(r)`$ in $`r=r_0`$ point

$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{ln}R_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}}{dr}}\right)_{r=r_0}=\left({\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{ln}R_{k_2\mathrm{}}^{(2)}}{dr}}\right)_{r=r_0}`$ (7)
we obtain, that $`C_{k_2\mathrm{}}^{(2)}=C_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}A_{k_1k_2\mathrm{}}`$, where

$`A_{k_1k_2\mathrm{}}={\displaystyle \frac{e^{(\gamma _2\gamma _1)r_0}F(\mathrm{}+1k_1;2\mathrm{}+2;2\gamma _1r_0)}{U(\mathrm{}+1k_2;2\mathrm{}+2;2\gamma _2r_0)}}.`$
Then, using the normality condition (6), for $`C_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}`$ we obtain the expression

$`C_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}=\left[I_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}+A_{k_1k_2\mathrm{}}^2I_{k_2\mathrm{}}^{(2)}\right]^{1/2},`$
where

$`I_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}={\displaystyle _0^{r_0}}e^{2\gamma _1r}r^{2\mathrm{}+2}\left[F(\mathrm{}+1k_1;2\mathrm{}+2;2\gamma _1r)\right]^2𝑑r,`$
$`I_{k_2\mathrm{}}^{(2)}={\displaystyle _{r_0}^{\mathrm{}}}e^{2\gamma _2r}r^{2\mathrm{}+2}\left[U(\mathrm{}+1k_2;2\mathrm{}+2;2\gamma _2r)\right]^2𝑑r.`$
Then wave functions (5) can be rewritten in the following form

$`R(r)=\{\begin{array}{cc}R_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}(r)=C_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}e^{\gamma _1r}r^{\mathrm{}}F(\mathrm{}+1k_1;2\mathrm{}+2;2\gamma _1r),r<r_0;\hfill & \\ & \\ R_{k_2\mathrm{}}^{(2)}(r)=C_{k_1\mathrm{}}^{(1)}A_{k_1k_2\mathrm{}}e^{\gamma _2r}r^{\mathrm{}}U(\mathrm{}+1k_2;2\mathrm{}+2;2\gamma _2r),rr_0.\hfill & \end{array}`$ (8)
Now, using the relationship (8) from the condition (7) we obtain a transcendental equation, defining the spectrum of the charge-dyon bounded system in the spherical quantum dot

$`\gamma _1{\displaystyle \frac{2\gamma _1(\mathrm{}+1k_1)F(\mathrm{}+2k_1;2\mathrm{}+3;2\gamma _1r_0)}{(2\mathrm{}+2)F(\mathrm{}+1k_1;2\mathrm{}+2;2\gamma _1r_0)}}=`$
$`=\gamma _2+{\displaystyle \frac{2\gamma _2(\mathrm{}+1k_2)U(\mathrm{}+2k_2;2\mathrm{}+3;2\gamma _2r_0)}{U(\mathrm{}+1k_2;2\mathrm{}+2;2\gamma _2r_0)}}.`$
Let us note that the spectrum of the charge-dyon system is

$`E_n={\displaystyle \frac{\mu e^4}{2\mathrm{}^2n^2}},`$
where $`n=1,3/2,2\mathrm{}`$ is a principal quantum number, and the multiplicity of degeneration of the energy levels at fixed $`n`$ and $`s`$ is

$`g_n^s=(ns)(n+s).`$
The curves of energy dependencies of the charge-dyon system in the spherical infinitely high potential well via well radius $`r_0`$ (in $`E_R`$ and $`a_B`$) for $`\mathrm{}=0;0.5;1;1.5`$ cases are shown on Fig. 1. As it follows from this figure, at small $`r_0`$ the arrangement of the levels corresponds to the one, which takes place when single particle falls into infinitely potential well. The only difference is that besides the well-known levels, which correspond to the integer values of $`\mathrm{}`$, intermediate levels with fermion values of $`\mathrm{}=0.5;1.5`$ exist in this case. As is visible from Fig. 1 at small $`r_0`$ for given $`n_r=n\mathrm{}1`$ they are arranged between levels with integer $`\mathrm{}`$ as $`\mathrm{}`$ increases. At the increase in $`r_0`$ charge-dyon interaction becomes more essential and levels pass to ones, which correspond to the free charge-dyon system. In other words the level degeneracy which corresponds to the charge-dyon free system is step by step reestablished at the increase in $`r_0`$. In particular, $`2S`$ level crosses the lowest level with $`\mathrm{}=1.5`$ and joins $`2P`$ level on the same curve. In its turn the first level with $`\mathrm{}=1.5`$ joins the second level $`\mathrm{}=0.5`$. At that all these levels go down at increasing $`r_0`$.

On Fig.2 the same $`E(r_0)`$ dependence is shown for the case of the well of finite height $`(U_0=5E_R)`$. In the case of large $`r_0`$ the behavior of curves is analogous with the one, which takes place at consideration of infinitely high well. As $`r_0`$ decreases at first the influence of walls rise in analogy with the upper considered case, that is why the levels are arranged as in infinitely high spherical well. However, at too small values of $`r_0`$ the role of the ”first medium” $`(r<r_0)`$ becomes inessential. In accordance with this fact the energy levels of the system pass to those, which take place for the charge-dyon system, but shifted up by the values $`U_0`$, i.e. $`EU_0E_R/n^2`$. It explains the joining of curves (e.g. $`2P`$ and $`2S`$) at $`r_00`$.

Thus, the presence of competition between the energy of the charge interaction with the well walls and energy of charge-dyon interaction is typical for both cases. At comparatively small radii of the well (we don’t mean the values $`r_00`$) the main contribution in the energy of the system is conditioned by repulsing potential of the well walls, that’s why the levels are positive. The charge-dyon interaction begins to play the main role at increasing $`r_0`$ and the levels become negative.

On Fig.3 the curves of the observed system’s energy dependence via the height of the well $`E(U_0)`$ are presented (in $`E_R`$ units). As it should be expected, at increasing $`U_0`$ the levels go up. At that the lower levels, beginning from some $`U_0`$ almost don’t feel the enlargement of the well height.

Now let’s consider the point, the analogical to which plays an important role in the theory of impurity states in quantum dots. Usually, in solid state problems along with the energy of impurity – quantum dot system one has to calculate the binding energy of the impurity inside quantum dot as well. This energy is defined as the difference between the energies of the free and impurity electron inside the quantum dot . Translating it to the language of the problem under the consideration, it is necessary to find the difference between the energies, in one case defined by the Eq.(1), in other case defined by the analogical equation, but without Coulomb interaction term $`e^2/r`$. For that we find wave functions and energy spectrum of the equation

$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{}{x_j}}i{\displaystyle \frac{e}{\mathrm{}c}}A_j\right)^2\psi ^{(0)}+{\displaystyle \frac{2\mu }{\mathrm{}^2}}\left[E_0{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2s^2}{2\mu r^2}}U(r)\right]\psi ^{(0)}=0.`$ (9)
The angular part of the Eq.(10) coincides with Eq.(3). For radial part we come to the equation

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dr}}\left(r^2{\displaystyle \frac{dR^{(0)}}{dr}}\right){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)}{r^2}}R^{(0)}+{\displaystyle \frac{2\mu }{\mathrm{}^2}}\left(E_0U(r)\right)R^{(0)}=0.`$ (10)
The solutions of the Eq.(10) inside and outside the well are given by the following expressions

$`R^{(0)}(r)=\{\begin{array}{cc}R_{k_0\mathrm{}}^{(1)}(r)=C_{k_0\mathrm{}}j_{\mathrm{}}(k_0r),r<r_0;\hfill & \\ & \\ R_k\mathrm{}^{(2)}(r)=A_k\mathrm{}C_k\mathrm{}\frac{1}{\sqrt{r}}K_{\mathrm{}+\frac{1}{2}}(kr),rr_0,\hfill & \end{array}`$
where $`k_0=\sqrt{2\mu E/\mathrm{}^2}`$, $`k=\sqrt{2\mu (U_0E)/\mathrm{}^2}`$, $`j_{\mathrm{}}(x)`$ is Bessel spherical function, $`K_{\mathrm{}+\frac{1}{2}}(x)`$ is McDonald function, and

$`A_{k_0k\mathrm{}}={\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{r}_0j_{\mathrm{}}(k_0r_0)}{K_{\mathrm{}+\frac{1}{2}}(kr_0)}},C_{k_0k\mathrm{}}^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{I_{k_0\mathrm{}}+A_k\mathrm{}^2I_k\mathrm{}}},`$
$`I_{k_0\mathrm{}}={\displaystyle _0^{r_0}}r^2\left[j_{\mathrm{}}(k_0r)\right]^2𝑑r,I_k\mathrm{}={\displaystyle _{r_0}^{\mathrm{}}}r^2\left[K_{\mathrm{}+\frac{1}{2}}(kr)\right]^2𝑑r.`$
From the continuity condition of logarithmical derivatives of $`R_{k_0\mathrm{}}^{(1)}`$ and $`R_k\mathrm{}^{(2)}`$ in $`r=r_0`$ point we come to the transcendent equation, which defines the energy spectrum $`E_0`$ of an electron, described by the Eq.(9).

$`{\displaystyle \frac{j_{\mathrm{}}^{}(k_0r_0)}{j_{\mathrm{}}(k_0r_0)}}={\displaystyle \frac{\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{r}}K_{\mathrm{}+\frac{1}{2}}(kr_0)\right)^{}}{\frac{1}{\sqrt{r}}K_{\mathrm{}+\frac{1}{2}}(kr_0)}}.`$
On Fig.4 the curves of electron energy $`E_0`$ dependencies via well radius $`r_0`$ are shown for the values $`\mathrm{}=0;0.5;1;1.5`$. Let’s mention at once, that the appearence of levels has threshold character, i.e. at increasing well height $`U_0`$ other new levels arise. The arrangement of levels is analogical to the one, which takes place for single particle in spherical well of finite depth. As $`r_0`$ increases all levels come closer to each other and go lower. Here due to the presence of magnetic charge besides the well-known levels with integer values of $`\mathrm{}`$ intermediate levels with half-integer values of $`\mathrm{}`$ arise as well.

Now, defining the analogy to the binding energy of charge-dyon system in quantum dot as the $`E_b=E_0E`$ difference, one can plot $`E_b(r_0)`$ for different values of $`\mathrm{}`$. This dependence is presented on Fig.5. According to this figure, at large $`r_0`$, when the influence of well walls is inessential, $`E_b`$ levels by absolute value tend to ones, which are typical for the free system of charge-dyon. In particular the ground level (continuous curve) tends to $`E_R`$ value. At decreasing $`r_0`$ the influence of walls increases, which results in increasing levels. After the levels achieved their maximal value, the levels begin to go down, since the influence of well walls at to small radii begins to weaken. It looks like the particle jumps out from the well. Let’s mention, that the analogical situation is observed in solid state problems (see, e.g. ).

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Dr. Armen Nersessian for useful discussions.

The research of L.S. Petrosyan and H.A. Sarkisyan supported by INTAS grants No. 99-00928 and 0175WP.

The work of L.G. Mardoyan supported by the ANSEF grant No. PS81.