text:
# The Real Scalar Field in Schwarzchild-de Sitter SpacetimeSupported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 10275008.

## 1
Introduction

I. Brevik and B. Simonsen $`[1]`$ solved the real scalar field equation in Schwarzchild-de Sitter spacetime numerically. They approximated the tortoise coordinate $`x=x(r)`$ by the ‘tangent’ function $`\stackrel{~}{r}=\stackrel{~}{r}(x)`$ and replaced the potential function $`v=v(r)`$ by $`v=v(\stackrel{~}{r})=v(x)`$. The tortoise coordinate $`x`$ was introduced to simply the real scalar field equation. Then they solved the equation by Matlab software, and found that the solution in SDS system is close to that of a harmonic wave $`[1]`$.

In the present paper, we continue the previous work and investigate the solution of the real scalar field equation in Schwarzchild-de Sitter spacetime. In section 2, we will introduce a new method, referred to as the ‘polynomial’ approximation, to get the relation between the tortoise coordinate $`x`$ and the radius $`r`$. This approximation is different from the ‘tangent’ approximation introduced by I. Brevik and B. Simonsen $`[1]`$, and approximates the curve of the tortoise coordinate $`x`$ versus the radius $`r`$ more accurately. Then we solve the real scalar field equation by Matlab software. The solution illustrated in figures demonstrates that the solution of the real scalar field equation in Schwarzschild-de Sitter spacetime is not harmonic globally in contrast to the result from the work in Ref.(1).

We adopt the signature ($`+++`$), put$`\mathrm{},c,`$and $`G`$ (Newton’s gravitational constant) equal to unity, and follow the conventions of Misner $`et`$ $`al.[2]`$

## 2 Global Solution of the Real Scalar Field Equation in Schwarzschild- de Sitter spacetime

### 2.1
Horizons

With our conventions Einstein’s equations read

$$R_{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{2}Rg_{\mu \nu }+\mathrm{\Lambda }g_{\mu \nu }=8\pi T_{\mu \nu }.$$
(1)
For a spherically symmetric system the line element takes the form

$$ds^2=f(r)dt^2+\frac{1}{f(r)}dr^2+r^2d\theta ^2+r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2.$$
(2)
In our case

$$f(r)=1\frac{2M}{r}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }r^2}{3},$$
(3)
where $`M`$ is the mass of the black hole. I. Brevik and B. Simonsen have discussed that when $`\mathrm{\Lambda }M^2<\frac{1}{9}`$, equation $`f(r)=0`$ has three real solutions. They are event horizon $`r_e,`$cosmological horizon $`r_c`$ and a negative solution $`r_o`$, with $`r_e>0`$, $`r_c>0`$, $`r_o=(r_c+r_e).`$The choice $`\mathrm{\Lambda }M^2=0.11`$ leads to $`r_e=2.8391M`$ and $`r_c=3.1878M`$.

### 2.2
The Wave Function

The real scalar field equaion in this case can be written as

$$\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Phi }=\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_{,tt}}{f(r)}+\frac{1}{r^2}\left[r^2f(r)\mathrm{\Phi }_{,r}\right]_{,r}+\frac{1}{r^2\mathrm{sin}\theta }\left[(\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{\Phi }_{,\theta })_{,\theta }+\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_{,\phi \phi }}{\mathrm{sin}\theta }\right]=0.$$
(4)
Let

$$\mathrm{\Phi }=\frac{1}{r}\mathrm{\Psi }_{\omega l}(r)e^{i\omega t}Y_{lm}(\theta ,\phi ),$$
(5)
where $`Y_{lm}`$ is the usual spherical harmonic. We have

$$\left[f(r)\frac{d}{dr}\left(f(r)\frac{d}{dr}\right)+v(r)\right]\mathrm{\Psi }_{\omega l}(r)=\omega ^2\mathrm{\Psi }_{\omega l}(r),$$
(6)
where $`v(r)`$ is the potential

$$v(r)=f(r)\left[\frac{f^{}(r)}{r}+\frac{l(l+1)}{r^2}\right]=\left(1\frac{2M}{r}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }r^2}{3}\right)\left(\frac{2M}{r^3}\frac{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}+\frac{2}{r^2}\right).$$
(7)
$`l`$ is taken as unity here. We now introduce the tortoise coordinate $`x`$ by the equation

$$x=\frac{1}{2M}\frac{dr}{f(r)}.$$
(8)
This quantity is conveniently expressed in terms of the surface gravities $`\kappa _i,`$ defined by

$$\kappa _i=\frac{1}{2}\left|\frac{df}{dr}\right|_{r=r_i}.$$
(9)
We get

$$\kappa _e=\frac{\left(r_cr_e\right)\left(r_er_o\right)}{6r_e}\mathrm{\Lambda },$$
(10)
$$\kappa _c=\frac{\left(r_cr_e\right)\left(r_cr_o\right)}{6r_c}\mathrm{\Lambda },$$
(11)
$$\kappa _o=\frac{\left(r_or_e\right)\left(r_cr_o\right)}{6r_o}\mathrm{\Lambda },$$
(12)
The tortoise coordinate can now be written as

$$x=\frac{1}{2M}\left[\frac{1}{2\kappa _e}\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{r}{r_e}1\right)\frac{1}{2\kappa _c}\mathrm{ln}\left(1\frac{r}{r_c}\right)+\frac{1}{2\kappa _o}\mathrm{ln}\left(1\frac{r}{r_o}\right)\right].$$
(13)
From Eq. (8), we get

$$dx/dr=\frac{1}{2f(r)}.$$
(14)
So Eq. (6) is rewritten as

$$\left[\frac{d^2}{dx^2}+4M^2v\right]\mathrm{\Psi }_{\omega l}(x)=4M^2\omega ^2\mathrm{\Psi }_{\omega l}(x),$$
(15)
where $`v`$ is now a function of $`x.`$

$$v=v(x).$$
(16)
### 2.3 Boundary Conditions and Results

To proceed further, we need the inversion $`r=r(x)`$ of the tortoise coordinate $`x=x(r)`$ to get $`v=v(r)=v(r(x))=v(x)`$. But it is difficult to invert Eq. (13). In order to get the function $`r=r(x)`$, we turn to the numerical way. For Eq. (13) is a one to one mapping function, we use the command ‘polyfit’ in Matlab software to get a new function $`y=y(x)=_{i=0}^na_ix^i`$, $`nN`$, $`iN`$, to approximate tortoise coordinate $`r=r(x)`$. In different interval of the radius $`r`$, the function $`y`$ has different form. In the same interval, $`n`$ is determined by the demand of our approximation accuracy. The bigger $`n`$ is, the higher the accuracy is. Now we put $`M=1`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.11`$ and consider Nariai black hole $`[1].`$ Thus the horizons are $`r_e=2.8391`$ and $`r_c=3.1878.`$ In the interval $`r[2.83908,3.18775]`$, we have

$$y=\underset{i=0}{\overset{20}{}}a_ix^i.$$
(17)
$`\{a_i\}`$ are displayed in $`Table`$ $`1.`$

The curve of $`y`$ versus the tortoise coordinate $`x`$ and the curve of the radius $`r`$ versus the tortoise coordinate $`x`$ are illustrated in Figure 1, from which we know that the two curves overlap with each other in the interval $`r[2.83908,3.18775]`$. In figures, point A denotes the position at which the potential peak is. Now we see that the function $`y`$ may be better as an approximation to Eq. (13) than the tangent function  $`\stackrel{~}{r}=15\mathrm{tan}[b(rd)+5]`$, with $`b=2.7/(r_cr_e)`$, $`d=(r_c+r_e)/2`$. The curve of $`\stackrel{~}{r}`$ versus the tortoise coordinate $`x`$ and the curve of the radius $`r`$ versus the radius $`x`$ were illustrated in Ref. (1).

Now inserting $`y=y(x)`$ into form (7) instead of $`r=r(x)`$, we obtain the potential $`v`$ as a function of $`x`$

$$v=v(x).$$
(18)
The curve of $`v`$ versus $`x`$ from equation (13) and the curve of $`v`$ versus $`x`$ from the approximation (17) is illustrated in Figure 2. The curve of $`v`$ versus $`y`$ and the curve of $`v`$ versus the radius $`r`$ are illustrated in Figure 3. Figure 2 and Figure 3 show that our approximation is good.

We set $`v=0`$ near the horizons. Thus Eq. (15) becomes

$$\left[\frac{d^2}{dx^2}\right]\mathrm{\Psi }_{\omega l}(x)=4\mathrm{\Psi }_{\omega l}(x),$$
(19)
which has the following solution

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_{\omega l}(x)=\mathrm{cos}(2x).$$
(20)
Therefore, we have

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_{\omega l}(x=100)=\mathrm{\Psi }_{\omega l}(x=100)=\mathrm{cos}(200).$$
(21)
The above numerical values are used in the boundary conditions when Eq. (15) is solved with the Matlab software. The solution is illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5. These two figures show that the wave function near the horizons is harmonic, but it isn’t in the region where the potential gets its peak value. There is a largest amplitude at $`x=3.1431`$ near the point $`x=2.8582`$. While the potential peak $`v=7.5\times 10^4`$ appears at $`x=2.8582.`$When $`r`$ trends to the point $`x=3.1431,`$ the amplitude of the wave increases step by step. I. Brevik and B. Simonsen  illustrated the partial solution of Eq. (15) and mentioned that the solution is close to that of a harmonic wave. Now we find that the wave function $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\omega l}`$ is not harmonic globally.

The case when $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.001`$ will not be discussed here again. Its result is similar to the one when $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.11`$. But one thing should be mentioned. It is that, When $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ decreases, the potential peak increases. So does the largest amplitude of the wave.

## 3
Summary

### 3.1 What We Have Done

In this paper, we introduce a new method called ‘polynomial’ approximation to approximate the tortoise coordinate $`x=x(r).`$ And we find that the solution of the real scalar field equation in Schwarzchild-de Sitter spacetime is harmonic near the horizons as I. Brevik and B. Simonsen $`[1]`$ found, and that it isn’t near the position where the potential gets its peak value, with higher wave peaks and lower troughs appearing instead.

### 3.2 About the Reflection and Transmission Coefficient

In this paper, we did not calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients. The reason is that there are many square potentials  to describe a common potential $`v=v(x)`$. Each square potential gives out a reflection coefficient and a transmission coefficient by the method adopted in I. Brevik and B. Simonsen’s paper . Different square potential gives out different reflection coefficient and transmission coefficient.

$$Table1.\text{the coefficients in function }y=y(x)$$

| $`a_0=2.9817`$ | $`a_1=6.5107\times 10^3`$ | $`a_2=4.0912\times 10^5`$ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| $`a_3=2.9913\times 10^6`$ | $`a_4=3.4895\times 10^8`$ | $`a_5=1.6009\times 10^9`$ |
| $`a_6=2.3413\times 10^{11}`$ | $`a_7=8.0083\times 10^{13}`$ | $`a_8=1.1964\times 10^{14}`$ |
| $`a_9=3.3845\times 10^{16}`$ | $`a_{10}=4.3110\times 10^{18}`$ | $`a_{11}=1.0899\times 10^{19}`$ |
| $`a_{12}=1.0120\times 10^{21}`$ | $`a_{13}=2.4364\times 10^{23}`$ | $`a_{14}=1.4031\times 10^{25}`$ |
| $`a_{15}=3.4329\times 10^{27}`$ | $`a_{16}=9.5242\times 10^{30}`$ | $`a_{17}=2.6439\times 10^{31}`$ |
| $`a_{18}=1.5652\times 10^{34}`$ | $`a_{19}=8.0402\times 10^{36}`$ | $`a_{20}=4.3262\times 10^{39}`$ |


format: text

text:
# Color Ferromagnetism in Quark Matter

## Abstract

We show a possibility that there exists a color ferromagnetic state in quark matter, in which a color magnetic field is spontaneously generated. The state arises between the hadronic state and the color superconducting state when the density of quarks is varied. Although the state ( Savvidy state ) has been known to involve unstable modes of gluons, we show that the modes compose a quantum Hall state to stabilize the ferromagnetic state. We also show that the order of the phase transition between the state and the quark gluon plasma is of the first order.

preprint: TH-875

Quark matter possesses several phase structures when its temperature and densiy are varied; the hadronic phase, the quark gluon plasma phase, and the color superconducting phase. Especially, recent progress in the color superconducting phase has been paid much attention. The superconducting phase is realized as dynamical effects of quark matter, namely, the condensation of Cooper pairs of quarks due to instability of Fermi surface of quark gas against attractive forces. On the other hand, hadronic phase is realized as dynamical effects of gluons, namely, the condensation of color magnetic monopoles. SU(3) gluons become effectively Abelian gluons and color magnetic monopoles at large distance, and the monopoles condense to form a dual superconductor. Therefore, both of these phases are characterized as superconducting states, i.e. electric and magnetic superconductors.

In this letter we point out a possible existence of a color ferromagnetic state in which the color magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{B}`$ is spontaneously generated. It is very intriguing that a quantum Hall state of some gluons, which has been known previously to be unstable modes, is formed to stabilize the ferromagnetic state. Such a quantum Hall state carrying color charges is shown to be possible only when quark matter is present. The quark matter is shown to have lower energy density in the ferromagnetic phase than that in the color superconducting state when the chemical potential is less than approximately $`\sqrt{2eB}`$. On the other hand, when the chemical potential is larger than $`\sqrt{2eB}`$, the energy density in the superconducting phase is lower than that in the ferromagnetic state. Hence, the ferromagnetc phase is expected to arise between the hadronic phase and the superconducting phase. The actual value of $`\sqrt{eB}`$ is a fairly important quantity characterizing the typical energy scale of the state although it is not yet determined in this paper. Here we quote a typical energy scale in QCD, $`eB0.04`$ GeV2 simply for indicating a order of the value. Furthermore, we show that the ferromagnetic phase of quark matter may arise at chemical potentials larger than $`(3\pi eB/4L)^{1/3}180\text{MeV}(eB/0.04\text{GeV}^2)^{1/3}(3\text{fm}/L)^{1/3}`$ where $`L`$ is the radius of the qurak matter produced in heavy ion collisions.

Let us first explain our strategy. We consider mainly the SU(2) gauge theory with massless quarks of two flavours and make a comment on the case of SU(3) gauge theory. We are concerned with the chemical potential around $`5001000`$ MeV so that the coupling is not small. But we assume that the results obtained with the one loop approximation are physically correct. Then, we use the one loop effective potential of color magnetic fields calculated previously . Similarly, quarks in the magnetic field are assumed to be almost free particles, which interact with the spontaneously generated color magnetic field. Thus, important quantities in this paper are the one loop effective potential of the color magnetic fields and the energy density of quarks in the field. By comparing the energy density of the quarks in the color magnetic field with that of the quarks in the BCS state, we find that a ferromagnetic phase is realized energetically for chemical potential less than $`\sqrt{2eB}`$.

As is well known, the effective potential $`V`$ of the constant color magnetic field has the minimum at non-zero magnetic field and also has an imaginaly part at the minimum: $`V=\frac{11}{48\pi ^2}e^2B^2\left(\mathrm{log}(eB/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)\frac{1}{2}\right)\frac{i}{8\pi }e^2B^2`$, with an appropriate renormarization of the gauge coupling $`e`$, where directions of the magnetic field in real space and color space are arbitrary. In any case of their choices the spontaneous generation of the magnetic field breaks the spatial rotational symmetry and the color gauge symmetry. The SU(2) gauge symmetry is broken into the U(1) gauge symmety. This fact has made invalid the adoption of the state as a true vaccum of the gauge theory. This state, however, may be adopted as a state of the gauge field in dense quark matter, which is localized for example in a neutron star or as a nulcear compound object formed by heavy ion collider. The possibility is considered seriously in this paper.

The presence of the imaginary part of the potential leads to excitation of unstable modes around the minimum $`eB_{mim}=\mathrm{\Lambda }^2`$. This is similar to the case that when we expand a potential $`=a^2(|\varphi |^2v^2)^2/4`$ of a scalar field around the local maximum, $`\varphi =0`$, i.e. wrong vacuum, unstable modes are present with their energies $`E`$ such as $`E^2=k^2a^2v^2<0`$. They are excited and eventually lead to the stable vaccum $`\varphi =v`$ with condensation of a constant unstable mode with $`E^2(k=0)=a^2v^2`$. In the gauge theory similar condensations of gluon unstable modes are expected to arise.

In order to explain the unstable modes in the gauge theory, we decompose the gauge fields $`A_\mu ^i`$ such that $`A_\mu =A_\mu ^3,\text{and}\mathrm{\Phi }_\mu =(A_\mu ^1+iA_\mu ^2)/\sqrt{2}`$ where indices $`13`$ denote color components. Then, we may suppose that the field $`A_\mu `$ is the ’electromagnetic’ field of the U(1) gauge symmetry and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mu `$ is the charged vector field,

$`L`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\stackrel{}{F}_{\mu \nu }^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}(_\mu A_\nu _\nu A_\mu )^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}|D_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }_\nu D_\nu \mathrm{\Phi }_\mu |^2`$ (1)
$``$ $`ie(_\mu A_\nu _\nu A_\mu )\mathrm{\Phi }_\mu ^{}\mathrm{\Phi }_\nu +{\displaystyle \frac{e^2}{4}}(\mathrm{\Phi }_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }_\nu ^{}\mathrm{\Phi }_\nu \mathrm{\Phi }_\mu ^{})^2`$ (2)
with $`D_\mu =_\mu +ieA_\mu `$, where we have omitted a gauge term $`D_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }_\mu =0`$. We can derive using the Lagangian that the energy $`E`$ of the charged vector field $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mu e^{iEt}`$ under the magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{B}`$ is given by $`E^2=k_3^2+2eB(n+1/2)\pm 2eB`$ with a gauge choice, $`A_j=(0,x_1B,0)`$ and $`(_\mu +ieA_\mu )\mathrm{\Phi }_\mu =0`$, where we have taken the spatial direction of $`\stackrel{}{B}`$ being along $`x_3`$ axis. $`\pm 2eB`$ ( the integer $`n0`$ ) denote contributions of spin components of $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mu `$ ( Landau levels ) and $`k_3`$ denotes momentum in the direction parallel to the magnetic field. We note that in each Landau level, there are degenerate states in momentum $`k_2`$ with the degeneracy given by $`eB/2\pi `$ per unit area; $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mu e^{ik_2x_2ik_3x_3}f_n(x_1k_2/eB)`$ where $`f_n(x_1k_2/eB)`$ represents Harmonic oscillation of the nth order with its center $`k_2/eB`$ in $`x_1`$.

It turns out from the spectrum that the states with parallel magnetic moment ($`2eB`$) in the lowest Landau level ( $`n=0`$ ) are unstable when $`k_3^2<eB`$. Therefore, we expect from the lesson in the scalar field that the unstable modes are excited and lead eventually to true stable vacuum with the condensation of the unstable modes with $`k_3=0`$. Actualy, there have been several attempts to find the true vacuum by making the condensation of the unstable modes. The difficulty to find the true vacuum is that since the unstable modes are in the lowest Landau level so that the condensation of the modes gives rise to non-uniform state; their wave functions are localized in the coordinate $`x_1`$. Furthermore, it was difficult to see whether or not any unstable modes dispappear in the condesed state. In the final section of the paper, we will see that the excitation of the modes leads to a uniform quantum Hall state ( QHS ) without any unstable modes. Most effecient way to see the uniformness of the QHS is using Chern-Simons gauge theory in $`2+1`$ dimensions.

First, we estimate energies of quarks in the magnetic field and compare energy density of quarks in the field with that of quarks in BCS state. First of all, we note that the energy of the quark in the color magnetic field is given by $`E_{(n,k,s)}=\sqrt{e^{}B(2n+1s)+k^2}`$, where $`e^{}=e/2`$ and $`k`$ is a momentum parallel to the magnetic field and $`s`$ takes a value of $`\pm 1`$, representing spin contributions. Remember that since we are considering SU(2) gauge theory with massless quarks of two flavours, we have two types of quarks whose color charges are positive and negative, respectively for each flavour. Both of the quarks have the identical energy. There are many degenerate states specified by momentum $`k_2`$ in each Landau level. The degeneracy is given by $`4\times e^{}B/2\pi `$ per unit area, where the factor $`4`$ comes from positive and negative color charged quarks with each flavour.

The number density of the quarks is estimated such that $`\rho (e^{}B)=\frac{2e^{}B}{\pi }\left(_{|k|<k_f(n=0)}\frac{dk}{2\pi }+2_{n=1}^{N1}_{|k|<k_f(n)}\frac{dk}{2\pi }\right)=\frac{e^{}B}{\pi ^2}\left(2\sqrt{\epsilon _f^2}+4_{n=1}^{N1}\sqrt{\epsilon _f^22e^{}Bn}\right)`$, with $`k_f(n)=\sqrt{\epsilon _f^22e^{}Bn}`$ and the Fermi energy $`\epsilon _f`$ ( $`\epsilon _f^2=2e^{}BN`$ ), where we have assumed for simplicity that all states in the Landau levels $`nN1`$ are occupied. In the derivation we have used the relation such as $`E_{(n,k,s=1)}=\sqrt{e^{}B(2n+11)+k^2}=E_{(n1,k,s=1)}=\sqrt{e^{}B(2(n1)+1(1))+k^2}`$ for $`n1`$. On the other hand, the energy density of the quarks is given by $`E_{tot}(e^{}B)=\frac{2e^{}B}{\pi }\left(_{|k|<k_f(n=0)}\frac{dk}{2\pi }\sqrt{k^2}+2_{n=1}^{N1}_{|k|<k_f(n)}\frac{dk}{2\pi }\sqrt{k^2+2e^{}Bn}\right)`$

Then, we have proved numerically by equating both densities, $`\rho (e^{}B)=\rho (e^{}B=0)`$ that $`E_{tot}(e^{}B)/E_{tot}(e^{}B=0)<1`$ for any $`N`$, where the ratio goes smoothly to zero ( one ) as $`N`$ goes to zero ( infinity ). In general, from the dimensional analysis the ratio is a function only of the variable, $`\rho ^{2/3}/e^{}B`$. Therefore, we find that the energy density of quarks in the magnetic field with any strength is lower than that of free quarks.

We have estimated numerically how the energy density becomes lower with increasing the Fermi energy,

$$\frac{E_{tot}(e^{}B)E_{tot}(e^{}B=0)}{E_{tot}(e^{}B=0)}=0.266,0.059,0.0268,0.0028$$
(3)
for $`N(=\epsilon _f^2/2e^{}B)=1`$, $`2`$, $`3`$, and $`10`$, respectively. We have also found numerically that the above quantity goes to zero such as $`(E_{tot}(e^{}B)E_{tot}(e^{}B=0)/E_{tot}(e^{}B=0)\epsilon _f^4`$ with $`\epsilon _f`$ increasing.

We should compare these values with those of the energy decrease when the BCS state is realized. The energy decrease may be estimated as follows. That is, only the quarks in the vicinity of the Fermi surface whose width may be given by a gap energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, gain energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ by making Cooper pairs. Thus the decrease of the energy density is given such as $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2\epsilon _f^2`$. Normalizing it by $`E_{tot}(e^{}B=0)`$, we find $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2\epsilon _f^2/E_{tot}(e^{}B=0)\mathrm{\Delta }^2\epsilon _f^2`$. Thus, the decrease of the energy ratio in the BCS state is slower than that of the energy ratio in the ferromagnetic state when the Fermi energy increases. It implies that the energy gain of quarks in the BCS state is much larger than that in the ferromagnetic state for sufficiently large chemical potential. ( The one loop effective potential energy $`V(eB=\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)=11(eB)^2/96\pi ^2`$ of the magnetic field is much smaller than those of the quarks so that we have ignored the energy in the discussion. ) Hence, the BCS state is realized for such a high density of quarks. On the other hand, for sufficiently small chemical potential the energy gain of quarks in the ferromagnetic state is larger than that in the BCS state. Actually, the energy gain  in the BCS state is at most about $`4`$ percents of $`E_{tot}(e^{}B=0)`$ since $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ has been estimated at most as $`50100`$ MeV when the Fermi energy is about $`0.5`$ GeV. On the other hand, the energy gain in the presence of the magnetic field becomes $`6`$ percents when the Fermi energy is equal to $`2\sqrt{e^{}B}`$. Although we have not yet determined the value of $`\sqrt{e^{}B}`$, we expect that the value of $`\sqrt{e^{}B}`$ is order of several handred MeV, e.g. $`200`$ MeV. Hence, we find that the phase boundary between the ferromagnetic phase and the superconducting phase is present around the chemical potential $`\mu `$ of quarks being about $`500`$ MeV. We are addressed later with the minimum chemical potential needed for the realization of the ferromagnetic phase.

Up to now, we have considered the energy densities of the quarks and the gauge fields at zero temperature. It is easy to calculate the free energy at finite temperature of the quarks and the gluons in the magnetic field. In the case we neglect the contributions of unstable modes; the modes condense to form a quantum Hall state in which any unstable modes are absent.

We have numerically estimated the free energy and found that the color magnetic field becomes large with the chemical potential. This is owing to the magnetic moment generated by the quarks, $`\sqrt{eB}/\mathrm{\Lambda }1.3,1.7,1.9,2.1,2.4\text{for}\mu /\mathrm{\Lambda }=1,5,10,20,40\text{respectively}`$. We note that the strength of the magnetic field spontaneously generated increases very slowly with the chemical potential. We have also found that the transition from the ferromagnetic field ( $`eB0`$ ) to the quark gluon plasma ( $`eB=0`$ ) is of the first order. The critical temperature $`T_c`$ is given by $`T_c/\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.8,1.5,1.9,2.1,2.4\text{for}\mu /\mathrm{\Lambda }=1,510,20,40\text{respectively}`$.

We proceed to show briefly that the unstable modes compose a quantum Hall state and that a stable ferromagnetic state is realized. We note that the unstable modes are states in the lowest Landau level $`n=0`$ with the energy given by $`E=\sqrt{k_3^2eB}`$; $`k_3^2<eB`$. The denenerate states in the Landau level may be specified by a momentum $`k_2`$ whose wave functions behave such as $`\mathrm{exp}[ik_2x_2ik_3x_3\frac{1}{2}eB(x_1k_2/eB)^2]`$. In order to form spatially uniform state, various modes in $`k_2`$ with $`k_3=0`$ must be excited and we must take average over $`k_2`$ in a state with the unstable modes excited. Along this strategy ones have tried to find variationally a stable ground state. However, the resultant state has not been uniform in space and not been shown to have no unstable modes although it is stable in the variational parameters.

In order to see a uniform QHS composed of the unstable modes we use Chern-Simon gauge theory. Note that the unstable modes with $`k_3=0`$ can be described effectively by a $`2+1`$ dimentional scalar field $`\varphi =(\mathrm{\Phi }_1i\mathrm{\Phi }_2)\sqrt{l/2}`$ coupled with the magnetic field $`B=ϵ_{i,j}_iA_j`$ ( $`ϵ_{12}=1`$ ): $`L=|(i_\nu eA_\nu )\varphi |^2+2eB|\varphi |^2\frac{\lambda }{2}|\varphi |^4`$, with $`\lambda =e^2/l`$, where $`l`$ denotes the coherent length of the magnetic field, namely, its extention in the direction of the field and the index $`\nu `$ runs from $`0`$ to $`2`$. This Lagrangian can be obtained by taking only the unstable modes with $`k=0`$ from eq(1); we have ignored the other modes coupled with the unstable modes. The second term represents anomalous magnetic moment which leads to the instability of the state $`\varphi =0`$. The term can be regarded as a negative mass so that the model is similar to the model of the scalar field with the double well potential. We see that the particles of $`\varphi `$ interact with each other through a delta function potential. Thus, we expect that the excitations of the unstable modes may eventually form a QHS similar to the case of electrons interacting repulsively with each others under magnetic field.

In order to describe QHSs, we rewrite the Lagrangian by using Chern-Simons gauge field $`a_\nu `$ ,

$$L_a=|(i_\nu eA_\nu +a_\nu )\varphi _a|^2+2eB|\varphi _a|^2\frac{\lambda }{2}|\varphi _a|^4+\frac{ϵ^{\mu \nu \lambda }}{4\alpha }a_\mu _\nu a_\lambda $$
(4)
with antisymmetric tensor $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \lambda }`$ with $`ϵ^{012}=ϵ_{12}`$, where the statistical factor $`\alpha `$ should be taken as $`\alpha =2\pi \times `$integer to keep the equality of the system described by $`L_a`$ to that of $`L`$. Namely, in two dimentional space the statistics of particles can be changed by attaching a ficticious flux $`𝑑x^2B_a=2\alpha `$ to the particles. The introduction of the field $`a_\mu `$ is to attach the flux to the particles of $`\varphi _a`$. When we take $`\alpha =2\pi \times `$ integer, the statistics of the particles does not change. In our case the bosons of $`\varphi `$ become new bosons of $`\varphi _a`$. The equivalence of this lagrangian $`L_a`$ to the original one $`L`$ has been shown  in a operator formalism although the equivalence had been known in the path integral formalism using the world lines of the $`\varphi _a`$ particles.

It is well known that QHSs can be described by this type of Chern-Simons gauge theory even in the mean field approximation . Equations of motion are given by

$`\varphi _a^{}i_0\varphi _a+c.c.+2a_0|\varphi _a|^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi }}ϵ_{ij}_ia_j`$ (5)
$`\varphi _a^{}(i_ieA_i+a_i)\varphi _a+c.c.={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi }}ϵ_{ij}_0a_j`$ (6)
$`(i_0+a_0)^2\varphi _a(i\stackrel{}{}e\stackrel{}{A}+\stackrel{}{a})^2\varphi _a+2eB\varphi _a=\lambda |\varphi _a|^2\varphi _a.`$ (7)
where we have taken $`\alpha =2\pi `$.

Using these equations, we now explain how the ferromagnetic state is stabilized by making a QHS. The essence is that in the QHS the ficticious flux is used to cancel on average with the real magnetic flux, i.e. $`a_i=A_i`$. Consequently, the field $`\varphi _a`$ does not feel any gauge field and the lagrangian eq(4) is reduced to one representing an usual double well potential. Hence we find a uniform solution, $`<\varphi _a>=v`$: $`v`$ is obtained by solving the above equations which are reduced to $`2a_0v^2=\frac{1}{4\pi }ϵ_{ij}_ia_j=eB/4\pi `$ and $`a_0^2+2eB=\lambda v^2`$. This state is just a QHS of the field $`\varphi _a`$: We can show that the Hall conductivity of the state is given by $`e^2/2\alpha `$ . In the real QHSs, Fermi statistics of electrons is changed to boson statistics by attaching a ficticious flux. The flux cancels with real magnetic flux so that the bosonized electrons $`\varphi _{electron}`$ condense at zero momentum, making QHSs $`<\varphi _{electron}>0`$. Such a cancellation, namely, the equality $`a_i=A_i`$, holds only for a specific value of the filling factor defined by $`2\pi \rho /eB`$, where $`\rho `$ is the number density of electrons ( in our case, $`\rho `$ is given by the formula in the left hand side of eq(5), i.e. the U(1) color charge density. ) It follows from the constraint equation (5) that the filling factor satisfies $`2\pi \rho /eB=\pi /\alpha `$ only when the cancellation ( $`eA_i=a_i`$ ) holds. Namely, QHSs arise, for example, at the filling factor $`2\pi \rho /eB=\pi /\alpha =1/3`$ with a choice of $`\alpha =3\pi `$ for real electrons, while a QHS of gluons arises at $`2\pi \rho /eB=\pi /\alpha =1/2`$ with a choice of $`\alpha =2\pi `$. Therefore, although the state $`\varphi _a=0`$ is unstable due to the negative mass, the condensation of $`\varphi _a`$ leads to a stable ground state $`\varphi _a=v`$ which can occur only at a specific filling factor. In the similar way to the case of real electrons , we can show that any unstable mode are absent in the QHS; small fluctuations of $`\varphi _a`$ around $`\varphi _a=v`$ and quasiparticles ( vortex excitaions ) have real finite gaps. The situation is quite similar to the model of the scalar field with the double well potential.

We should point out that since the condensate of $`\varphi _a`$ possesses a color charge ( $`\rho =eB/4\pi `$ ), the charge must be supplied from somewhere in color neutral system. Without the supplier of the color charge, the condensation can not arise so that the quantum Hall state is not realized. Thus, the color ferromagnetic state is not stabilized. Quark matter is a supplier of the color charge. Hence, the stable ferromagnetic state is possible in dense quark matter; some color charges of quarks are transmitted to the condensate. Then, the color charge density of the quark matter with the radius $`L`$ should be larger than that of the color condensate, $`\rho /L=eB/4\pi L`$. Thus, it follows that the chemical potential, $`\mu `$, should be larger than $`(3\pi eB/4L)^{1/3}180\text{MeV}(eB/0.04\text{GeV}^2)^{1/3}(3\text{fm}/L)^{1/3}`$ in order for the ferromagnetic phase to arise in the quark matter. Since it is a value nessesary for the realization of the phase, a critical value separating the two phases, hadronic phase and ferromagnetic phase is larger than it.

Up to now, we have discussed the ferromagnetic state of the SU(2) gauge theory with massless quarks of two flavours. The orientation in color space of the magnetic field generated spontaneously can be taken arbitrary in the case of the SU(2) gauge theory. On the other hand, in the SU(3) gauge theory the different choice of the orientation leads to different physical unstable modes; three unstable modes are present in general but one of the modes vanishes in a specific orientation. The orientation can be determined in the quark matter by minimizing the energy density of the quarks; the energy depends on the orientation of the magnetic field. Namely, when we take $`B/|B|=a\lambda _3+b\lambda _8`$ ( $`a^2+b^2=1`$ ), we impose the color neutrality of the quark matter and minimize its energy. Then, we can find the orientation of the magnetic field. The detail will be published in near future.

Finally, we show that a real observable magnetic field is produced by quarks rotating around the color magnetic field. If the number of the color positive charged quarks is the same as that of the color negative charged quarks, the total real magnetic moment produced by the quarks vanishes. But the number of the color positive charged quarks and that of the color negative charged quarks is different in the color neutral system due to the gluon condensation with the color charges in the QHS. Therefore, the real magnetic moment produced by, for example, up quarks does not vanish. Taking $`eB`$ being several $`0.01\text{GeV}^2`$ and the radius of quark matter $`L`$ being several fm, we can show that the real magnetic field with strength $`10^{14}10^{15}`$ Gauss is produced in the color ferromagnetic phase of the quark matter, which may be generated by heavy ion collisions.

We would like to express thanks to Profs. T. Kunihiro, T. Hatsuda and M. Asakawa for useful discussions. One of the authors ( A. I. ) also expressess thanks to the member of theory group in KEK for their hospitality.