text:
# XMM-Newton observations expose AGN in apparently normal galaxies

## 1 Introduction

The existence of an intriguing population of galaxies with X–ray properties suggesting the presence of an AGN, but without any obvious sign of activity in their optical spectra, has been claimed some 20 years ago from the analysis of observations taken with the Einstein Observatory (e.g. Elvis et al. Elvis81 (1981), Maccacaro et al. Maccacaro1 (1987)). This discovery has been subsequently supported by ROSAT data (e.g. Griffiths et al. Griffiths (1995); Tananbaum et al. Tananbaum (1997); Pietsch et al. Pietsch (1998); Worrall et al. Worrall (1999); Lehmann et al. Lehmann (2001), Lehmann1 (2002)) and more recently also by Chandra (Fiore et al. Fiore (2000); Barger et al. 2001a , 2001b , Barger3 (2002)) and XMM-Newton (Comastri et al. Comastri1 (2001), 2002a , 2002b ) observations. These sources, characterized by high X–ray luminosities (L$`{}_{X}{}^{}\stackrel{>}{}`$5x1041 erg s-1) and X–ray–to–optical flux ratios similar to those of AGN (-1$`\stackrel{<}{}`$Log($`\frac{F_x}{F_{opt}})\stackrel{<}{}`$1), have been named in a variety of ways: Optically Dull Galaxies (Elvis et al. Elvis81 (1981)); Passive Galaxies (Griffiths et al.Griffiths (1995)) and more recently X-ray Bright Optically Normal Galaxies (XBONG, Comastri et al. 2002a ). If an AGN is really present in their nuclei, the lack of evident optical emission lines has to be justified. Different scenarios have been proposed so far: a) the AGN is a BL Lac object; b) the nuclear activity is outshone by the stellar continuum; c) the lines could not be efficiently produced or they could be absorbed by material beyond the NLR. Although the broad–band properties of one XBONG in the HELLAS2XMM survey (Brusa et al. Brusa (2002)) are consistent with the presence of a BL Lac object, which are usually X–ray unobscured sources, most of the optically dull galaxies seem to be obscured in the X–ray domain (Mainieri et al. Mainieri (2002)). This last finding is mainly based on the hardness ratio analysis (Barger et al. 2001a , 2001b , Barger3 (2002), Comastri et al. 2002b ). Recently, Moran et al. (Moran (2002)) have obtained integrated (i.e. nucleus+host galaxy) optical spectra of a sample of nearby Seyfert 2 galaxies obscured in the X–ray band in order to simulate ground-based spectroscopic observations of the more distant X–ray optically dull galaxies under investigation in deep Chandra surveys. They find that, due to the limitations of optical spectroscopic observations (e.g. wide slits, low resolution, low signal–to–noise, inadequate spectral coverage), optically type 2, X–ray obscured AGN could be easily undetected in the optical band. In this context, Comastri et al. (2002b ) have recently shown that the distribution of X–ray–to–optical flux ratio of XBONG sources could be well reproduced assuming that the underlying SED of the putative AGN is that of an X–ray Compton–thick AGN. In spite of this, the nature of this kind of sources is still far from being completely understood. Indeed, in the majority of the cases, the poor X–ray statistics obtained so far on this class of sources has not allowed us to unambiguously establish the presence of an AGN nor to study its nature.

In this paper we present new XMM-Newton and optical data for 3 sources belonging to the XMM Bright Serendipitous Sample (XMM-BSS hereafter, Della Ceca et al. DellaCeca\_estec (2001); Della Ceca DellaCeca\_como (2002)). On the basis of the optical spectra available from the literature or taken as a part of the AXIS111http://www.ifca.unican.es/$``$xray/AXIS/ project (Barcons et al. 2002a , 2002b ), these three XMM–BSS sources were classified, at first glance, as normal galaxies. The same sources should be instead classified as AGN candidates on the basis of their X–ray luminosities and their X–ray–to–optical flux ratios (see Sect. 2). With the aim of investigating the true nature of these three objects we have studied, thanks to the good X–ray statistics of the XMM-Newton data, their X–ray spectral properties (see Sect. 3). This analysis has allowed us to develop a simple model (described in Sect. 4.1) which, starting from the X–ray properties of the AGN present in these sources, has allowed us to explain: a) why the nuclear emission is undetected in the optical spectra already available and b) what kind of optical observations are needed to unveil the AGN also in the optical domain. Subsequent spectroscopic observations performed with a more suitable observational set–up (i.e. narrower slits or larger spectral coverage) have allowed us to unveil the AGN features in the optical band. The main results obtained for each source are discussed in Sect. 4.2, 4.3 and the conclusions are reported in Sect. 5. Throughout this paper we assume H0=65 km s-1 Mpc-1 and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$=0.3, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$=0.7.

## 2 XMM-BSS Optical Dull Galaxies: broad-band properties

The XMM-BSS sample is an on–going project carried out by the XMM Survey Science Centre (XMM–SSC, Watson et al. Watson (2001)) with the aim of complementing the results obtained by the deep Chandra surveys (CDF-N, Brandt et al. Brandt (2001); CDF-S, Rosati et al. Rosati (2002), Giacconi et al. Giacconi (2002)) and by the deep (Lockman Hole, Hasinger et al. Hasinger (2001)) and medium–deep XMM-Newton surveys (AXIS, Barcons et al. 2002a , 2002b ; HELLAS2XMM, Baldi et al. Baldi (2002)). It is planned as a large ($``$1000 sources), high Galactic latitude ($`|b_{II}|>`$20o) sample of bright (F$`{}_{X}{}^{}>`$10-13 cgs) serendipitous XMM-Newton sources. The sample definition and selection criteria are described in Della Ceca et al. (DellaCeca\_estec (2001), DellaCeca\_como (2002)).

The relevant information on the optical and X–ray properties of the 3 sources discussed here are listed in Table 1. The first column gives an identification number that, for simplicity, will be used in this paper in place of the full XMM-Newton name reported in column 2. Columns 3 – 8 give: R magnitudes, redshifts, X–ray fluxes and luminosities corrected only for the Galactic absorption, and X–ray–to–optical flux ratios. Since the MOS calibration files are usually the best ones, the fluxes and luminosities used in this paper have been computed on the basis of the MOS data.

The optical finding charts are shown in Fig. 1 and more information on the individual sources are reported in the following sections. Sources #1 and #3 have been classified as normal galaxies on the basis of the optical spectra taken by the AXIS project (Barcons et al. 2002a , 2002b ), while the optical classification of source #2 is taken from Katgert et al. (Katgert (1998)). Only for source #1 the optical spectrum available covers the region where the H$`\alpha `$ line is expected ($``$6852 Å), while for the remaining two sources the H$`\alpha `$ region is not sampled.

The X–ray properties of these three sources strongly suggest the presence of AGN activity: they have an X–ray luminosity L$`{}_{210\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}{}^{}>`$1042 erg s-1 (see Table 1) and an X–ray–to–optical flux ratio similar to the typical value of luminous AGN (-1$`\stackrel{<}{}`$Log($`\frac{F_x}{F_{opt}}`$)$`\stackrel{<}{}`$1; Maccacaro et al. Maccacaro (1988); Schmidt et al. Schmidt (1998); Akiyama et al. Akiyama (2000); Lehmann et al. Lehmann (2001)).

All the 3 sources presented here lie within the area covered by the Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS) and they have been detected in all near-infrared (NIR) bands (J, H, K). Only for source #2 the NIR magnitudes are not reported in the 2MASS cataloge yet. The $`RK`$ colors of source #1 and #3 (2.8 and 3.0 respectively) are in agreement with those expected for an early–type galaxy (e.g. Mannucci et al. Mannucci (2001)).

For source #1 radio information is available from the Very Large Array (VLA) survey in the Subaru field region. The radio flux density is 325$`\pm `$33 $`\mu `$Jy at 1.4 GHz (Simpson et al. private communication), giving a power of 3x1021 W/Hz, typical of a radio-quiet AGN. Source #2 is not covered neither by the NVSS (NRAO VLA Sky Survey, Condon et al. Condon (1998)) nor by the FIRST (Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-cm, Becker et al. Becker (1995)) survey, while source #3, that lies within the area covered by the FIRST survey, does not have a radio counterpart within 20” radius (5$`\sigma `$ upper limit on the 1.4 GHz flux density of about 1.2 mJy).

## 3 XMM-Newton data

In this section we present the XMM-Newton data. The data have been processed using the SAS (Science Analysis System) version 5.3.3. Events files released from the standard pipeline have been filtered for high background time intervals. We have used the latest calibration files released by the EPIC team to create new response matrices that include also the correction for the effective area at the source position in the detector. The relevant information about the XMM-Newton observations are reported in Table 2. In particular the table lists: source identification numbers (col. 1), observation IDs (col. 2), exposure times after removing time intervals affected by background flares and taking into account all the instruments used (col. 3), net counts from all the instruments used (col. 4), detectors used for the scientific analysis (col. 5).

### 3.1 Spectral analysis

At the spatial resolution of XMM-Newton EPIC instruments, the 3 observed sources appear point–like. The X–ray spectra have been extracted using circular regions of appropriate radius (from 25″ to 30″). Background spectra have been extracted from larger (from 50″ to 60″) source–free circular regions close to the object. In order to improve the statistics, MOS1 and MOS2 data obtained with the same filter have been combined together and, finally, MOS and PN spectra have been binned in order to have at least 20 counts per energy channel.

The spectral analysis described in the following has been performed using XSPEC 11.0.1. Afterwards, unless otherwise stated, errors are given at the 90% confidence level for one interesting parameter ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$=2.71). For each source, the MOS and PN spectra have been fitted simultaneously in the 0.5–10 keV band, leaving free the relative normalizations. In the fitting procedure, the appropriate Galactic hydrogen column density along the line of sight has been taken into account (Dickey & Lockman Dickey (1990)).

Two spectra (#2 and #3) are well described by a single absorbed power–law model. A pure thermal component is rejected for all the sources at more than 97% confidence level and the addition of a thermal component to the power–law model is not statistically required.

A good fit for source #1 is obtained with a two component model: a “leaky absorbed power-law continuum222 Consists of an absorbed plus an unabsorbed power-law with the same photon index.” plus a cold Iron 6.4 keV emission line; the addition of the latter improves the fit at more than 99% confidence level. A more detailed description of the X–ray properties of this source will be reported in a forthcoming paper by Watson et al. (in preparation). For all the 3 sources, the relevant best fit parameters, quoted in the rest frame, are summarized in Table 3 along with the unabsorbed luminosities. The best fit unfolded spectra and residuals are shown in Figures 2 to 4.

In summary, we find that all the spectra are well described by a power–law model. A thermal component is not required by the fit, in agreement with the point–like appearance of the X–ray emission and with the lack of evident clusters/groups in the optical images. These facts, combined with the high intrinsic X–ray luminosities of these objects, clearly suggest the presence of an AGN. A cold 6.4 keV Iron emission line component is required only for source #1. The equivalent width ($`EW_{\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha }`$300 eV) of this line is typical of a Compton-thin AGN (Bassani et al. Bassani (1999)). For the remaining two sources the upper limits on the $`EW_{\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha }`$ are at least a factor 2 lower (at the 90% confidence level) than the typical value expected for a Compton-thick AGN ($``$ 1 keV; Bassani et al. Bassani (1999)).

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 Investigating the lack of optical emission lines

Having established, from the X–ray analysis, the presence of AGN in the apparently normal galaxies presented here, we now investigate if the lack of significant emission lines in their optical spectra could be explained even assuming a standard AGN. To this end we use a simple model based on an AGN plus early-type galaxy optical template333The noise is not included in our templates. (Francis et al. Francis (1991), Elvis et al. Elvis94 (1994); BC2000444The Bruzual & Charlot 2000 models have been retrieved via anonymous ftp: ftp.iap.fr) to reproduce the available optical spectra. The approach used for each source is summarized in the following steps:
1. the AGN template is normalized at 2500 Å on the basis of the unabsorbed, rest-frame, 2 keV flux using a starting value of $`\alpha _{ox}`$555The $`\alpha _{ox}`$ is defined here from 2500$`\AA `$ to 2 keV in the rest frame: $`\alpha _{ox}=`$log(f2500Å/f2keV)/log($`\nu _{2500\mathrm{\AA }}`$/$`\nu _{2\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}})`$.=1.5 (the typical value of high-luminosity Seyfert and quasars, Brandt, Laor, & Wills Brandt0 (2000));
2. assuming a Galactic standard value of $`E_{BV}/N_H`$=1.7x10-22 mag cm-2 (Bohlin et al. Bohlin (1978)) and using the intrinsic NH value derived from the X–ray spectral analysis, the continuum and the broad line components of the AGN template are absorbed;
3. the AGN template is redshifted to the z of the source and summed with a redshifted early–type galaxy template. While the optical flux of the AGN template is then fixed on the basis of the X–ray properties and the chosen $`\alpha _{ox}`$, the optical normalization of the host galaxy is set to reproduce the available spectrum. The latter is normalized to the photometric data in the R band (see Table 1) or, if possible, to the fraction of the total light which has passed through the used slit, taking into account also the atmospheric and seeing conditions during the observations;
4. if in the final template (AGN+galaxy) evident emission lines are present (i.e. visible at the S/N ratio of our observed spectrum), the procedure is restarted from point 1, using a lower value of $`\alpha _{ox}`$ until a good reproduction of the available spectrum is reached. The resulting $`\alpha _{ox}`$ represents then an upper limit on the $`\alpha _{ox}`$ of the hidden AGN.

In the next sub–sections we discuss the results obtained for each of the 3 sources.

### 4.2 Source #1

Source #1 has an X–ray spectrum typical of an obscured AGN. In this case the torus intercepts the line of sight and both the central engine and the Broad Line Region (BLR) should be hidden. On the basis of the AGN unified model (Antonucci et al. Antonucci (1993)) the optical spectrum should then be characterized by narrow emission lines produced by the Narrow Line Regions (NLR) placed outside the torus. However, no significant narrow emission lines are visible in the optical spectrum (left panel, Fig. 5) taken at the 3.58 m Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG). The observed spectrum has been normalized to the fraction of the total light which has passed through the slit used (1.5″) under the atmospheric and seeing conditions (FWHM$``$1″) during the observations. However the discrepancy between the X–ray properties and the optical spectrum could be only apparent. Indeed, using the approach described in Sect. 4.1, we find that an AGN with an intrinsic $`\alpha _{ox}<`$1.3 and absorbed by an EB-V=35$`\pm `$0.1 mag (consistent with the measured N$`{}_{H}{}^{}`$2x$`10^{23}cm^2`$), could be completely undetectable in the observed optical spectrum. Actually, in this case no significant emission lines are expected to be detected, as it is shown in Fig. 5, right panel. Only hints of \[OIII\] (EW$``$1 Å) and H$`\alpha `$+\[NII\] (EW$``$1 Å) lines are present in the final model. At the signal–to–noise ratio (S/N) reached in the observed spectrum, these two hints of narrow emission lines are compatible with the intensity of the noise itself and they are not clearly detectable. In order to obtain a detection at about 10$`\sigma `$ of these two lines, a S/N higher than 70 should be reached. An alternative approach is to use a narrower slit in order to include a smaller fraction of the starlight of the galaxy and to make the nuclear emission lines detectable.

New imaging and spectroscopic observations for this source have been recently obtained with the 8.2 m Subaru Telescope. In Fig. 6 the R–band image of the galaxy obtained with the Subaru Prime Focus Camera (Suprime-Cam) is shown. The source looks like an early type barred galaxy with a weak nucleus and with a Magellanic Cloud like companion galaxy in the North-West direction. The spectroscopic observations, carried out with the Faint Object Camera And Spectrograph (FOCAS), has been performed using a 0.8″ slit under 0.6″ seeing conditions. The optical spectra obtained for the central region (total spectrum) and the host galaxy continuum are shown in the upper panel of Fig. 7. The host galaxy spectra have been extracted from north and south of the nuclear region and then normalized to the total spectrum at 5000Å. Weak emission lines can be seen in the total spectrum. When the host galaxy continuum is subtracted from the total spectrum (Total – Host, bottom panel), Seyfert 2 like emission lines can be clearly seen. This AGN detection technique (data with an adequate S/N ratio and a proper subtraction of the underlying starlight continuum) has been already used by Ho et al. (Ho (1995), 1997a , 1997b ) to search for Low Luminosity AGN. The Subaru data have thus allowed us to unveil the nuclear engine also in the optical band and to set more stringent constraints on its intrinsic optical–to–X–ray spectral index: $`\alpha _{ox}`$1.2$`\pm `$0.1. In this case, as in the following, the errors relevant on the $`\alpha _{ox}(AGN)`$ values take into account the uncertainties on both the X–ray and the optical properties. We have estimated the ratio between the observed 2-10 keV flux and the strength of the \[OIII\]λ5007 narrow emission line. We have derived a F2-10keV/F\[OIII\] of 195$`\pm `$160, which is consistent with the value expected for Seyfert galaxies (Bassani et al. Bassani (1999)). Moreover, this ratio combined with the EW of the measured Fe emission line ($``$ 300 eV) clearly locates this source in the region populated by Compton–thin sources (see Fig. 1 in Bassani et al. Bassani (1999)), in agreement with our X–ray best fit model.

In summary, we conclude that a standard AGN, obscured by NH$``$2x1023 cm-2 and with an intrinsic 2–10 keV luminosity of about 5x1042 erg s-1, can be completely misidentified using only optical spectroscopic criteria if it is hosted by an early–type galaxy of M$`{}_{R}{}^{}\stackrel{<}{}`$22 mag (the M value for a normal galaxy is about -21 mag, Brown et al. Brown (2001)). In particular, the AGN could be completely overwhelmed by the starlight of the galaxy if it is observed using too wide slits (which include more than 20% of the flux of the galaxy) and/or with a seeing and atmospheric conditions not good enough to reach an adequate S/N. It is worth noting that for more distant galaxies ($`z>`$0.4), that typically populate the deep Chandra and XMM-Newton surveys, it is almost impossible to get an optical spectrum that doesn’t include more than 20% of the flux of the host galaxy by using ground-based telescopes. At the moment, the presence of AGN in object like source #1 found in deep X–ray surveys can be unveiled in the optical band only using instrumentations on–board the Hubble Space Telescope.

### 4.3 Source #2 and #3

Sources #2 and #3 are respectively slightly obscured (N$`{}_{H}{}^{}`$4x1021 cm-2) and unobscured (N$`{}_{H}{}^{}`$1021 cm-2) in the X–ray domain and they should appear in the optical band as intermediate666Seyfert galaxies that have permitted lines with narrow and broad components of comparable intensities. (e.g. Maiolino et al. Maiolino (2001)) and/or broad line Seyfert galaxies.

Source #2 is located along the direction of the cluster Abell 3112 ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$v=19068 km/s) and its spectroscopic classification was taken from the “ESO Nearby Abell Cluster Survey” (ENACS) catalogue (Katgert et al. Katgert (1998), see the relevant footnote of Table 1 for the full web page address). This object was classified as a normal galaxy with no emission lines visible in the (unpublished) optical spectrum. The spectral range covered in the rest–frame was from 3940 to 5740 Å.

A first optical spectrum for source #3 was taken at the 3.58 m TNG Telescope as part of the AXIS project, covering a spectral rest–frame range from 3200 to 6400 Å. No evident emission lines were detected in this source and it was classified as an optically normal galaxy on the basis of the available optical spectrum.

For these two sources (#2 and #3), AGN templates have been produced using the approach described in Sect. 4.1. Since we do not have enough information to normalize the AGN+galaxy template to the amount of light included in the slit during the observations, we have normalized both templates to their R band photometric point. In particular for source #2, for which we do not have in hand the observed optical spectrum, the type of the host galaxy template has been chosen so that the final composite template would match the photometric data in the B and R bands (Maddox et al. Maddox (1990); Katgert et al. Katgert (1998)). By assuming an intrinsic $`\alpha _{ox}(AGN)<`$1.5, we find that, although no evident emission lines are expected in the observed ranges, in both sources a prominent H$`\alpha `$ emission line could be present in the yet unsampled region of the spectrum. For this reason, the two objects have been re–observed using a wider spectral coverage. In particular, source #2 has been re-observed with the 3.6 m ESO telescope (slit of 1.2″ and a seeing$``$1.6″), while new observations for source #3 have been carried out at the UH 88 inches telescope (slit of 1.6″ and a seeing$``$1.5″). In both spectra an evident H$`\alpha `$ line emerges, unveiling the presence of an AGN in the optical band. The two new spectra are shown in Fig. 8 (black lines). They are normalized on the basis of the light included in the slit during the observations. Thanks to these new observations and using our model, an estimate of $`\alpha _{ox}`$ can be obtained: $`\alpha _{ox}`$1.25$`\pm `$0.2 and $`\alpha _{ox}`$1.2$`\pm `$0.2 for sources #2 and #3 respectively. In Fig. 8 the templates obtained are overlayed (grey lines) to the observed spectra.

Also for these two sources, the F2-10keV/F\[OIII\] ratios (118$`\pm `$113 and 410$`\pm `$400 for sources #2 and #3 respectively) are consistent with the values expected for Seyfert galaxies and the EWFe-Kα upper limits (EW$`{}_{\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha }{}^{}<`$ 600 eV for source #2 and EW$`{}_{\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha }{}^{}<`$250 eV for source #3) indicate that these sources are located in the region populated by Compton–thin AGN (Bassani et al. Bassani (1999)), in agreement with the X–ray spectral analysis presented here.

On the basis of the $`\alpha _{ox}`$ quoted above, we have estimated the optical magnitudes of the nuclear engine and of the host galaxy: MR(AGN)$``$18 mag, MR(host)$``$22.5 mag for source #2 and MR(AGN)$``$21 mag, MR(host)$``$22 mag for source #3.

It is worth noting that while for objects like source #3 optical spectroscopy with an appropriate spectral coverage could easily allow us to recognize the presence of an AGN, this is not always the case. For instance, in the case of an object like source #2, but at a redshift greater than 0.2, the fraction of starlight included in the slit (e.g. 1.2″) is usually large enough to overwhelm the strongest lines, including H$`\alpha `$. Using our templates we have estimated that in such case (z$`>`$0.2) the EW(H$`\alpha `$) would be $``$8 Å, i.e. the H$`\alpha `$ line is extremely difficult to detect unless a very good S/N ratio is achieved.

## 5 Summary and Conclusions

In this paper we have presented the X–ray and optical spectra of 3 XMM–BSS sources selected using the criteria usually adopted to define the X-ray Bright Optically Normal Galaxies. The good statistics available for the XMM-Newton data has allowed us to unambiguously unveil the presence of an AGN in all of them. Once more, this result highlights how the X–ray data are the best way of finding AGN even for this kind of sources. In particular, we find that both X–ray obscured (N$`{}_{H}{}^{}>`$1022 cm-2) and unobscured (N$`{}_{H}{}^{}<`$1022 cm-2) AGN, covering a range of luminosities from 1042 to 1043 erg s-1, are hosted in these sources. No Compton–thick objects have been found.

Using the X–ray properties derived for each of the 3 sources, a simple model (developed in order to investigate the apparent lack of optical emission lines) and new optical observations, we find that:

– the AGN considered here are standard AGN hosted by galaxies with a magnitude MR brighter than M;

– X–ray obscured AGN with an intrinsic L$`{}_{210\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}{}^{}`$5$`\times `$1042 erg s-1 could be hidden in the optical band if they are hosted by a galaxy brighter than M$`{}_{R}{}^{}`$22 mag;

– up to z$``$0.2 slightly X–ray obscured AGN of L$`{}_{210\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}{}^{}`$9x1042 erg s-1 could be partially overwhelmed by a host galaxy with M$`{}_{R}{}^{}`$22.5 mag. The sampling of the H$`\alpha `$ region should allow the AGN detection in the optical band. For z$`>`$0.2 also the H$`\alpha `$ line could be overwhelmed by the galaxy continuum using ground-based telescope observations;

– X–ray unabsorbed AGN of L$`{}_{210\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}{}^{}`$3$`\times `$1043 erg s-1 could be optically hidden if they are hosted by a galaxy with M$`{}_{R}{}^{}`$22 mag and if the spectral coverage doesn’t include the H$`\alpha `$ line.

In summary, we find that the X–ray and optical properties of the sources studied here do not require a non–standard AGN. The lack of significant emission lines in the optical spectra could be explained by an adequate combination of the absorption associated to the AGN, of the optical faintness of this latter with respect to the host galaxy and of an inadequate set–up and atmospheric conditions during the spectroscopic observations. In particular, the results reported here clearly show that in some cases a non appropriate wavelength coverage of the optical spectrum could be the cause of a misclassification, as an optically normal galaxy, of an X–ray source which is truly an AGN. A similar result was recently presented by Moran et al. (Moran (2002)) using a sample of nearby Seyfert 2 galaxies. In this respect, it is worth noting that from the X–ray deep surveys performed with Chandra (Barger et al. 2001a , 2001b , Barger3 (2002); Hornschemeier Hornschemeier (2001)) about 40–60% of the identified sources are optically classified as galaxies and for $``$70% of them the observed range does not include the H$`\alpha `$ line. Our results, thus, remark the importance of being really careful in the optical identification of faint X–ray sources for which no good optical spectra are available. Moreover, even if the most likely explanation for the nature of XBONG galaxies proposed by different groups working on deeper surveys (e.g. Barger et al. Barger3 (2002); Comastri et al. Comastri1 (2001), 2002a , 2002b ) is the presence of heavily obscured AGN, our results suggest that XBONG galaxies could harbor X–ray unobscured AGN as well. Observational evidence supporting this last suggestion has already been presented from deep surveys by Page et al. (Page (2002)).

###### Acknowledgements.

We are grateful to M. Elvis and M. J. Page for useful comments. PS acknowledge financial support by the Italian Consorzio Nazionale per l’Astronomia e l’Astrofisica (CNAA). This work has received partial financial support from ASI (I/R/037/01) and from the Italian Ministry of University and Scientific and Technological Research (MURST) through grant Cofin 00-02-36. Part of the data presented in this paper have been accumulated through the AXIS project (http://www.ifca.unican.es/$``$xray/AXIS/). XB and FJC acknowledge financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology, under grant AYA 2000-1690. The NOT and TNG telescopes are operated on the island of La Palma by the Nordic Optical Telescope Scientific Association and the Centro Galileo Galilei of the INAF, respectively, in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de Los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. We would like to thank also all of the staff members of the Subaru, ESO and Mauna-Kea Telescopes for their support during the observations and development of the instruments. The work reported herein is based partly on observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA member states and the USA (NASA). This publication makes use of data products from the 2MASS Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


format: text

text:
# The interstellar oxygen-K absorption edge as observed by XMM-Newton

## 1 Introduction

In the past, detectors in the low energy (0.3 - 2.0 keV) X-ray band offered spectra of modest spectral resolution. To properly model these spectra, equivalent spectral resolution knowledge of the oxygen K-edge absorption was required in order to correct the intrinsic source spectra for the effects of interstellar extinction. With the appearance of high resolution X-ray spectrographs, notably the XMM-Newton RGS (den Herder et al. herder (2001)) and Chandra LETG (Brinkman et al. brinkman (2000)), the ISM oxygen K-edge absorption can be studied in much greater detail. These instruments, however, usually suffer from absorption by oxygen located within the instruments. By comparing spectra from sources with low and high extinction and assuming that the interstellar cross-section per hydrogen atom is constant over the sky, the instrumental and interstellar components can be separated.

Models of extinction in X-rays by the interstellar medium have been constructed, amongst others, by Morrison and McCammon (morrison (1983)). These models are based on assumed abundance’s of the ISM and cross sections by Henke et al. (henke (1982)). However, the spectral resolution in current spectrographs surpasses the resolution of the Henke tables.

For neutral atomic oxygen far more detailed absorption cross sections have been calculated by the R-matrix approach (McLaughlin and Kirby, matrix (1998)). These cross sections include all the fine structure resonance’s along the K edge (around 22.6 - 22.9 Å), including the 1s-2p transition at approximately 23.5 Å. Neutral oxygen is thought to be the major constituent of the ISM. Therefore, a good model of the detailed spectral structure around the oxygen K edge can be constructed by combining the “R-matrix” cross sections of neutral oxygen with the Morrison and McCammon extinction cross sections for the remaining elements. The ISM oxygen abundance as presented by Wilms et al. (wilms (2000)) is used. Fig. 1 shows the combined cross section.

In the matrix calculations uncertainties of up to 3.5 eV, or 0.15 Å are reported for certain energy levels which can lead to shifted absolute positions of the resonance structures. The relative structure however, which gives rise to the detailed shape of the observed edge, can be expected to be known with much higher accuracy. The theoretical bound-bound resonance’s wavelengths (e.g. the 1s-2p line) were shifted to be in agreement with laboratory data, such that for these transitions the error can be expected to be less.

Of course interstellar oxygen can also be present in other forms then neutral atoms. Ionised oxygen can be expected and oxygen can be bound in molecules (e.g. OH, CO, $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{O}`$), either as free gases, or as a solid component of interstellar dust (e.g. ice, silicates). Although the X-ray signature of ionised oxygen is well known, the X-ray signature of bound oxygen is much harder to identify. Depending on the detailed chemical and crystal structure and the presence and structure of other compounds, the X-ray spectral signatures may shift by up to 5 % (chemical shift, see e.g. Sevier, sevier (1979)), and can be broadened. For this reason the exact X-ray absorption spectrum of interstellar dust is not really known. Since neutral atomic oxygen is believed to be the most significant constituent of interstellar oxygen it is therefore justified to include its X-ray absorption features only in our interstellar oxygen model.

In this paper we derive the shape of the interstellar oxygen absorption edge by comparing the absorption features in sources with low and high extinction. We compare the neutral oxygen model cross sections with the derived shape of the spectral profiles of interstellar extinction observed by the RGS, corrected for the instrumental response. Possible deviations from the model will be discussed in terms of the presence or upper limits of other oxygen components. In addition the detailed features of the RGS instrumental absorption are resolved. A subset of Chandra measurements is used to crosscheck the results obtained.

## 2 Data

To study spectral absorption features of the oxygen K edge, a number of bright sources with simple intrinsic (power law) spectra and no obvious narrow spectral features, were selected. Table 1 lists the sources. The corresponding XMM-Newton orbits of the RGS data and Chandra observation ID’s of the LETG data are shown, as well as the $`N_\mathrm{H}`$ ISM column densities used.

Since the main features in our spectra are caused by oxygen, we also show the oxygen column density based on the ISM abundance by Wilms et al. (wilms (2000)). For the extragalactic sources (Mrk~421, PKS~2155-304, 3C~273) we checked that we got reasonable agreement with the oxygen spectral features, starting from the $`N_\mathrm{H}`$ columns from an independent source (Kaastra, kaastra (2002)), while for the galactic sources (Sco-X1 and 4U0614+091) we actually fitted the oxygen column and convert to $`N_\mathrm{H}`$. It may be noted that for the derivation of the actual shape of the interstellar oxygen edge the precise oxygen column densities of the individual sources are irrelevant.

Finally, for comparison only, we add the $`N_\mathrm{H}`$ column densities based on H i radio surveys. Since the line of sight towards the galactic sources is likely to cross galactic molecular material, a correction for the presence of $`\mathrm{H}_2`$ based on a ratio of $`\mathrm{H}_2`$ to H i of 0.3 (Dame et al. dame (1987)) is applied. For Sco-X1 we assume all observed H i to be in front of the source, since its distance of 2.8 kpc (Bradshaw et al. bradshaw (1999)) and galactic latitude of about 24 degrees places it well above the scale height of $``$ 150 pc of H i in the galaxy. For 4U~0614+091 a wide variety of distances is reported (see Brandt et al., brandt (1992)) from 2 to 8 kpc although an upper limit of 3 kpc seems likely. Combined with the low galactic latitude for this source of only 3 degrees, makes the estimated H i column highly uncertain.

Despite some uncertainties in the H i column densities, table 1 shows quite good agreement between our $`N_\mathrm{H}`$ columns derived from X-ray data and the H i columns. This is a strong indication that the absorption is truly interstellar and not originating at the source. This means the absorption characteristics can be assumed similar for all our sources.

On the RGS the oxygen edge is covered by CCD detector 4. Unfortunately, early in the mission the CCD4 chain on RGS2 failed. As a consequence the oxygen data for on-axis sources originate from the single CCD chip on RGS1 only. The bad spots (warm or hot pixels) on this CCD detector 4 cause large systematic uncertainties in the spectra so these regions have to be omitted from the analysis. These bad spots usually occur at the same wavelength for one source, but could be slightly shifted for a different source, due to small differences in source position with respect to the telescope axis. By combining the spectra of the low extinction sources Mrk~421 and PKS~2155-304 the effect of these bad spots is reduced significantly due to slight differences in the relative pointings of these sources.

For the “high extinction” source Sco-X1 a different approach was adopted. Sco-X1 is sufficiently bright to allow large offset pointings (of about 27 arcmin.) which shifted the oxygen edge to CCD detector 3 (orbit 402). Since both CCD3 detectors are active on both RGS’s, redundancy between the two CCD3 detectors solves the problem with bad positions on the detector corresponding to a particular wavelength range. Comparing the individual CCD3 spectra and an additional on-axis pointing on Sco-X1 with the oxygen edge on CCD4 (orbit 224) it was confirmed that the instrumental oxygen edge is identical for the different detector chips, which implies that the same instrumental profile applies irrespective of the location of the Oxygen edge on the instrument.

The data of 3C~273 were used as an independent check to verify that the derived instrumental absorption profile for the RGS is correct.

In all figures in this paper data are fluxed spectra, corrected for exposure and the effective area excluding of course the effects of instrumental oxygen absorption. Error bars represent the $`1\sigma `$ statistical error.

The lower effective area and limited exposure times of Chandra imply higher statistical noise compared with XMM. Including the Chandra observations however, enables an independent check of the derived properties of the interstellar oxygen absorption. All Chandra data shown are corrected for the overlapping $`2^{\mathrm{nd}}`$ and $`3^{\mathrm{rd}}`$ orders.

## 3 RGS analysis

Fig. 2 shows the RGS spectrum around the oxygen K edge for Sco-X1. Overplotted is the theoretical profile based on the cross sections of Fig. 1, convolved with the RGS instrument response and using an extinction column depth of $`N_\mathrm{H}=2.0\times 10^{21}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. With this column depth the 1s-2p absorption line fits the data after applying a 30 mÅ shift of the theoretical position to longer wavelengths. This is somewhat larger than expected based on the known accuracy of the RGS wavelength scale of $`1\sigma =8`$ mÅ (den Herder et al., herder (2001)).

Due to the very high optical depth of the narrow 1s-2p line core, saturation effects can be expected. Given the cross sections of the 1s-2p line as shown in Fig. 1, the expected relation between equivalent width of the line and the column density was computed for a variety of velocity dispersions. This is shown in Fig. 3. The bend in the curves for high column density does indicate saturation effects, but due to the broad wings in the line (contrary to e.g. lines of O i in the UV), the equivalent width of the line keeps increasing steadily even for high optical depths. This means that even for high extinction the column density can be reasonably well determined from the equivalent width. However, the actual equivalent width and depth of the observed line profile do depend on the velocity dispersion along the line of sight. Entering realistic velocity dispersions ($`<`$ 200 km/s) did not improve the fit sufficiently to allow for tight constraints on the velocity dispersion and column depth. Therefore a fit of the 1s-2p line only, leaves a rather large uncertainty on the actual column density. Fixing the column depth to $`N_\mathrm{H}=2.0\times 10^{21}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ and performing more detailed modeling of the 1s-2p line depth using the SPEX package (Kaastra, 2002c ) points to a velocity dispersion in the range of 30 - 50 km/s. However, this is highly dependent on the real distribution of the velocity components. In addition, given the errors on the equivalent widths (Table 2) and too poor resolution of the RGS for this purpose, the fitted velocity dispersion can only be seen as an indication only.

Since the depth of the absorption below the edge (below 22.5 Å) is a measure for the total of ISM and instrumental extinction, it was checked whether the difference between ISM absorption model and data below the edge can be attributed to the instrument. The depth of the instrumental oxygen absorption determined later in this paper, does indeed match this offset. Since the depth of the absorption below the edge extends over a large wavelength range and is therefore not influenced by ISM velocity dispersions, it is believed that the current fit does give a good measure of the true oxygen column depth for this source. The derived column density is also in good agreement with the numbers retrieved from H i observations (see Table 1).

Fig. 4 shows the RGS spectrum for the sum of Mrk~421 and PKS~2155-304 data. This is the “low extinction” data. Of course this summed spectrum yields a kind of weighted average of the spectral characteristics of the two individual objects Mrk~421 and PKS~2155-304. Since we are not interested in the intrinsic source spectra the large scale shape of the combined spectrum is not relevant. The $`N_\mathrm{H}`$ column depth for both sources is low and does not differ too much between the sources. It is therefore estimated that the distortion of the ISM absorption profile due to adding the two sources is well within the statistical uncertainty of the individual data points.

For these “low extinction” data, the model wavelengths are shifted by 35 mÅ to longer wavelengths to fit the 1s-2p feature. This shift is consistent with the 30 mÅ shift in Fig. 2 given the 8 mÅ error on the RGS wavelength scale. Main difference between the data points of these low extinction sources and the overplotted ISM absorption is due to the additional instrumental absorption. Two key instrumental features can be clearly recognised at around 23.05 and 23.35 Å. This is the fingerprint of the actual compounds in the instrument which cause the absorption. These dips can also be noticed in Fig. 2, in the Sco-X1 data. The fact that the equivalent width of the 23.35 feature (see Table 2) is the same for both Sco-X1 and the low extinction sources, despite the fact that the $`N_\mathrm{H}`$ column densities differ more than a factor of 10, does confirm the instrumental nature of this feature.

Taking the ratio between the “low” and “high” extinction data will remove all the features which are constant between the data, in particular the instrumental features. What is left must represent the true interstellar extinction. This ratio is shown in Fig. 5 (black data points).

The theoretical ISM extinction curve (broken grey line) is fitted to the depth of the edge below 22.5 Å. By comparing the theoretical oxygen edge with the extinction data, it appears that the shape of the edge matches the data, but that the position of the edge is shifted. The solid grey line shows this effect. It is identical to the broken line but with the edge (all the resonance structures identified with the indicated edge in Fig. 1) shifted by 0.13 Å, to larger wavelengths. The error uncertainty of this shift is estimated at 0.02 Å. Hereafter, we use these absorption cross sections with shifted oxygen edge as our model of the interstellar oxygen K edge.

It shows clearly in Fig. 5 that the absorption dips around 23.05 and 23.35 Å, which are present in both the low and high extinction data (Figs. 2 and 4) have largely disappeared in the ratio plot, which indicates that both features are generated by the RGS instrument itself. Possible residues deviate less than $`3\sigma `$ from the model.

Any deviations in Fig. 5 from the model can point to absorption features of other components, in particular other forms of oxygen. Any amount of oxygen, either atomic, in molecules or solid compounds will be reflected by the depth of the oxygen edge. Therefore the depth of the edge by itself cannot separate different components. Oxygen compounds other then the neutral atomic form can only be seen if they show distinct, sufficiently narrow, absorption features. In order to judge possible strengths of other absorption features, the level of the fitted continuum is important. In Fig. 5 it shows that the continuum is very well constrained by the data below 22.5 Å and above 23.7 Å. Although fit residues between 22.5 and 23.5 Å seem to suggest additional structure, the tight constraints on the continuum level do not allow much freedom to move the continuum up to a higher level such that there is room for clear absorptions. Taking into account the error on the fitted continuum, the fit residues can be analysed in terms of upper limits on possible other oxygen compounds.

A striking feature in the fit residue is the feature around 22.77 Å. At this wavelength some excess flux appears in the ratio plot (Fig. 5), which means that this feature is not present in the Sco-X1 data (Fig. 2). Inspection of the individual XMM data show that this feature is present in both Mrk~421 and PKS~2155-304 data but not in the 4U 0614+91 and Sco-X1 spectra. The spectrum of the combined low extinction sources, Fig. 6 shows this feature as a clear distinct absorption feature. It is unlikely that the apparent excess flux in the ratio plot is caused by two absorption dips on both sides of the 22.77 Å feature, e.g. due to solid ISM oxygen compounds. In that case the Sco-X1 should have shown the 22.77 Å feature in “emission” as well. In the subsequent section we will show that the Chandra data of PKS~2155-304 and 4U 0614+91 show the same behaviour as the RGS data. For this reason this feature is attributed to the PKS~2155-304 and Mrk~421 source spectra.

If we tentatively identify this feature (Fig. 6) in the PKS~2155-304 and Mrk~421 spectra with an O iv absorption blend at 22.75 Å, given the equivalent width of $`10`$mÅ, we derive a column density of $`N_{O\text{iv}}`$ of $`6\times 10^{15}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. The most likely candidate for this absorption is the local filament as observed e.g. in O vii by Nicastro et. al. (nicastro (2002)), with a column density of $`4\times 10^{15}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. However, since Nicastro et. al. derive an O vi column of only $`0.1\times 10^{15}\mathrm{cm}^2`$, the O iv is most likely due to a less ionised component. If the gas is photo ionised, we expect O iv to peak at $`\mathrm{log}\xi 0.8`$. For this ionization parameter the column density of the neighbouring O iii and O v ions is a factor of 3 smaller than the O iv column and we estimate the strongest spectral features of those ions to be at 22.33 Å(O v, eq. width = 4 mÅ) and 23.08 Å(O iii, eq. width = 2 mÅ). Equivalent widths of this order of magnitude are not completely excluded by the data, taking into account that these lines positions are uncertain by about $`0.03`$ Å. Unfortunately, there is no clear positive indication of these lines.

Looking in detail to other features in the fit residues of the ratio spectrum of Fig. 5, features can be recognized at 23.05 and 23.35 Å. The 23.05 Å feature seems an incomplete cancellation of the 23.05 Å instrumental feature and has an equivalent width of $`3\pm 3`$ mÅ. Finally there seems some structure around 23.35 Å which has an equivalent width of $`4\pm 3`$ mÅ. A tentative explanation could be traces of O iii (at 23.05 Å) and O ii (at 23.35 Å). This implies column densities of $`5\times 10^{15}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ (see Fig. 3). All these column densities are sufficiently low, such that their combined K-edge has an optical depth less than 0.01. This puts constraints on the average ionization stage of oxygen in the interstellar medium. Higher ionization stages of Oxygen may dominate the hotter components of the interstellar medium.

Apart from possible lines of ionised oxygen, oxygen locked in solids may cause features in the fit residues of Fig. 5. It is well known that in solids the spectral features of X-ray absorption lines can be shifted (see e.g. Sevier, sevier (1979)) and broadened with respect to the corresponding lines in free atoms. For broader lines saturation effects are less critical. If the combined features identified above would be attributed to shifted and broadened 1s-2p lines of neutral oxygen in solid compounds, we estimate the amount of oxygen in these features at less than 10 % of the neutral oxygen. In case of possible saturation effects the estimated upper limits will become smaller. If however the combined chemical shifts of lines of oxygen locked in solids smear out its signature over a broad wavelength band, its signature will be completely lost and large amounts of oxygen may be hidden in solids which are simply not detected by X-ray absorption features.

The fact that the depth of the 1s-2p line does not quite match the data is not really relevant. As explained before, the relative depths of the edge and the line of the high extinction component in the ratio data is rather arbitrary and depends on other factors (ISM velocity field) then just the column depth of the absorbing material.

If the instrumental features at 23.05 and 23.35 Å are interpreted as shifted 1s-2p lines of bound oxygen in some solid compounds located on the detectors or optics, the column density for these features can be fitted. First our interstellar extinction model is fitted to the interstellar 1s-2p line of the low extinction data at 23.5 Å(Fig. 6). Fig. 3 shows that for the fitted ISM column density of $`N_\mathrm{H}=1.5\times 10^{20}\mathrm{cm}^2`$, which corresponds to $`N_\mathrm{O}=0.76\times 10^{17}\mathrm{cm}^2`$, line saturation effects are minor and only uncertainty in velocity dispersion will influence the determined column density. We assumed velocity dispersions $`10`$ km/s for these high galactic latitude sources.

In addition to this ISM absorption the instrumental 23.05 and 23.35 Å features are fitted by shifting and broadening the 1s-2p line. It now appears that with this instrument model the depth of the edge below 22.5 Å is also well fitted. This is interpreted as a confirmation that the 23.05 and 23.35 Å features are indeed shifted and broadened 1s-2p lines. The oxygen column density in both instrumental features amounts to $`N_\mathrm{O}=2.5\pm 0.2\times 10^{17}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. If all this instrumental oxygen would be in the form of water(ice) only, this column density amounts to a layer of about $`750\pm 50`$ Å thickness. However, the fact that we see two features might indicate that the oxygen is present in two different compounds.

The actual difference in Fig. 6 between the fitted theoretical interstellar extinction curve and the data (ignoring the 22.77 Å feature) can be interpreted as the instrumental oxygen absorption. For these low extinction sources, any uncertainty in the exact shape of the interstellar oxygen edge, whether or not features of other forms of oxygen then just neutral oxygen are present, hardly plays a role. The derived corresponding efficiency of the RGS instrument is plotted in Fig. 7. This efficiency is implemented in the current calibration files (CCF) for the RGS response, used by the XMM SAS data reduction software package (Jansen et al. jansen (2001)). Note that some of the sharp “edges” in the graph result from the fitting process used to derive the instrumental curves. They have no physical meaning. These sharp features disappear when this correction is applied to the instrument response.

Our interstellar and instrumental absorption models around the oxygen K edge were verified by applying them to 3C~273. The statistical and systematic (due to warm/hot columns in the RGS CCDs) noise is higher for this data than the datasets used above. Using a column depth of $`N_\mathrm{H}=1.76\times 10^{20}\mathrm{cm}^2`$, derived from independent Chandra data, yields an acceptable fit to these data (Fig. 8).

## 4 Cross checking on Chandra data

The method to compare data from low and high extinction sources to derive absorption characteristics of the ISM can also be applied to Chandra data. We looked at a subset of Chandra LETG HRC data, since this Chandra grating/detector combination has the highest effective area at the oxygen K-edge. The observations are listed in Table 1.

Fig. 9 shows the Chandra observation of the low extinction source PKS~2155-304. Comparing with the XMM-RGS observation of the low extinction sources in Fig. 4 it is immediately apparent that the deep instrumental absorption feature seen at 23.05 Å in the XMM data is largely absent in the Chandra data. The 23.35 Å instrumental absorption feature however can be recognised in the Chandra data. This feature is treated similarly as for the XMM-RGS, by assuming it to be a shifted/broadened instrumental 1s-2p line. This fit is shown with the plotted broken line. Also the suspected absorption due to the source at 22.77 Å can be recognised in the Chandra data.

From these observations it follows that the general instrumental absorption characteristics between Chandra-LETG-HRC and XMM-RGS differ, but the 23.35 Å component is common in both instruments.

A high extinction source observed by Chandra is 4U~0614+091 (Paerels et al., paerels (2000)). The Chandra spectrum of this source is shown in Fig. 11. The corresponding XMM-RGS spectrum is shown in Fig. 11. It can be noted that the Chandra 1s-2p line shows a deeper absorption than the XMM-RGS spectrum. This is due to the higher spectral resolution of Chandra of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda =0.045`$ FWHM (Chandra Proposers Observatory Guide) compared to $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda =0.065`$ FWHM (den Herder et al. herder (2001)) for the RGS and means that this line is not resolved by the XMM-RGS.

Both PKS~2155-304 and 4U~0614+091 Chandra data show an apparent wavelength inconsistency of 50 mÅ to larger wavelengths compared to the theoretical position of the 1s-2p line. This can be compared with the 30 to 35 mÅ shift in the same direction for the XMM-RGS data noted before. The systematic wavelength error on the Chandra data is estimated at 10 mÅ in our wavelength region (Kaastra et al., 2002b ), while we mentioned a wavelength inaccuracy of 8 mÅ for the RGS before. This means that, within the errors reported, the Chandra and RGS wavelength scales match, but that likely the R-matrix theoretical 1s-2p line position requires a slight adaptation of $`35\pm 10`$ mÅ to longer wavelengths. This can be compared with the noted discrepancies between the theoretical R-matrix computations and laboratory measurements of $``$0.25 % or 60 mÅ. Laboratory measurements report wavelengths between 23.49 Å (Menzel et al., menzel (1996)) and 23.53 Å (Stolte et al., stolte (1997)).

In fig. 11 the broken black line shows the fitted model spectrum corrected for the chandra instrumental absorption as derived from fig. 9. There is a hint for some additional (instrumental) absorption between 23.0 - 23.2 Å, although the PKS~2155-304 data do not show this absorption that clearly. However, the Chandra data are quite noisy in this respect.

Combining the Chandra spectra of Figs. 11 and 9 yields the interstellar extinction curve according to Chandra, shown in Fig. 12. Since all instrumental features are removed from this plot, it can be directly compared with the corresponding XMM-RGS plot of Fig. 5. The solid grey line in both plots shows our ISM absorption model which is identical in both Fig. 5 and Fig. 12. Although the Chandra profile is much noisier, the profiles are remarkably identical. Even the positive excursions around 22.77 Å which hint at source absorption features, are repeated in the Chandra data although with far less significance. This similarity between the XMM-RGS and Chandra derived interstellar oxygen absorption features confirms the validity of the data analysis.

## 5 Discussion and conclusions

Comparing high resolution X-ray spectra of sources with low and high interstellar extinction, absorption features around the oxygen K edge can be separated into instrumental and interstellar components. A summary of all features identified is presented in Table 2.

A clear signature of the RGS instrumental profile is seen through absorption structures at 23.05 and 23.35 Å. These can be interpreted as the 1s-2p line, broadened and shifted due to the bound state of oxygen on the instrument. A total column depth of oxygen on the RGS instrument of $`N_\mathrm{O}=2\times 10^{17}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ is derived.

The RGS instrumental oxygen edge is remarkably stable over time. Early and later observations of Mrk~421 (orbits 84 and 259) show, within statistical errors, exactly the same structure and magnitude of the edge.

The 23.35 Å feature is also seen in the Chandra LETG spectra. If the 23.05 and 23.35 Å features point to different components, it is clear that the 23.35 Å component is common in both instruments, while the 23.05 Å component is less prominent in Chandra LETG/HRC.

Likely compounds in the instruments which contain oxygen (apart from the known oxygen in the Chandra filter polyamide carrier) are water(ice) and oxidised metal surfaces.

Both XMM-RGS and Chandra LETG have metal surfaces, which will be slightly oxidised. One could therefore argue that the 23.35 Å feature corresponds to metal oxides. For RGS, the active Si of the RGS CCD detectors is covered with a 270 Å $`\mathrm{MgF}_2`$ insulation layer which, on top of that, holds an Al light shield, with a thickness in between 450 and 740 Å, depending on the CCD (Den Herder et al. herder (2001)). In the Chandra HRC there is a separate filter which holds an aluminium layer. In both instruments the oxides can be resident on the aluminium filters or optical components. For RGS the computed oxygen column density for the 23.35 Å feature corresponds to an aluminium oxide layer of about 35 Å. An independent measurement, using ellipsometry, of the oxide layer on the top of the Al light shield on one of the flight spare RGS CCDs indicated a layer of only $`10`$ Å. Additional metal oxides will be present on the active Si as well on the optics. In the Chandra data the fit of the 23.35 Å feature yields an equivalent aluminium oxide layer thickness of about 110 Å.

The 23.05 Å feature dominates the RGS instrument response. Contamination (ice forming on the cooled detectors) is very unlikely the origin of this absorption feature in view of the stable response of the instrument over a prolonged period of time during repeated observations of Mrk~421. In addition, the relative intensities of the RGS aluminium and fluor calibration sources, which show X-ray lines at 1.487 and 0.677 keV respectively, did not change from before launch to recent times (orbit 440). These intensity ratios are very sensitive to accumulation of oxygen (water-ice) on the detectors.

Another source of oxygen may be absorption of water by the $`\mathrm{MgF}_2`$ insulation layer during manufacturing of the CCD’s, before the Al light shield was applied. This process would lock the water behind the Al light shield, without any possibility to escape. $`\mathrm{MgF}_2`$ is known to be porous, and may be able to absorb considerable quantities of water, depending on the way it was deposited on the CCD surface. When all of the oxygen of the 23.05 Å feature would be in the form of water, we would need a layer of 550 Å to be able to account for the observed column density. Despite the fact that the thickness of the $`\mathrm{MgF}_2`$ layer is only known for the “solid equivalent” (assuming that the $`\mathrm{MgF}_2`$ is not porous), the required quantity of water seems quite large and is hard to account for solely in the 270 Å $`\mathrm{MgF}_2`$.

Laboratory measurements of RGS flight-spare CCDs are consistent with the instrumental oxygen edge measured in flight. The systematic error for the laboratory measurements, however, is high compared to the flight measurement.

The interstellar (ISM) extinction derived from XMM-RGS and Chandra LETG/HRC data is fully consistent between the instruments, confirming the validity of the analysis.

The interstellar component is compared with theoretical predictions based on the R-matrix (McLaughlin and Kirby, matrix (1998)) computations of cross sections for atomic oxygen. There is indication that the theoretical 1s-2p line position requires a slight shift of about $`35\pm 10`$ mÅ to larger wavelengths. The structure around the K edge is shifted relative to the 1s-2p line by $`0.13\pm 0.02`$ Å to longer wavelengths (closer to the 1s-2p line), when compared to the theory. The overall shape of the edge, which reflects the detailed resonance structure convolved with the instrument response, fits the actual data well. The total interstellar X-ray absorption fits the expected profile for neutral atomic oxygen. No unambiguous additional signature of oxygen bound in other compounds (e.g. interstellar dust grains) is found. However, we are only sensitive to sufficiently narrow features. If the type of solid state oxygen in dust grains would exhibit very broad absorption features we would not recognise it. An upper limit of oxygen compounds other than neutral oxygen, which have distinct and narrow features around the oxygen edge is estimated at less than 10 % of the neutral oxygen.

A possible interstellar absorption feature of the local intergalactic medium was found around 22.77 Å in both PKS~2155-304 and Mrk~421 spectra. The exact compound causing this possible absorption feature is not unambiguous, but the fact that this feature is not seen in our galactic sources does point to an extragalactic origin. We tentatively identify this feature with O iv absorption.

###### Acknowledgements.

Based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton and Chandra. XMM-Newton is an ESA science mission, Chandra is supported by NASA. SRON is supported financially by NWO, The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. The Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory is supported by NASA. We like to thank L. Maraschi for granting permission to use the XMM-RGS data of orbit 174. The referee is thanked for his useful remarks, which made us improve the clarity of the text.


text:
# Towards universal magnetization curves in the superconducting state of RuSr2GdCu2O8

## I Introduction

The ruthenium cuprates of the general chemical formulas RuSr2(RE)Cu2O8 (1212-type) and RuSr2(RE1+xCe1-x)Cu2O8 (1222-type), where RE = Sm, Eu and Gd, synthesised in 1995 Bauernfeind1 ; Bauernfeind2 ; Bauernfeind3  have attracted a lot of attention because as it was shown for the first time by L. Bauernfeind Bauernfeind2 ; Bauernfeind4  in these compounds superconductivity arises in a state in which magnetic order is already developed. The difference between the superconducting transition temperature Tc and the magnetic transition temperature TM is of the order of 100 K. This is in contrast to what is known for other magnetic superconductors like the molybdenum sulfides Fischer ; Ishikawa  and selenides Shelton ; McCallum , the rhodium borides Fertig ; Hamaker  and the borocarbides Nagarajan ; Cava , where Tc and TM are close, with the magnetic transition appearing usually below the superconducting one. A big amount of investigations followed in an attempt to determine the type of superconductivity and magnetic ordering and whether the two phenomena coexist in a microscopic scale. In the following we will summarize the reported results concentrating more on the compound RuSr2GdCu2O8 (Ru-1212Gd) which is also the subject of this paper.

For the investigation of the magnetic properties of the ruthenium cuprates several methods have been employed. Bernhard et al. Bernhard1  did dc magnetization measurements which indicated that the Ru moments order ferromagnetically in Ru-1212Gd with an ordering temperature T$`{}_{M}{}^{}`$ 133 K while the sample was becoming superconducting (zero resistivity) at a much lower temperature of Tc = 16 K. In the same paper muon spin rotation experiments indicated that the magnetic phase is homogeneous on a microscopic scale accounting for at least 80 % of the sample volume without being modified at the onset of superconductivity. Magnetic resonance experiments Fainstein  using the Gd ion as a probe provided additional evidence that the magnetic phase is homogeneous in Ru-1212Gd. Following a scenario proposed by Bernhard et al. Bernhard1 , Chmaissem et al. Chmaissem  employed neutron powder diffraction and looked for possible ferromagnetic ordering of the Ru moments perpendicular to the c axis. No magnetic scattering consistent with this scenario was found. Later, Lynn et al. Lynn  using polarised neutrons suggested that both Ru and Gd in Ru-1212Gd are actually antiferromagnetically ordered at $``$ 136 K and $``$ 2.5 K respectively. The moment direction is along the c axis with neighboring spins antiparallel in all three crystallographic directions. Their result was confirmed by the neutron diffraction experiments of Jorgensen et al. Jorgensen . In this work Jorgensen  a canted arrangement of the Ru moments was suggested, giving rise to the ferromagnetic component observed in the dc magnetization measurements. Kumagai et al. Kumagai  used Cu and Ru nuclear magnetic resonance to investigate the magnetic properties of Ru-1212Gd. In contrast to the neutron powder diffraction experiments cited above, they conclude that the Ru moments are almost perpendicular to the c axis while two types of magnetic Ru ions, namely Ru5+ (S = 3/2) and Ru4+ (S = 1), exist in Ru-1212Gd. They suggest that weak ferromagnetism in Ru-1212Gd results from a ferrimagnetic structure of the Ru moments of S = 3/2 and S = 1. Butera et al. Butera  based on magnetization measurements support the idea of antiferromagnetically coupled ferromagnetic RuO2 planes in Ru-1212Gd. Unusual thermal-magnetic hysteresis observed by Xue et al. Xue  for 1222-type of compounds led them to the suggestion that phase separation into ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic species is possible in a subgrain scale in the ruthenium cuprates. At this point we should note though, that Z̆ivković et al. Zivkovic  reported unexpected magnetic dynamics for the 1222-type compounds, effects which were not observed for the 1212-type compounds, and Cardoso et al. Cardoso  suggested a spin glass like magnetic state for the 1222-type compounds. Thus, although for a long time it was believed that the 1212 and 1222-type compounds have corresponding magnetic properties it is possible that this is not the case. From the above discussion it is obvious that there is no agreement on the type of magnetic ordering in the ruthenium cuprates. Nevertheless, it seems that it is widely accepted that magnetism represents a bulk property of these compounds. It is the type of magnetic ordering which is yet far from being understood.

Whether superconductivity as well represents a bulk property of the ruthenium cuprates has been investigated by both specific heat and dc magnetization measurements. The specific heat measurements on Ru-1212Gd published by Tallon et al. Tallon  show peak like features in the temperature regime of the superconducting transition, indicating bulk superconductivity, with the peak position moving up in temperature as the magnetic field was increased. This was considered as a sign of triplet pairing in Ru-1212Gd. Chen et al. Chen  also report specific heat peaks indicative of bulk superconductivity in Ru-1212Gd but in contrast to the report of Tallon et al. Tallon  they observed a decrease of the peak temperature as the field was increased. The fact that also Sr2GdRuO6, a precursor for the preparation of Ru-1212Gd, shows a magnetic transition in the temperature range in which Ru-1212Gd becomes superconducting Papageorgiou1  makes the interpretation of the specific heat data even more difficult.

Much more complicated is the interptetation of the dc magnetization data. In principal, field expulsion shown in a field-cooled dc magnetization measurement, corresponding to a bulk Meissner effect, is generally considered as the key indicator for bulk superconductivity. As we will see in the main body of the paper though, a variety of behaviors has been reported for the superconducting state of Ru-1212Gd and interestingly the measurements on our samples, reproduce many of them. On the other hand, all our samples show the typical magnetic and superconducting behavior, as the latter is realised through resistivity and ac susceptibility measurements, that all “good quality” Ru-1212Gd samples-namely samples with onset of superconductivity $``$ 50 K and Tc(R=0) = Tc $``$ 30 K- investigated by different groups show and which could thus be considered as universal. It has been shown Papageorgiou2  that Ru-1212Gd is sensitive to field inhomogeneities in the superconducting magnet of the SQUID magnetometer which affect the SQUID response as the sample is moved in the magnet during the measurements and can create artifacts in the measured magnetic moment. Based on this fact we argue that the reported different behaviors in the superconducting state of Ru-1212Gd may be just the result of different field profiles during the measurements and not of different superconducting properties. In order to eliminate possible artifacts we did measurements on a stationary Ru-1212Gd sample. None of the peculiar characteristics (e.g. non-reversal with reversed field of the features observed in the superconducting state of Ru-1212Gd) seen in measurements where the movement of the sample was required, were observed. This makes the measurements on stationary samples more trustworthy and if the behavior observed for our samples is verified by similar measurements on “good quality” samples of other groups, a universal behavior for Ru-1212Gd realised by dc magnetization measurements as well could be established. Then at least one of the above mentioned contradicting points concerning the ruthenium cuprates would be solved.

## II Experimental

Details about sample preparation and characterization in terms of X-ray powder diffraction can be found in our previous work Papageorgiou1 . Here we should only note that all our samples belong to the same batch, meaning that they were prepared and heat treated together.

Resistance measurements were performed with a standard four-probe ac technique (at 22.2 Hz) on bar shaped pieces of our samples using silver paint contacts.

ac susceptibility measurements were done with a home made susceptometer using a standard lock-in technique at 22.2 Hz with different field amplitudes.

Two superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) magnetometers were employed for the dc magnetization measurements. One of them was a commercial (Cryogenic Consultants Ltd. S600) rf-SQUID magnetometer which allows measurements in the temperature range 1.6 K $``$ T $``$ 300 K in magnetic fields -6 T $``$ B $``$ 6 T. Details about how we tried to handle the problem of remanent fields in the superconducting magnet for our low field measurements can be found in our previous works Papageorgiou1 ; Papageorgiou2 . Nevertheless, since our measurements indicate that field inhomogeneities were present, the given field values should be considered as estimates. This magnetometer necessitates the movement of the sample through a pick up coil system (second order gradiometer) for the measurements. The SQUID response to this movement is fitted using the ideal response for a point dipole of constant magnetic moment and the sample’s magnetic moment at the temperature of the measurement is calculated. In the following this magnetometer will be denoted as MSM (Moving Sample Magnetometer). The second magnetometer was a home made system employing a niobium rf-SQUID of the type SHE 330 from SHE Co. (San Diego, CA92121 USA). With this system we did measurements in the temperature range 4.5 K $``$ T $``$ 150 K in magnetic fields up to 100 Gauss (G). In this second magnetometer the sample is kept stationary during the measurements and what is actually measured, using a flux counter from SHE Co., is the flux change through the pick up coil system which can be transformed to the corresponding change of the magnetic moment of the sample during the measurement. Thus, measurements of absolute values of the magnetic moment require a reference point. In our case since Ru-1212Gd is in a paramagnetic state above the magnetic transition temperature T$`{}_{M}{}^{}`$ 130 K we assumed that the magnetic moment of the sample M is zero at 150 K. In the following this second magnetometer will be denoted as SSM (Stationary Sample Magnetometer).

Two types of measurements were done with the MSM and the SSM. For the zero field cooled (ZFC) measurements the sample was cooled to the lowest temperature in zero (set value) magnetic field, then the desired field was applied and the measurements were taken during warm up. For the field cooled (FC) measurements the samples were cooled from above 150 K in the desired magnetic field. In the MSM it was possible to take FC measurements both on cooling and on warming up. The sequence followed during a FC measurement with the MSM will be described in the caption of the corresponding figure. For the SSM exchange He gas was required to cool the sample to the lowest temperature which made temperature controlling for measurements on cooling difficult. With the SSM the FC measurements were taken only on warming up after cooling the sample from above 150 K to 4.5 K in about 30-45 minutes.

## III Results and Discussion

### III.1 Magnetism and superconductivity of our RuSr2GdCu2O8 samples

#### III.1.1 Magnetism

In figure 1, M(T) and M(B) measurements for our Ru-1212Gd samples are shown. A magnetic transition is obvious at T$`{}_{M}{}^{}`$ 133 K with significant hysteresis between the ZFC and FC branches of the M(T) measurement starting at this temperature. Hysteresis loops indicative of a ferromagnetic component in the magnetic behavior of the samples are revealed in the M(B) measurements. The loops become wider as the measuring temperature decreases, with the remanent moment reaching $``$ 0.1 $`\mu _B`$ per formula unit at low tempeartures. In view of the contradicting reports cited in section I it is difficult to propose an origin for the observed properties. The behavior observed for our samples though, is the typical one observed in similar measurements by many other groups. For comparison, M(T) and M(B) measurements on Ru-1212Gd samples can also be found, for example, in references Bernhard1 ; Jorgensen .

#### III.1.2 Resistance and ac susceptibility measurements

In figure 2, typical resistance and ac susceptibility measurements for our samples are presented. Additional measurements of the same kind can also be found in our previous works Papageorgiou1 ; Papageorgiou2 . The behavior of the sample is metallic at high temperatures with a resistance plateau observed before the superconducting transition which has an onset temperature of $``$ 50 K while the resistance becomes zero at $``$ 30 K. At this temperature intergranular coupling is established and a clear shielding signal is observed in the real part of the ac susceptibility with the corresponding loss peaks in the imaginary part. The transition widens and shifts to lower temperatures, as the ac field amplitude is increased. The superconducting properties of our samples summarized in figure 2 are the usual ones for “good quality” Ru-1212Gd samples. For comparison, there are several references where ac susceptibility Chmaissem ; Klamut1 ; Klamut2 ; Klamut3  measurements, which, like in our case, are usually done with a stationary sample, and resistivity Bernhard1 ; Tallon ; Chen ; Klamut1 ; Klamut2  measurements can be found. The measurements presented in figure 2 are not only typical for different samples of ours but also reproducible for a given sample within the period of three years in which we carried out our investigations. Small differences, compared to figure 2, observed in the ac susceptibility measurements of one of our samples in another work Saleh , are due to the fact that the authors did not subtract the background signal from their measurements. Thus, the $`\chi `$’ drop at $``$ 7 K observed for Ru-1212Gd in that work Saleh  is due to a Pb piece present in our ac susceptometer for temperature calibration.

#### III.1.3 dc magnetization measurements

As described above, our samples show the typical magnetic, in terms of dc magnetization measurements, and superconducting, in terms of resistance and ac susceptibility measurements, behavior, that all “good quality” Ru-1212Gd samples show which thus could be considered as universal. On the other hand, the superconducting behavior of the Ru-1212Gd samples in terms of dc magnetization measurements is far from universal. In figure 3 and figure 4, we summarize measurements on several of our Ru-1212Gd samples. The measurements were taken with the MSM. A variety of behaviors was observed below T$`{}_{c}{}^{}`$ 30 K. Interestingly, these measurements are reminiscent of many of the dc magnetization features in the superconducting state of Ru-1212Gd published by different groups. The measurement presented in figure 3a with a dip followed by a plateau below Tc in the FC branch is similar to the measurements published by Bernhard et al. Bernhard2  and has been considered as evidence for the existence of a bulk Meissner state in Ru-1212Gd. The measurement in figure 3b is reminiscent of measurements by Klamut et al. Klamut1 . Peak like features similar to those of figure 4a can be found in our previous works Papageorgiou1 ; Papageorgiou2  and the FC curve of figure 4b is similar to FC curves published by Artini et al. Artini . Similar curves have also been published for Ru1-xSr2GdCu2+xO8-y type of compounds Klamut4 .

There are several aspects related with the measurements presented in figures 3 and 4 which are difficult to understand. It is not only the fact that whereas for measurements published by different groups the observed differences could be attributed to different superconducting properties arising probably from small differences in the preparation conditions, in our case the samples belong to the same batch. Since our samples were located within a distance of about 5 cm in height close to the center of the furnace, they were prepared under similar but possibly not identical conditions, if for example temperature gradients were present in the furnace, and thus could also be characterised by different superconducting properties (although this not indicated by our resistance and ac susceptibility measurements). It is known that the real part of the ac susceptibility $`\chi `$’ measures the shielding signal of a superconducting sample and should be compared to the ZFC dc magnetization measurements. Nevertheless, as shown above, we have never seen peak like features in the real part of the ac susceptibility. Another aspect is related to the reproducibility of the measurements. While the resistivity and ac susceptibility measurements were reproducible for a given sample, as mentioned above, this was not the case with the dc magnetization measurements below Tc. For example, the measurements presented in figure 3a were taken after our MSM system was first warmed up to room temperature, in order to eliminate the remanent fields in the magnet. Measurements taken on the same sample before this procedure had shown in both ZFC and FC curves peak like features similar to those of figure 4a. The behavior of the observed dc magnetization features below Tc in negative fields is also peculiar. As it was shown previously (compare figure 5 and figure 6 of our previous work Papageorgiou2 ), these features are not reversed by a field reversal. This point was independently verified by Cimberle et al. Cimberle . In their case Cimberle , clear dips in both ZFC and FC curves, indicative of bulk superconductivity in Ru-1212Gd, were not reversed by the application of a negative field. The authors attributed the non-reversal of the ZFC dips to effects related with the remanent field in the superconducting magnet but provided no explanation for the non-reversal of the dips in the FC curves. Nevertheless, they state clearly that at the superconducting transition their SQUID magnetometer, also a MSM, indicates a worsening of the quality of the measurement through the regression factor and the answer function that tends to lose its symmetry. The importance of this statement will become obvious in the next section.

### III.2 The problems of SQUID magnetometry on RuSr2GdCu2O8 using a MSM

In our previous work Papageorgiou2  we have done a scrupulous analysis, trying to determine the origin of mainly the peak like dc magnetization features observed in the superconducting state of Ru-1212Gd. The result of this work Papageorgiou2  was that Ru-1212Gd is sensitive to field inhomogeneities in the superconducting magnet of the SQUID magnetometer which can create artifacts in its measured magnetization below Tc. The problem is related to the measuring procedure. For a MSM the measurement requires the motion of the sample through a pickup coil system. These coils are wound in a second derivative configuration, where the two outer detection loops, located at a certain distance from the center of the magnetometer’s magnet, are wound oppositely to the two central loops located at the center of the magnet. During the measurement, the movement of the sample through the pickup coils induces currents in the detection loops, which, through an inductance L, create magnetic flux in the SQUID circuit, resulting in an output voltage V, which depends on the position of the sample z. This signal V(z) is fitted by the SQUID’s software for the determination of the sample’s magnetic moment. Nearly all analysis methods of the V(z) signal make two significant assumptions for the magnetic moment of the sample: (a) that it is approximated by a magnetic dipole moment and (b) that the sign and value of this moment do not change during the measurement. A superconducting sample though, will follow a minor hysteresis loop during the measurement, when the magnetometer’s field is not homogeneous. This will result in a disturbed SQUID signal, similar to what Cimberle et al. Cimberle  report, and the produced value for the magnetic moment of the sample from the magnetometer’s software, which will come from the best possible fitting under the above assumptions (a) and (b), will not represent the correct value of the sample’s magnetic moment at the temperature of the measurement. In a recent paper Papageorgiou3 , we have presented the problem of SQUID magnetometry of superconducting samples in more detail and we have estimated that field inhomogeneities less than 1 G are enough to create artifacts in the measurements of Ru-1212Gd below Tc. How these artifacts will affect the dc magnetization measurements of Ru-1212Gd below Tc, or else what type of features will be observed below Tc, is determined by the field profile in the superconducting magnet. As indicated by the measurements presented in figure 5 when two samples are measured one after the other in the same field profile they will show similar features below Tc. The small differences observed in figure 5 at low temperatures can be attributed, for example, to slightly different pinning properties of the two samples or to a small mispositioning of the second sample, meaning that sample E was moved over a part of the field profile not completely coincident with that over which sample D was moved. On the other hand, if the history of the magnet between two measurements results in two different field profiles then the results below Tc will be different. This point can explain why dc magnetization measurements below Tc may not be reproducible for the same sample. Thus, the different features shown in figures 3 and 4 and probably the different features observed by different groups below Tc can be the result of different field profiles during the measurements and not the result of different superconducting properties. At this point we should note that when artifacts are present the exact procedure followed during the measurements can play a significant role for the type of features that will be observed in the superconducting state of the sample. If the measurements are taken on cooling, then the sample, because of the field inhomogeneity, will follow first the narrow superconducting magnetic hysteresis loops close to Tc and then the wider low temperature loops. On the other hand, if the sample is cooled first to the lowest temperature and the measurements are taken only on warming , it will follow first the wide low temperature hysteresis loops and then the narrow loops close to Tc. This will result in different results for the two procedures (see also figure 5 of our previous work Papageorgiou2 ). Since measuring on cooling requires usually a slower cooling rate compared to that when the sample is cooled to the lowest temperature first and the measurements are taken only on warming, the careless experimentalist could attribute the different results to the different cooling rates. Our measurements indicate that when the measurements are taken both on cooling and on warming then the results are identical.

### III.3 Measurements on stationary RuSr2GdCu2O8 samples

In order to avoid the problems related with field inhomogeneities in the MSM, sample A, exactly the same piece on which the measurements presented in figures 2 and 3a were done, was measured with the home made SSM. The measurements are shown in figure 6. In this figure we chose to show the volume susceptibility so that estimations of the superconducting volume of the sample can be made. For the calculation we used a value of the dencity $`\rho `$ = 6.7 g/cm3, estimated using the lattice parameters calculated previously Papageorgiou1 . The susceptibility of the spherical sample was corrected for geometric demagnetization using the demagnetization factor N = 1/3. Before we discuss these measurements we should note that none of the peculiar aspects were observed that had been seen in the measurements taken with the MSM (section III.1.3). It is obvious that the ZFC measurements show the same behavior like the real part of the ac susceptibility which also express the shielding properties of the sample and the cooling rate does not seem to play a role when the sample is kept stationary during the measurements, as shown in figure 7.

Moreover, no suspicious “symptoms” are observed when a negative field is applied for the measurements. As shown in figure 8, both the ZFC and FC measurements taken with opposite field directions are almost “symmetric” with respect to zero. The small differences can be attributed to not quite identical field values in the superconducting magnet of the SSM for the positive and negative direction during the measurements.

The features presented in figure 6 below Tc are very similar with the non-calibrated measurements on another sample which was also kept stationary during the measurements. These measurements were presented in figure 8b of our previous work Papageorgiou2 . Thus, two different samples, from the same batch though, measured in two different magnetometers under stationary conditions showed very similar results. This could be considered as a first indication for universal magnetization curves in the superconducting state of Ru-1212Gd. The possibility for a universal superconducting behavior is enhanced also by the fact, as shown in figure 5, that even when artifacts are present the samples are affected in the same way by the same field profile. Nevertheless, we believe that measurements on stationary “good quality” samples by other groups are necessary to establish such a universal behavior.

### III.4 The question of bulk superconductivity for RuSr2GdCu2O8

From the above discussion, it is obvious that the measurements on stationary samples are probably the most trustworthy for a discussion whether Ru-1212Gd is a bulk superconductor or not. The ZFC measurements of figure 6a show that at low fields more than 60% of the sample is shielded from the magnetic field. This alone however, can not be considered as an indication for bulk superconductivity. Although it would be very difficult to create the observed shielding signal by a superconducting impurity in a concentration non-detectable with X-ray diffraction, surface superconductivity could not be excluded.

The signature of bulk superconductivity is the Meissner effect which, if present, appears in the FC curves as a magnetization decrease consistent with field expulsion from the sample. Such a magnetization decrease does not appear in the measurements of figure 6b but neither is the paramagnetic contribution from the Gd moments apparent in the low field measurements; it is obvious only in the 100 G measurement. Instead, a plateau of the susceptibility is observed below Tc indicating a competition between the field expulsion due to superconductivity and the contributions from the Gd and Ru moments. This plateau is more clearly seen in the inset of figure 6a. In order to estimate the contribution from the superconducting part of the sample we have subtracted from the data the Gd paramagnetic contribution. Assumig non-interacting Gd moments, we have calculated their contribution to the measured susceptibility using the Brillouin function Ashcroft . For Gd we used the data in tables 31.2 and 31.3 of reference Ashcroft . The result of this procedure for the measurement in a field of 0.5 G shown in figure 9 indicates that about 20% of the sample expels the magnetic field.

Although field expulsion from 20% of the sample’s volume represents an indication for bulk superconductivity, it rises the question of coexistence of superconductivity and magnetism in a microscopic scale. As it was mentioned in section I, muon spin rotation experiments Bernhard1 , for example, indicate that the magnetic phase in Ru-1212Gd is homogeneous and accounts for at least 80% of the sample volume. Although this is a lower limit Bernhard1 , one could propose a phase separation model where bulk magnetism coexists with bulk superconductivity in Ru-1212Gd not on a microscopic scale but rather in different areas of the sample. There are several reasons though, which could keep the FC superconducting contribution low despite superconductivity in the full sample volume. Bernhard et al. Bernhard2  report for polycrystalline Ru-1212Gd samples a grain size between 2 and 10 $`\mu `$m, while Chu et al. Chu  estimate an unusually large penetration depth of about 50 $`\mu `$m. Grains, or clusters of grains, with size smaller than the penetration depth will not expel the magnetic field in a FC process and a reduced diamagnetic signal will be recorded. Thus, the reduced FC superconducting contribution can be the result of grain size effects while magnetism and superconductivity coexist in a microscopic scale. We should also note that a Meissner state is not the only superconducting state which could be considered for Ru-1212Gd. In a magnetic superconductor, if the internal field exceeds the first critical field Hc1, then this will be accommodated in the sample in the form of vortices (spontaneous vortex phase). A vortex phase will result in a reduced diamagnetic signal compared to a Meissner state, but it is a bulk superconducting state which could coexist with magnetism also in a microscopic scale.

Indications that Ru-1212Gd is a bulk superconductor can be found also in the measurements taken with the MSM. As shown in figures 3 and 4, artifacts related to the movement of the sample in a non-homogeneous field dominate at the low temperature part of the FC curves. We expect that if surface superconductivity was present then the Gd contribution, from the interior of the grains, would dominate the behavior of the sample at low temperatures in these curves. On the other hand, a bulk superconducting state, possibly in the form of weakly pinned vortices, as it is indicated by the narrow hysteresis loops below Tc Bauernfeind4 ; Papageorgiou3 , is much more sensitive to field inhomogeneities which will affect the measured magnetic moment.

## IV Concluding remarks

In this paper we have reviewed the magnetic and superconducting properties that our Ru-1212Gd samples, all belonging to the same batch, have shown. The magnetic properties in terms of dc SQUID magnetization measurements above the superconducting transition temperature Tc and the superconducting properties in terms of resistivity and ac susceptibility measurements were found to be reproducible within the period of our studies and similar to the properties observed by many other research groups. That is why the observed behavior was characterised as universal. Contrary to the universal behavior for Ru-1212Gd in terms of dc SQUID magnetization measurements above Tc and ac susceptibility measurements, usually done on stationary samples, or resistivity measurements, many different features have been reported by different groups in dc SQUID magnetization measurements below Tc, leading to a non-universal behavior in this temperature range. Interestingly, in our SQUID magnetization measurements below Tc we have in many cases observed different features similar to the ones reported by other groups. Nevertheless, these measurements showed several suspicious “symptoms”: among others, the observed features below Tc were insensitive (not reversed) to a field reversal and also, contrary to the resistivity and ac susceptibility measurements, they were not reproducible for the same sample. In our previous works Papageorgiou2 ; Papageorgiou3  we have shown that Ru-1212Gd is sensitive to field inhomogeneities in the SQUID’s superconducting magnet that can create artifacts in its measured magnetic moment below Tc. This problem is related to the procedure of the measurement (movement of the sample within a pick up coil system) and the assumptions under which the magnetometer’s software calculates the magnetic moment from the SQUID response to the movement of the sample. Based on this fact, we suggest here that the differences shown in the dc SQUID magnetization measurements below Tc published by different groups are with high probability not the result of different superconducting properties but the result of different field profiles in the superconducting magnet. In order to avoid the artifacts related with field inhomogeneities in a MSM, we have employed a home made SSM to do measurements on a stationary sample. These measurements showed none of the suspicious “symptoms” that the measurements done with the MSM have shown and we consider them as the most trustworthy for a discussion of the superconducting properties of Ru-1212Gd in terms of dc SQUID magnetization measurements. According to our considerations Ru-1212Gd represents a bulk superconducting phase.

We would like to emphasize that the dc magnetization measurements on stationary samples are the most trustworthy even if the measurements taken with a MSM show none of the suspicious “symptoms” presented in this paper. For example, in the case of reproducible measurements with a MSM figure 5 indicates that artifacts can be reproduced if the field profile is the same. Furthermore, there is experimental evidence McElfresh  that artifacts in the magnetization curves could be reversed by a field reversal, if the shape of the field profile is reversed during this field reversal.

Another interesting possibility which should be noticed is that measurements on stationary “good quality” Ru-1212Gd samples could reveal a universal behavior below Tc in terms of dc magnetization measurements too. This would solve at least one of the contradicting points described in section I for Ru-1212Gd. Nevertheless, the establishment of such a universal behavior requires SSM measurements by other groups also. Apart from that, and since our work has exclusively concentrated on the Ru-1212Gd system, an investigation whether Ru-1212 systems with other rare earths in the place of Gd or 1222 systems are also sensitive to field inhomogeneities in a MSM and the consequences of that represents also an opportunity for further studies on the ruthenium cuprates.