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# A discrete Lefschetz formula

## 1 The zeta function

In this paper, a *graph* $`X`$ consists of a set $`VX`$, called the set of *vertices*, together with a set $`EX`$ of subsets of $`VX`$ of order two, called *edges*. We say that the edge $`e=\{x,y\}`$ *connects* the vertices $`x`$ and $`y`$ and we also write $`e=\overline{x,y}`$. We then say that $`x`$ and $`y`$ are *adjacent*. The graph is called a *finite graph* if $`VX`$ is a finite set. For a vertex $`x`$ the number $`val(x)\{0,1,2,\mathrm{},\mathrm{}\}`$ of edges ending at $`x`$ is called the *valency* of $`x`$. The graph is called *univalent* or *regular* if the valency is finite and the same for all vertices.

Sometimes we will also consider a graph as a one dimensional CW-complex, so all edges are identified with the unit interval. It does then make sense to speak of points of the graph and in particular of midpoints of edges. Further we have a path-length metric $`d(.,.)`$ on $`X`$ giving each edge the length one.

A (combinatorial) *path* $`p`$ is a sequence $`(v_0,\mathrm{},v_n),n>0`$ of vertices such that $`v_j`$ and $`v_{j+1}`$ are adjacent for $`j=0,\mathrm{},n1`$. The number $`n=l(p)`$ is called the *length* of the path. Likewise, a path can also be described by the oriented edges it passes through. The path is *closed* if $`v_0=v_n`$. The path has *no backtracking* if $`v_{j1}v_{j+1}`$ for every $`j=1,\mathrm{},n1`$. A closed path is *tail-less* if $`v_1v_{n1}`$. A tail-less closed path with no backtracking is called *reduced*. Two reduced paths $`(v_0,\mathrm{}v_n)`$ and $`(w_0,\mathrm{},w_k)`$ are said to be *shift-equivalent* if $`k=n`$ and there is an $`s=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$ such that $`v_j=w_{j+k}`$ where $`j`$ runs modulo $`n`$. A shift equivalence class of reduced paths is called a *loop*. If $`c`$ is a loop, then $`c^2=cc`$ also is a loop and so is any power $`c^k`$, $`k`$. A loop $`c`$ is called *prime* if it is not a power $`d^k`$ of a shorter loop $`d`$. Every loop $`c`$ is a power $`c=c_0^{m(c)}`$ of a unique prime loop $`c_0`$. The number $`m(c)`$ is called the *multiplicity* of $`c`$. The length $`l(c_0)`$ is called the *geometric length* of the loop $`c`$. Then obviously, $`l(c)=m(c)l(c_0)`$. Finally, a graph is *connected* if any two vertices can be connected by a path.

Let $`Y`$ be a finite connected graph. Its *zeta function* is defined by

$$Z_Y(u)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\underset{p}{}\left(1u^{l(p)}\right)^1,$$

where the product runs over all prime loops in $`Y`$. It has been shown by H. Bass in  that $`Z_Y(u)`$ always is a rational function, indeed, its inverse $`Z_Y(u)^1`$ is a polynomial. In this paper we want to study $`Z_Y(u)`$ of a regular finite graph via the universal covering $`X`$ of $`Y`$.

## 2 The tree

Let $`X`$ be a tree, ie, $`X`$ is a countable, connected graph that admits no loops. We assume that $`X`$ is regular. Let $`q+1`$ be its valency where $`q`$. Let $`G`$ be the group of automorphisms of $`X`$. The group $`G`$ carries a totally disconnected topology. A basis of neighbourhoods of the unit is given by the compact open subgroups

$$K_E\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\{gG:ge=eeE\}$$

where $`E`$ is an arbitrary nonempty finite set of vertices. Every compact subgroup of $`G`$ fixes a point $`x`$ which is either a vertex or the midpoint of an edge. So every maximal compact subgroup is a stabilizer $`K_x`$ of such a point $`x`$. Another way to describe the topology of $`G`$ is to say that a sequence $`(g_n)`$ in $`G`$ converges to $`gG`$ iff for every vertex $`x`$ there is a natural number $`N(x)`$ such that for every $`nN(x)`$ we have $`g_n(x)=g(x)`$.

A *ray* in $`X`$ is a one sided infinite path without backtracking, so it is a sequence of vertices $`(v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$ such that $`v_j`$ and $`v_{j+1}`$ are adjacent and $`v_jv_{j+2}`$ for $`j0`$. A *line* is a two-sided infinite path $`(\mathrm{},v_1,v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$ without backtracking.

Two rays $`(v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$ and $`(w_0,w_1,\mathrm{})`$ are called *parallel* if there are $`s`$ and $`N`$ such that $`v_j=w_{j+s}`$ for every $`jN`$. Parallelity is an equivalence relation. The *boundary* $`X`$ of $`X`$ is by definition the set of all parallelity classes of rays in $`X`$. A boundary point $`cX`$ also is called a *cusp* of $`X`$.

The group $`G`$ acts on the boundary $`X`$. A *parabolic subgroup* $`P`$ of $`G`$ is the stabilizer of a cusp $`bX_{geo}`$. We fix such a pair $`(P,b)`$. Every vertex $`x`$ can be joined by a ray to $`b`$. In other words, given $`x`$, there exists a ray $`(x=v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$ which lies in the parallelity class $`b`$. This ray is unique. We write it as $`(v_0(x),v_1(x),\mathrm{})`$. Two vertices $`x,y`$ are said to lie in the same *horosphere* wrt $`b`$ if there is $`N`$ such that $`v_N(x)=v_N(y)`$. Then automatically, $`v_{N+j}(x)=v_{N+j}(y)`$ for $`j0`$. Loosely speaking a horosphere is the set of all vertices of the same distance to $`b`$. If $`pP`$ preserves a horosphere, it will preserve every horosphere. Let $`SP`$ be the subgroup of those elements that preserve horospheres.

Let $`l=(\mathrm{},v_1,v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$ be a line prolonging the ray $`(v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$. We keep this line fixed and denote by $`\mathrm{}X`$ the cusp given by the ray $`(v_0,v_1,v_2,\mathrm{})`$ and by $`0`$ the cusp corresponding to $`(v_0,v_1,v_2,\mathrm{})`$. Let $`LP`$ be the subgroup that preserves the line $`l`$. It is called a *Levi component* of $`P`$. Let $`\overline{P}`$ be the stabilizer of the cusp $`0`$. Then $`L=P\overline{P}`$.

Let $`M\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}LS`$. Then $`M`$ is the pointwise stabilizer of the line $`l`$. The group $`M`$ is normal in $`L`$ and $`L/M`$ is infinite cyclic. Therefore the exact sequence

$$1MLC1$$

splits. Here $`C`$ denote an infinite cyclic group. Fix a splitting $`s:CL`$ and let $`A`$ denote the image of $`s`$. Then $`L=AM=MA`$. Note that $`M`$ is compact.

Fix a finite ring $`R`$ with $`q`$ elements. At each vertex $`v`$ there are $`q`$ edges which do not point towards $`\mathrm{}`$. We label these edges with the elements of $`R`$ in a way that

* for $`vl`$ the edge pointing towards the cusp $`0`$ is labelled by $`0R`$.
* The labelling is invariant under the action of $`A`$.

For each labelled edge $`e`$ let $`lab(e)R`$ denote the label. For $`bX\{\mathrm{}\}`$ there is a unique line $`(\mathrm{},w_1,w_0,w_1\mathrm{})`$ joining $`b`$ to $`\mathrm{}`$. Define $`\psi (b)`$ in the ring of formal Laurent series $`R((t))`$ by

$$\psi (b)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\underset{j=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}lab(\overline{w_j,w_{j1}})t^j.$$

The map $`\psi `$ is a bijection from $`X\{\mathrm{}\}`$ to the ring $`R((t))`$.

Note that the action of $`S`$ on $`X\{\mathrm{}\}`$ defines an injection $`S\mathrm{Per}(X\{\mathrm{}\})`$. Let $`N`$ denote the subgroup of $`S`$ consisting of all $`nS`$ for which there is $`n_RR((t))`$ such that

$$n(b)=\psi ^1(\psi (b)+n_R).$$

In other words, $`N`$ consists of those elements of $`S`$ which act by addition of an element of $`R((t))`$ on $`X`$. The group $`N`$ thus is isomorphic to the additive group of $`R((t))`$ and acts transitively on $`X\{\mathrm{}\}`$. It follows that $`S=MN`$ and $`P=MAN`$. The group $`N`$ is a closed subgroup of $`G`$. Indeed, it carries the $`t`$-adic topology of $`R((t))`$.

Let $`\overline{P}`$ denote the stabilizer of the cusp $`0`$. Define $`\overline{N}`$ in an analogous fashion to $`N`$ to get $`\overline{P}=MA\overline{N}`$.

There is an element $`wG`$ with $`w^2=1`$ and $`wv_j=v_j`$ for every $`j`$. Further $`w`$ is supposed to be chosen so that

$$waw=waw^1=a^1$$

for every $`aA`$. Then $`w`$ is called *the non-trivial Weyl element* and $`W=\{1,w\}`$ is the *Weyl group* to $`A`$.

###### Lemma 2.1

(Bruhat decomposition)
The group $`G`$ can be decomposed into disjoint sets,

$$G=PPwP.$$

Further, $`PwP=NwP=PwN`$.

Proof: The group $`N`$ acts transitively on the cusps different from $`\mathrm{}`$. This implies that for every $`gGP`$ there is $`nN`$ with $`ng\mathrm{}=0`$. This implies $`wngP`$ and so $`gNwP`$.  $`\mathrm{}`$

## 3 Trace formula and duality

Let $`G`$ be a totally disconnected locally compact group, so $`G`$ has a basis of unit neighbourhoods consisting of compact open subgroups. By a *representation* of $`G`$ we mean a group homomorphism from $`\pi :G\mathrm{GL}(V_\pi )`$ for some complex vector space $`V_\pi `$. By abuse of notation we will write $`\pi `$ for the space $`V_\pi `$ as well. For every compact open subgroup $`K`$ of $`G`$ let $`\pi ^K`$ denote the space of $`K`$-fixed vectors. We say that the representation $`\pi `$ is *smooth* if every $`v\pi `$ is fixed by some compact open subgroup $`K`$.

Let $`\pi `$ be a smooth representation. For a compact subgroup $`K`$ of $`G`$ and $`v\pi `$ let

$$𝒫_K(v)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\frac{1}{\mathrm{vol}(K)}_K\pi (k)v𝑑k,$$

the projection to the $`K`$-invariants. In other words, $`𝒫_K`$ is a linear map on $`\pi `$ given as follows. For given $`v\pi `$ there exists a subgroup $`K^{}`$ of finite index in $`K`$ such that $`v`$ is invariant under $`K^{}`$. Then

$$𝒫_K(v)=\frac{1}{|K/K^{}|}\underset{xK/K^{}}{}\pi (x)v.$$

It is easy to see that $`\pi `$ is the direct sum of the space $`\pi ^K`$ and the kernel $`\pi [K]`$ of the linear map $`𝒫_K`$.

A smooth representation $`\pi `$ is *admissible* if for every compact open subgroup $`K`$ the space $`\pi ^K`$ is finite dimensional.

Suppose that $`G`$ admits a uniform lattice $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, ie, a discrete subgroup such that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G`$ is compact. Then $`G`$ is unimodular (Ex 14.2 in ). The space of $`C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)`$ locally constant functions on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G`$ carries an admissible representation $`R`$ given by

$$R(y)\phi (x)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\phi (xy).$$

A function $`f`$ on $`G`$ is called a *Hecke function* if $`f`$ is integrable and there is a compact open subgroup $`K`$ of $`G`$ such that $`f`$ factors over $`K\backslash G/K`$. For any Hecke function $`f`$ the integral

$$R(f)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}_Gf(x)R(x)𝑑x$$

defines a linear operator on $`C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)`$. For $`gG`$ and $`f`$ a function on $`G`$ define the *orbital integral*

$$𝒪_g(f)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}_{G_g\backslash G}f(x^1gx)𝑑x$$

whenever the integral exists. Here $`G_g`$ is the centralizer of $`g`$ in $`G`$. We have to fix a Haar measure on $`G_g`$ here.

###### Proposition 3.1

(Trace formula)
Let $`f`$ be a Hecke function. Then

$$\mathrm{tr}R(f)=\underset{[\gamma ]}{}\mathrm{vol}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_\gamma \backslash G_\gamma )𝒪_\gamma (f),$$

where the sum on the right hand side runs over the set of all conjugacy classes in the group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\gamma `$ denotes the centralizer of $`\gamma `$ in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

The proof is the same as that of the corresponding assertion for $`p`$-adic linear groups .  $`\mathrm{}`$

The trace formula can also be used to show the Ihara/Bass-identity (see ).

We now turn to duality. Let $`\mathrm{Adm}(G)`$ denote the category of all admissible smooth representations of $`G`$. We introduce the setup of topological (continuous) representations. Let $`𝒞(G)`$ denote the category of continuous representations of $`G`$ on locally convex, complete, Hausdorff topological vector spaces. The morphisms in $`𝒞(G)`$ are continuous linear $`G`$-maps.

To any $`V𝒞(G)`$ we can form $`V^{\mathrm{}}`$, the space of smooth vectors, which is by definition the space of all vectors in $`V`$ which have an open stabilizer. By the continuity of the representation it follows that $`V^{\mathrm{}}`$ is dense in $`V`$. We call the representation $`V`$ *admissible* if $`V^{\mathrm{}}`$ is admissible. Let $`\mathrm{Adm}_{top}(G)`$ denote the category of all admissible topological representations. The functor:

$`F:\mathrm{Adm}_{top}(G)`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{Adm}(G)`$
$`W`$ $``$ $`W^{\mathrm{}}`$
is easily seen to be exact.

Let $`V`$ be in $`\mathrm{Adm}(G)`$ then any $`W\mathrm{Adm}_{top}(G)`$ with $`FW=V`$ will be called a *completion* of $`V`$.

To $`V\mathrm{Adm}(G)`$ let $`V^{}=Hom_{}(V,)`$ be the dual module and let $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ be the space of smooth vectors in $`V^{}`$. Then $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ is admissible again and the natural map from $`V`$ to $`\stackrel{~}{\stackrel{~}{V}}`$ is an isomorphism.

On the space $`C(G)`$ of continuous maps from $`G`$ to the complex numbers we have two actions of $`G`$, the left and the right action given by

$$L(g)\phi (x):=\phi (g^1x)R(g)\phi (x):=\phi (xg),$$

where $`g,xG`$ and $`\phi C(G)`$. For $`V\mathrm{Adm}(G)`$ let

$$V^{\mathrm{}}:=Hom_G(\stackrel{~}{V},C(G)),$$

where we take $`G`$-homomorphisms with respect to the right action, so $`V^{\mathrm{}}`$ is the space of all linear maps $`f`$ from $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ to $`C(G)`$ such that $`f(g.v^{})=R(g)f(v^{})`$. Then $`V^{\mathrm{}}`$ becomes a $`G`$-module via the left translation: for $`\alpha V^{\mathrm{}}`$ we define $`g.\alpha (v^{}):=L(g)\alpha (v^{})`$. We call $`V^{\mathrm{}}`$ the *maximal completion* of $`V`$. The next lemma and the next Proposition will justify this terminology. First observe that the topology of locally uniform convergence may be installed on $`V^{\mathrm{}}`$ to make it an element of $`𝒞(G)`$. By $`VV^{\mathrm{}}`$ we then get a functor $`R:\mathrm{Adm}(G)\mathrm{Adm}_{top}(G)`$.

###### Lemma 3.2

We have $`(V^{\mathrm{}})^{\mathrm{}}V`$.

Proof: There is a natural map $`\mathrm{\Phi }:VV^{\mathrm{}}`$ given by $`\mathrm{\Phi }(v)(v^{})(g):=v^{}(g^1.v)`$, for $`v^{}\stackrel{~}{V}`$ and $`gG`$. This map is clearly injective. To check surjectivity let $`\alpha (V^{\mathrm{}})^{\mathrm{}}`$, then the map $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$, $`v^{}\alpha (v^{})(1)`$ lies in $`\stackrel{~}{\stackrel{~}{V}}`$. Since the natural map $`V\stackrel{~}{\stackrel{~}{V}}`$ is an isomorphism, there is a $`vV`$ such that $`\alpha (v^{})(1)=v^{}(v)`$ for any $`v^{}\stackrel{~}{V}`$, hence $`\alpha (v^{})(g)=\alpha (g.v^{})(1)=g.v^{}(v)=v^{}(g^1.v)=\mathrm{\Phi }(v)(v^{})(g)`$, hence $`\alpha =\mathrm{\Phi }(v)`$.  $`\mathrm{}`$

It follows that the functor $`R`$ maps $`\mathrm{Adm}(G)`$ to $`\mathrm{Adm}_{top}(G)`$ and that $`FR=Id`$.

###### Proposition 3.3

The functor $`R:\mathrm{Adm}(G)\mathrm{Adm}_{top}(G)`$ is right adjoint to $`F:WW^{\mathrm{}}`$. So for $`W\mathrm{Adm}_{top}(G)`$ and $`V\mathrm{Adm}(G)`$ we have a functorial isomorphism:

$$Hom_G(FW,V)Hom_{𝒞(G)}(W,RV).$$

Proof: We have a natural map

$`Hom_{𝒞(G)}(W,V^{\mathrm{}})`$ $``$ $`Hom_G(W^{\mathrm{}},V)`$
$`\alpha `$ $``$ $`\alpha |_W^{\mathrm{}}.`$
Since $`W^{\mathrm{}}`$ is dense in $`W`$ this map is injective. For surjectivity we first construct a map $`\psi :W(W^{\mathrm{}})^{\mathrm{}}`$. For this let $`W^{}`$ be the topological dual of $`W`$ and for $`w^{}W^{}`$ and $`wW`$ let

$$\psi _{w^{},w}(x):=w^{}(x^1.w),xG.$$

The map $`w\psi _{.,w}`$ gives an injection

$$WHom_G(W^{},C(G)).$$

Let $`\phi \stackrel{~}{FW}`$, then $`\phi `$ factors over $`(FW)^K`$ for some compact open subgroup $`KG`$. But since $`(FW)^K=W^K`$ it follows that $`\phi `$ extends to $`W`$. The admissibility implies that $`\phi `$ is continuous there. So we get $`\stackrel{~}{(FW)}W^{}`$. The restriction then gives

$$Hom_G(W^{},C(G))Hom_G(\stackrel{~}{(FW)},C(G)).$$

From this we get an injection

$$\psi :W(FW)^{\mathrm{}},$$

which is continuous. Let $`\zeta :W^{\mathrm{}}V`$ be a morphism in $`\mathrm{Adm}(G)`$. We get

$$\alpha (\zeta ):W(FW)^{\mathrm{}}\begin{array}{c}\zeta ^{\mathrm{}}\\ \end{array}V^{\mathrm{}},$$

with $`\alpha (\zeta )|_W^{\mathrm{}}=\zeta `$, i.e. the desired surjectivity.  $`\mathrm{}`$

Let now $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ denote a cocompact torsion-free discrete subgroup of $`G`$ and let $`C(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)`$ denote the space of all continuous functions on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G`$.

The next theorem is a version of the classical duality theorem  adapted to our context.

###### Theorem 3.4

(Duality Theorem) Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be a cocompact torsion-free discrete subgroup of $`G`$, then for any $`V\mathrm{Adm}(G)`$:

$$H^0(\mathrm{\Gamma },V^{\mathrm{}})\mathrm{Hom}_G(C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G),V).$$

There is a version for higher cohomologies in  but this won’t be needed here.

Proof: Since $`V^{\mathrm{}}=\mathrm{Hom}_G(\stackrel{~}{V},C(G))`$ it follows that

$`H^0(\mathrm{\Gamma },V^{\mathrm{}})`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{Hom}_G(\stackrel{~}{V},C(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G))`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Hom}_G(\stackrel{~}{V},C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)),`$
since any $`G`$-homomorphism from the smooth $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ to $`C(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)`$ has image in $`C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)`$. Dualizing gives

$$dimH^0(\mathrm{\Gamma },V^{\mathrm{}})=dim\mathrm{Hom}_G(C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G),V).$$

$`\mathrm{}`$

## 4 A character identity

The proofs in this section are inspired by .

Fix a line $`(\mathrm{},v_1,v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$. Let $`\mathrm{}`$ denote the cusp given by the ray $`(v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$ and let $`0`$ denote the cusp given by the ray $`(v_0,v_1,v_2,\mathrm{})`$. Let $`P,L,M,S,A`$ be the groups defined above.

For $`j0`$ let $`K_j`$ be the group of all $`gG`$ with $`gv=v`$ for every vertex $`v`$ that satisfies $`d(v_0,v)j`$. Then $`K_0`$ is a maximal compact subgroup and the $`K_j`$ form a basis of neighbourhoods of the unit in $`G`$. Let $`M_j=MK_j`$, $`N_j=NK_j`$ and $`\overline{N}_j=\overline{N}K_j`$.

For any set $`X`$ let $`\mathrm{𝟏}_X`$ denote its characteristic function. For $`f,gL^1(G)`$ denote by $`fg`$ their convolution product, so

$$fg(x)=_Gf(y)g(y^1x)𝑑y.$$

###### Lemma 4.1

Let $`j1`$.

1. We have the Iwahori factorization, $`K_j=\overline{N}_jM_jN_j=N_jM_j\overline{N}_j`$.
2. For $`aA^{}`$,

* $`aM_ja^1=M_j`$,
    * $`aN_ja^1=N_{j+l(a)}`$,
    * $`a^1\overline{N}_ja=\overline{N}_{j+l(a)}`$.
3. For $`aA`$,

$$\mathrm{vol}(K_jaK_j)=q^{l(a)}\mathrm{vol}(K_j).$$
4. For $`a,bA^{}`$,

$$\mathrm{𝟏}_{KaK}\mathrm{𝟏}_{KbK}=\mathbf{1}_{KabK}.$$

Proof: For (a) note that if $`kK_j,j1`$, then $`k0\mathrm{}`$. hence there are $`n_jN_j`$ and $`\overline{n}_j\overline{N}_j`$ such that

$`\overline{n}_jkn_j\mathrm{}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{},`$
$`\overline{n}_jkn_j0`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$
which implies $`\overline{n}_jkn_jM_j`$. Now the first part of (a) follows. The second is obtained by taking inverses. The point (b) is immediate from the fact that $`av_j=v_{j+v(a)}`$ and $`N_j`$ being the stabilizer of $`v_j`$ in $`N`$.

For (c) note that the map $`k_1ak_2k_1`$ induces a bijection between the sets $`K_jaK_j/K_j`$ and $`K_j/(K_jaK_ja^1)`$. But since $`aA^{}`$, $`K_jaK_ja^1=\overline{N}_jM_jaN_ja^1=\overline{N}_jM_jN_{j+l(a)}`$ and $`[K_j:K_jaKa^1]=[N_j:N_{j+l(a)}]=q^{l(a)}`$.

Finally, we show (d). As sets one has $`K_jaK_jK_jbK_j=K_jabK_j`$ because for $`k_j=n_jm_j\overline{n}_j`$ one has $`ak_jb=an_ja^1abb^1m_jbb^1n_jb`$. By (c) above also the measures agree.  $`\mathrm{}`$

Let $`\pi `$ be an admissible representation of $`G`$. For any subgroup $`H`$ on $`G`$ let $`\pi [H]`$ denote the complex vector space generated by all elements of the form $`v\pi (h)v`$, $`v\pi `$, $`hH`$. For $`H=S`$ let $`\pi _S`$ be the quotient $`\pi /\pi [S]`$. Then $`\pi _S`$ is the largest $`P`$-module quotient on $`\pi `$ on which $`S`$ acts trivially.

###### Corollary 4.2

For $`v\pi ^{K_j}`$ with image $`u`$ in $`\pi _S`$ the vector

$$\frac{1}{\mathrm{vol}(K_jaK_j)}\pi (\mathrm{𝟏}_{K_jaK_j})v$$

has image $`\pi _S(a)u`$.

Proof: This follows from Lemma 4.1.  $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Proposition 4.3

Suppose $`\pi `$ is finitely generated as $`G`$-module. Then $`\pi _S`$ is a finitely generated $`A`$-module.

Proof: Let $`E`$ be a finite generating set of $`\pi `$. Let $`KG`$ be a compact open subgroup such that $`E\pi ^K`$. Let $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ be a finite subset of $`G`$ such that $`P\mathrm{\Lambda }K=G`$. Since $`\pi `$ is the linear span of $`\pi (G)E`$ it follows that $`\pi _S`$ is as $`A`$-module generated by the image of $`\pi (\mathrm{\Lambda })E`$.  $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Proposition 4.4

1. If $`v\pi `$ is fixed by $`M_j\overline{N}_j`$, then $`𝒫_{K_j}(v)=𝒫_{N_j}(v)`$.
2. The canonical projection from $`\pi ^M`$ to $`\pi _S`$ is surjective.
3. The canonical projection from $`\pi ^{K_1}`$ to $`\pi _S`$ is surjective. In particular, $`\pi _S`$ is finite dimensional.

Proof: The first assertion is an easy consequence of the Iwahori decomposition. Let $`\pi _M`$ be the largest quotient on which $`M`$ acts trivially. Since $`M`$ is compact, integration over $`M`$ induces an isomorphism $`\pi _M\pi ^M`$. Since the map $`\pi _M\pi _S`$ is surjective, the second claim follows.

For the third let $`U_S`$ be a finite dimensional subspace of $`\pi _S`$ and let $`U`$ be a finite dimensional subspace of $`\pi ^M`$ mapping to $`U_S`$. There is $`j`$ such that $`U\pi ^{M_1\overline{N}_j}`$. Choose $`aA`$ such that $`a^1\overline{N}_1a\overline{N}_j`$. Then $`\pi (a)U\pi ^{M_1\overline{N}_1}`$. The decomposition $`K_j=\overline{N}_jM_jN_j`$ for $`j=1`$ implies that the image of $`\pi ^{M_1\overline{N}_1}`$ in $`\pi _S`$ equals the image of $`\pi ^{K_1}`$. So it follows that $`\pi (a)U_S`$ lies in the image of $`\pi ^{K_1}`$. Hence its dimension, ie, the dimension of $`U_S`$, is bounded by the dimension of $`\pi ^{K_1}`$. We conclude that $`\pi _S`$ is finite dimensional. Thus one can take $`U_S`$ to be equal to $`\pi _S`$. But then $`U_S=\pi (a)U_S`$ lies in the image of $`\pi ^{K_1}`$.  $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Proposition 4.5

Let $`a_1`$ be the unique generator of $`A`$ inside $`A^{}`$. For every $`j1`$ there exists a space $`\pi _1^{K_j}\pi ^{K_j}`$ such that

1. The projection from $`\pi _1^{K_j}`$ to $`\pi _S`$ is a linear isomorphism.
2. For each $`m0`$ the space $`\pi _1^{K_j}`$ is stable under $`\pi (\mathrm{𝟏}_{K_ja_1^mK_j})`$.
3. There exists $`n`$ such that $`\pi (\mathrm{𝟏}_{K_ja_1^nK_j})\pi ^{K_j}\pi _1^{K_j}`$.

Proof: We need the following lemma.

###### Lemma 4.6

For every compact subgroup $`H`$ of $`G`$ the space $`\pi [H]`$ coincides with the space of all $`v\pi `$ with $`_H\pi (h)v𝑑h=0`$.

Proof: For every $`v\pi [H]`$ we obviously have $`_H\pi (h)v𝑑h=0`$. The other way round assume that $`v\pi `$ satisfies $`_H\pi (h)v𝑑h=0`$. There exists a normal subgroup $`H^{}`$ of finite index in $`H`$ such that $`v\pi ^H^{}`$. Let $`F`$ denote the finite group $`H/H^{}`$. Then one has $`0=_{xF}\pi (x)v`$. Hence

$$v=\frac{1}{|F|}\underset{xF}{}(v\pi (x)v).$$

This shows that $`v`$ lies in $`\pi [H]`$.  $`\mathrm{}`$

Note that $`S`$ is the union of the compact open subgroups $`S_j=K_jS=M_jN_j`$. Thus $`\pi [S]`$ is the union of the sets $`\pi [U]`$, when $`U`$ runs over all compact open subgroups of $`S`$. Fix $`j`$. Choose a fixed compact open subgroup $`U`$ of $`S`$ such that $`\pi [S]\pi ^{K_j}\pi [U]`$ and $`S_jU`$.

###### Lemma 4.7

If $`a_1^nUa_1^nS_j`$ and $`v\pi [S]\pi ^{K_j}`$, then $`\pi \left(\mathrm{𝟏}_{K_ja_1^nK_j}\right)v=0`$.

Proof: The vector $`\pi \left(\mathrm{𝟏}_{K_ka_1^nK_j}\right)v`$ differs from $`𝒫_{K_j}(\pi (a_1^n)v)`$ only by a scalar. By Proposition 4.4 the latter equals $`𝒫_{N_j}(\pi (a_1^n)v)`$. But

$`𝒫_{N_j}(\pi (a_1^n)v)`$ $`=`$ $`(const){\displaystyle _{N_j}}\pi (n)\pi (a_1^n)v𝑑n`$
$`=`$ $`(const)\pi (a_1^n){\displaystyle _{a_1^nN_ja_1^n}}\pi (n)v𝑑n=0.`$
$`\mathrm{}`$

Choose $`n`$ to be large enough that $`a_1^nUa_1^nS_j`$ and define $`\pi _1^{K_j}`$ to be $`\pi (K_ja_1^nK_j)V^{K_j}`$. We first show that thw projection from $`\pi _1^{K_j}`$ to $`\pi _S`$ is surjective. For this let $`u\pi _S`$. By Proposition 4.4 there is $`v\pi ^{K_j}`$ whose image in $`\pi _S`$ equals $`\pi _S(a_1^n)u`$. By Corollary 4.2, $`𝒫_{K_j}(\pi (a_1^n)v)`$ has image $`u`$.

For the injectivity let $`v_0\pi ^{K_j}`$ and assume that $`v=\pi (K_ja_1^nK_j)v_0`$ lies in $`\pi [S]`$. We have to show that $`v=0`$.

By choice of $`U`$, $`v\pi [U]`$. Now $`v`$ is also, up to a constant, equal to $`𝒫_{K_j}(\pi (a_1^n)v_0)=𝒫_{N_j}(\pi (a_1^n)v_0)`$. Therefore

$`{\displaystyle _U}\pi (u)v𝑑u`$ $`=`$ $`0`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _U}\pi (u)𝑑u{\displaystyle _{N_j}}\pi (n_j)\pi (a_1^n)v_0𝑑n_j`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _U}\pi (u)\pi (a_1^n)v𝑑u`$
$`=`$ $`\pi (a_1^n){\displaystyle _{a_1^nUa_1^n}}\pi (u)v𝑑u.`$
So $`v_0\pi [S]`$ and by Lemma 4.7 it follows $`v=0`$.

To prove (b) note that the above is valid for every large enough $`n`$, so all the spaces $`\pi (K_ja_1^nK_j)\pi ^{K_j}`$ have the same dimension. But for $`m0`$,

$$\pi (K_ja_1^mK_j)\pi (K_ja_1^nK_j)\pi ^{K_j}=\pi (K_ja^{M+n}K_j)\pi ^{K_j}.$$

Finally, statement (c) follows from the definition.  $`\mathrm{}`$

We now state the main theorem of this section.

###### Theorem 4.8

For all $`j,m1`$,

$$\mathrm{tr}\left(\frac{1}{\mathrm{vol}(K_ja_1^mK_j)}\pi (\mathrm{𝟏}_{K_ja_1^mK_j})\right)=\mathrm{tr}\pi _S(a_1^m).$$

Proof: Since $`(\mathrm{𝟏}_{K_ja_1^mK_j})^n=\mathrm{𝟏}_{K_ja_1^{mn}K_j}`$, the Proposition 4.5 implies that

$`\mathrm{tr}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{vol}(K_ja_1^mK_j)}}\pi (\mathrm{𝟏}_{K_ja_1^mK_j})\right)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{vol}(K_ja_1^mK_j)}}\mathrm{tr}\left(\pi (\mathrm{𝟏}_{K_ja_1^mK_j})\pi _1^{K_j}\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{tr}(a_1^m|\pi _S).`$
$`\mathrm{}`$

An element $`g`$ of $`G`$ is called *elliptic* if it fixes a point of $`X`$. This point can be chosen to be a vertex or a midpoint of an edge. If $`g`$ fixes a midpoint, then $`g^2`$ fixes both vertices of that particular edge. If $`g`$ does not fix a point of $`X`$ then it is called *hyperbolic*. In that case the minimum

$$l(g)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\underset{xX}{\mathrm{min}}d(gx,x)$$

is attained exactly on a line $`l(g)=(\mathrm{},v_1(g),v_0(g),v_1(g),\mathrm{})`$ which is preserved by $`g`$. Since this line $`l(g)`$ can be mapped to our given line by some $`hG`$, it follows that $`g`$ is conjugate to an element of $`L=AM`$. It is not hard to see that every hyperbolic element of $`L`$ is conjugate to a uniquely determined element of $`A^{}`$. Let $`G_{hyp}`$ denote the set of hyperbolic elements of $`G`$.

###### Corollary 4.9

Let $`\pi `$ be an admissible representation. On $`G_{hyp}`$ define a conjugation invariant function $`\theta _\pi `$ by $`\theta _\pi (a)=\mathrm{tr}(a|\pi _S)`$, $`aA^{}`$. Then for every Hecke function $`f`$ which is supported on $`G_{hyp}`$,

$$\mathrm{tr}\pi (f)=_Gf(x)\theta _\pi (x)𝑑x.$$

Proof: The claim follows from the theorem for Hecke functions of the form $`f=\mathrm{𝟏}_{K_jaK_j}`$, $`aA^{}`$. Every Hecke function with support in $`G_{hyp}`$ is a linear combination of functions which are conjugate to functions of the latter form.  $`\mathrm{}`$

## 5 The Lefschetz formula

Recall that $`G`$ is the automorphism group of a $`q+1`$-regular tree. Note that such a group $`G`$ admits a lattice $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ as above, hence $`G`$ is unimodular. Let $`g`$ be a hyperbolic element of $`G`$. Let $`l(g)=l=(\mathrm{},v_1,v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$ be the line that is preserved by $`g`$. After renumbering we can achieve that $`gv_j=v_{jl(g)}`$. Let $`b`$ be the parallelity class of the ray $`(v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$. Let $`P,S,M,A`$ be defined as before. Then $`gL=AM`$. The centralizer $`G_g`$ of $`g`$ preserves $`l`$ and therefore is a subgroup $`G_g=L_g`$ of $`L`$. Let $`M_g=G_gM`$, then we have an exact sequence

$$1M_gL_gC1$$

for an infinite cyclic group $`C`$. Let $`A_gL_g`$ be an image of a splitting $`s:CL_g`$, then $`L_g=A_gM_g`$. We normalize the Haar measure on the compact group $`M_g`$ to have volume one and on $`A_g`$ we choose $`l(a_0)`$ times the counting measure, where $`a_0`$ is a generator of $`A_g`$. Then the volume of $`<g>\backslash L_g`$ equals $`l(g)`$.

Now suppose that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ acts freely on $`X`$. Then every element $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$, $`\gamma 1`$ is hyperbolic and the centralizer $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\gamma `$ is cyclic. Let $`\gamma _0`$ be the unique generator of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\gamma `$ with $`\gamma =\gamma _0^\mu `$ with $`\mu >0`$. Then

$$\mathrm{vol}\left(\mathrm{\Gamma }_\gamma \backslash G_\gamma \right)=l(\gamma _0).$$

Alternatively we call an element $`\tau `$ of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ a *primitive* element if $`\tau =\sigma ^n`$ for $`\sigma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`n`$ implies $`n=1`$. Then $`\gamma _0`$ is the unique primitive element such that $`\gamma =\gamma _0^\mu `$ with $`\mu >0`$.

###### Proposition 5.1

Assume that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ acts freely on $`X`$. Then for every Hecke function $`f`$,

$$\mathrm{tr}R(f)=\underset{[\gamma ]}{}l(\gamma _0)𝒪_\gamma (f).$$

Proof: This follows from the trace formula.  $`\mathrm{}`$

Fix a cusp $`b=(v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$ and a line $`l=(\mathrm{},v_1,v_0,v_1,\mathrm{})`$ prolonging $`b`$. Let $`L,P,S,M,A`$ be defined as before. Let $`L^{}`$ denote the set of all $`gL`$ such that $`l(g)>0`$ and $`gv_j=v_{jl(g)}`$, ie, $`L^{}`$ is the set of elements of $`L`$ that “move away” from $`b`$. Let $`A^{}=AL`$. Then $`L^{}=A^{}M`$. Let $`_p(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ denote the set of all conjugacy classes $`[\gamma ]`$ in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ such that $`\gamma `$ is in $`G`$ conjugate to an element $`a_\gamma m_\gamma `$ of $`L^{}=A^{}M`$.

###### Theorem 5.2

(Lefschetz Formula)
Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }G`$ be a discrete cocompact subgroup which acts freely on $`X`$. Then for every function $`\phi `$ on $`A^{}`$ such that $`_{aA^{}}\phi (a)q^{l(a)}<\mathrm{}`$,

$$\underset{aA^{}}{}\phi (a)q^{l(a)}\mathrm{tr}(a|R_S)=\underset{[\gamma ]_b(\mathrm{\Gamma })}{}l(\gamma _0)\phi (a_\gamma ).$$

The proof will occupy the rest of the section. We start with the simple observation that the length map $`l:G_0`$ is continuous and hence $`l^1(n)`$ is open for every $`n_0`$. An element $`gG`$ is elliptic iff $`l(g)=0`$ and hyperbolic iff $`l(g)>0`$.

We next need an integration formula. Fix the Haar measure on $`G`$ that gives the stabilizer $`K_x`$ of a vertex $`x`$ the volume one. On $`A`$ install the counting measure as Haar measure.

For $`j`$ let $`K(j)`$ be the stabilizer of the point $`v_j`$ and set $`K=K(0)=K_0`$. Define $`N(j)=NK(j)`$. Then $`N(j)`$ is a compact open subgroup of $`N`$ that stabilizes $`v_k`$ for every $`kj`$. The group $`N`$ is the union of all the subgroups $`N(j)`$. We give $`N`$ the Haar measure such that $`N(0)`$ gets volume one. Then $`\mathrm{vol}(N(j))=q^j`$.

###### Lemma 5.3

With the above normalizations we have for every $`fL^1(G)`$,

$$_Gf(x)𝑑x=_K_N_Af(kna)𝑑a𝑑n𝑑k.$$

If $`f`$ is supported in the open set of hyperbolic elements,

$$_Gf(x)𝑑x=_K_N_A^{}f(kna(kn)^1)q^{l(a)}𝑑a𝑑n.$$

For later use we also note that for $`aA`$, $`fL^1(S)`$,

$$_Sf(asa^1)𝑑s=q^{v(a)}_Sf(s)𝑑s.$$

Here $`v(a)`$ is defined by $`a(v_j)=v_{j+v(a)}`$. Then $`aA^{}`$ is equivalent to $`v(a)<0`$.

Proof: On $`K\backslash G`$ there is a unique $`G`$-invariant measure such that

$$_Gf(x)𝑑x=_{K\backslash G}_Kf(kx)𝑑k𝑑x.$$

The natural projection identifies $`NA`$ with $`K\backslash G`$, so this measure gives a Haar measure on the group $`NA`$. But $`dnda`$ also is a Haar measure, so the uniqueness of Haar measures gives the first assertion up to a scalar. Plugging in the test function $`f=\mathrm{𝟏}_K`$ gives the claim.

Let $`G_{hyp}`$ denote the set of all hyperbolic elements of $`G`$. Note that the map

$`G/A\times A^{}`$ $``$ $`G_{hyp}`$
$`(x,a)`$ $``$ $`xax^1`$
is surjective and proper. Hence there is a nowhere vanishing function $`B`$ on $`G/A\times A^{}`$ such that

$$_Gf(x)𝑑x=_{G/A}_A^{}f(xax^1)B(x,a)𝑑a𝑑x.$$

Since $`G`$ is unimodular it follows that $`_Gf(yxy^1)𝑑x=_Gf(x)𝑑x`$ and hence $`B`$ does not depend on $`x`$. Write $`B(a)`$ instead.

The projection $`GG/A`$ identifies $`KN`$ with the quotient $`G/A`$. Via the first integral equality we get an identification of the measure on $`G/A`$ with the measure $`dkdn`$. Thus,

$$_Gf(x)𝑑x=_K_N_A^{}f(kna(kn)^1)B(a)𝑑a𝑑n𝑑k.$$

We are going to compute $`B(a)`$ by plugging in special test functions. First let $`a_1A^{}`$ be the unique element with $`l(a_1)=1`$. For $`k`$ write $`B(k)`$ instead of $`B(a_1^k)`$. Fix some $`a=a_1^kA^{}`$. Let $`f`$ be the indicator function of the set $`KaKG_{hyp}`$. This function is $`K`$-central. The set $`KaK`$ equals the set of all $`gG`$ that satisfy $`d(gv_0,v_0)=k`$. Since there are $`(q+1)q^{k1}`$ vertices in distance $`k`$ to $`v_0`$ it follows that

$$\left|KaK/K\right|=(q+1)q^{k1}.$$

An element $`g`$ of $`KaK`$ is elliptic iff $`g`$ fixes a point $`x`$ half-way between $`v_0`$ and $`g(v_0)`$. Since for every point $`x`$ in distance $`k/2`$ there are $`q^{[k/2]}`$ points in distance $`k`$ that lie beyond $`x`$ it follows that the volume of the set of elliptic elements in $`KaK`$ equals $`q^{[k/2]}`$. Hence

$$_Gf(x)𝑑x=(q+1)q^{k1}q^{\left[\frac{k}{2}\right]}.$$

For $`aA`$ recall that $`v(a)`$ is defined by $`a(v_j)=v_{j+v(a)}`$. It is easy to see that

$$\{[a^1,s]:sS_j\}=S_k,$$

where $`k=\mathrm{max}(j,jv(a))`$. For $`aA^{}`$ and $`sS`$ we have $`d(sas^1v_0,v_0)=d(as^1v_0,s^1v_0)`$ and this number equals $`l(a)`$ if $`sS_0`$. If $`sS_{j+1}S_j`$ for some $`j0`$, then

$$d(as^1v_0,s^1v_0)=2(j+1)+l(a).$$

Using $`\mathrm{vol}(S_0)=1`$ and $`\mathrm{vol}(S_{j+1}S_j)=q^j(q1)`$ we get

$`(q+1)q^{k1}q^{\left[\frac{k}{2}\right]}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _G}f(x)𝑑x`$
$`=`$ $`B(k)+{\displaystyle \underset{\nu =1}{\overset{\left[\frac{k1}{2}\right]}{}}}B(k2\nu )(q1)q^{\nu 1}.`$
The unique solution to this recurrence formula is $`B(k)=q^k`$. This implies the second assertion of the lemma. For the third note that $`_Sf(asa^1)𝑑s`$ is a Haar measure on $`S`$, therefore equals $`c(a)_Sf(s)𝑑s`$ for a constant $`c(a)`$. Plugging in the test function $`f=\mathrm{𝟏}_K`$ gives $`c(a)=q^{v(a)}`$.  $`\mathrm{}`$

Let $`\eta 0`$ be compactly supported function on $`N`$, left invariant under $`KN`$ and such that $`_N\eta (n)𝑑n=1`$. Define a function $`f`$ on $`G`$ by

$$f(kna(kn)^1)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\eta (n)\phi (a),aA^{},$$

and $`f(x)=0`$ if $`x`$ is elliptic. The $`f`$ is a Hecke function. Let $`amA^{}M`$. We have seen that $`am`$ is conjugate to $`a`$. so that

$$𝒪_{am}(f)=𝒪_a(f)=\phi (a).$$

If we plug this function $`f`$ into the trace formula we readily see that the geometric side will give the geometric side of the Lefschetz formula. For the spectral side we compute for an admissible representation $`\pi `$,

$`\mathrm{tr}\pi (f)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _G}f(x)\theta _\pi (x)𝑑x`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _K}{\displaystyle _N}{\displaystyle _A^{}}\eta (n)\phi (a)q^{l(a)}\mathrm{tr}(a|\pi _S)𝑑a𝑑n𝑑k`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _A^{}}\phi (a)q^{l(a)}\mathrm{tr}(a|\pi _S)𝑑a.`$
So Theorem 5.2 follows from the trace formula.  $`\mathrm{}`$

## 6 Rationality of the zeta function

Let $`Y`$ be a finite regular graph of valency, say, $`q+1`$, $`X`$ its universal covering and $`G`$ the automorphism group of $`X`$. Then there is a uniform torsion-free lattice $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in $`G`$ such that $`Y=\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash X`$. Recall the zeta function of $`Y`$,

$$Z_Y(u)=\underset{p}{}(1u^{l(p)})^1,$$

where the product runs over all prime loops in $`Y`$. Since $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the fundamental group of $`Y`$ the set of prime loops is in bijection to the set of prime conjugacy classes $`[\gamma _0]`$ in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Hence,

$$Z_Y(u)=Z_\mathrm{\Gamma }(u)=\underset{[\gamma _0]}{}(1u^{l(\gamma _0)})^1.$$

We compute the logarithmic derivative of $`Z_Y`$,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{Z_Y^{}}{Z_Y}}(u)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{[\gamma _0]}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{l(\gamma _0)u^{l(\gamma _0)1}}{1u^{l(\gamma _0)}}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{[\gamma _0]}{}}l(\gamma _0){\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{u^{l(\gamma _0)n}}{u}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{[\gamma ]}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{u^{l(\gamma )}}{u}}l(\gamma _0).`$
Here the last sum runs over all nontrivial conjugacy classes in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\gamma _0`$ is the underlying prime to $`\gamma `$. The last expression equals the geometric side of the Lefschetz formula for the test function

$$\phi (a)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\frac{u^{l(a)}}{u},$$

which for $`|u|<\frac{1}{q}`$ satisfies the condition of the Lefschetz formula. So in that range the function $`Z_Y^{}/Z_Y`$ equals

$$\underset{aA^{}}{}\frac{u^{l(a)}}{u}q^{l(a)}\mathrm{tr}(a|R_S).$$

For every group homomorphism $`\psi `$ from $`A`$ to $`^\times `$ there is a unique number $`\lambda ^\times `$ such that

$$\psi (a)=\lambda ^{v(a)}.$$

For $`\lambda ^\times `$ let $`R_S(\lambda )`$ be the *generalized $`\lambda `$-eigenspace*, ie, $`R_S(\lambda )`$ is the largest $`A`$-submodule on which $`(a\lambda ^{v(a)})`$ acts nilpotently for every $`aA`$. Then

$$R_S=\underset{\lambda }{}R_S(\lambda ).$$

Let $`m_\lambda `$ denote the dimension of $`R_S(\lambda )`$. Then

$`{\displaystyle \frac{Z_Y^{}}{Z_Y}}(u)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\lambda }{}}m_\lambda {\displaystyle \underset{aA^{}}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{u^{l(a)}}{u}}q^{l(a)}\lambda ^{l(a)}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\lambda }{}}m_\lambda {\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{(uq/\lambda )^n}{u}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\lambda }{}}m_\lambda {\displaystyle \frac{q}{\lambda uq}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\lambda }{}}m_\lambda {\displaystyle \frac{1}{u\lambda /q}}`$
We have proved the following theorem.

###### Theorem 6.1

The function $`Z_Y(u)`$ extends to a rational function on $``$ with $`Z_Y(u)`$ being a polynomial. The pole-order of $`Z_Y`$ at $`u=\lambda /q`$, $`\lambda ^\times `$, equals

$$m_\lambda =dimR_S(\lambda ).$$

## 7 The Patterson conjecture

For $`\lambda ^\times `$ let $`\delta _\lambda `$ be the character of $`P=AS`$ given by

$$\delta _\lambda (as)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\lambda ^{v(a)}.$$

Let $`I_\lambda `$ denote the representation of $`G`$ induced from $`\delta _\lambda `$. Then $`I_\lambda `$ is the representation on the space of locally constant functions on $`G`$ that satisfy

$$f(px)=\delta _\lambda (p)f(x)$$

for $`pP`$ and $`xG`$. The representation is given by

$$I_\lambda (y)f(x)=f(xy).$$

The representation $`I_\lambda `$ is admissible.

###### Theorem 7.1

The pole-order of $`Z_Y(u)`$ at $`u=\lambda `$ is

$$dimH^0(\mathrm{\Gamma },I_{1/\lambda q}^{\mathrm{}})$$

if $`\lambda _0\pm \frac{1}{\sqrt{q}}`$ and

$$dimH^0(\mathrm{\Gamma },\widehat{I}_{\pm 1/\sqrt{q}}^{\mathrm{}})$$

if $`\lambda =\pm \frac{1}{\sqrt{q}}`$, where $`\widehat{I}_{\pm 1/\sqrt{q}}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is a certain self-extension of $`I_{\pm 1/\sqrt{q}}^{\mathrm{}}`$.

###### Corollary 7.2

If $`\lambda \{\pm \frac{1}{\sqrt{q}},\pm \frac{1}{q},\pm 1\}`$, then the pole order of $`Z_Y(u)`$ at $`u=\lambda `$ equals

$$dimH^0(\mathrm{\Gamma },I_\lambda ^{\mathrm{}}).$$

Proof: So far we know that the pole-order of $`Z_Y(\lambda )`$ equals $`dimR_S(\lambda q)=dimC^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)_S(\lambda q)`$.

###### Lemma 7.3

Let $`\pi `$ be an irreducible admissible representation of $`G`$. If $`\lambda \pm \sqrt{q}`$, then $`A`$ acts semisimply on $`\pi _S(\lambda )`$. In any case the length of the $`A`$-module $`\pi _S(\lambda )`$ is at most $`2`$.

Proof: Let $`_\lambda `$ denote the one dimensional $`P`$-module $``$ on which $`P`$ acts by $`\delta _\lambda `$. For $`\alpha \mathrm{Hom}(\pi ,I_\lambda )`$ let $`\alpha (1):\pi `$ be given by

$$\alpha (1)(v)=\alpha (v)(1).$$

For $`sS`$ we get $`\alpha (1)\pi (s)v=\alpha (1)v`$ and so $`\alpha (1)`$ factors over $`\pi _S`$. In this way we get an isomorphism

$$\mathrm{Hom}_G(\pi ,I_\lambda )\mathrm{Hom}_A(\pi _S,_\lambda ).$$

So, if $`\pi _S`$ is not zero, then $`\pi `$, being irreducible, will inject into one $`I_\lambda `$ and so $`\pi _S`$ will inject into $`I_{\lambda ,S}`$. So it suffices to show the assertion for $`\pi =I_\lambda `$.

The map $`\psi :\pi =I_\lambda _\lambda `$ given by $`ff(1)`$ is a $`P`$-homomorphism. The group $`A`$ acts on the image by $`\delta _\lambda `$ and this defines an irreducible quotient of $`\pi _S`$. We will show that the kernel of $`\psi `$ gives an irreducible subrepresentation of $`\pi _S`$ on which $`A`$ acts by $`\delta _{q/\lambda }`$.

Recall the Bruhat decomposition $`G=PPwN`$. Let $`f`$ be in the kernel of $`\psi `$. Then $`f`$ vanishes in a neighbourhood of $`1`$ and thus the function $`sf(ws)`$ is compactly supported on $`S`$, so the integral $`_Sf(ws)𝑑s`$ converges. This integral defines an isomorphism $`\mathrm{ker}(\psi )_S`$. The group $`A`$ acts as

$`{\displaystyle _S}f(wsa)𝑑s`$ $`=`$ $`q^{v(a)}{\displaystyle _S}f(was)𝑑s`$
$`=`$ $`q^{v(a)}{\displaystyle _S}f(a^1ws)𝑑s`$
$`=`$ $`(q/\lambda )^{v(a)}{\displaystyle _S}f(ws)𝑑s.`$
The lemma follows.  $`\mathrm{}`$

To be able to apply Lemma 7.3 we have to show that $`C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)`$ is the direct sum

$$C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)=\underset{\pi \widehat{G}_{adm}}{}N_\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi )\pi $$

of irreducible representations with finite multiplicities. This follows readily from the corresponding assertion for $`L^2(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)`$. So suppose $`\lambda \pm \frac{1}{\sqrt{q}}`$. Then by semisimplicity,

$$C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)_S(\lambda q)=H^0(A,C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)_S_{1/\lambda q}).$$

Since $`A`$ we get

$`dimH^0(A,C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)_S_{1/\lambda q})`$ $`=`$ $`dim\mathrm{Hom}_A(C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G)_S,_{1/\lambda q})`$
$`=`$ $`dim\mathrm{Hom}_G(C^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash G),I_{1/\lambda q})`$
$`=`$ $`dimH^0(\mathrm{\Gamma },I_{1/\lambda q}^{\mathrm{}})`$
In the last equation we have used the duality theorem. This proves the first assertion of the theorem. For the second replace $`A`$ with $`A_2=v^1(2)`$ and $`P`$ by the finite index subgroup $`A_2S`$ and follow the proof above.

For the Corollary use the functional equation

$$Z_Y\left(\frac{1}{qu}\right)=\left(\frac{1u^2}{q^2u^21}\right)^{r_1r_0}q^{2r_1r_0}u^{2r_1}Z_Y(u),$$

which is proved in ( Cor. 3.10). Here $`r_0`$ and $`r_1`$ are the number of vertices and edges respectively.  $`\mathrm{}`$

Finally, we give the sheaf-theoretic version of Theorem 7.1. For $`\lambda ^\times `$, $`\lambda \pm 1/\sqrt{q}`$, let

$$_\lambda \begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash (X\times I_{1/\lambda q}^{\mathrm{}}),$$

where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ acts diagonally. If $`\lambda =\pm 1/\sqrt{q}`$ then replace $`I`$ by $`\widehat{I}`$ accordingly. The projection onto the first factor $`_\lambda \mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash X=Y`$ makes $`_\lambda `$ a locally constant sheaf over $`Y`$. Since for a locally constant sheaf the sheaf-cohomology coincides with the group cohomology of the fundamental group, we get the following corollary.

###### Corollary 7.4

The pole order of $`Z_Y(u)`$ at $`u=\lambda `$ equals the dimension of the space of global sections of the sheaf $`_\lambda `$.

## Appendix A Zeta functions for constructible c-sheaves

In this appendix we suggest a generalization of the Ihara/Bass zeta function.

A well know generalization is the twist with a finite dimensional representation of the fundamental group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. The latter amounts to the same as the choice of a locally constant sheaf of vector spaces over the graph. Here we show how the theory can be extended to a certain class of constructible sheaves.

A constructible sheaf of a stratified space $`X=X_nX_{n1}\mathrm{}X_0`$ is a sheaf which is locally constant on each stratum $`X_jX_{j1}`$. A graph $`X`$, viewed as a one dimensional CW-complex, has a natural two-step stratification $`X=X_1X_0`$, where $`X_0`$ is the set of vertices, or the $`0`$-skeleton. Let $``$ be a constructible sheaf of abelian groups on $`X`$.

For each edge $`s`$ let $`x_e`$ be its midpoint and let $`_e`$ denote the stalk at $`x_e`$. Let $`v`$ be an endpoint of $`e`$. Let $`_v`$ be the stalk at $`v`$. Recall that

$$_v=\underset{\stackrel{}{Uv}}{lim}(U),$$

where the limit runs over all open neighbourhoods of $`v`$. Let $`s_v`$. Then there is an open neighbourhood $`U`$ of $`v`$ and a section $`s_U(U)`$ such that $`s`$ is the class of $`s_U`$ in $`_v`$. Since $`U`$ is open there is a point $`yUe`$, where $`e`$ here denotes the open edge. So $`s_U`$ also defines a point in the stalk $`_y`$ over $`y`$. Since $``$ is constant on the contractible space $`e`$ there is a canonical isomorphism $`_y_e`$, so $`s_U`$ defines an element of $`_e`$. Since $``$ is constant on $`e`$ this element does not depend on the choices of $`y`$ or $`s_U`$, but only on $`s`$. Thus we get a map

$$\phi _v^e:_v_e.$$

It is easy to see that the sheaf $``$ can be recovered up to isomorphism from the stalks $`_v`$, $`_e`$ and the maps $`\phi _v^e`$. So a constructible sheaf on a graph is given by the following data

* an abelian group $`_v`$ for every vertex $`v`$,
* an abelian group $`_e`$ for every edge $`e`$, and
* a group homomorphism $`\phi _v^e:_v_e`$ whenever $`v`$ is an endpoint of $`e`$.

A *cosheaf* is the dual construction to a sheaf, so a constructible cosheaf is given abelian groups $`_v`$, $`_e`$ as above and group homomorphisms

$$\psi _e^v:_e_v$$

whenever $`v`$ is an endpoint of $`e`$. Instead of sheaves abelian groups one can also consider sheaves of vector spaces, general groups, etc.

An example for a cosheaf of groups on a graph $`X`$ is given as follows. Let $`G`$ be the automorphism group of $`X`$. For each vertex $`v`$ let $`G_v`$ be its stabilizer in $`G`$. For each edge $`e`$ let $`G_e`$ be its pointwise stabilizer in $`G`$. If $`v`$ is an endpoint of $`e`$ then $`G_e`$ is a subgroup of $`G_v`$, so the injection $`\psi _e^v:G_eG_v`$ defines a constructible cosheaf of groups on $`X`$.

Next, let $`(\rho ,V)`$ be a representation of $`G`$. For each vertex $`v`$ let $`𝒱_v`$ be the space of fixed points $`𝒱_v=V^{G_v}`$. Likewise for edges. If $`v`$ is an endpoint of $`e`$ then $`𝒱_v`$ is a subspace of $`𝒱_e`$, so the inclusion $`\phi _v^e:𝒱_v𝒱_e`$ defines a sheaf $`𝒱`$ of vector spaces over $`X`$.

Assume the representation $`\rho `$ to be smooth. Then we also have a cosheaf structure on $`𝒱`$ given by

$$\begin{array}{cccc}\psi _e^v:& 𝒱_e& & 𝒱_v\\ & & & \\ & v& & \frac{1}{\mathrm{vol}(G_v)}_{G_v}\rho (x)v𝑑x.\end{array}$$

In this case we have $`\psi _e^v\phi _v^e=\mathrm{Id}_{𝒱_v}`$. This motivates the following definition.

By a *c-sheaf* we mean a constructible sheaf $`𝒱`$ of finite dimensional complex vector spaces that also carries the structure of a constructible cosheaf such that $`\psi _e^v\phi _v^e=\mathrm{Id}_{𝒱_v}`$ for every edge $`e`$ and every endpoint $`v`$ of $`e`$.

Let $`𝒱`$ be a c-sheaf on $`X`$. Let $`u,v`$ be two adjacent vertices and $`e`$ their connecting edge. define $`T_u^v=\psi _e^v\phi _u^e`$, then $`T_u^v`$ maps $`𝒱_u`$ linearly to $`𝒱_v`$. For a path $`p=(v_0,\mathrm{},v_n)`$ let $`T_p:𝒱_{v_0}𝒱_{v_n}`$ be given by

$$T_p=T_{v_{n1}}^{v_n}\mathrm{}T_{v_1}^{v_2}T_{v_0}^{v_1}.$$

Let $`c`$ le a loop in $`X`$ given by the path $`(v_0,\mathrm{},v_n)`$. Consider the operator

$$T_c\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}T_{v_{n1}}^{v_n}\mathrm{}T_{v_0}^{v_1}$$

on $`𝒱_0`$. Note that this operator depends on the choice of the underlying path. However, for every $`j`$ the expression $`\mathrm{tr}\left(T_c^j\right)`$ does not depend on the choice of a path. Therefore also

$$det(1u^{l(c)}T_c)=\mathrm{exp}\left(\underset{j=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{u^{jl(c)}}{j}\mathrm{tr}T_c^j\right)$$

does only depend on the loop $`c`$.

###### Theorem A.1

Let $`X`$ be a finite graph and $`𝒱`$ a c-sheaf on $`X`$. Then the infinite product

$$Z_𝒱(u)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\underset{p}{}det\left(1u^{l(p)}T_p\right)^1,$$

which runs over all prime loops in $`X`$, converges for $`u`$ small and extends to a rational function in $`u`$. The inverse $`Z_𝒱(u)^1`$ is a polynomial.

Proof: First note that

$`\mathrm{tr}\left(T_{v_{j+n}}^{v_{j+n+1}}\mathrm{}T_{v_j}^{v_{j+1}}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{tr}\left(\psi _{e_{j+1}}^{v_{j+n+1}}\phi _{v_{j+n}}^{e_{j+1}}\mathrm{}\psi _{e_j}^{v_{j+1}}\phi _{v_j}^{e_j}\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{tr}\left(\phi _{v_j}^{e_j}\psi _{e_{j+1}}^{v_{j+n+1}}\phi _{v_{j+n}}^{e_{j+1}}\mathrm{}\psi _{e_j}^{v_{j+1}}\right)`$
Next consider the set $`OE=OE(X)`$ of oriented edges. For each oriented edge $`e`$ let $`e^1`$ denote the same edge with reversed orientation and let $`\overline{e}`$ be the underlying simple edge. Define $`𝒱_e`$ to be a copy of $`𝒱_{\overline{e}}`$ and let

$$T:\underset{eOE}{}𝒱_e\underset{eOE}{}𝒱_e$$

be defined by

$$T(s)=\underset{e^{}}{}\phi _v^e^{}\psi _e^v(s),$$

where $`s𝒱_e`$ and the sum runs over all oriented edges $`e^{}e^1`$ such that the target point of $`e`$ equals the start point of $`e^{}`$. It emerges that

$$\mathrm{tr}T^n=\underset{c:l(c)=n}{}l(c_0)\mathrm{tr}T_c.$$

Therefore,

$`det(1uT)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{u^n}{n}}\mathrm{tr}T^n\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{u^n}{n}}{\displaystyle \underset{l(c)=n}{}}l(c_0)\mathrm{tr}T_c\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \underset{c_0}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{u^{ml(c_0)}}{m}}\mathrm{tr}T_{c_0}^m\right)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{c_0}{}}\left(1u^{l(c_0)}T_{c_0}\right).`$
This finishes the proof.  $`\mathrm{}`$

## Appendix B Graphs with infinite ends

Linear algebraic groups over local fields of positive characteristic may contain arithmetic subgroups $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ which are of finite covolume but not cocompact. The quotient $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash X`$ of the Bruhat-Tits building $`X`$ then is infinite. The finite covolume condition amounts to the following. For each vertex $`v`$ of $`X`$ let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_v`$ be its stabilizer in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Then $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_v`$ is a finite group. It follows that

$$\underset{v}{}\frac{1}{|\mathrm{\Gamma }_v|}<\mathrm{}.$$

If the building is a tree then the graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\backslash X`$ has the structure described below .

Let $`Y`$ be a connected graph. Since it does not affect the zeta function we may assume that $`Y`$ has no finite ends, ie, no vertices of valency one. Next we assume the $`Y`$ decomposes as

$$Y=Y_cS_1\mathrm{}S_N,$$

where $`Y_c`$ is finite (compact core) and each $`S_j`$ is a *cusp sector*, ie, the vertices in $`S_j`$ are $`v_0,v_1,v_2.\mathrm{}`$, each $`v_j`$ for $`j1`$ has valency $`2`$, being adjacent exactly to $`v_{j1}`$ and $`v_{j+1}`$. The intersection of $`Y_c`$ and $`S_j`$ is $`\{v_0\}`$.

This decomposition is not uniquely determined and the zeta function given below will depend on the choice. One can, however, make the choice canonical by insisting, for example, that each end-vertex $`v_0`$ of a cusp sector has valency greater that $`2`$. We will now define the zeta function for such a graph in analogy with the Selberg zeta function for noncompact arithmetic quotients of the upper half plane.

For each vertex $`v`$ let $`d(v)`$ denote the distance of $`v`$ to $`Y_c`$. We say that a path $`p=(v_0,\mathrm{},v_n)`$ is *essentially backtracking-free* if, whenever $`v_{j1}=v_{j+1}`$, then $`d(v_{j1})<d(v_j)`$. This means that the only backtracking happens in the cusp sectors where one walks in and turns back once to walk out again. Next a closed path is *essentially tail-less* if it either is indeed tail-less or if $`d(v_0)>d(v_1)`$, ie, the path starts in a cusp sector. An *S-loop* is an equivalence class of essentially backtracking-free, essentially tail-less, closed paths under index shift as before. An S-loop is called *prime* if it is not a power of a shorter one.

As before let $`OE`$ denote the set of oriented edges. We choose a weight $`w:OE(0,\mathrm{})`$ such that

$$\underset{eOE}{}w(e)<\mathrm{}.$$

This is the finite volume condition. For each S-loop $`c`$ given by the oriented edges $`(e_1,\mathrm{},e_n)`$ let

$$w(c)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}w(e_1)\mathrm{}w(e_n).$$

Then $`w(c^j)=w(c)^j`$ for every $`j`$.

###### Theorem B.1

The infinite product over all prime S-loops,

$$Z_Y(u)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\underset{p}{}\left(1u^{l(p)}w(p)\right)^1$$

converges for $`u`$ small and extends to a meromorphic function on $``$. The inverse $`Z_Y(u)^1`$ is entire.

Proof: Let $`\mathrm{}^2(OE,w)`$ be the Hilbert space of all functions $`f:OE`$ with

$$\underset{eOE}{}|f(e)|^2w(e)<\mathrm{}.$$

On $`\mathrm{}(OE,w)`$ define a linear operator $`T`$ by

$$Tf(e)\begin{array}{c}_{\mathrm{def}}\\ ^=\end{array}\underset{e^{}}{}f(e^{})w(e),$$

where the sum runs over all oriented edges $`e^{}`$ such that the starting edge of $`e^{}`$ equals the target edge of $`e`$, and $`e^{}e^1`$ except in the case when $`e`$ lies in a cusp sector and points outward, in which case $`e^{}=e^1`$ is allowed.

###### Lemma B.2

The operator $`T`$ is of trace class and for every $`j`$ we have

$$\mathrm{tr}T^j=\underset{l(c)=j}{}l(c_0)w(c),$$

where the sum runs over all S-loops $`c`$ of length $`j`$ and $`c_0`$ is the underlying prime S-loop to $`c`$.

Proof: Once we know that $`T`$ is of trace class the formula for the trace is clear. To see that $`T`$ is of trace class let $`e`$ be an oriented edge and define $`\phi _e=_e^{}\delta _e^{}`$, where $`\delta _e^{}`$ is the delta function at $`e^{}`$ and the sum runs over all $`e^{}OE`$ with start($`e^{}`$)=target($`e`$) and $`e^{}e^1`$ except if $`e`$ is in a cusp sector and pointing outward in which case $`e^{}=e^1`$ is allowed. Then we have for $`f\mathrm{}(OE,w)`$,

$$Tf=\underset{eOE}{}f,\phi _e\delta _e.$$

To show that $`T`$ is of trace class it therefore suffices to show that

$$\underset{eOE}{}\phi _e\delta _e<\mathrm{}.$$

Now $`\delta _e^2=w(e)`$ and $`\phi _e^2=_e^{}w(e^{})`$, from which it emerges that $`_e\delta _e^2<\mathrm{}`$ and $`_e\phi _e^2<\mathrm{}`$, which implies the claim. The lemma follows.  $`\mathrm{}`$

Let $`\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\mathrm{}`$ be the non-zero eigenvalues of $`T`$, each repeated according to its multiplicity. Then $`_j|\lambda _j|<\mathrm{}`$ and so the product

$$det(1uT)=\underset{j}{}(1u\lambda _j)$$

converges for every $`u`$ and defines an entire function with zeros at the numbers $`\lambda _j^1`$, $`j`$. Using the lemma, the same computation as in the last section yields

$$det(1uT)=Z_Y(u)^1.$$

$`\mathrm{}`$

University of Exeter, Mathematics, Exeter EX4 4QE, England
a.h.j.deitmar@ex.ac.uk


text:
# Alberta-Thy-08-03 Interaction of a brane with a moving bulk black hole

## 1 Introduction

Topological defects play an important role in modern physics. Monopoles, strings, domain walls etc. are known as classical solutions of field theory models which admit non-trivial topology. They can arise in a wide class of phenomenological models including GUT theories  and some extensions of the electroweak standard model . The interaction of various topological defects with black holes has been studied before. In  and  interaction of black holes with cosmic strings and domain walls in $`(3+1)`$-dimensional universe was studied. Here we generalize this consideration to a case where both a brane and a bulk space in which the brane is moving may have an arbitrary number of dimensions. We assume that the higher-dimensional brane can be described by the Nambu-Goto action. We will study motion of such $`(n+1)`$-dimensional object in a background of $`(n+k+1)`$-dimensional Schwarzschild black hole. We consider situations where the black hole is far from the brane so that one can use a weak field approximation.

We will keep our analysis as general as possible, however we will devote special attention to the so-called brane world model in which the brane has three spatial dimensions while the number of bulk dimensions is arbitrary. It was proposed recently that the whole universe could just be a three dimensional domain wall (a brane) embedded in a higher dimensional space. In this model, all the standard model particles are localized on the brane while gravity can propagate everywhere. In particular, black holes being gravitational solitons can propagate in a higher dimensional bulk space. To make the consideration more concrete we use the so called ADD model  in which the gravitational field of the brane is neglected and extra dimensions are flat. An important generic feature of this model is that the fundamental quantum gravity mass scale $`M_{}`$ may be very low (of order TeV) and the size of the extra spatial dimensions may be much larger than the Planck length ($`10^{33}`$cm). In the most interesting version of the ADD model there exist two extra spatial dimensions with the size $`L`$ of the order of 0.1 mm, which is still allowed by the experiments testing the Newton law at small distances. The gravitational radius $`R_0`$ of a black hole of mass $`M`$ in the spacetime with $`k`$ extra dimensions is defined by the relation $`G^{(4+k)}MR_0^{k+1}`$, where $`G^{(4+k)}=1/M_{}^{(k+2)}`$ is the $`(4+k)`$-dimensional Newton coupling constant. The minimal mass of the black hole is determined by the condition that its gravitational radius coincides with its Compton length $`1/M`$. The mass of such an elementary black hole is $`M_{}`$. For $`M_{}TeV`$ one has $`R_{}10^{17}`$cm. When $`MM_{}`$ the higher dimensional mini black holes can be described by the classical solutions of vacuum Einstein’s equations. We assume that the size of a black hole $`R_0`$ is much smaller than the characteristic size of extra dimensions, $`L`$, and neglect the effects of the black hole deformation connected with this size.

Black holes in the bulk space may exist as a result the early stage of the evolution of the universe, for example as a result of the recoil during the quantum evaporation of primordial black holes created on the brane . The final state of such evaporating mini black holes is not known. Similarly to the early studied case of evaporation of the mini black holes in the $`4`$-dimensional theory with the Planck scale quantum gravity, two different final states are possible. Either a stable remnant of mass of the order of $`M_{}`$ is formed or the evaporation is complete. We assume that bulk black holes are either those stable remnants or black hole with mass $`MM_{}`$, so that they are relatively long living.

We start with the general solution of an unperturbed flat $`n`$-brane in $`(n+k+1)`$-dimensional flat spacetime. We then introduce a moving bulk black hole as a source of perturbation. Using coordinate transformations we work in the reference frame in which the $`n`$-brane is moving in the background spacetime of a static black hole. We then derive the equations of motion of a perturbed brane in the weak field approximation. Using the method of Green’s functions, we give the form of the general solution for an $`n`$-brane in arbitrary number of spacetime dimensions. We specially analyze the most interesting case of a $`3`$-brane in $`4+1`$ and $`5+1`$ dimensional spacetime where we give the explicit solutions and discuss their properties. The solutions for higher number of extra dimensions can easily be generated from these solutions. These solutions allow us to calculate the energy transfered from the black hole to brane excitations in this process of interaction.

We also calculate the induced geometry on the brane generated by a moving black hole. As considered by a brane observer this geometry can be obtained by solving the $`(n+1)`$-dimensional Einstein’s equations with a non-vanishing right hand side. We calculate the effective stress-energy tensor corresponding to this ‘shadow-matter’. We show that there exist regions where a brane observer sees an apparent violation of energy conditions, namely, there exist regions with negative energy density and negative pressure. We also derive formulas for deflection of light propagating in the induced spacetime metric on the brane.

## 2 Black hole metric

The metric of a static multi-dimensional black hole in $`(K+1)`$-dimensional spacetime is

$$dS^2=FdT^2+\frac{dR^2}{F}+R^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_{K1}^2,F=1\left(\frac{R_0}{R}\right)^{K2},$$
(2.1)
where $`K`$ is the number of spatial dimensions, $`R_0`$ is the gravitational radius and $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_{K1}^2`$ is the line element on a unit $`(K1)`$-dimensional sphere. For $`K=3`$ this is a usual $`4`$-dimensional Schwarzschild metric. We shall use the metric (2.1) in the isotropic coordinates

$$dS^2=FdT^2+A^2\left[d\sigma ^2+\sigma ^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_{K1}^2\right],$$
(2.2)
where

$$\mathrm{ln}\sigma =\frac{dR}{R\sqrt{F(R)}},A=\frac{R}{\sigma }.$$
(2.3)
In the weak field approximation when $`R_0/R1`$ one gets

$$R\sigma +\frac{R_0^{K2}}{2(K2)\sigma ^{K3}},A1+\frac{R_0^{K2}}{2(K2)\sigma ^{K2}},$$
(2.4)
and the metric takes the following asymptotic form

$$dS^2=g_{AB}dX^AdX^B,$$
(2.5)
$$g_{AB}=(1+\mathrm{\Psi })\eta _{AB}+(K1)\mathrm{\Psi }\delta _A^0\delta _B^0=\eta _{AB}+\mathrm{\Psi }h_{AB},$$
(2.6)
where

$$h_{AB}=\eta _{AB}+(K1)\delta _A^0\delta _B^0,\mathrm{\Psi }=\frac{R_0^{K2}}{(K2)\sigma ^{K2}}.$$
(2.7)
It should be emphasized that the metric (2.5)-(2.6) describes gravitational field of any compact static distribution of matter 444See for example non-topological solitons in brane world models in . since we are considering only the leading terms. The metric (2.6) is a perturbation over the background flat metric

$$dS_0^2=dT^2+dL_K^2,$$
(2.8)
where

$$dL_K^2=(dX^i)^2+(dY^m)^2=d\sigma ^2+\sigma ^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_{K1}^2,$$
(2.9)
$$\sigma ^2=(X^i)^2+(Y^m)^2.$$
(2.10)
We denote by $`X^i`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},n`$ the ‘standard’ $`n`$ Cartesian coordinates, and by $`Y^m`$, $`m=n+1,\mathrm{},n+k=K`$ the Cartesian coordinates in ‘extra-dimensions’. This splitting will be convenient later when we consider an $`n`$-dimensional brane in the spacetime of the $`(K+1)`$-dimensional black hole.

## 3 A flat brane in a spacetime with a fixed point

Our goal is to study the equations of motion of a brane in the gravitational field of a black hole. We keep the number of brane spatial dimensions, $`n`$, and the number of extra dimensions, $`k`$, arbitrary.

In the lowest order, when the gravitational field of the black hole is neglected, $`g_{AB}=\eta _{AB}`$. $`\eta _{AB}`$ is the $`(n+k+1)`$-dimensional Minkowski metric, and the brane is flat. It is convenient to introduce an orthonormal ennuple, $`N_{\widehat{B}}^A`$,

$$g_{AB}N_{\widehat{C}}^AN_{\widehat{D}}^B=\eta _{\widehat{C}\widehat{D}}$$
(3.1)
so that its first $`n+1`$ vectors, $`N_{\widehat{\mu }}^A`$ ($`\mu =0,\mathrm{},n`$), are tangent to the brane, while the other $`k`$ vectors, $`N_{\widehat{m}}^A`$ ($`m=n+1,\mathrm{},n+k`$), are orthogonal to the brane. A world-line $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ representing a position of uniformly moving black hole is described by the equation

$$X_\mathrm{\Gamma }^A=(x_0^{\widehat{B}}+U^{\widehat{B}}T)N_{\widehat{B}}^A.$$
(3.2)
Here $`T`$ is the proper time parameter along the world line, $`U^A`$ is the $`(n+k+1)`$-velocity, $`\eta _{\widehat{A}\widehat{B}}U^{\widehat{A}}U^{\widehat{B}}=1`$, and $`X_0^Ax_0^{\widehat{B}}N_{\widehat{B}}^A`$ are the coordinates of the black hole position at $`T=0`$.

Consider first the case of one extra dimension. There are two possibilities.

(1) The black hole crosses the brane. In this case we use the ambiguity $`TT+`$const to put $`T=0`$ at the moment when the black hole meets the brane. Using the Poincare group $`P(n+1)`$ of coordinate transformations preserving the position of the brane in the bulk space one can always put

$$x_0^{\widehat{B}}=0,U^{\widehat{B}}=\mathrm{cosh}\beta \delta _{\widehat{0}}^{\widehat{B}}+\mathrm{sinh}\beta \delta _{\widehat{n+1}}^{\widehat{B}}.$$
(3.3)
That is a projection of the point representing the black hole onto the brane surface is located at the origin of the brane coordinates, at $`x^{\widehat{1}}=\mathrm{}=x^{\widehat{n}}=0`$. The black hole crosses the brane at the moment $`x^{\widehat{0}}=0`$ of the brane time, and is moving orthogonally to the brane surface. $`\beta `$ is a rapidity parameter related to the velocity $`v`$ as $`v=\mathrm{tanh}\beta `$.

(2) The black hole never crosses the brane. This is a special case when the velocity of the black hole relative to the brane vanishes. In this case by using transformations from $`P(n+1)`$ one can put

$$x_0^{\widehat{\mu }}=0,x_0^{\widehat{n+1}}=b,U^{\widehat{B}}=\delta _{\widehat{0}}^{\widehat{B}},$$
(3.4)
where $`b`$ is the distance between the black hole and the brane.

Similarly, in the case with two or more extra dimensions two cases are possible.

(1) The black hole crosses the brane. We choose $`T`$ so this happens at the moment $`T=0`$. It means that $`x_0^{\widehat{m}}=0`$. Using the Poincare group $`P(n+1)`$ of coordinate transformations preserving the position of the brane in the bulk space we put $`x^{\widehat{\mu }}=0`$ and $`U^{\widehat{\mu }}=\mathrm{cosh}\beta \delta _{\widehat{0}}^{\widehat{B}}`$. We use the group of rotations $`O(k)`$ which preserve the position of the brane to put $`U^{\widehat{B}}=\mathrm{sinh}\beta \delta _{\widehat{n+1}}^{\widehat{B}}`$. Thus we have

$$x_0^{\widehat{B}}=0,U^{\widehat{B}}=\mathrm{cosh}\beta \delta _{\widehat{0}}^{\widehat{B}}+\mathrm{sinh}\beta \delta _{\widehat{n+1}}^{\widehat{B}}.$$
(3.5)
(2) The black hole never crosses the brane. There exists a minimal distance, $`b`$, between the black hole and the brane, which we call the impact parameter. As earlier we can put $`x_0^{\widehat{\mu }}=0`$. We also can choose the $`N_{\widehat{n+2}}^A`$ to be directed from the brane to the position of the black hole when it is at the minimal distance from the brane. There still exists a group $`O(k1)`$ of rotations which preserves the position of the brane and the direction of $`N_{\widehat{n+2}}^A`$. We use this freedom to choose the vector $`N_{\widehat{n+1}}^A`$ to coincide with the direction of the black hole velocity. For this choice we have

$$x_0^{\widehat{B}}=b\delta _{\widehat{n+2}}^{\widehat{B}},U^{\widehat{B}}=\mathrm{cosh}\beta \delta _{\widehat{0}}^{\widehat{B}}+\mathrm{sinh}\beta \delta _{\widehat{n+1}}^{\widehat{B}}.$$
(3.6)
It is easy to see that the expression (3.6) is in fact the most general one. The relations (3.33.5) for the other cases can be obtained from (3.6) by either taking the limit $`\beta =0`$ or putting $`b=0`$.

The gravitational potential $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ entering the expression (2.6) for the gravitational field of the black hole depends on the interval $`\sigma `$ between the position of the black hole and a point in a spacetime, calculated along $`T`$=const surface. Let us calculate $`\sigma `$ for a point on the brane. Denote by $`V^{\widehat{B}}`$ a vector

$$V^{\widehat{B}}=\mathrm{sinh}\beta \delta _{\widehat{0}}^{\widehat{B}}+\mathrm{cosh}\beta \delta _{\widehat{n+1}}^{\widehat{B}}.$$
(3.7)
This vector is orthogonal to $`U^{\widehat{B}}`$ and hence it is tangent to $`T`$=const plane. The brane time $`x^{\widehat{0}}`$ corresponding to a given $`T`$ can be found from the equations

$$TU^{\widehat{B}}+\lambda V^{\widehat{B}}=x^{\widehat{0}}\delta _{\widehat{0}}^{\widehat{B}}.$$
(3.8)
This equation for $`\widehat{B}=\widehat{n+1}`$ gives

$$\lambda =\mathrm{tanh}\beta T,$$
(3.9)
while for $`\widehat{B}=\widehat{0}`$ it gives

$$T=\mathrm{cosh}\beta x^{\widehat{0}},\lambda =\mathrm{sinh}\beta x^{\widehat{0}}.$$
(3.10)
Using this results we easily find that

$$\sigma ^2=\rho ^2+b^2+\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta (x^{\widehat{0}})^2,$$
(3.11)
where $`\rho ^2=x^{\widehat{i}}x_{\widehat{i}}`$. From this expression for $`\sigma `$ it follows that the induced metric on the brane will be ‘spherically symmetric’, that is, it possesses the group $`O(n)`$ of symmetry.

Let $`X^A`$ be Cartesian coordinates in the reference frame where the black hole is at rest. Then the components of the ennuple $`N_{\widehat{B}}^A`$ in this frame are

$$N_{\widehat{0}}^A=\mathrm{cosh}\beta \delta _0^A+\mathrm{sinh}\beta \delta _{n+1}^A,N_{\widehat{i}}^A=\delta _i^A,$$
(3.12)
$$N_{\widehat{n+1}}^A=\mathrm{sinh}\beta \delta _0^A+\mathrm{cosh}\beta \delta _{n+1}^A,N_{\widehat{m}}^A=\delta _m^A,m>n+1.$$
(3.13)
In the reference frame of the black hole the brane equation is

$$𝒳_0^A=x^{\widehat{\mu }}N_{\widehat{\mu }}^A+bN_{\widehat{n+2}}^A.$$
(3.14)
## 4 Brane perturbation equation of motion

Consider a brane $`𝒳^A(x^{\widehat{\mu }})`$ moving in the spacetime with a metric $`g_{AB}(X^C)`$. The induced metric on the brane (which we assume can be described by the Nambu-Goto action) is

$$\gamma _{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}=g_{AB}(𝒳^C)𝒳_{,\widehat{\mu }}^A𝒳_{,\widehat{\nu }}^B.$$
(4.1)
The brane equation of motion is

$$\left(\sqrt{\gamma }\gamma ^{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}𝒳_{,\widehat{\mu }}^A\right)_{,\widehat{\nu }}+\sqrt{\gamma }\gamma ^{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{}^{A}{}_{BC}{}^{}𝒳_{,\widehat{\mu }}^B𝒳_{,\widehat{\nu }}^C=0.$$
(4.2)
When the brane is far from the black hole $`g_{AB}`$ has the form (2.5).

In the absence of gravity the unperturbed brane is described by the equation (3.14). We write the solution for a perturbed brane in the form

$$𝒳^A=𝒳_0^A+\chi ^{\widehat{m}}(x)N_{\widehat{m}}^A+\zeta ^{\widehat{\mu }}(x)N_{\widehat{\mu }}^A.$$
(4.3)
Let us show first that by changing the coordinates on the brane one can put $`\zeta ^{\widehat{\mu }}=0`$. Indeed, a change of Cartesian coordinates on the brane $`x^{\widehat{\mu }}x^{\widehat{\mu }}+\xi ^{\widehat{\mu }}(x)`$ generates in (4.3) an extra term $`\xi ^{\widehat{\mu }}(x)N_{\widehat{\mu }}^A`$. That is why, by using the diffeo-invariance of the brane equations and choosing $`\xi ^{\widehat{\mu }}=\zeta ^{\widehat{\mu }}`$ one can always take

$$𝒳^A=𝒳_0^A+\chi ^{\widehat{m}}(x)N_{\widehat{m}}^A.$$
(4.4)
In this gauge $`\chi ^{\widehat{m}}(x^{\widehat{\nu }})`$ are the ‘physical’ degrees of freedom of the brane. In a general case they describe both types of the brane perturbations, free waves and brane deformations induced by an external force. We focus our attention on the perturbations induced by the brane motion in the weak gravitational field. We restrict ourselves by considering only first order effects.

Using the relation

$$𝒳_{,\widehat{\mu }}^A=N_{\widehat{\mu }}^A+\chi _{,\widehat{\mu }}^{\widehat{m}}N_{\widehat{m}}^A,$$
(4.5)
and keeping only the first order terms we obtain

$$\gamma _{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}=\eta _{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}+\mathrm{\Psi }h_{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }},h_{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}=h_{AB}N_{\widehat{\mu }}^AN_{\widehat{\nu }}^B=\eta _{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}+(K1)\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta \delta _{\widehat{\mu }}^0\delta _{\widehat{\nu }}^0.$$
(4.6)
We also have

$$\sqrt{\gamma }=1+\frac{1}{2}\left[n+1(K1)\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta \right]\mathrm{\Psi },$$
(4.7)
$$\gamma ^{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}=\eta ^{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}\mathrm{\Psi }h^{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }},h^{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}=\eta ^{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\alpha }}\eta ^{\widehat{\nu }\beta }h_{\widehat{\alpha }\widehat{\beta }}.$$
(4.8)
In the chosen coordinate system, the Christoffel symbols $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{}^{A}{}_{BC}{}^{}`$ are first order quantities

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{}^{A}{}_{BC}{}^{}=\eta ^{AD}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{DBC},\mathrm{\Gamma }_{DBC}=\frac{1}{2}\left(\mathrm{\Psi }_{,B}h_{CD}+\mathrm{\Psi }_{,C}h_{BD}\mathrm{\Psi }_{,D}h_{BC}\right).$$
(4.9)
By multiplying (4.2) by $`N_{\widehat{m}A}`$ we obtain the following equations

$$\mathrm{}^{(n+1)}\chi _{\widehat{m}}=f_{\widehat{m}},$$
(4.10)
$$f_{\widehat{m}}=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Psi }_{,\widehat{m}}h+\frac{1}{2}(K1)\mathrm{sinh}(2\beta )\mathrm{\Psi }_{,\widehat{0}}\delta _m^{n+1},h=\eta ^{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}h_{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}=n+1(K1)\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta .$$
(4.11)
Here $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{,\widehat{\mu }}=N_{\widehat{\mu }}^A\mathrm{\Psi }_{,A}`$, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{,\widehat{m}}=N_{\widehat{m}}^A\mathrm{\Psi }_{,A}`$, and the $`(n+1)`$-dimensional flat ‘box’-operator is defined as

$$\mathrm{}^{(n+1)}=\eta ^{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}_{\widehat{\mu }}_{\widehat{\nu }}.$$
(4.12)
It is easy to check that the other equations obtained by multiplication of (4.2) by $`N_{\widehat{\mu }A}`$ are trivially satisfied.

To calculate $`f_{\widehat{m}}`$ we note that the function $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ which enters this expression depends on $`\sigma ^2`$, i.e. $`\mathrm{\Psi }(\sigma ^2)`$, so that

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_{,\widehat{0}}=\mathrm{\Psi }^{}\sigma _{,\widehat{0}}^2,\mathrm{\Psi }_{,\widehat{m}}=\mathrm{\Psi }^{}\sigma _{,\widehat{m}}^2,$$
(4.13)
where

$$\mathrm{\Psi }^{}=\frac{\mathrm{\Psi }}{\sigma ^2}=\frac{R_0^{K2}}{2\sigma ^K},$$
(4.14)
$$\sigma ^2=\rho ^2+(\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta )t^2+b^2.$$
(4.15)
We denoted $`t=x^{\widehat{0}}`$, $`\rho ^2=x^{\widehat{i}}x_{\widehat{i}}`$. We also have

$$\sigma _{,\widehat{0}}^2=2t\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta ,\sigma _{,\widehat{n+1}}^2=2t\mathrm{sinh}\beta \mathrm{cosh}\beta ,\sigma _{,\widehat{n+2}}^2=2b.$$
(4.16)
The other terms $`\sigma _{,\widehat{n+p}}^2`$ with $`p>2`$ vanish.

The induced metric on the unperturbed brane in the spherical coordinates is

$$ds_0^2=\eta _{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}dx^{\widehat{\mu }}dx^{\widehat{\nu }}=dt^2+d\rho ^2+\rho ^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_{n2}^2.$$
(4.17)
Because of the symmetry of the problem, the ‘force’ terms $`f_{\widehat{m}}`$ on the right hand side of (4.10) are functions of $`t`$ and $`\rho `$. Thus the induced perturbations of the brane are ‘spherically symmetric’ and can be written in the form

$$\chi _{\widehat{m}}=\frac{P_m(t,\rho )}{\rho ^{(n1)/2}}.$$
(4.18)
By substituting this expression into (4.10) one obtains

$$\left[_t^2+_\rho ^2\frac{(n1)(n3)}{4\rho ^2}\right]P_m(t,\rho )=F_m(t,\rho ),$$
(4.19)
where

$$f_{\widehat{m}}=\frac{F_m(t,\rho )}{\rho ^{(n1)/2}}.$$
(4.20)
From this equation we see that that the cases of a string ($`n=1`$) and a three-brane ($`n=3`$) are particularly easy to study. Solutions for the general case are discussed in the appendix A.

## 5 Solutions of the brane perturbation equations

### 5.1 Generators of solutions

In the chosen coordinate system and imposed gauge, the ‘force’ $`f_{\widehat{m}}`$ which enters the right hand side of (4.11) has only two non-vanishing components, $`f_{}=f_{\widehat{n+1}}`$ and $`f_+=f_{\widehat{n+2}}`$. Since we consider only solutions which are induced by the ‘force’ acting on the brane, we shall also have only two non-trivial functions, $`\chi _{}=\chi _{\widehat{n+1}}`$ and $`\chi _+=\chi _{\widehat{n+2}}`$ which describe the brane excitations. We write the equation (4.11) as

$$\mathrm{}^{(n+1)}\chi _\pm ^{(n,k)}=f_\pm ^{(n,k)}.$$
(5.1)
We included an upper index $`(n,k)`$ to make clear the dependence of the functions on the number of spatial dimensions, $`n`$, of the brane, and on the number of extra dimensions, $`k`$. Simple calculations give

$$f_\pm ^{(n,k)}=A_\pm ^{(n,k)}\stackrel{~}{f}_\pm ^{(n,k)},$$
(5.2)
where

$$\stackrel{~}{f}_{}^{(n,k)}=\frac{t}{\sigma ^{n+k}},\stackrel{~}{f}_+^{(n,k)}=\frac{1}{\sigma ^{n+k}},$$
(5.3)
$$A_{}^{(n,k)}=\frac{1}{4}R_0^{n+k2}\left[2k+(n+k1)\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta \right]\mathrm{sinh}(2\beta ),$$
(5.4)
$$A_+^{(n,k)}=\frac{1}{2}R_0^{n+k2}\left[n+1(n+k1)\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta \right]b.$$
(5.5)
If we write

$$\chi _\pm ^{(n,k)}=A_\pm ^{(n,k)}\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm ^{(n,k)},$$
(5.6)
then

$$\mathrm{}^{(n+1)}\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm ^{(n,k)}=\stackrel{~}{f}_\pm ^{(n,k)}.$$
(5.7)
Let us note now that

$$\stackrel{~}{f}_\pm ^{(n,k+2)}=\frac{2}{n+k}\frac{}{(b^2)}\stackrel{~}{f}_\pm ^{(n,k)},$$
(5.8)
and therefore

$$\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm ^{(n,k+2)}=\frac{2}{n+k}\frac{}{(b^2)}\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm ^{(n,k)}.$$
(5.9)
This relation shows that one can generate solutions for an arbitrary $`k>2`$ if the solutions for $`k=1,2`$ are known. It should be noted that for $`k=1`$ there is only one transverse excitation of the brane, so that a solution $`\chi _+^{(n,1)}`$ does not have a direct physical meaning. Only its derivatives corresponding to higher values of $`k`$ are physical. We call the functions $`\chi _\pm ^{(n,1)}`$ and $`\chi _\pm ^{(n,2)}`$ generating solutions.

### 5.2 Generating solutions for $`n=3`$ brane

As an important example we consider now a special case when the brane has three spatial dimensions. This case is interesting for brane world models. The generating solutions for this case can be written as follows (see appendix A)

$$\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm ^{(k)}=\frac{1}{2\rho }_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\rho ^{}\rho ^{}\stackrel{~}{f}_\pm ^{(k)}(\vartheta (\lambda _+)\vartheta (\lambda _{})),$$
(5.10)
where

$$\lambda _\pm =(tt^{})^2(\rho \rho ^{})^2).$$
(5.11)
In order to make notations more compact we omitted index $`n=3`$ in the superscript.

Since the $`\stackrel{~}{f}_\pm ^{(k)}`$ are even functions of $`\rho `$ the integral over the two ‘mirror’ regions can be rewritten as an integral over one region characterized only by the $`\vartheta (\lambda _+)`$ without the restriction of $`\rho `$ being greater than zero (see figure 1).

After calculating the integrals we obtain

$$\stackrel{~}{\chi }_{}^{(1)}=\frac{1}{\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta }\left[(t+\rho )S_+^{(1)}(t\rho )S_{}^{(1)}\right],$$
(5.12)
$$\stackrel{~}{\chi }_+^{(1)}=S_+^{(1)}S_{}^{(1)},$$
(5.13)
where

$$S_\pm ^{(1)}=\frac{1}{4\rho R_\pm }\left[\mathrm{arctan}\left(\frac{t\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta \rho }{R_\pm }\right)+\frac{\pi }{2}\right],$$
(5.14)
and

$$R_\pm ^2=(t\pm \rho )^2\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta +b^2\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta .$$
(5.15)
We also have

$$\stackrel{~}{\chi }_{}^{(2)}=\frac{1}{\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta }\left[(t+\rho )S_+^{(2)}(t\rho )S_{}^{(2)}\right],$$
(5.16)
$$\stackrel{~}{\chi }_+^{(2)}=S_+^{(2)}S_{}^{(2)},$$
(5.17)
where

$$S_\pm ^{(2)}=\frac{1}{6\rho R_\pm ^2}\left(\frac{t\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta \rho }{\sqrt{\rho ^2+t^2\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta +b^2}}+\mathrm{cosh}\beta \right).$$
(5.18)
Let us illustrate the motion of the brane in the case $`n=3`$, and $`k=2`$. The parametric equations for the brane in isotropic coordinates are

$$X^0=t\mathrm{cosh}\beta 2R_0^3\mathrm{sinh}^4\beta \mathrm{cosh}\beta \stackrel{~}{\chi }_{}^{(2)},$$
(5.19)
$$X^1=x^1,X^2=x^2,X^3=x^3,$$
(5.20)
$$X^4=t\mathrm{sinh}\beta 2R_0^3\mathrm{sinh}^3\beta \mathrm{cosh}^2\beta \stackrel{~}{\chi }_{}^{(2)},$$
(5.21)
$$X^5=b+2bR_0^3\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta \stackrel{~}{\chi }_+^{(2)}.$$
(5.22)
Figure 2 shows plots of $`\chi _\pm `$ for a particular choice of parameters. Both plots depict a disturbance of the brane developed around “time” $`t=0`$ which travels at a speed of light outward from the point of the brane closest to the black hole.

### 5.3 Energy loss

As a result of the black hole action, the brane transforms from its initial state without excitations to a new excited state. The energy gained by the brane in this process is equal to the loss of the kinetic energy of the black hole. We calculate now this energy loss.

In the limit $`t\mathrm{}`$, $`u=t\rho =`$ const, the brane excitation amplitudes $`\chi _\pm `$ take the following form

$$\chi _\pm =\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_\pm (u)}{\rho },$$
(5.23)
$$\mathrm{\Phi }_{}=\frac{2}{3}R_0^3\mathrm{sinh}^3\beta \frac{u}{u^2\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta +b^2\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta },$$
(5.24)
$$\mathrm{\Phi }_+=\frac{2}{3}R_0^3b\mathrm{cosh}\beta \mathrm{sinh}^2\beta \frac{1}{u^2\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta +b^2\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta }.$$
(5.25)
Figure 3 shows the typical shape of the functions $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\pm `$ around $`u=0`$.

In the asymptotic regime, when the gravitational field of the black hole can be neglected, the induced metric (4.1) is

$$\gamma _{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}=\eta _{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}+\chi _{,\widehat{\mu }}^{\widehat{m}}\chi _{\widehat{m}}^{}{}_{,\widehat{\nu }}{}^{}.$$
(5.26)
The Nambu-Goto action is

$$I=\mu \sqrt{\gamma }d^nx=I_0+I_2,$$
(5.27)
where $`\mu `$ is the tension of the brane, $`I_0`$ is constant and

$$I_2=\frac{1}{2}\mu \underset{\widehat{m}=n+1}{\overset{n+k}{}}(\chi ^{\widehat{m}})^2.$$
(5.28)
In our case the asymptotic excitations are described by two massless scalar fields with the Lagrangian density

$$_\pm =\frac{1}{2}\mu _\mu \chi _\pm ^\mu \chi _\pm .$$
(5.29)
The energy flux $`_\pm `$ calculated at the future null infinity is

$$_\pm =4\pi \mu _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑u(\mathrm{\Phi }_{\pm }^{}{}_{,u}{}^{})^2.$$
(5.30)
Simple calculations give

$$_{}=_+=\frac{4\pi ^2\mu \mathrm{sinh}^5\beta }{9\mathrm{cosh}^3\beta }\frac{R_0^6}{b^3}.$$
(5.31)
Thus the total energy lost by the black hole and gained by the brane is

$$\mathrm{\Delta }E=_{}+_+=\frac{8\pi ^2\mu \mathrm{sinh}^5\beta }{9\mathrm{cosh}^3\beta }\frac{R_0^6}{b^3}.$$
(5.32)
Since extra dimensions are compactified, the black hole will be passing near the brane again and again. Because of the friction force connected with the energy loss, the black hole will be slowing down until finally stops with respect to the brane.

## 6 ‘Shadow matter’ effect

The metric induced on the brane by a black hole moving in the bulk space is

$$ds^2=\left[1+[1(k+2)\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta ]\mathrm{\Psi }\right]dt^2+(1+\mathrm{\Psi })\left[d\rho ^2+\rho ^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2\right],$$
(6.1)
with

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=\frac{R_0^{k+1}}{(k+1)\sigma ^{k+1}}\mathrm{and}\sigma ^2=\rho ^2+(\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta )t^2+b^2.$$
(6.2)
Particles and light on the brane are moving along geodesics in this metric. If an observer on the brane does not know about the existence of extra dimension and uses the standard 4-dimensional Einstein’s equations he would arrive to the conclusion that there exists some distribution of matter on the brane responsible for this gravitational field. Since this matter is not connected with any usual 4-dimensional physical fields and particles we call it a ‘shadow matter’. We discuss now the properties of this matter.

The Einstein tensor $`G_{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}=R_{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}1/2\gamma _{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}R`$ for the metric (6.1) takes the form ( in spherical coordinates $`(t,\rho ,\theta ,\varphi )`$)

$$G_{\widehat{0}\widehat{0}}=\frac{R_0^{k+1}}{\sigma ^{k+5}}\left[3t^2\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta \rho ^2k+3b^2\right],$$
(6.3)
$$G_{\widehat{1}\widehat{1}}=\frac{R_0^{k+1}}{\sigma ^{k+5}}\left[kt^2\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta +(\rho ^2+b^2)((3+k)\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta 3)\right],$$
(6.4)
$$G_{\widehat{0}\widehat{1}}=\frac{t\rho R_0^{k+1}(3+k)\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta }{\sigma ^{k+5}},$$
(6.5)
$$G_{\widehat{2}\widehat{2}}=\frac{G_{\widehat{3}\widehat{3}}}{\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }=\frac{R_0^{k+1}\rho ^2}{2\sigma ^{k+5}}\left[k[2t^2\mathrm{sinh}^2\beta +\rho ^2(2(3+k)\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta )]+2b^2((3+k)\mathrm{cosh}^2\beta 3)\right].$$
(6.6)
Figure 4 shows plots of the various non-zero components of the Einstein tensor $`G_{\mu \nu }`$ which is proportional to the stress-energy tensor $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ measured by observers living on the brane. The thick line on figure 4a marks the border between the positive and negative energy density.

In the simplest case when the bulk black hole is not moving, $`\beta =0`$, these expressions simplify and non-vanishing components of the Einstein tensor are (at $`t=0`$)

$$G_{\widehat{0}\widehat{0}}=\frac{R_0^{k+1}}{\sigma ^{k+5}}\left[\rho ^2k+3b^2\right],$$
(6.7)
$$G_{\widehat{1}\widehat{1}}=\frac{R_0^{k+1}}{\sigma ^{k+5}}k(\rho ^2+b^2),$$
(6.8)
$$G_{\widehat{2}\widehat{2}}=\frac{G_{\widehat{3}\widehat{3}}}{\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }=\frac{R_0^{k+1}\rho ^2k}{2\sigma ^{3+k}}\left[\rho ^2(k+1)+2b^2\right].$$
(6.9)
Suppose a brane observer uses the Einstein’s equations to describe the gravitational field on the brane. In this case he would come to a conclusion that there exists some form of matter for which

$$T_{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }}=\frac{1}{8\pi G^{(4)}}G_{\widehat{\mu }\widehat{\nu }},$$
(6.10)
where $`G^{(4)}`$ is a 4-dimensional Newtonian coupling constant. For a static black hole this spherically symmetric distribution of matter is of the form

$$T_{\widehat{\mu }}^{\widehat{\nu }}=\text{diag}(\epsilon ,p_\rho ,p_{},p_{}).$$
(6.11)
Since the total number of spatial dimensions is greater than three, i.e. $`k>0`$, the energy density $`\epsilon `$ is positive at the center and changes its sign and becomes negative at $`\rho >\rho _b=b\sqrt{3/k}`$. The radial pressure $`p_\rho `$ is always positive, while the transverse pressures $`p_{}`$ are positive at the center and become negative at $`\rho >b\sqrt{2/(k+1)}`$.

If there is a distribution of physical matter on the brane, it will give an additional contribution to the metric (6.1). In the weak field approximation this contribution will be additive.

Let us estimate the total positive mass $`m_b`$ of the ‘shadow matter’ inside the sphere of the radius $`\rho _b`$. To define this mass one can use the relation

$$m(r)=4\pi _0^r𝑑rr^2T_{\widehat{0}\widehat{0}}.$$
(6.12)
The radius coordinate $`r`$ is related to the isotropic coordinate as

$$(1+\mathrm{\Psi })\rho ^2=r^2.$$
(6.13)
Since we are considering only first order terms we can write

$$m(\rho )=\frac{1}{2G^{(4)}}_0^\rho 𝑑\rho \rho ^2G_{\widehat{0}\widehat{0}}=\frac{1}{2G^{(4)}}\frac{R_0\rho ^3}{(\rho ^2+b^2)^{\frac{k+3}{2}}}$$
(6.14)
In particular, we have

$$m_b=m(\rho _b)=\alpha (k)\frac{R_0}{G^{(4)}}\left(\frac{R_0}{b}\right)^k,$$
(6.15)
where

$$\alpha (k)=\frac{3\sqrt{3}}{2}\frac{k^{k/2}}{(k+3)^{(k+3)/2}}.$$
(6.16)
It is convenient to rewrite (6.15) as

$$m_b=\alpha (k)m_{}\left(\frac{R_0}{R_{}}\right)^{k+1}\left(\frac{R_{}}{b}\right)^k.$$
(6.17)
Here $`R_{}=1/M_{}`$ is the gravitational radius of the fundamental mini black hole, and $`m_{}=R_{}/G^{(4)}`$. For $`M_{}`$TeV one has $`m_{}10^{11}`$g! Thus, for $`b`$TeV, we have $`100000`$ tons of “shadow matter” concentrated in the region of the size TeV-1. However, this feature is visible only for test particles whose wavelength is of order TeV-1.

The mass $`m_b`$ is surrounded by the negative mass distribution $`\epsilon `$. For infinite size of extra dimensions, at far distances it exactly cancels the mass $`m_b`$, so that the total mass as measured at infinity vanishes. It happens because the induced gravitational field potential falls down at infinity as it is required by $`(3+k)`$-dimensional Newton’s law (i.e. $`G^{(4+k)}M/r^{1+k}`$), while the standard $`3`$-dimensional Newtonian gravitational potential of mass $`M`$ at far distance is $`G^{(4)}M/r`$. For a finite size $`L`$ of extra dimensions this cancellation is not complete. The gravitational field of the bulk mass $`M`$ as measured by the brane observer at $`rL`$ is $`G^{(4+k)}M/(L^kr)=G^{(4)}M/r`$. In other words, the bulk masses at $`rL`$ contribute to the gravitational field on the brane similarly to the matter on the brane.

One can easily check that for $`\rho >\rho _b`$ the ‘shadow matter’ distribution violates the weak energy condition 555 In fact the dominant and strong energy conditions are also violated.: $`\epsilon 0`$ and $`\epsilon +p_i0`$, $`(i=1,2,3)`$. This violation is apparent only for an observer located on the brane. The complete system (brane $`+`$ bulk) does not violate any of the energy conditions. Similar effects can be present in many different frameworks (see for example ). Our situation is distinguishable by the fact that the source of apparent violation of energy conditions is a simple distribution of bulk matter.

The violation of the weak energy condition in particular implies that an $`n`$-dimensional pencil of initially parallel null rays propagating on the brane and passing through the region with $`\rho >\rho _b`$ will be defocused, that is the $`n`$-dimensional area of its cross-section will increase. If on the other hand one consider the $`(n+k)`$-dimensional pencil of initially parallel null rays propagating in the bulk, the area of its $`(n+k)`$-dimensional cross-section will decrease. There is no contradiction between these two results, since the Weyl tensor of the bulk gravitational field does not vanish. As a result a shear is generated, and the expansion of the beam in the direction of the brane is compensated by the contraction of the beam in the bulk dimensions.

## 7 Deflection of light

The ‘shadow-matter’ can affect the propagation of test particles and light on the brane. We consider now the deflection of a light ray passing in the region of influence of the ‘shadow-matter’. For simplicity we assume that the bulk black hole velocity vanishes.

Since the propagation of light is invariant under conformal transformation of the metric, we divide the metric (6.1) by $`1+\mathrm{\Psi }`$ and keep the leading order terms

$$ds^2=\left(1+A\mathrm{\Psi }\right)dt^2+d\rho ^2+\rho ^2d\theta ^2+\rho ^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\varphi ^2,$$
(7.1)
where $`A=(k+2)`$. Since the metric is spherically symmetric the light trajectory lies in a plane and we can set $`\theta =\pi /2`$. The eiconal equation which describes the motion of light in some background metric is

$$g^{\mu \nu }\frac{S}{x^\mu }\frac{S}{x^\nu }=(1A\psi )\left(\frac{S}{t}\right)^2+\left(\frac{S}{\rho }\right)^2+\frac{1}{\rho ^2}\left(\frac{S}{\varphi }\right)^2=0.$$
(7.2)
Here $`S`$ is the Hamilton-Jacobi action for massless particle (often called eiconal).

The action $`S`$ can be written as

$$S=\omega t+m\varphi +S_\rho (\rho ),$$
(7.3)
where $`\omega `$ is the energy and $`m`$ is the angular momentum. Substituting (7.3) into (7.2) we get

$$S_\rho =\sqrt{(1A\mathrm{\Psi })\omega ^2\frac{m^2}{\rho ^2}}𝑑\rho .$$
(7.4)
When the spacetime is flat the light ray is a straight line. The corresponding $`S_\rho ^{(0)}`$ is given by the integral (7.4) with $`A=0`$. Keeping only the first order terms we can write

$$S_\rho =S_\rho ^{(0)}+\mathrm{\Delta }S_\rho ,$$
(7.5)
where

$$\mathrm{\Delta }S_\rho =\frac{A\omega ^2\mathrm{\Psi }}{2\sqrt{\omega ^2\frac{m^2}{\rho ^2}}}𝑑\rho .$$
(7.6)
After substituting the value for $`A`$ and

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=\frac{R_0^{k+1}}{(k+1)(\rho ^2+b^2)^{\frac{k+1}{2}}}$$
(7.7)
we obtain

$$\mathrm{\Delta }S_\rho =_R^{b_0}\frac{(k+2)\omega R_0^{k+1}\rho d\rho }{(k+1)\sqrt{(\rho ^2+b^2)^{k+1}(\rho ^2\frac{m^2}{\omega ^2})}}.$$
(7.8)
Note that the impact parameter of the light ray in terms of integrals of motion is just $`b_0=\frac{m}{\omega }`$. Light propagates from some large distance $`\rho =R`$ to the point $`\rho =b_0`$ nearest to the center of the projected ‘shadow matter’ and then back to the distance $`R`$. Therefore the integration goes from $`R`$ to $`b_0`$ and the result should be multiplied by 2. For a ray coming from infinity $`R\mathrm{}`$. After integration we get

$$\mathrm{\Delta }S_\rho =\frac{(k+2)\sqrt{\pi }\omega \mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{k}{2})}{2(k+1)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{k+1}{2})}\frac{R_0^{k+1}}{(b_0^2+b^2)^{\frac{k}{2}}}.$$
(7.9)
From eq. (7.3) we obtain the total deflection angle

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi =\frac{}{m}(\mathrm{\Delta }S_\rho ).$$
(7.10)
The calculation gives

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^{(k)}=\frac{(k+2)\sqrt{\pi }k\mathrm{\Gamma }(k/2)}{2(k+1)\mathrm{\Gamma }((k+1)/2)}\frac{R_0^{k+1}b_0}{(b_0^2+b^2)^{\frac{k+2}{2}}}.$$
(7.11)
In particular, for the case of one and two extra dimensions one has

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^{(1)}=\frac{3}{4}\pi R_0^2\frac{b_0}{(b^2+b_0^2)^{3/2}},\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^{(2)}=\frac{8}{3}R_0^3\frac{b_0}{(b^2+b_0^2)^2}.$$
(7.12)
For comparison, the standard $`(3+1)`$-dimensional case ($`k=0`$, $`b=0`$) is

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi =\frac{2R_0}{b_0}$$
(7.13)
The different functional dependence of the deflection angle on the impact parameter of light $`b_0`$ gives us opportunity to distinguish between the real matter on the brane and the bulk ‘shadow matter’ as a cause of deflection.

## 8 Conclusions

We studied the interaction of an $`n`$-dimensional brane described by the Nambu-Goto action with a higher-dimensional Schwarzschild black hole moving in the ($`n+k+1`$)-dimensional spacetime. The $`n=1`$ case corresponds to a cosmic string, $`n=2`$ to a domain wall, while $`n=3`$ can be interpreted as the observable universe in the context of brane world models. We derived the general form of the perturbation equations for an $`n`$-brane in the background of a $`(n+k)`$-dimensional black hole in the weak field approximation.

For odd number of spatial brane dimensions by using convenient mathematical transformations we derived the closed form solution of the D’Alambert Equation with a spherically symmetric source (see appendix A). We applied this result to the most interesting case of a $`3`$-brane in a spacetime with extra dimensions where we obtained a general solution.

We calculated the induced geometry on the brane generated by a moving black hole. As considered by a brane observer this geometry can be obtained by solving $`(n+1)`$-dimensional Einstein’s equations with a non-vanishing right hand side. We calculated the effective stress-energy tensor corresponding to this ‘shadow-matter’. We showed that there exist regions where a brane observer sees an apparent violation of energy conditions. The ‘shadow-matter’ also affects the propagation of test particles and light on the brane. We demonstrated this by deriving results for deflection of light propagating in the induced spacetime metric on the brane. As expected, results are quite different from the $`(3+1)`$-dimensional results. It would be interesting to study eventual observational tests which would indicate that the ‘shadow-matter’ and thus the extra dimensions influence the physics of our $`(3+1)`$-dimensional world.

One of the possible interesting application of the ‘shadow matter’ effect might be the following. If there exists a diluted non-relativistic gas of stable elementary mini black holes in the extra dimensions, its gravitational action on the brane would be similar to the “observable” dark matter, provided the $`(3+k)`$-dimensional density of this gas is $`n_k`$ where

$$ϵ_{DM}M_{}n_kL^k.$$
(8.14)
Here $`ϵ_{DM}`$ is the mass density of the dark matter. For $`ϵ_{DM}10^{29}`$g/cm3 one has

$$n_k10^{6+2k}1/cm^{3+k}.$$
(8.15)
Since the average distance between the bulk black holes, $`n_k^{1/(3+k)}`$, is much larger than the black hole radius $`R_{}`$, with a very high accuracy one can consider such gas to be very diluted and neglect the gravitational interaction between the black holes. A distinguishing property of this model is that there are no physical particles on the brane responsible for the dark matter.

Acknowledgments: This work was partly supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. V.F. and D.S. are grateful to the Killam Trust for its financial support.

## Appendix A Spherically-Symmetric Solutions of D’Alambert Equation in Higher Dimensional Spacetimes

A solution of the $`(n+1)`$-dimensional D’Alambert equation

$$\mathrm{}^{(n+1)}p=f$$
(A.1)
can be written by using a retarded Green’s function

$$\mathrm{}^{(n+1)}G_{n+1}^{ret}(x,x^{})=\delta ^{(n+1)}(xx^{}).$$
(A.2)
We assume that in the infinite past there were no incoming waves. The solution $`p(x)`$ is then completely generated by the external ‘force’ $`f(x)`$,

$$p(x)=G_{n+1}^{ret}(x,x^{})f(x^{})𝑑x^{}.$$
(A.3)
The Green’s function for odd $`n=2\nu +1`$, $`\nu 1`$, can be written as

$$G_{n+1}^{ret}(x,x^{})=\frac{(1)^{\nu 1}\vartheta (tt^{})}{(2\pi )^\nu }\left[\frac{d^{\nu 1}}{(RdR)^{\nu 1}}\delta ((tt^{})^2R^2)\right],$$
(A.4)
where $`R=|𝐱𝐱^{}|`$. For our convenience, we rewrite it in a slightly different form

$$G_{n+1}^{ret}(x,x^{})=\frac{\vartheta (tt^{})}{2\pi ^\nu }\left[\frac{d^{\nu 1}}{d\alpha ^{\nu 1}}\delta (\lambda +\alpha )\right]_{\alpha =0}.$$
(A.5)
Here

$$\lambda =(tt^{})^2|𝐱𝐱^{}|^2,$$
(A.6)
$$|𝐱𝐱^{}|^2=\rho ^2+\rho ^22\rho \rho ^{}z,z=\mathrm{cos}\theta ,$$
(A.7)
and $`\theta `$ is the angle between $`n`$-dimensional vectors $`𝐱`$ and $`𝐱^{}`$.

We are interested in spherically symmetric solutions of D’Alambert equation. Integrating over the angular variables we get

$$\widehat{G}(t,\rho ;t^{},\rho ^{})=\mathrm{\Omega }_{n2}_1^1𝑑z(1z^2)^{(n3)/2}G_{n+1}^{ret}(t,\rho ;t^{},\rho ^{};z),$$
(A.8)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k=2\pi ^{\frac{k+1}{2}}/\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{k+1}{2})`$ is a volume of a $`k`$-dimensional unit sphere $`S^k`$. Here we made explicit that $`G_{n+1}^{ret}`$ depends on the angle variables only through the parameter $`z`$.

Let us denote

$$F=\rho ^\nu f,P=\rho ^\nu p.$$
(A.9)
Then in the absence of incoming waves the spherically symmetric solution of the equation (A.1) is

$$P(t,\rho )=𝑑t^{}𝑑\rho ^{}𝒢(t,\rho ;t^{},\rho ^{})F(t^{},\rho ^{}),$$
(A.10)
where

$$𝒢(t,\rho ;t^{},\rho ^{})=\left(\rho ^{}\rho \right)^\nu \widehat{G}(t,\rho ;t^{},\rho ^{}).$$
(A.11)
Let us show that for odd $`n`$ the representation (A.4) allows one to obtain the Green’s function for this reduced equation. The reduced Green’s function $`𝒢`$ can be written as

$$𝒢(t,\rho ;t^{},\rho ^{})=\vartheta (tt^{})\frac{\left(\rho ^{}\rho \right)^\nu }{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )}B,$$
(A.12)
where

$$B=\left[\frac{d^{\nu 1}}{d\alpha ^{\nu 1}}_1^1𝑑z(1z^2)^{\nu 1}\delta (b(z+z_{}))\right]_{\alpha =0},$$
(A.13)
$$\lambda _0=(tt^{})^2\rho ^2\rho ^2,b=2\rho \rho ^{},z_{}=\frac{\lambda _0+\alpha }{b}.$$
(A.14)
By calculating the integral in (A.13) one gets

$$B=B_+B_{},$$
(A.15)
$$B_\pm =\frac{1}{b}\left[\frac{d^{\nu 1}}{d\alpha ^{\nu 1}}\left\{(1z_{}^2)^{\nu 1}\vartheta (z_{}\pm 1)\right\}\right]_{\alpha =0}.$$
(A.16)
Now let us note that if any of the derivative over $`\alpha `$ is acting on the $`\vartheta `$-function, the result vanishes because of the remaining factor $`1z_{}^2`$. Using Rodrigues’ formula for Legendre polynomials (, relation 22.11.5)

$$P_n(x)=\frac{(1)^n}{2^nn!}\frac{d^n}{dx^n}\left[(1x^2)^n\right],$$
(A.17)
one obtains

$$B_\pm =\vartheta (\lambda _\pm )\frac{(2)^{\nu 1}}{b^\nu }(\nu 1)!P_{\nu 1}(\lambda _0/b),$$
(A.18)
where

$$\lambda _\pm =(tt^{})^2(\rho \rho ^{})^2).$$
(A.19)
Combining the above expressions we obtain the following representation for the reduced Green’s function

$$𝒢(t,\rho ;t^{},\rho ^{})=C_\nu P_{\nu 1}\left(\frac{\lambda _0}{b}\right)\left[\vartheta (\lambda _+)\vartheta (\lambda _{})\right],$$
(A.20)
where

$$C_\nu =\frac{(1)^{\nu 1}(\nu 1)!}{2\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )}.$$
(A.21)
For $`\nu =1`$, which corresponds to a $`n=3`$ brane we have

$$p(t,\rho )=\frac{1}{2}𝑑t^{}𝑑\rho ^{}\frac{\rho ^{}}{\rho }f(t^{},\rho ^{})\left[\vartheta (\lambda _+)\vartheta (\lambda _{})\right].$$
(A.22)
A similar procedure can be applied for the case of even $`n`$, i.e., odd number of spacetime dimensions. The expressions are more complicated and will not be discussed here.