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# The Supernova associated with GRB 030329

## Introduction

It is important to know what it is that makes GRBs. The evidence for an association of long duration GRBs with supernovae (SNe) has been treated by observers with due care, since in only a few cases is the evidence very clear and model-independent. Moreover, the only overwhelmingly clear association —that of GRB 980425 with SN1998bw— does not fit at all in the generally accepted fireball models: the GRB is far too weak and the SN is annoyingly peculiar. These may be the reasons why authoritative reviews of the subject, even very recent ones, do not consider the SN/GRB association to be an established fact (e.g. Waxman 2003). To judge from recent Gamma Ray Burst Communication Network (GCN) postings concerning GRB 030329, the observers’ attitude is more positive: many GCNs discuss minor changes in the smooth afterglow (AG) decline as possible SN signatures, even much before —and a fluence level much larger— than one may expect them to occur.

In the CB model long-duration GRBs are assumed to be associated with common core-collapse SNe (Dar and De Rújula 2000). In this model there is nothing special about GRB 980425, which is describable in exactly the same way as all other GRBs of known redshift; nor is SN1998bw particularly peculiar: it did not emit the observed puzzling radio and X-ray signals, the CB responsible for the GRB did it, as discussed in tiresome detail in Dado el al. (2003a). It follows that, in the CB model, it makes sense to use SN1998bw as a putative standard candle for SNe associated with GRBs. The result of that exercise is that, in the CB model, there is evidence for a GRB/SN association in all cases in which the SN could in practice be observed, about 1/2 of the total (Dado et al. 2002a,b,c; 2003a,b,c).

The Cannonball (CB) model provides a good, simple and universal description of all AGs of GRBs of known redshift, $`z`$, so that it is straightforward to use it to predict what the expected SN contribution to the AG should be, since one is confident on the extrapolated CB contribution, a “background” to the SN signal. By making a fit to the observed AGs, before the SN contribution became observable, we have, in three cases, succesfully predicted what this contribution would be (Dado et al. 2002b,c, 2003b). We endeavour to do the same for GRB 030329, by submitting this paper to the astro/ph archives $`2`$ days before the SN contribution ought to become discernible. The credibility of our predictions is weakened by the fact that the data, so far preliminary and unpublished, are insufficient to estimate the extinction in the host galaxy. Also if —unlike in all other cases for which there is evidence of an association— the SN that generated GRB 030329 turns out to be more than two times less intrinsically luminous than SN1998bw, it will be difficult to see its contribution to the AG light curves, though its presence may still significantly distort the late-time AG spectrum.

We also show that –in the CB model– most of the “unusual” features of the AG of GRB 030329 occured before in other GRBs and could, in this sense, be anticipated. The early optical AG of GRB 030329 is, as for GRBs 990123, 021004 and 021121, a direct tracer of the expected circumburst density profile: in all these cases the AGs were “caught” very early and they provide extremely clean evidence for the expected $`1/r^2`$ profile generated by a pre-SN stellar wind (Dado et al. 2003c). Both GRB 030329 and 021004 have $`\gamma `$-ray light curves dominated by two pulses or, in the CB model, two cannonballs. Both AGs display two wide shoulders that, in the same model, correspond to the contributions of the two CBs. The superimposed variations in the predicted smooth AG lightcurve, ups and downs of $`1/2`$ magnitude, are, as for GRBs 021004, 000301c and 970508, to be expected: they directly trace, like a needle on a vynil record, moderate deviations from a constant-density interstellar medium.

## 1 GRB 030329

The bright optical AG of this GRB (Vanderspek et al. 2003), which was first observed $`1.25`$h after burst by Peterson and Price (2003) and by Torii (2003) is —at magnitude $`R12.5`$— by far the brightest optical afterglow observed hours after burst. The X-ray AG, also very bright, was seen at time $`t`$ 5h after burst with RXTE, by Marshall and Swank (2003). The bright radio AG was observed at $`t14`$h by Berger et al. (2003). The redshift of the host galaxy was first determined by Greiner et al. (2003) to be $`z=0.1685`$. The large luminosity of this AG has triggered a large interest, reflected in a copious and enthousiastic release of GCN communications.

## The Cannonball Model of GRBs

In the CB model (Dar and De Rújula 2000, 2001; Dado et al. 2002a; 2003a) reviewed in De Rújula 2002 and Dar 1993), long duration GRBs and their AGs are produced in core-collapse supernovae akin to SN1998bw by the ejection of bipolar jets of ordinary-matter, hydrogenic plasma clouds or “cannonballs” (CBs) with high Lorentz factors ($`\gamma _010^3`$). A CB is emitted, as observed in $`\mu `$-quasars, when part of an accretion disk falls abruptly onto the newly-born compact central object. Crossing the circumburst shells with a large $`\gamma _0`$, the surface of a CB is collisionally heated to keV temperatures and the thermal radiation it emits as it reaches the transparent outskirts of the shells —boosted and collimated by the CB’s motion— is a single $`\gamma `$-ray pulse in a GRB. The cadence of pulses reflects the chaotic accretion and is not predictable, but the individual-pulse temporal and spectral properties are (Dar and De Rújula 2001; Dar 2003). In practice GRBs are observable only if the angle $`\theta `$ subtended by the CBs’ velocity vector and the line of sight to the observer is small: $`\theta =𝒪(1/\gamma _0)`$.

After becoming visible, a CB first cools by bremsstrahlung and expansion, emitting a hard spectrum that is seen in the X-ray band with a fluence decreasing with the expected $`1/t^5`$ behaviour. When a CB’s temperature approaches $`1`$ eV (within a few observer minutes), its emissivity is dominated by synchrotron emission from the electrons that penetrate in it as it propagates in the interstellar medium (ISM). Integrated over frequency, this synchrotron emissivity is proportional to the energy-deposition rate of the ISM electrons in the CB. These electrons are Fermi accelerated in the CB’s tangled magnetic maze to a broken power-law energy distribution with a “bend” energy equal to their incident energy in the CBs’ rest frame. Their synchrotron radiation —the afterglow— is also collimated and Doppler-boosted by the relativistic motion of the CBs. The radiation is also redshifted by the cosmological expansion and attenuated on its way to an earthly observer, during its passage through the CB itself, the host galaxy, the intergalactic space and our own galaxy.

## 2 The NIR/Optical AG in the CB model

In the CB model, the observed AGs have three origins: the ejected CBs, the concomitant SN explosion, and the host galaxy. These components are usually unresolved in the measured “GRB afterglows”, so that the corresponding light curves and spectra are the cumulative energy flux density:

$$F_{AG}=F_{CBs}+F_{SN}+F_{HG}.$$
(1)
The contribution of the host galaxy, $`F_{HG}`$, is usually extracted from “very” late time observations when the CB and SN contributions become negligible, or is best fitted if such data are not available.

Let the energy flux density of SN1998bw at redshift $`z_{bw}=0.0085`$ (Galama et al. 1998) be $`F_{bw}[\nu ,t]`$. For a similar SN placed at a redshift $`z`$:

$`F_{SN}[\nu ,t]=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1+z}{1+z_{bw}}}{\displaystyle \frac{D_L^2(z_{bw})}{D_L^2(z)}}\times `$ (2)
$`F_{bw}[\nu {\displaystyle \frac{1+z}{1+z_{bw}}},t{\displaystyle \frac{1+z_{bw}}{1+z}}]A_{SN}(\nu ,z),`$
where $`A_{SN}(\nu ,z)`$ is the attenuation along the line of sight and $`D_L(z)`$ is the luminosity distance (we use a cosmology with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$ and $`H_0=65`$ km/s/Mpc).

In the rest frame of a CB the AG that an observer sees at optical frequencies is given by:

$$F_{_{CB}}[\nu ,t]=\frac{f[\gamma (t)]^2n_p}{\nu _b}\frac{[\nu /\nu _b]^{1/2}}{\sqrt{1+[\nu /\nu _b]^{(p1)}}},$$
(3)
where $`f`$ is a normalization constant (see Dado et al. 2003a for its theoretical estimate), $`\gamma (t)`$ is the Lorentz factor of the CB, $`p2.2`$ is the spectral index of the radiating electrons in the CB, and $`\nu _b`$ is the “injection bend” frequency for an interstellar density $`n_p`$:

$$\nu _b1.87\times 10^3[\gamma (t)]^3\left[\frac{n_p}{10^3cm^3}\right]^{1/2}Hz.$$
(4)
The theoretical motivation, as well as the excellent observational support for this “bend”, are discussed in Dado et al. 2003a. An observer in the GRB progenitor’s rest system, viewing a CB at an angle $`\theta `$, sees its radiation Doppler-boosted by a factor $`\delta `$:

$$\delta (t)\frac{1}{\gamma (t)(1\beta (t)\mathrm{cos}\theta )}\frac{2\gamma (t)}{1+\theta ^2\gamma (t)^2},$$
(5)
where the approximation is valid in the domain of interest for GRBs: large $`\gamma `$ and small $`\theta `$. The cannonballs’ AG spectral energy density $`F_{CB}^{obs}`$ seen by a cosmological observer at a redshift $`z`$ is:

$$F_{CB}^{obs}[\nu ,t]\frac{A(\nu ,t)(1+z)\delta (t)^3}{4\pi D_L^2}F_{_{CB}}[\frac{(1+z)\nu }{\delta (t)},\frac{\delta (t)t}{1+z}],$$
(6)
where $`A(\nu ,t)`$ is the correction for the total extinction of the CB’s radiation.

For an interstellar medium of constant baryon density $`n_p`$, the Lorentz factor $`\gamma (t)`$ is given by:

$`\gamma `$ $`=`$ $`\gamma (\gamma _0,\theta ,x_{\mathrm{}};t)=B^1\left[\theta ^2+C\theta ^4+1/C\right]`$
$`C`$ $``$ $`\left[2/\left(B^2+2\theta ^6+B\sqrt{B^2+4\theta ^6}\right)\right]^{1/3}`$
$`B`$ $``$ $`1/\gamma _0^3+3\theta ^2/\gamma _0+6ct/[(1+z)x_{\mathrm{}}]`$ (7)
where $`\gamma _0=\gamma (0)`$, and $`x_{\mathrm{}}N_{CB}/(\pi R_{max}^2n_p)`$ characterizes the CB’s slow-down in terms of $`N_{CB}`$: its baryon number, and $`R_{max}`$: its asymptotic radius (it takes a distance $`x_{\mathrm{}}/\gamma _0`$ for the CB to half its original Lorentz factor).

For AGs that are observed very early (those of the GRBs 021211, 990123, 021004 and 030329) the approximation of a constant ISM density, adopted above, is not good, since the CBs are first observed while travelling in the progenitor star’s wind. The total wind grammage is insufficient to make $`\gamma (t)`$ deviate from $`\gamma _0`$ during the CB’s traversal of the wind. Thus the only modification is that the density occuring in Eqs. (3) and (4) now becomes, for a typical “windy” profile:

$$n(r)=n_p(1+r_0^2/r^2),$$
(8)
where $`n_p`$ is again a constant. These fits have two extra parameters ($`n_p`$, which was previously embedded with $`f`$, or played a very marginal role via Eq. (4), and $`r_0`$). Note that at very early time, $`rct\gamma _0\delta _0/(1+z)t`$ and the above circumburst wind profile yields $`F_\nu [1+(\overline{t}/t)^2]^{0.75}`$ (Dado et al. 2003c), where $`\overline{t}`$ is the observer time when $`r=r_0`$). This very simple expression fits like the proverbial glove the data on the early time behaviour of the AGs of the GRBs 021211, 990123, 021004 and 030329, that in the fireball models would be attributed to a “reverse” shock.

The contribution to $`A(\nu ,z)`$ in Eq. (6) from selective extinction in the host galaxy and in the intergalactic medium can be estimated from the difference between the observed spectral index at very early time when the CBs are still near the SN and that expected in the absence of extinction. Indeed, the CB model predicts —and the data confirm with precision— the gradual evolution of the effective optical spectral index towards the constant value $`1.1`$ observed in all “late” AGs (Dado et al. 2002a, 2003a). The “late” index is independent of the attenuation in the host galaxy, since at $`t>1`$ (observer’s) days after the explosion, the CBs are typically already moving in the low column density, optically transparent halo of the host galaxy.

The comparison in Dado et al. (2002a,b,c; 2003a,b,c) of the predictions of Eq. (6) with the observations of optical, X-ray and radio light-curves and spectra for all GRBs of known redshift are very simple, satisfactory and parameter-thrifty.

## 3 GRB 030329 in the CB model

Six properties of AGs in the CB model are particularly relevant to GRB 030329:

* The optical AG is “caught” at very early times, when the CBs are still crossing the parent star’s wind-generated density profile.
* In high-precission data, density inhomogeneities along the CBs’ trajectory —expected within star formation regions and upon exit from the superbubbles where most SNe take place— result in observable achromatic “bumps” in the AG. These features have been seen in GRBs 970508, 000301c and 021004 (Dado et al. 2002a, 2003b).
* Except for GRB 021004, the past AG data were course enough or started late enough for the contributions of different CBs (which can often be resolved as individual pulses in the GRB phase) to coalesce into an AG describable by a single CB or a collection of similar ones. But individual CBs may have different properties, or be emitted at somewhat different angles, as observed in the $`\mu `$-quasar SS 433 (Margon 1984).
* The predicted AG spectra and their evolution, in particular the steepening at the time-varying frequency $`\nu _b(t)`$ of Eq.(4) towards $`\nu ^{1.1}`$ at late time, is very well supported by the data (Dado et al. 2002a, 2003a).
* The excess polarization of AGs above that induced by the ISM in the Galaxy may be largely due to the host galaxy’s ISM. In that case, it should be correlated with the extinction in the host and decline with time as the CBs move into its halo.
* The $`\gamma `$-ray light curve of GRB 030329, like that of GRB 021004, shows two prominent pulses (Vanderspek et al. 2003; http:// space.mit.edu/ HETE/ Bursts /GRB030329/).

In the CB model the two $`\gamma `$-ray pulses of the last item correspond to two dominant CBs. The good quality and early start of the optical data for GRB 030329 implies that the individual contributions of the two CBs are discernable in the AG: we must fit the broad-band AG light curves with the additive contributions of two CBs, emitted almost in the same direction, but with otherwise free parameters (normalization, $`\gamma _0`$ and $`x_{\mathrm{}}`$). We fix the spectral index $`p`$ in Eq. (3) to the theoretically expected $`p=2.2`$, assume the density profile given by Eq. (8), and fit simultaneously all the reported NIR, optical and radio data.

The individual CBs’ contribution are given by Eq. (6) which implicitely uses all equations from to (3) to (7). The free parameters are the radius $`r_0`$ at which the wind and ISM densities are equal and, for each CB, the viewing angle, $`\theta `$, the normalization constant $`f\times n_p`$, the initial Lorentz factor, $`\gamma (0)`$ and the decelaration parameter, $`x_{\mathrm{}}`$.

The $`R`$-band magnitude of a SN akin to 1998bw, displaced to $`z=0.1685`$, is $`R20.2`$ at peak brightness. Thus, in our fits, we neglect the smaller contribution of the host galaxy, $`R>23.1`$ at $`2\sigma `$ confidence level (Blake and Bloom, 2003; see also Wood-Vasey et al. 2003).

### 3.1 NIR-Optical AG

In Fig. 1 we show the CB-model’s fit to data for the NIR-optical light-curves reported in the GCN circulars 1990, 2001, 2024, 2046, 2051, 2054, 2079 (Burenin et al.); 1991, 2005, 2028 (Rumyantsev et al.); 1992 (Andersen et al.); 1995 (Rykoff et al.); 1999 (Gal-Yam et al.); 2002, 2035, 2091 (Lipunov et al.); 2012 (Martini et al.); 2016 (Masi et al.); 2019 (Smith et al.); 2021 (Halpern et al.); 2022, 2075 (Zharikov et al.); 2029 (Klose et al.); 2030 (Bartolini et al.); 2034, 2045, 2049, 2060 (Lipkin et al.); 2036 (Garnavich et al.); 2037 (Moran et al.); 2040, 2096 (Lamb et al.); 2041 (Stanek et al.); 2042 (Schaefer. et al.); 2048 (Zeh et al.) 2056, 2065, 2070 (Fitzgerald & Orosz); 2063 (Weidong Li et al.); 2066 (Tober et al.); 2050, 2067, 2083, 2097 (Pavlenko et al.); 2068 (Bloom et al); 2074 (Cantiello et al.); 2077, 2084 (Ibrahimov et al.); 2080 (Sato et al.); 2094 (Khamitov et al.); 2096 (Lee et al.); and 2098 (Ibrahimov et al.).

All the observational data was recalibrated to the field photometry of Henden et al. (2003), either by the observers or by ourselves. We have corrected for selective extinction in our galaxy (Schlegel et al. 1998): $`E(BV)=0.025`$ in the direction of GRB 030329. We did not correct for extinction in the host galaxy; the preliminary data in the GCN does not provide clear evidence for it.

The broad-band fitted parameters of the two CBs are $`\theta [1]=2.00`$ mrad, a nearly identical $`\theta [2]=1.95`$ mrad for the second CB’s direction, $`\gamma _0[1]=1477`$, $`\gamma _0[2]=976`$ (implying $`\delta _0[1]=306`$, $`\delta _0[2]=423`$), $`\mathrm{x}_{\mathrm{}}[1]=476`$ kpc, and $`\mathrm{x}_{\mathrm{}}[2]=36`$ kpc. The density and “wind” parameters of Eq. (8) are $`n_p=0.86\times 10^2`$ cm-3 and $`r_0=26`$ pc, which yield $`\rho r^2=9.3\times 10^{13}`$ g cm-1 for the progenitor-wind’s grammage, similar to the canonical value for the winds of the parent massive stars of core-collapse SNe (Dado et al. 2003c and references therein).

To demonstrate the real quality of the fit, we have blown up the R-band results in Fig. 2. In the region between $`t1`$ and $`5`$ days, the data “wiggles” by as much as 30% around the smoother theoretical curve. It would be easy to correct for this by assuming similar deviations of the ISM density input in Eqs. (3) and (8), relative to a constant $`n_p`$, clearly a moot exercise.

A SN1998bw-like contribution, as can be seen in Figs. 1 and 2, will be observable. Since the contribution of the second CB is still considerable near the peak brightness of the SN (at $`t15`$ days) the SN contribution appears as a shoulder in the light curves. If this contribution is much fainter —due to extinction in the host galaxy or a possible deviation from a so-far-succesful SN1998bw “standard candle” ansatz— its presence could still be established by the change of colours from the broad band $`F_\nu \nu ^{1.1}`$ behaviour of the CBs’ emission towards $`F_\nu \nu ^{3.5\pm 1.0}`$, the SN spectrum.

### 3.2 Optical Polarization

In the CB model, after subtraction of the Galaxy’s contribution, the polarization of the optical AG is mainly due to the effect of the host’s ISM. It is therefore correlated with the extinction in the host, has a fixed angular position, and diminishes with time as the CBs escape into the galactic halo. Consequently near peak brightness of the associated SN (around 15 days after burst) the polarization of the AG should be that of the underlying SN.

### 3.3 The GRB proper

In the CB model, due to Doppler boosting and relativistic collimation (Dar and De Rújula 2000), the $`\gamma `$-ray fluence of a GRB viewed at a small $`\theta `$ is amplified by a huge factor $`\delta _0^3`$:

$$F_{_{GRB}}=\frac{(1+z)\delta _0^3}{4\pi D_L^2}E_\gamma ,$$
(9)
relative to $`E_\gamma `$, the total energy in photons emitted by the CBs in their rest system. The total “equivalent spherical”, or would-be isotropic energy, $`E^{iso}`$, inferred from the observed fluence, is a factor $`(\delta _0)^3`$ larger than $`E_\gamma `$. In Dado et al. 2002a we deduced that the $`E_\gamma `$ values of the GRBs of known $`z`$ span the surprisingly narrow111GRBs in the CB model are much better standard candles than in the standard model (Frail et al. 2001). interval $`10^{44\pm 0.3}`$ erg, the spread in $`F_{_{GRB}}`$ being mainly due to the spread in their values of $`\delta _0`$ (deduced from the fits to their AGs). For GRB 030329 the CB-model fit to its broad band AG yields $`\delta _0[1]^3=2.86\times 10^7`$ and $`\delta _0[2]^3=7.56\times 10^7`$. The CB-model expectation from the fitted AG is $`E^{iso}(\delta _0[1]^3+\delta _0[1]^3)E_\gamma 1.04\times 10^{52\pm 0.3}`$ erg, in agreement with the observed $`E^{iso}1.1\times 10^{52}`$ erg, deduced from its measured redshift, $`z=0.168`$, and fluence in the 30–400 keV band $`10^4`$ erg cm-2 (Vanderspek et al. 2003).

At the very early stage of $`\gamma `$-ray emission, CBs are still dense enough for the ambient protons to interact hadronically with those of the CB’s ordinary-matter plasma. In the simplest “surface model” of the generation of the GRB proper, the energy deposited in the CBs by these interactions is reemitted with a quasi-thermal spectrum with a predictable time-dependent temperature, leading to the correct predictions of the very stable characteristic energy of GRBs, and of the observed spectral indices of their “Band” spectrum (Dar and De Rújula 2000, Dar 2003).

The light curve of a GRB’s single pulse rises abruptly as the column density of the material in front of a CB descends to $`𝒪(1)`$ attenuation lengths, and diminishes thereafter as the density of the material the CB encounters diminishes with time. For a windy $`1/r^2`$ density profile of this density, the shape of a pulse at fixed energy is analytical and simple:

$`F_{CB}(t)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{t^2}}Exp\left[2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }t}{t}}\right],`$
$`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }x(1+z)}{c\gamma _0\delta _0}},`$ (10)
with $`t`$ the observer’s time and $`\mathrm{\Delta }x`$ the proper distance travelled by the CB from the onset of the pulse to the position at which one $`\gamma `$-ray absorption length is still in front of it. In the rough approximation of an energy-independent $`\gamma `$-ray attenuation in the circumburst material, the shape of an energy-integrated pulse is the same as in Eq. (10).

We have constructed a rough description of the $`\gamma `$-ray light curve of GRB 030329 (Vanderspek et al. 2003; http:// space.mit.edu/ HETE/ Bursts /GRB030329/) by summing two pulses, both with the shape of Eq. (10), separated by 12 observer’s seconds, and with $`\mathrm{\Delta }t[1]=6`$s, $`\mathrm{\Delta }t[2]=4`$s. The result is shown in Fig. 3. The description of the GRB is quite satisfactory, even though we would have expected $`\mathrm{\Delta }t[1]/\mathrm{\Delta }t[2]=\gamma _0[2]\delta _0[2]/(\gamma _0[1]\delta _0[1])1.1`$, as opposed to 1.5. It would be easy to find excuses to exit from this minor problem (e.g. we have not quoted errors in our parameters, that are made somewhat meaningless by the slightly erratic behaviour of the AG light curves).

## 4 Conclusions

We have shown that the data on GRB 030329 and on its early NIR-optical AG are well described by the CB model. This is also the case for all other GRBs of known redshift, including GRB 980425, whose associated SN we use as a putative standard candle.

In the CB model, we contend, the association between long-duration GRBs and SNe is extremely well established: in all GRBs of known redshift (all those with $`z<1.12`$) a SN1998bw-like supernova could be seen, and with various degrees of significance, it was seen. SN1998 stood the “standard-candle” test with surprising precision. In many cases, though, the test depended on very significant extinction corrections in the host galaxy. If this extinction turns out to be significant for GRB 030329, the direct observation of a SN signal in the AG could be jeopardized. In such a case one would need precise colour photometry and spectroscopy with the most powerful telescopes, such as VLT, Magellan, Keck and HST, and very late time measurements of the host galaxy’s magnitude.

Acknowledgment: This research was supported in part by the Helen Asher Space Research Fund at the Technion. Arnon Dar thanks the TH division at CERN for its hospitality.


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# Inflation with a running spectral index in supergravity

## I Introduction

The first year data release of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) has opened a new era of high-precision cosmology Bennett:2003bz . It has not only confirmed the “concordance” values of the cosmological parameters with much smaller uncertainties than before but also extracted important information on the primordial spectrum of density perturbations Spergel:2003cb . It has been reported that Peiris:2003ff  their result favors purely adiabatic fluctuations with a remarkable feature that the spectral index runs from $`n_s>1`$ on a large scale to $`n_s<1`$ on a smaller scale. More specifically they obtain $`n_s=1.10_{0.06}^{+0.07}`$ and $`dn_s/d\mathrm{ln}k=0.042_{0.020}^{+0.021}`$ on the scale $`k_0=0.002\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$.

It is not straightforward to make a model of inflation oriinf  that predicts perturbations with such a spectrum. In a single-field slow-roll inflation model with a potential $`V[\varphi ]`$, the amplitude of curvature perturbation in the comoving gauge $``$ Bardeen  generated on the comoving scale $`r=2\pi /k`$ is given by

$$(k)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\frac{H^2(t_k)}{|\dot{\varphi }(t_k)|},H^2(t_k)=\frac{V[\varphi (t_k)]}{3M_G^2},$$
(1)
where $`t_k`$ is the epoch $`k`$ mode left the Hubble radius during inflation pert . The spectral index is defined and given by

$$n_s1\frac{d\mathrm{ln}|(k)|^2}{d\mathrm{ln}k}6ϵ+2\eta ,ϵ\frac{M_G^2}{2}\left(\frac{V^{}[\varphi ]}{V[\varphi ]}\right)^2,\eta \frac{M_G^2V^{\prime \prime }[\varphi ]}{V[\varphi ]}.$$
(2)
We also find

$$\frac{dn_s}{d\mathrm{ln}k}=16ϵ\eta 24ϵ^22\xi ,\xi M_G^4\frac{V^{\prime \prime \prime }[\varphi ]V^{}[\varphi ]}{V[\varphi ]^2}.$$
(3)
From Eqs. (2) we find that $`\eta `$ or the effective mass of the inflaton $`\varphi `$ must change significantly to achieve running of the spectral index from $`n_s>1`$ to $`n_s<1`$.111Recently, Feng et al. discussed an inflation model in the context of an extra dimension and showed that a large variation of spectral index can be realized FLZZ . Here $`M_G=2.4\times 10^{18}`$GeV is the reduced Planck mass. Hereafter we take $`M_G=1`$.

One possibility to realize such a spectral feature is a hybrid inflation model of Linde and Riotto, in which supergravity effect becomes dominant in the early stage of inflation and one-loop effect plays an important role in the final stage of inflation Linde:1997sj . Unfortunately, however, although the spectral index crosses unity in this model, its variation is too mild to reproduce the WMAP result for a sensible set of model parameters.222Recently, Kyae and Shafi discussed hybrid inflation in four- and five- dimensional grand unified theories. But it is shown that the running of the spectral index is too mild also in this model KS . This is mainly because the Yukawa coupling constant must be relatively small for sufficient inflation as we argue below.

In order to circumvent this problem we consider a double inflation model combining hybrid inflation Linde:1993cn  and new inflation ni  in supergravity. In our model the first stage of hybrid inflation proceeds in the same way as the Linde-Riotto model Linde:1997sj , which is a supergravity version of a supersymmetric model Copeland:1994vg ; Dvali:ms , and the desired spectrum with a running index from $`n_s>1`$ to $`n_s<1`$ is generated then. At the same time the initial condition for subsequent new inflation is naturally prepared Izawa:1997df , which continues about 40 $`e`$-folds to expand the comoving scale with the desired spectral shape of density fluctuation to larger scales observable with WMAP. Furthermore, new inflation predicts sufficiently a low reheating temperature to avoid overproduction of gravitinos.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Sec. II we review the supergravity hybrid inflation model of Linde and Riotto Linde:1997sj  and argue its difficulty to realize a significantly large running of the spectral index on scales probed by WMAP. Then in Sec. III we introduce our double inflation model which was originally proposed in Izawa:1997df  and utilized to realize the formation of primordial black holes Kawasaki:1998vx  or to fit observations of large-scale structure Kanazawa:1999ag . Section IV is devoted to a discussion and future outlook.

## II Hybrid inflation in supergravity

Here we first review the supergravity hybrid inflation model of Linde and Riotto Linde:1997sj . The superpotential is given by

$$W_H=\lambda S\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}\mathrm{\Psi }\mu ^2S,$$
(4)
where $`S`$ is a gauge-singlet superfield, while $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}`$ are a conjugate pair of superfields transforming as nontrivial representations of some gauge group, and $`\lambda `$ and $`\mu `$ are positive parameters much smaller than unity. This system respects the $`R`$ symmetry under which they are transformed as $`Se^{2i\alpha }S`$, $`\mathrm{\Psi }e^{2i\alpha }\mathrm{\Psi }`$, $`\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}e^{2i\alpha }\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}`$, and $`W_He^{2i\alpha }W_H`$. The $`R`$-invariant Kähler potential is given by

$$K_H=|S|^2+|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2+|\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}|^2+\mathrm{}.$$
(5)
Here, for simplicity, we have neglected higher-order terms, which make the calculation complicated but do not change the essential result.

The potential of scalar components of the superfields $`z_i`$ in supergravity is given by

$$V=e^K\left\{\left(\frac{^2K}{z_iz_j^{}}\right)^1D_{z_i}WD_{z_j^{}}W^{}3|W|^2\right\}+V_D,$$
(6)
with

$$D_{z_i}W=\frac{W}{z_i}+\frac{K}{z_i}W.$$
(7)
Here the scalar components of the superfields are denoted by the same symbols as the corresponding superfields, and $`V_D`$ represents the $`D`$-term contribution. From Eqs. (4) and (5) we explicitly find

$`V_H(S,\mathrm{\Psi },\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }})`$ $`=`$ $`e^{|S|^2+|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2+|\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}|^2}\{(1|S|^2+|S|^4)|\lambda \overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}\mathrm{\Psi }\mu ^2|^2`$ (8)
$`+|S|^2\left[\right|\lambda (1+|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2)\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}\mu ^2\mathrm{\Psi }^{}|^2+|\lambda (1+|\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}|^2)\mathrm{\Psi }\mu ^2\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}^{}|^2]\}+V_{DH}.`$
Since the above potential does not depend on the phase of the complex scalar field $`S`$, we identify its real part, $`\sigma \mathrm{Re}S/\sqrt{2}`$, with the inflaton. Composing the mass matrix of $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}`$ from Eq. (8), we find that the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenstates are given by

$$M_\pm ^2=\lambda ^2|S|^2\pm \lambda \mu ^2=\frac{\lambda ^2}{2}\sigma ^2\pm \lambda \mu ^2,\mathrm{for}\mathrm{\Psi }^{}=\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }},$$
(9)
where we have assumed $`\lambda \mu `$. Since these eigenstates are along $`D`$-flat directions, the scalar fields will eventually start to roll, keeping $`\mathrm{\Psi }^{}=\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}`$, as $`\sigma `$ becomes smaller than the critical value $`\sigma _c\sqrt{2}\mu /\sqrt{\lambda }`$.

Then under the condition $`\mathrm{\Psi }^{}=\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}`$, the potential reduces to a familiar form of the typical hybrid inflation potential:

$$V_H=(\lambda |\mathrm{\Psi }|^2\mu ^2)^2+\lambda ^2\sigma ^2|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2+\frac{1}{8}\mu ^4\sigma ^4+\mathrm{}.$$
(10)
For $`\sigma >\sigma _c`$, the potential is minimized at $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}=0`$ and inflation is driven by the false vacuum energy density $`\mu ^4`$.

As a result of the mass split of scalar multiplets composed by $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}`$ with mass squared $`M_\pm ^2`$ and their superpartner fermions with mass $`M=\lambda \sigma /\sqrt{2}`$, the radiative correction to the potential is non-negligible during inflation. The one-loop correction reads Dvali:ms

$$V_{1L}=\frac{\lambda ^2}{128\pi ^2}\left[(\lambda \sigma ^2+2\mu ^2)^2\mathrm{ln}\frac{\lambda \sigma ^2+2\mu ^2}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}+(\lambda \sigma ^22\mu ^2)^2\mathrm{ln}\frac{\lambda \sigma ^22\mu ^2}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}2\lambda ^2\sigma ^4\mathrm{ln}\frac{\lambda \sigma ^2}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}\right],$$
(11)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the renormalization scale. When $`\sigma \sigma _c`$ it is approximated as

$$V_{1L}\frac{\lambda ^2\mu ^4}{8\pi ^2}\mathrm{ln}\frac{\sigma }{\sigma _c}.$$
(12)
As a result the effective potential of the inflaton $`\sigma `$ during hybrid inflation reads

$$V_H[\sigma ]\mu ^4\left(1+\frac{\lambda ^2}{8\pi ^2}\mathrm{ln}\frac{\sigma }{\sigma _c}+\frac{1}{8}\sigma ^4+\mathrm{}\right).$$
(13)
As long as the field amplitude is sub-Planck scale or smaller than unity, the effective potential is dominated by the false vacuum energy. Comparing the derivative of the second term of the right-hand side and that of the last term, we find that the dynamics of the scalar field is dominated by the nonrenormalizable term for $`\sigma >\sqrt{\lambda /(2\pi )}\sigma _d`$ and by the radiative correction for $`\sigma <\sigma _d`$. Since we are assuming $`\mu \lambda 1`$, we find $`\sigma _c\sigma _d1`$. In this situation, the number of $`e`$-folds of exponential expansion during inflation, $`N_H`$, is sensitive only to $`\sigma _d`$ and given by

$$N_H=_{\sigma _c}^{\sigma _i}\frac{V_H[\sigma ]}{V_H^{}[\sigma ]}𝑑\sigma _{\sigma _d}^{\sigma _i}\frac{2}{\sigma ^3}𝑑\sigma +_{\sigma _c}^{\sigma _d}\frac{8\pi ^2}{\lambda ^2}\sigma 𝑑\sigma \frac{4\pi }{\lambda },$$
(14)
where $`\sigma _i`$ is the initial value at the onset of hybrid inflation. Although the approximate expression for the one-loop potential (12) is valid only for $`\sigma \sigma _c`$, the fact that the resultant expression of $`N_H`$ is independent of $`\sigma _c`$ implies that the above formula (14) gives a reasonable approximation for the actual number of $`e`$-folds. We also note that the amount of inflation during $`\sigma >\sigma _d`$ and that during $`\sigma <\sigma _d`$ are about the same with the $`e`$-folds $`2\pi /\lambda `$. Thus in order to achieve sufficiently long inflation to solve the horizon and the flatness problems, $`N_H60`$, $`\lambda `$ should be rather small: $`\lambda 4\pi /600.2`$.

Calculating the slow-roll parameters $`ϵ`$, $`\eta `$, and $`\xi `$ for the potential (13), we find

$$ϵ=𝒪\left(\left(\frac{\sigma }{M_G}\right)^6\right),\eta =𝒪\left(\left(\frac{\sigma }{M_G}\right)^2\right),\xi =𝒪\left(\left(\frac{\sigma }{M_G}\right)^4\right),$$
(15)
for $`\sigma \sigma _d`$ in dimensionful units, so that the spectral index of scalar perturbation and its variation are given by

$`n_s1`$ $`=`$ $`6ϵ+2\eta 2\eta =3\sigma ^2{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _d^4}{\sigma ^2}},`$ (16)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{dn_s}{d\mathrm{ln}k}}`$ $`=`$ $`16ϵ\eta 24ϵ^22\xi 2\xi =\left({\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _d^8}{\sigma ^4}}+4\sigma _d^4+3\sigma ^4\right).`$ (17)
As is seen here, this model has the desired feature of the running spectral index toward smaller values for decreasing length scales qualitatively. The spectral index crosses unity at $`\sigma =\sigma _d/3^{1/4}0.8\sigma _d`$. In order that this happens on the observable scales by WMAP and large-scale structures, one should have about 50 $`e`$-folds of inflation after $`\sigma `$ crossed this value, which requires $`\lambda 0.1`$ from Eq. (14). As a result, we find that the amplitude of spectral running is too small:

$$\frac{dn_s}{d\mathrm{ln}k}10^3.$$
(18)
Conversely, this quantity could be larger and match observation if we adopted a larger value of the coupling constant $`\lambda `$. Indeed from Eqs. (16) and (17) we find

$`\sigma _d`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\sqrt{2}}}\left\{\left[{\displaystyle \frac{4}{9}}(n_s1)^4{\displaystyle \frac{32}{3}}(n_s1)^2{\displaystyle \frac{dn_s}{d\mathrm{ln}k}}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{14}{3}}(n_s1)^28{\displaystyle \frac{dn_s}{d\mathrm{ln}k}}\right\}^{\frac{1}{4}},`$ (19)
$`\sigma `$ $`=`$ $`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{n_s1}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2(n_s1)}}{\displaystyle \frac{dn_s}{d\mathrm{ln}k}}+{\displaystyle \frac{4\sigma _d^4}{n_s1}}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}},`$ (20)
where $`\sigma `$ is the field amplitude when the relevant scale left the Hubble radius during hybrid inflation. Using the central values obtained by WMAP on a comoving scale, $`k_0=0.002\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$, $`n_s1=0.1`$ and $`dn_s/d\mathrm{ln}k=0.042`$, we find $`\sigma _d=0.27`$ or $`\lambda =0.47`$ and $`\sigma =0.25=0.91\sigma _d`$. This means that the $`e`$-folds of hybrid inflation after the comoving scale with the observed spectral shape has crossed the Hubble radius is only about 11.3. Hence we must invoke another inflation to push the relevant scale to the scale $`k_0=0.002\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$. If this is achieved, we can find the energy scale of hybrid inflation from the amplitude of curvature fluctuation at $`\sigma =0.25`$,

$$(k_0)=\frac{\mu ^2}{\sqrt{3}\pi }\left(\frac{\sigma _d^4}{\sigma }+\sigma ^3\right)^1=4.9\mu ^2=4.8\times 10^5,$$
(21)
corresponding to $`A=0.77`$ of Peiris:2003ff . We therefore find $`\mu =3.1\times 10^3=7.5\times 10^{15}`$GeV.

Although we have taken the central values obtained by WMAP, the $`n_s1`$ and $`dn_s/d\mathrm{ln}k`$ are determined with rather large uncertainties. For example, if we take $`dn_s/d\mathrm{ln}k=0.021`$ corresponding to 68% probability lower bound, we obtain $`\sigma _d=0.22(\lambda =0.30,\sigma =0.95\sigma _d)`$, which changes the $`e`$-folds of the hybrid inflation from $`11.3`$ to $`19.9`$. Thus, we should take $`\mathrm{\Delta }N_H8`$ as the uncertainty of $`e`$-folds of hybrid inflation.

Note also that the two contributions from the supergravity effect and the one-loop correction are dealt with separately in the above analytic estimate. However, of course, both contributions should be considered simultaneously. So we have calculated the fluctuations numerically. Then, we have found that the best-fit parameters to reproduce the WMAP results are slightly changed and given by $`\mu =2.9\times 10^3=7.2\times 10^{15}`$ GeV, $`\lambda =0.43`$. The results are shown in Figs. 1-3. In this case, the $`e`$-folds of hybrid inflation after the comoving scale with the observed spectral shape has crossed the Hubble radius is only about 10.3.

## III Hybrid new inflation

In order to push the scales with the desired spectral shape of density fluctuations to cosmologically observable scales, we consider new inflation which occurs after hybrid inflation discussed above. One should notice that, generally speaking, hybrid inflation predicts a high reheating temperature because the inflaton has gauge couplings and its energy scale is relatively high usually. On the other hand, new inflation predicts a sufficiently low reheating temperature to avoid overproduction of gravitinos. Thus, the occurrence of new inflation following hybrid inflation is favorable also in this respect. Furthermore, in our model, the initial value of new inflation is dynamically set during hybrid inflation, which evades the severe initial value problem of new inflation. In this section, we first review the superpotential and Kähler potential for the new inflation sector and its dynamics Izawa:1997df , and then combine these two inflation by considering full superpotential.

We introduce a chiral superfield $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ with an $`R`$ charge $`2/(n+1)`$, but assume that the U$`(1)_R`$ symmetry is dynamically broken to a discrete $`Z_{2nR}`$ symmetry at a scale $`v1`$. The superpotential of this sector therefore reads

$$W_N[\mathrm{\Phi }]=v^2\mathrm{\Phi }\frac{g}{n+1}\mathrm{\Phi }^{n+1},$$
(22)
with $`g`$ being a coupling constant of order of unity. We assume that both $`g`$ and $`v`$ are real and positive for simplicity. The $`R`$-invariant Kähler potential is given by

$$K_N=|\mathrm{\Phi }|^2+\frac{c_N}{4}|\mathrm{\Phi }|^4+\mathrm{},$$
(23)
where $`c_N`$ is a constant smaller than unity. We assume that there are no direct interactions between fields relevant to hybrid inflation discussed in the previous section and $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. Hence the full superpotential and Kähler potential read $`W=W_H+W_N`$ and $`K=K_H+K_N`$, respectively.

Before performing the full analysis we review how new inflation proceeds in this model. The scalar potential given from Eqs. (22) and (23) reads

$`V_N[\mathrm{\Phi }]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{exp}\left(|\mathrm{\Phi }|^2+\frac{c_N}{4}|\mathrm{\Phi }|^4\right)}{1+c_N|\mathrm{\Phi }|^2}}`$ (24)
$`\times \left[\right|(1+|\mathrm{\Phi }|^2+{\displaystyle \frac{c_N}{2}}|\mathrm{\Phi }|^4)v^4(1+{\displaystyle \frac{|\mathrm{\Phi }|^2}{n+1}}+{\displaystyle \frac{c_N|\mathrm{\Phi }|^4}{2(n+1)}})g\mathrm{\Phi }^n|^2`$
$`3(1+c_N|\mathrm{\Phi }|^2)|\mathrm{\Phi }|^2|v^2{\displaystyle \frac{g}{n+1}}\mathrm{\Phi }^n|^2].`$
It has a minimum at

$$|\mathrm{\Phi }|_{\mathrm{min}}\left(\frac{v^2}{g}\right)^{\frac{1}{n}}\mathrm{and}\mathrm{Im}\mathrm{\Phi }_{\mathrm{min}}^n=0,$$
(25)
with a negative energy density

$$V_N[\mathrm{\Phi }_{\mathrm{min}}]3e^{K_N}|W_N[\mathrm{\Phi }_{\mathrm{min}}]|^23\left(\frac{n}{n+1}\right)^2v^4|\mathrm{\Phi }_{\mathrm{min}}|^2.$$
(26)
Assuming that this negative value is canceled by a positive contribution due to supersymmetry breaking, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{SUSY}}^4`$, we can relate energy scale of this model with the gravitino mass $`m_{3/2}`$ as

$$m_{3/2}\frac{n}{n+1}\left(\frac{v^2}{g}\right)^{\frac{1}{n}}v^2.$$
(27)
Without loss of generality we may identify the real part of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ with the inflaton $`\varphi \mathrm{Re}\mathrm{\Phi }/\sqrt{2}`$. The dynamics of inflaton is governed by the lower-order potential

$$V_N[\varphi ]v^4\frac{c_N}{2}v^4\varphi ^2\frac{2g}{2^{n/2}}v^2\varphi ^n+\frac{g^2}{2^n}\varphi ^{2n}.$$
(28)
Since the last term is negligible during inflation and the Hubble parameter is dominated by the first term, $`H=v^2/\sqrt{3}`$, the slow-roll equation of motion reads

$$3H\dot{\varphi }=V_N^{}[\varphi ]c_Nv^4\varphi 2^{\frac{2n}{2}}ngv^2\varphi ^{n1},$$
(29)
and the slow-roll parameters are given by

$$ϵ\frac{1}{2}\left(c_N\varphi +2^{\frac{2n}{2}}ng\frac{\varphi ^{n1}}{v^2}\right)^2,\eta =c_N2^{\frac{2n}{2}}n(n1)g\frac{\varphi ^{n2}}{v^2},$$
(30)
in this new inflation regime. Thus inflation is realized with $`c_N1`$ and ends at

$$\varphi =\sqrt{2}\left(\frac{(1c_N)v^2}{gn(n1)}\right)^{\frac{1}{n2}}\varphi _e,$$
(31)
when $`|\eta |`$ becomes as large as unity.

Since the two terms on the right-hand side of Eq. (29) are identical at

$$\varphi =\sqrt{2}\left(\frac{c_Nv^2}{gn}\right)^{\frac{1}{n2}}\varphi _d,$$
(32)
the number of $`e`$-folds of new inflation is estimated as

$$N_N=_{\varphi _i}^{\varphi _e}\frac{V_N[\varphi ]}{V_N^{}[\varphi ]}𝑑\varphi _{\varphi _i}^{\varphi _d}\frac{d\varphi }{c_N\varphi }+_{\varphi _d}^{\varphi _e}\frac{2^{\frac{n2}{2}}v^2}{gn\varphi ^{n1}}𝑑\varphi =\frac{1}{c_N}\mathrm{ln}\frac{\varphi _d}{\varphi _i}+\frac{1nc_N}{(n2)c_N(1c_N)},$$
(33)
for $`0<c_N<n^1`$. If $`c_N`$ vanishes, we instead find

$$N_N=_{\varphi _i}^{\varphi _e}\frac{2^{\frac{n2}{2}}v^2}{gn\varphi ^{n1}}𝑑\varphi =\frac{2^{\frac{n2}{2}}v^2}{gn(n2)}\varphi _i^{2n}\frac{n1}{n2}.$$
(34)
Here $`\varphi _i`$ is the initial value of $`\varphi `$, whose determination mechanism we now argue.

In the hybrid inflation stage $`\sigma >\sigma _c`$, the cosmic energy density is dominated by the false vacuum energy $`\mu ^4`$ with $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}=0`$. Hence, in the full scalar potential, which is obtained by the prescription (6) with $`K=K_H+K_N`$ and $`W=W_H+W_N`$, the interaction terms between $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ and the hybrid inflation sector are given by

$$V\mu ^4|\mathrm{\Phi }|^2+\mu ^2v^2(\mathrm{\Phi }^{}S+\mathrm{\Phi }S^{})+\mathrm{}=\frac{1}{2}\mu ^4(\varphi ^2+\chi ^2)+\mu ^2v^2\sigma \varphi +\mathrm{},$$
(35)
where $`\varphi =\mathrm{Re}\mathrm{\Phi }/\sqrt{2}`$ and $`\chi =\mathrm{Im}\mathrm{\Phi }/\sqrt{2}`$. Hence at the end of hybrid inflation, $`\sigma =\sigma _c`$, $`\varphi `$ and $`\chi `$ have a minimum at

$$\varphi _{\mathrm{min}}\frac{v^2}{\mu ^2}\sigma _c=\sqrt{\frac{2}{\lambda }}\frac{v^2}{\mu }\mathrm{and}\chi _{\mathrm{min}}0,$$
(36)
respectively. Since the effective mass is larger than the Hubble parameter during hybrid inflation, the above configuration is realized with the dispersion

$$(\varphi \varphi _{\mathrm{min}})^2=\chi ^2=\frac{3}{8\pi ^2}\frac{H_H^4}{\mu ^4}=\frac{\mu ^4}{24\pi ^2},$$
(37)
due to quantum fluctuations BD . Here $`\varphi `$ will eventually relax to this minimum during hybrid inflation. The ratio of quantum fluctuation to the expectation value should satisfy

$$\frac{\sqrt{(\varphi \varphi _{\mathrm{min}})^2}}{|\varphi _{\mathrm{min}}|}=\frac{\sqrt{\lambda }}{4\sqrt{3}\pi }\left(\frac{\mu }{v}\right)^2\mu 1,$$
(38)
so that the initial value of the inflaton for new inflation is located off the origin with an appropriate magnitude.

When $`\sigma `$ reaches $`\sigma _c`$, a phase transition takes place and hybrid inflation ends immediately, which is followed by field oscillation of $`S`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }(\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }})`$ and their decay. If this oscillation phase lasts for a prolonged period due to gravitationally suppressed interactions of these fields, $`\varphi `$ will also oscillate and its amplitude decreases with an extra factor $`v/\mu `$ Kawasaki:1998vx . In this case, new inflation could start with a even smaller value of $`\varphi `$ depending on its phase of oscillation at the onset of inflation (see Kanazawa:1999ag  for an analytic estimate of the initial phase). So we set the initial value of $`\varphi `$ as

$$\varphi _i=\sqrt{\frac{2}{\lambda }}\frac{v^3}{\mu ^2}$$
(39)
and new inflation occurs until $`\varphi =\varphi _e`$ with the potential (28). Thus we can understand the evolution of the universe throughout double inflation.

Contrary to the hybrid inflation regime we do not have much precise observational constraints on the new inflation regime, so we cannot fully specify values of the model parameters for new inflation. Hence let us content ourselves with a few specific examples. First we consider the cases with $`c_N=0`$. Then from Eq. (34) the number of $`e`$-folds of new inflation reads

$$N_N=\frac{\lambda ^{\frac{n2}{2}}\mu ^{2n4}v^{83n}}{n(n2)g}\frac{n1}{n2}\frac{\lambda ^{\frac{n2}{2}}\mu ^{2n4}v^{83n}}{n(n2)g}.$$
(40)
This should be around $`40+(2/3)\mathrm{ln}(\mu /v)`$ to push the comoving scale with appropriate spectral shape to the appropriate physical length scale.333Comoving scales that left the Hubble radius in the late stage of hybrid inflation reenter the horizon before the beginning of the new inflation. Hence extra $`e`$-folds $`(2/3)\mathrm{ln}(\mu /v)`$ should be added in making a correspondence between comoving horizon scales during hybrid inflation and proper scales Kawasaki:1998vx .  On the other hand, the amplitude of curvature perturbation at the onset of new inflation, $`\varphi =\varphi _{\mathrm{min}}`$, is given by

$$=\frac{\lambda ^{\frac{n1}{2}}\mu ^{2n2}v^{73n}}{2\sqrt{6}\pi ng}=\frac{n2}{2\sqrt{6}\pi }\sqrt{\lambda }\mu \frac{\mu }{v}N_N4.9\times 10^3(n2)\frac{\mu }{v}\frac{N_N}{40},$$
(41)
where use has been made of the values $`\lambda =0.43`$ and $`\mu =2.9\times 10^3`$ in the last equality. From Eq. (40) we find

$`v`$ $`=`$ $`5.5\times 10^4\left({\displaystyle \frac{gN_N}{40}}\right)^{\frac{1}{4}},\mathrm{for}n=4,`$
$`v`$ $`=`$ $`4.0\times 10^3\left({\displaystyle \frac{gN_N}{40}}\right)^{\frac{1}{10}},\mathrm{for}n=6,`$ (42)
$`v`$ $`=`$ $`6.7\times 10^3\left({\displaystyle \frac{gN_N}{40}}\right)^{\frac{1}{16}},\mathrm{for}n=8.`$ (43)
Thus $`v`$ is larger than $`\mu `$ for $`g<1`$ and $`n6`$ in contradiction to our assumption that new inflation takes place after hybrid inflation at lower energy scale. For $`n=4`$ we find that $`v`$ is smaller than $`\mu `$ for $`g<1`$ but it can be close to $`\mu `$ for $`g10^3`$. In this case, $``$ is as large as $`0.01`$ at the onset of new inflation which corresponds to the comoving scale $`\mathrm{}_{}100`$ kpc today. As $`g`$ increases from $`10^3`$, $``$ and $`\mathrm{}_{}`$ increase. For $`g=1`$, we find $`0.05`$ and $`\mathrm{}_{}300`$ kpc.

On the other hand, for $`c_N0`$, we find

$$=\frac{\sqrt{\lambda }\mu ^2}{2\pi \sqrt{6}c_Nv}1.2\times 10^4c_N^1\frac{\mu }{v},$$
(44)
at the onset of new inflation. It is independent on $`n`$ and $`g`$, and is again much larger than $`10^5`$. The number of $`e`$-folds depends on these parameters, and for $`n=4`$ we find

$$N_N=\frac{1}{2c_N}\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{c_N\lambda \mu ^4}{4gv^4}\right)+\frac{14c_N}{2c_N(1c_N)}.$$
(45)
Thus if we take $`c_N=0.1`$, for example, $`N_N=40`$ implies $`v=1.5\times 10^4g^{\frac{1}{4}}`$, which corresponds to the comoving scale $`\mathrm{}_{}720g^{1/6}`$ kpc at the onset of new inflation.

## IV Discussion

In the present paper we have built up a model of double inflation to reproduce a spectrum of adiabatic fluctuations with a running spectral index from $`n_s>1`$ on large scales to $`n_s<1`$ on smaller scales as favored by the recent observational result of the WMAP satellite. Such a spectrum has been known to be realized by the hybrid inflation model in supergravity proposed by Linde and Riotto Linde:1997sj  but we have argued that in their model running of spectral index is too mild to be comparable with the observation. In order to cure this problem we have shown that another inflation is necessary after hybrid inflation and presented a specific model to realize new inflation naturally after hybrid inflation which was originally proposed in Izawa:1997df . By carefully analyzing the spectrum of fluctuations we have shown that under some natural choice of model parameters the desired spectrum can be realized. In particular, model parameters of hybrid inflation are fully specified from the spectral shape and we find that the energy scale of first inflation is fairly large, $`\mu =2.9\times 10^3`$, which means that tensor fluctuations can be detected by PLANCK. On the other hand, it has been pointed out that hybrid inflation has a problem of initial conditions ml : namely, only a very limited configurations of multi-field space can lead to hybrid inflation unlike chaotic inflation. The resolution of this problem in the present context will be published elsewhere yy .

A generic prediction of our double inflation model is that the amplitude of the adiabatic fluctuations is quite large below the scale corresponding to the horizon at the onset of new inflation ($`<\mathrm{}_{}`$). This results in the early formation of dark halo objects with comoving scale $`\mathrm{}_{}`$. If $`\mathrm{}_{}`$ is larger than about 1 kpc, the dark halos may cause a cosmological problem because they significantly harm subsequent galaxy formation or produce too many gravitational lens events. Our model predicts the critical scale $`\mathrm{}_{}100`$ kpc which leads to the above cosmological problem. However, the critical scale can be taken much smaller when the uncertainty of the WMAP data is taken into account. As discussed in Sec. II, the WMAP data imply that the uncertainty of the $`e`$-folds for hybrid inflation is $`\mathrm{\Delta }N_H8`$. Taking a little larger $`e`$-folds $`N_H15`$ gives $`\mathrm{}_{}<1`$ kpc, and hence the problem can be avoided. For this case, the predicted small dark halos may play an important role in galaxy formation and early star formation as inferred by WMAP Bennett:2003bz . This subject is beyond the scope of the present paper and will be investigated elsewhere. Another prediction of our model is that contrary to the case of single hybrid inflation, the reheating temperature is low enough to avoid the gravitino problem.

###### Acknowledgements.

We are grateful to Joe Silk for useful comments. This work was partially supported by the JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research No. 14540245 (M.K.), No. 13640285 (J.Y.), and Research Abroad (M.Y.). M.Y. is partially supported by the Department of Energy under Grant No. DEFG0291ER40688.


text:
# Teleportation-based number state manipulation with number sum measurement

## I Introduction

Extensive research and development have been done recently on quantum information technologies, and teleportation is known to provide important tools for quantum communication and information processing. Its protocol was originally proposed by using a two-dimensional system, qubit, such as the polarization of light BBCJPW . Other protocols were also considered to teleport the quadrature phase components Braunstein ; Milburn  and the multi-dimensional states such as photon number states BBCJPW ; Milburn ; Cochrane ; Cochrane-Milburn . Among these media for quantum teleportation, the photon number Fock space may be considered more promising in the view point that it provides higher dimensional states such as qutrits to carry more quantum information than qubits.

In order to perform faithfully the number state teleportation in some finite dimensional subspace of Fock space, maximally entangled Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) resource is required. Then, we have proposed recently a practical method to generate such EPR states KY-2002 . That is, more entangled states are obtained from a pair of squeezed vacuum states via swapping by performing the number-phase Bell measurement. In particular, the resultant states are maximally entangled by adjusting the two squeezing parameters to the same value. This may be viewed as entanglement concentration concentration . The number state teleportation can be performed by using these number-phase Bell states. It is noticed in this teleportation that some manipulations are made such as shift and truncation of photon number states and also scaling of amplitudes by the ratio of two squeezing parameters. In this way, teleportation protocols may be considered at the same time as those to manipulate input states by projectictive measurements with EPR resources (irrespective of teleportation fidelity). In fact, quantum scissors protocol is investigated for number state truncation by projective measurement scissors1 ; scissors2 ; scissors2a . Therefore, we may expect that various manipulations of number states are implemented via teleportation without knowing the input states. This method can also be used to transfer to the output states the quantum information encoded in the EPR resources.

In this article, we examine various manipulations of number states based on teleportation using projective measurement of Bell state with certain number sum. For this purpose, EPR resources with number difference 0 and those with number sum $`N`$ are found to be useful. These essential ingredients for teleportation, EPR resources and projective measurements, will be realized experimentally with linear optics, specifically beam splitters, phase shifters and zero-one-photon detectors. Squeezed vacuum states are used as primary entanglement resource, while single-photon sources are not required. This may be an interesting point in the present scheme.

In Sec. II we consider the desired EPR resources. Then, in Sec. III we describe how the projective measurements to the number sum Bell states are realized with linear optics. In Sec. IV some basic manipulations are obtained via number state teleportations with these EPR resources and the number sum measurement, and then by combining these tools various manipulations are constructed. Sec. V is devoted to summary.

## II EPR resource

We begin with examining the EPR resource which may be shared by Bob and Alice for number state teleportation. We present in the following two kinds of EPR resources with certain number difference and sum, respectively, and consider their characteristic properties.

### II.1 Number difference resource

An EPR state with number difference 0 is given generally with amplitude distribution $`𝐝=(d_1,d_2,\mathrm{})`$ by

$$|\mathrm{EPR}_{12}=|0,𝐝_{12}^{()}=\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}d_k|k_1|k_2.$$
(1)
Among such states, squeezed vacuum states generated by parametric down conversion may be primarily interesting. They are used widely as entanglement resource in various experiments utilizing photons. A two-mode squeezed vacuum state is described as

$$|\lambda _{12}=(1\lambda ^2)^{1/2}\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\lambda ^k|k_1|k_2,$$
(2)
where $`\lambda `$ is the squeezing parameter. This non-uniform number distribution with $`\lambda <1`$ in Eq. (2) is attributed to the fact that the Fock space is infinite dimensional while the energy should be finite for the physical states. Hence, the squeezed vacuum states are not maximally entangled. We may also use a photon-subtracted state which is generated from a squeezed vacuum state OKW-2000-CRM-2002 :

$$|\lambda ,1_{12}=\sqrt{\frac{(1\lambda ^2)^3}{1+\lambda ^2}}\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(k+1)\lambda ^k|k_1|k_2.$$
(3)
EPR states with number difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }N0`$ may further be used, with which the photon number shift is induced via teleportation. They are, however, not considered in the following, since the number shift of $`\mathrm{\Delta }N=\stackrel{~}{N}N`$ is also realized by taking number sum $`N`$ EPR states and number sum $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ measurement, as seen in Sec. IV.

### II.2 Number sum resource

We next consider EPR states with number sum $`N`$. An $`N`$-photon entangled state is given generally by

$$|\mathrm{EPR}_{12}=|N,𝐝_{12}^{(+)}=\underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}d_k|Nk_1|k_2.$$
(4)
Specifically, we consider the Bell states of number sum and phase difference KY-2002 ; L-S ; P-B ,

$$|N,m_{12}=\underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{[(\omega _{N+1}^{})^m]^k}{\sqrt{N+1}}|Nk_1|k_2,$$
(5)
where $`m=0,1,\mathrm{},N`$ $`\mathrm{mod}N+1`$ ($`|N,1_{12}|N,N_{12}`$, etc), and the $`(N+1)`$-root is given by

$$\omega _{N+1}\mathrm{exp}\left[i2\pi /(N+1)\right],(\omega _{N+1})^{N+1}=1.$$
(6)
These Bell states with number sum $`N`$ are also the eigenstates of the suitably defined Hermitian operator of phase difference, and the eigenvalues are given by

$$\varphi _m^{(N)}=\frac{2\pi }{N+1}m.$$
(7)
Here an arbitrary nonzero reference phase may be included in $`\varphi _m^{(N)}`$ by a phase shift of the mode 2 as $`a_2\mathrm{e}^{i\varphi }a_2`$ in Eq. (5), though it does not change the following investigations.

As proposed in Ref. KY-2002 , we can generate the number-phase Bell states by performing the number-phase measurement on a pair of squeezed vacuum states. Two squeezed vacuum states, 1-3 system and 2-4 system, are rearranged via swapping (1-3, 2-4) $``$ (1-2, 3-4) as

$`|\lambda _{13}|\lambda ^{}_{24}`$ $`=`$ $`(1\lambda ^2)^{1/2}(1\lambda ^2)^{1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{N=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{K(\lambda ,\lambda ^{},N)}{\sqrt{N+1}}}`$ (8)
$`\times `$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{N}{}}}|N,m_{34}|N,m,r_{12}.`$
Here, the generalized Bell states are introduced as

$$|N,m,r_{12}=\frac{\lambda ^N\sqrt{N+1}}{K(\lambda ,\lambda ^{},N)}\underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{[(\omega _{N+1}^{})^m]^k}{\sqrt{N+1}}r^k|Nk_1|k_2$$
(9)
with the ratio of the squeezing parameters

$$r=\lambda ^{}/\lambda $$
(10)
and the normalization factor

$$K(\lambda ,\lambda ^{},N)=\left[\frac{\lambda ^{2(N+1)}\lambda ^{2(N+1)}}{\lambda ^2\lambda ^2}\right]^{1/2}.$$
(11)
Then, the generalized Bell state $`|N,m,r_{12}`$ is obtained by the number-phase measurement of $`|N,m_{34}`$:

$$|\lambda _{13}|\lambda ^{}_{24}|N,m,r_{12}.$$
(12)
In particular, they are maximally entangled by adjusting the squeezing parameters as $`\lambda =\lambda ^{}`$, i.e.,

$$|N,m,r_{12}\stackrel{\lambda =\lambda ^{}}{}|N,m_{12}|N,m,1_{12}.$$
(13)
The probability to obtain the specific Bell state $`|N,m,r_{12}`$ by measuring $`|N,m_{34}`$ is given from Eq. (8) as

$$P(N,\lambda ,\lambda ^{})=\frac{(1\lambda ^2)(1\lambda ^2)\lambda ^{2N}}{N+1}\frac{1r^{2(N+1)}}{1r^2}.$$
(14)
This probability is evaluated for the typical cases of $`r`$ as

$$P(N,\lambda ,\lambda ^{})\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{(1\overline{\lambda }^2)\overline{\lambda }^{2N}}{N+1}\hfill & (r^21,r^21)\hfill \\ & \\ (1\lambda ^2)^2\lambda ^{2N}\hfill & (r1)\hfill \end{array},$$
(15)
where $`\overline{\lambda }=\mathrm{max}[\lambda ,\lambda ^{}]`$. It is then estimated for generic $`r`$ with optimal value of $`\overline{\lambda }[1(N+1)^1]^{1/2}0.70.9`$ for $`1N5`$ as

$$P(N,\lambda ,\lambda ^{})\frac{p(N)}{\mathrm{e}(N+1)^2},$$
(16)
where $`[1(N+1)^1]^N1/\mathrm{e}`$ for $`N1`$ is considered. The success probability $`p(N)`$ for the measurement of $`|N,m_{34}`$ is included henceforth, as will be given in Eq. (42), since it may be done conditionally.

There are of course other maximally entangled $`N`$-photon states than the number-phase Bell states, e.g., $`(|2_1|0_2+i|1_1|1_2+|0_1|1_2)/\sqrt{3}`$ with $`N=2`$. Some general methods to obtain $`N`$-photon entangled states have been investigated by utilizing linear optical devices LKCD-2002-KLD-2002 ; F-2002 .

## III Number sum measurement

We adopt the measurement resulting in projection to certain Bell state with number sum $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$,

$$|\mathrm{Bell}_{01}=|\stackrel{~}{N},\stackrel{~}{𝐝}_{01}^{(+)}=\underset{l=0}{\overset{\stackrel{~}{N}}{}}\stackrel{~}{d}_l|\stackrel{~}{N}l_0|l_1,$$
(17)
where $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ may or may not be equal to $`N`$ of the EPR resource $`|N,𝐝_{12}^{(+)}`$. Actually, as shown in Fig. 1, the number sum measurement for the Bell state $`|\stackrel{~}{N},\stackrel{~}{𝐝}_{01}^{(+)}`$ may be performed with some probability by setting suitably linear optical elements, i.e., beam splitters, phase shifters and zero-one-photon detectors. This method is based on the idea of photon chopping Paul ; Kok-Braunstein . Since the total number of photons is conserved through this linear optical set, the number sum $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ is measured as the total count of photon detections. The aim of the present analysis is to provide various manipulations of photon number states with linear optics, and hence we assume for clarity that the zero-one-photon detectors can ideally discriminate the photon numbers $`n`$ = 0, 1 and more. The estimate of efficiency in actual experiments with imperfect detectors will be presented elsewhere specifically for the manipulations of qubits and qutrits. The single-photon detection is essential and quite challenging for realizing quantum communication and processing with photon number states. It is indeed encouraging that some significant developments and new proposals have been made for single-photon detection to achieve the quantum efficiency close to unity SPD1 ; SPD2 .

The projection to the number sum Bell state $`|\stackrel{~}{N},\stackrel{~}{𝐝}_{01}^{(+)}`$ in Eq. (17) will be done as follows by attaching some number of ancilla modes which are initially in the vacuum states $`|0_{\text{a’s}}`$. By suitably setting the optical elements and choosing their parameters, the desired Bell state may be transformed as

$`|\stackrel{~}{N},\stackrel{~}{𝐝}_{01}^{(+)}|0_{\text{a’s}}`$ $`=`$ $`g_{\stackrel{~}{𝐝}}|1_1^{}\mathrm{}|1_{\stackrel{~}{N}^{}}|0_{(\stackrel{~}{N}+1)^{}}|0_{(\stackrel{~}{N}+2)^{}}\mathrm{}`$ (18)
$`+`$ $`\mathrm{}`$
with nonzero coefficient $`g_{\stackrel{~}{𝐝}}`$, while any orthogonal state $`|\stackrel{~}{N}_{},\stackrel{~}{𝐝}_{}_{01}^{(+)}`$ does not contain the first component, where “$`\mathrm{}`$” in the second line represents the output states with other photon number distributions. Then, by registering one photon in the output ports $`1^{}`$ to $`\stackrel{~}{N}^{}`$ and no photon in the others, we can measure the Bell state $`|\stackrel{~}{N},\stackrel{~}{𝐝}_{01}^{(+)}`$ conditionally with success probability

$$p(\stackrel{~}{N},\stackrel{~}{𝐝})=|g_{\stackrel{~}{𝐝}}|^2.$$
(19)
It should be mentioned that the number sum is not enough to specify the Bell state in Eq. (17) with the amplitude distribution $`\stackrel{~}{𝐝}`$. Then, the joint measurement of number sum and phase difference is usually adopted in number state teleportation Milburn ; Cochrane ; Cochrane-Milburn ; KY-2002 , which results in the projection to the Bell state

$$|\stackrel{~}{N},\varphi _{01}=\underset{l=0}{\overset{\stackrel{~}{N}}{}}\frac{(\mathrm{e}^{i\varphi })^k}{\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{N}+1}}|\stackrel{~}{N}l_0|l_1.$$
(20)
This state becomes $`|\stackrel{~}{N},\stackrel{~}{m}_{01}`$ with the discrete eigenvalue of phase difference $`\varphi =\varphi _{\stackrel{~}{m}}^{(\stackrel{~}{N})}`$. We may eliminate the phase factor $`(\mathrm{e}^{i\varphi })^k`$ with a phase shifter on the mode 1 making the transformation $`a_1\mathrm{e}^{i\varphi }a_1`$. Hence, in the following we adopt specifically the projective measurement of the $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$-photon Bell state with phase difference $`\varphi =0`$,

$$|\stackrel{~}{N},0_{01}=\frac{|\stackrel{~}{N}_0|0_1+|\stackrel{~}{N}1_0|1_1+\mathrm{}+|0_0|\stackrel{~}{N}_1}{\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{N}+1}}$$
(21)
with

$$\stackrel{~}{𝐝}=(1,1,\mathrm{},1)/\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{N}+1}.$$
(22)
The projective measurement of $`|\stackrel{~}{N},0_{01}`$ may be done practically with linear optics. The measurement of $`|0,0_{01}`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{N}=0`$ and $`|1,0_{01}`$, $`|1,1_{01}`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{N}=1`$ is made at the same time through a 50/50 beam splitter with photon countings on the two output ports, as is well known. For the case of $`|2,0_{01}`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{N}=2`$, we have recently proposed a conditional method, which would be extended to the cases of $`\stackrel{~}{N}3`$. The number-phase Bell bases $`|\stackrel{~}{N},\stackrel{~}{m}_{01}`$ to be measured are explicitly given for $`\stackrel{~}{N}=0`$ with $`\omega _1=1`$, $`\stackrel{~}{N}=1`$ with $`\omega _2=1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{N}=2`$ with $`\omega _3\omega `$, $`\omega ^3=1`$ (the indices $`0`$ and $`1`$ denoting the modes omitted) as

$`\stackrel{~}{N}=0:`$ $`|0,0=|0|0,`$ (23)
$`\stackrel{~}{N}=1:`$ $`|1,0=(|1|0+|0|1)/\sqrt{2},`$ (24)
$`|1,1=(|1|0|0|1)/\sqrt{2},`$
$`\stackrel{~}{N}=2:`$ $`|2,0=(|2|0+|1|1+|0|2)/\sqrt{3},`$ (25)
$`|2,1=(|2|0+\omega ^{}|1|1+\omega |0|2)/\sqrt{3},`$
$`|2,2=(|2|0+\omega |1|1+\omega ^{}|0|2)/\sqrt{3}.`$
We describe in the following the projective measurement of these Bell states.

A linear optical operation on the two modes $`i`$ and $`j`$ is made by a combination of beam splitter and phase shifter, which is represented by a U(2) transformation as

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}a_i^{}\\ a_j^{}\end{array}\right)=U_{(ij)}\left(\begin{array}{c}a_i^{}^{}\\ a_j^{}^{}\end{array}\right),$$
(26)
where

$$U_{(ij)}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}c& s\eta \\ s\xi & c\eta \xi \end{array}\right)_{(ij)}$$
(27)
with $`c^2+s^2=1`$ ($`c,s0`$) and $`|\eta |=|\xi |=1`$. Generally, it should be noted that any unitary transformation of $`\mathrm{U}(N)`$ among $`N`$ photon modes can be realized in this way Reck-Zeilinger . The number-phase Bell measurement can be done for the cases of $`\stackrel{~}{N}=0,1`$ by using a 50/50 beam splitter with

$$(c,s,\xi ,\eta )_{(01)}=(1/\sqrt{2},1/\sqrt{2},1,1),$$
(28)
as shown in Fig. 2. The Bell states are transformed through the beam splitter as

$`\stackrel{~}{N}=0`$ $`:`$ $`|0,0_{01}=|0_0^{}|0_1^{},`$ (29)
$`\stackrel{~}{N}=1`$ $`:`$ $`|1,0_{01}=|1_0^{}|0_1^{},`$ (30)
$`|1,1_{01}=|0_0^{}|1_1^{}.`$
Then, if no photons are registered by the photon detectors, the state $`|0,0_{01}`$ is measured. On the other hand, if we detect one photon in the mode $`0^{}`$ ($`1^{}`$) and none in the mode $`1^{}`$ ($`0^{}`$), we measure the state $`|1,0_{01}`$ ($`|1,1_{01}`$). The other results of the photon detectors indicate the states with number sum more than 1. In this special case with $`\stackrel{~}{N}=0,1`$, the Bell measurement can be done completely with success probability

$$p(\stackrel{~}{N}=0,1)=1.$$
(31)
The measurement of Bell state $`|2,0_{01}`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{N}=2`$ can be done conditionally, as shown in Fig. 3, introducing one ancilla mode “$`\mathrm{a}`$”. A series of unitary transformations such as given in Eq. (26) are made among these three modes through this optical set Reck-Zeilinger :

$$U=U_{(0\mathrm{a})}U_{(1\mathrm{a})}U_{(01)},$$
(32)
where these unitary matrices are $`3\times 3`$ ones by extending obviously Eq. (26). The number-phase Bell states of $`\stackrel{~}{N}=2`$ with the ancilla mode attached are given by

$`|2,\stackrel{~}{m}_{01}|0_\mathrm{a}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i,j}{}}C_{ij}^{(\stackrel{~}{m})}a_i^{}a_j^{}|0_0|0_1|0_\mathrm{a}`$ (33)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i^{},j^{}}{}}C_{i^{}j^{}}^{(\stackrel{~}{m})}a_i^{}^{}a_j^{}^{}|0_0^{}|0_1^{}|0_\mathrm{a}^{}.`$
These states are transformed with $`U`$ as

$$C^{(\stackrel{~}{m})}C^{(\stackrel{~}{m})}=U^\mathrm{T}C^{(\stackrel{~}{m})}U,$$
(34)
and particularly

$`|2,0_{01}|0_\mathrm{a}`$ $`=`$ $`g_0|0_0^{}|1_1^{}|1_\mathrm{a}^{}+\mathrm{},`$ (35)
$`|2,1_{01}|0_\mathrm{a}`$ $`=`$ $`g_1|0_0^{}|1_1^{}|1_\mathrm{a}^{}+\mathrm{},`$ (36)
$`|2,2_{01}|0_\mathrm{a}`$ $`=`$ $`g_2|0_0^{}|1_1^{}|1_\mathrm{a}^{}+\mathrm{},`$ (37)
where $`g_{\stackrel{~}{m}}C_{1^{}\mathrm{a}^{}}^{(\stackrel{~}{m})}`$, and “$`\mathrm{}`$” represents the other orthogonal states. It is here possible to adjust the parameters of the linear operation $`U`$ so as to give

$$g_00,g_1=0,g_2=0.$$
(38)
The relevant parameters are taken for example as

$`(c,s,\eta ,\xi )_{(0\mathrm{a})}`$ $`=`$ $`({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}},{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}},1,1),`$ (39)
$`(c,s,\eta ,\xi )_{(1\mathrm{a})}`$ $`=`$ $`(\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}},{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}},1,{\displaystyle \frac{1+i}{\sqrt{2}}}),`$ (40)
$`(c,s,\eta ,\xi )_{(01)}`$ $`=`$ $`(\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{3}{8}}},\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{5}{8}}},1,{\displaystyle \frac{3+i}{\sqrt{10}}}).`$ (41)
Then, the state $`|2,0_{01}|0_\mathrm{a}`$ only has the component of $`|0_0^{}|1_1^{}|1_\mathrm{a}^{}`$, while the states $`|2,1_{01}|0_\mathrm{a}`$ and $`|2,2_{01}|0_\mathrm{a}`$ do not. This means that if we observe the state $`|0_0^{}|1_1^{}|1_\mathrm{a}^{}`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{N}=2`$ by the photon detectors, we measure the desired state $`|2,0_{01}`$. The probability to detect $`|0_0^{}|1_1^{}|1_\mathrm{a}^{}`$ as the conditional measurement of $`|2,0_{01}`$ is determined with the above parameters as

$$p(\stackrel{~}{N}=2)=|g_0|^2=3/8.$$
(42)
Similarly, we can measure the Bell states $`|2,\pm 1_{01}`$. It is even desired that this method with linear optical operations for the conditional Bell measurement may be extended to the cases of $`\stackrel{~}{N}3`$.

## IV Teleportation and manipulation

We now investigate the number state teleportation with number sum measurement. In general, the input state (mode 0) is prepared as

$$|\psi _{\mathrm{in}}_0=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}c_n^{\mathrm{in}}|n_0.$$
(43)
Alice and Bob share some entanglement resource $`|\mathrm{EPR}_{12}`$, as presented in Sec. II. Then, Alice performs the number sum measurement on the modes 0 and 1, as described in Sec. III. Then, after Alice succeeds in the measurement of $`|\stackrel{~}{N},0_{01}`$ with some probability, Bob obtains the output state in the mode 2 as

$`|\psi _{\mathrm{out}}_2`$ $`=`$ $`{}_{10}{}^{}\stackrel{~}{N},0||\psi _{\mathrm{in}}_{0}^{}|\mathrm{EPR}_{12}`$ (44)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}c_n^{\mathrm{out}}|n_2.`$
We here do not suppose the unitary transformation by Bob for simplicity. It is interesting that experimental results have been reported recently for the teleportation of vacuum-one-photon qubit based on this Bell measurement with $`\stackrel{~}{N}=1`$ LSPM ; scissors2a .

### IV.1 Number difference resource

The output state using an EPR resource $`|0,𝐝_{12}^{()}`$ with number difference 0 is given as

$$|\psi _{\mathrm{out}}_2=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{N}+1}}\underset{k=0}{\overset{\stackrel{~}{N}}{}}d_kc_{\stackrel{~}{N}k}^{\mathrm{in}}|k_2$$
(45)
with ($`kn`$)

$$c_n^{\mathrm{out}}=d_nc_{\stackrel{~}{N}n}^{\mathrm{in}}/\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{N}+1}(0n\stackrel{~}{N}).$$
(46)
Hence, this teleportation realizes the reversal of number distribution as $`(0,1,\mathrm{},\stackrel{~}{N})(\stackrel{~}{N},\mathrm{},1,0)`$, and the information of $`𝐝`$ in the EPR resource is encoded in the output state.

In particular, using the squeezed vacuum state $`|\lambda `$ we obtain a manipulation,

$$c_n^{\mathrm{in}}\lambda ^nc_{\stackrel{~}{N}n}^{\mathrm{in}}(0n\stackrel{~}{N}),$$
(47)
where the overall factor independent of $`n`$ is omitted for simplicity. The probability $`P={}_{2}{}^{}\psi _{\mathrm{out}}|\psi _{\mathrm{out}}_{2}^{}`$ to obtain this output state is calculated depending on the relevant parameters by

$$P(\stackrel{~}{N},\lambda ,𝐜^{\mathrm{in}})=\frac{(1\lambda ^2)}{\stackrel{~}{N}+1}\underset{n=0}{\overset{\stackrel{~}{N}}{}}\lambda ^{2n}|c_{\stackrel{~}{N}n}^{\mathrm{in}}|^2.$$
(48)
Here the success probability $`p(\stackrel{~}{N})`$ for the conditional measurement of $`|\stackrel{~}{N},0_{12}`$, as given in Eq. (42), is omitted for simplicity.

By using the photon-subtracted state $`|\lambda ,1`$, we also obtain a manipulation,

$$c_n^{\mathrm{in}}(n+1)\lambda ^nc_{\stackrel{~}{N}n}^{\mathrm{in}}(0n\stackrel{~}{N}),$$
(49)
corresponding to the derivative $`d\lambda ^{n+1}/d\lambda =(n+1)\lambda ^n`$. The success probability is calculated as

$`P(\stackrel{~}{N},\lambda ,1,𝐜^{\mathrm{in}})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(1\lambda ^2)^3}{(\stackrel{~}{N}+1)(1+\lambda ^2)}}`$ (50)
$`\times `$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\stackrel{~}{N}}{}}}(n+1)^2\lambda ^{2n}|c_{\stackrel{~}{N}n}^{\mathrm{in}}|^2.`$
### IV.2 Number sum resource

The output state using an EPR resource $`|N,𝐝_{12}^{(+)}`$ with number sum $`N`$ is given as

$$|\psi _{\mathrm{out}}_2=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{N}+1}}\underset{k=n_0}{\overset{N}{}}d_kc_{k+\mathrm{\Delta }N}^{\mathrm{in}}|k_2$$
(51)
with

$$c_n^{\mathrm{out}}=d_nc_{n+\mathrm{\Delta }N}^{\mathrm{in}}/\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{N}+1}(n_0nN),$$
(52)
where

$`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{N}N,`$ (53)
$`n_0`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{max}[0,\mathrm{\Delta }N].`$ (54)
Hence, this teleportation realizes the number shift of $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ as

$$|n+\mathrm{\Delta }N|n.$$
(55)
Due to the conditions $`0kN`$ and $`0l\stackrel{~}{N}`$ with $`l=Nk`$, the sum is taken over the photon number $`n`$ ($`kn`$) in the output state as $`n_0nN`$, i.e.,

$$n(\mathrm{out})=\{\begin{array}{cc}0,\mathrm{},N\hfill & (\stackrel{~}{N}N)\hfill \\ |\mathrm{\Delta }N|,\mathrm{},N\hfill & (\stackrel{~}{N}<N)\hfill \end{array}.$$
(56)
Here it should be noted that for the case of $`\stackrel{~}{N}<N`$ the number state is truncated below $`|\mathrm{\Delta }N|`$ as well as above $`N`$.

By using specifically the generalized number-phase Bell state $`|N,0,r_{12}`$, we obtain a manipulation,

$$c_n^{\mathrm{in}}r^nc_{n+\mathrm{\Delta }N}^{\mathrm{in}}(n_0nN)$$
(57)
with the probability

$$P(\stackrel{~}{N},N,r,𝐜^{\mathrm{in}})=\frac{1r^2}{1r^{2(N+1)}}\underset{n=n_0}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{r^{2n}|c_{n+\mathrm{\Delta }N}^{\mathrm{in}}|^2}{\stackrel{~}{N}+1}.$$
(58)
That is, the scaling by $`r`$,

$$a^{}ra^{},$$
(59)
is realized in addition to the number shift of $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$. The scaling factor $`r=\lambda ^{}/\lambda `$ may be larger or smaller than 1 by adjusting the two squeezing parameters. This manipulation (57) may be decomposed to the number shift of $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ with $`r=1`$ ($`\lambda =\lambda ^{}`$) and the scaling by $`r`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{N}=N`$.

### IV.3 Various manipulations

We have obtained some basic manipulations of number states via teleportation, where the projective measurement of the Bell state $`|\stackrel{~}{N},0`$ with number sum $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ and phase difference 0 is adopted. They are listed together with the EPR resources in Table 1: (a) Reversal + scaling rearranges the number state amplitudes in reverse order together with scaling by the squeezing parameter $`\lambda `$. (b) Reversal + derivative rearranges the number state amplitudes in reverse order together with differentiation with respect to $`\lambda `$. (c) Number shift makes addition or subtraction of $`|\mathrm{\Delta }N|`$ photons. (d) Scaling makes magnification of the number state amplitudes by the powers of $`r`$ (the ratio of the squeezing parameters). In these manipulations, the number states are truncated by the photon numbers of the Bell state and the EPR resources. The success probabilities of these manipulations may be evaluated in Eqs. (48), (50) and (58) typically for the state with uniform number distribution up to $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$, i.e., $`|c_n^{\mathrm{in}}|^2=1/(\stackrel{~}{N}+1)`$ for $`n=0,1,\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{N}`$ and $`c_n^{\mathrm{in}}=0`$ for $`n\stackrel{~}{N}+1`$:

$`P_{(a)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{p(\stackrel{~}{N})}{(\stackrel{~}{N}+1)^2}}(1\lambda ^{2(\stackrel{~}{N}+1)}),`$ (60)
$`P_{(b)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{p(\stackrel{~}{N})}{(\stackrel{~}{N}+1)^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{(1\lambda ^2)^3}{(1+\lambda ^2)}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\stackrel{~}{N}}{}}}(n+1)^2\lambda ^{2n},`$ (61)
$`P_{(c)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{p(\stackrel{~}{N})}{(\stackrel{~}{N}+1)^2}}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{n_0}{N+1}}\right),`$ (62)
$`P_{(d)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{p(\stackrel{~}{N})}{(\stackrel{~}{N}+1)^2}}.`$ (63)
Here the success probability $`p(\stackrel{~}{N})`$ for the conditional measurement of $`|\stackrel{~}{N},0_{12}`$ is also included, as given in Eq. (42).

By combining these teleportation-based tools (a) – (d), we can perform various manipulations of number states, as presented in the following. The net success probabilities are roughly estimated with $`P_{(a)}`$$`P_{(d)}`$ in Eqs. (60) – (63). They may appear to be somewhat small since the success probability $`P(N,\lambda ,\lambda ^{})`$ as given in Eq. (16) is further multiplied for the manipulations (c) and (d) to prepare the EPR resource $`|N,0,r`$.

The genuine reversal of number state can be realized since the scaling associated with the manipulation (a) can be cancelled by the manipulation (d) with suitably adjusted squeezing parameters:

$`\text{(d)}[r=\lambda ^{}/\lambda =1/\lambda ^{\prime \prime }]\text{(a)}[\lambda ^{\prime \prime }]`$
$`(c_0^{\mathrm{in}},\mathrm{},c_{\stackrel{~}{N}}^{\mathrm{in}})(c_{\stackrel{~}{N}}^{\mathrm{in}},\mathrm{},c_0^{\mathrm{in}}).`$ (64)
The net success probability for the reversal is estimated from Eqs. (60) and (63) together with Eq. (16) as

$$P(\mathrm{reversal})\frac{p(\stackrel{~}{N})^3}{\mathrm{e}(\stackrel{~}{N}+1)^6}.$$
(65)
Numerically, we have $`P(\mathrm{reversal})=6\times 10^3`$ for a qubit $`(|0+0.5|1)/\sqrt{1+0.5}`$ with $`\lambda =0.49`$, $`\lambda ^{}=0.7`$, $`\lambda ^{\prime \prime }=0.7`$ and $`p(\stackrel{~}{N}=1)=1`$, and $`P(\mathrm{reversal})=2\times 10^5`$ for a qutrit $`(|0+0.5|1+0.5^2|2)/\sqrt{1+0.5+0.5^2}`$ with $`\lambda =0.7`$, $`\lambda ^{}=0.49`$, $`\lambda ^{\prime \prime }=0.7`$ and $`p(\stackrel{~}{N}=2)=3/8`$.

On the other hand, by making the (a) reversal + scaling twice, we obtain the (d) scaling as

$$\text{(a)}[\lambda ^{}]\text{(a)}[\lambda ]\text{(d)}[r=\lambda ^{}/\lambda ],$$
(66)
i.e.,

$`c_n^{\mathrm{in}}`$ $``$ $`\lambda ^nc_{\stackrel{~}{N}n}^{\mathrm{in}}`$ (67)
$``$ $`\lambda ^n\left[\lambda ^{\stackrel{~}{N}n}c_{\stackrel{~}{N}(\stackrel{~}{N}n)}^{\mathrm{in}}\right]=\lambda ^{\stackrel{~}{N}}r^nc_n^{\mathrm{in}}.`$
This really corresponds to the fact that two number-phase measurements are made for the number state teleportation with the number-phase Bell states, as described in Ref. KY-2002 .

We can also make some manipulations by using the (c) number shift with truncation. By choosing $`\stackrel{~}{N}=N`$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }N=0`$) in the (c), i.e., $`r=1`$ in the (d), we obtain the quantum scissors scissors1 ; scissors2 ; scissors2a ,

$$(c_0^{\mathrm{in}},\mathrm{},c_N^{\mathrm{in}},c_{N+1}^{\mathrm{in}},\mathrm{})(c_0^{\mathrm{in}},\mathrm{},c_N^{\mathrm{in}},0,\mathrm{}).$$
(68)
The success probability is estimated with Eqs. (16) and (62) as

$$P(\mathrm{scissors};N)\frac{p(N)^2}{\mathrm{e}(N+1)^4}.$$
(69)
Furthermore, by using the (c) number shift twice with $`(N,\stackrel{~}{N})=(N_2N_1,N_2)`$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }N=N_10`$) and then $`(N,\stackrel{~}{N})=(N_2,N_2N_1)`$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }N=N_10`$), we obtain another kind of scissors which cuts both sides of the number state ($`n<N_1`$ and $`n>N_2`$) as

$`(c_0^{\mathrm{in}},\mathrm{},c_{N_1}^{\mathrm{in}},\mathrm{},c_{N_2}^{\mathrm{in}},\mathrm{})`$
$`(c_{N_1}^{\mathrm{in}},\mathrm{},c_{N_2}^{\mathrm{in}},0,\mathrm{})`$
$`(0,\mathrm{},0,c_{N_1}^{\mathrm{in}},\mathrm{},c_{N_2}^{\mathrm{in}},0,\mathrm{}),`$ (70)
i.e.,

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}c_n^{\mathrm{in}}|n\underset{n=N_1}{\overset{N_2}{}}c_n^{\mathrm{in}}|n,$$
(71)
where the normalization factor in the output state is omitted. The net success probability is estimated with Eqs. (16) and (62) as

$$P(\mathrm{scissors};N_1,N_2)\frac{p(N_2N_1)^2p(N_2)^2}{\mathrm{e}^2(N_2N_1+1)^3(N_2+1)^5}.$$
(72)
By choosing particularly $`N_1=N_2=N0`$ in Eq. (71), we obtain a quantum extractor as

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}c_n^{\mathrm{in}}|n|N(|c_N^{\mathrm{in}}|0),$$
(73)
transmitting only the specific number state $`|N`$. If $`c_N^{\mathrm{in}}=0`$ incidentally, the combined measurements with $`N_1=N_2=N`$ as mentioned above to extract $`|N`$ succeed with zero probability; the state $`|N`$ cannot be extracted if the input state does not contain it. Single-photon quantum-nondemolition detectors with linear optics and projective measurements have been considered recently KLD-2002 . This quantum extractor in fact acts as $`N`$-photon quantum-nondemolition detector for $`N=0,1,2`$, and so on. The success probability is estimated in Eq. (72) with $`N_1=N_2=N`$ and $`p(0)=1`$ as

$$P(\mathrm{extractor};N)\frac{p(N)^2}{\mathrm{e}^2(N+1)^5}.$$
(74)
The $`N`$-photon source may be obtained more efficiently in another way from the vacuum state $`|0`$ with the EPR resource $`|N,0,1`$ and the measurement of $`|0,0`$ as

$$\text{(c)}[N;\stackrel{~}{N}=0]|0|N.$$
(75)
The success probability is estimated from Eqs. (16) and (62) with $`p(\stackrel{~}{N}=0)=1`$ as

$$P(|0|N)\frac{p(N)}{\mathrm{e}(N+1)^3}.$$
(76)
Numerically, we have $`P(|0|1)=7\times 10^2`$ with $`p(\stackrel{~}{N}=1)=1`$ and $`\lambda =0.5`$ for the single-photon source, and $`P(|0|2)=8\times 10^3`$ with $`p(\stackrel{~}{N}=2)=3/8`$ and $`\lambda =0.7`$ for the two-photon source.

We can even perform the differentiation of polynomials by combining the reversal (64), the (b) reversal + derivative and the (c) number shift with $`\mathrm{\Delta }N=1`$ ($`N=\stackrel{~}{N}1`$):

$`c_n^{\mathrm{in}}`$ $``$ $`c_{\stackrel{~}{N}n}^{\mathrm{in}}(0n\stackrel{~}{N})`$ (77)
$``$ $`(n+1)\lambda ^nc_{\stackrel{~}{N}(\stackrel{~}{N}n)}^{\mathrm{in}}(0n\stackrel{~}{N})`$
$``$ $`(n+1)\lambda ^nc_{n+1}^{\mathrm{in}}(0nN=\stackrel{~}{N}1),`$
i.e.,

$$f(\lambda )=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\stackrel{~}{N}}{}}c_n^{\mathrm{in}}\lambda ^n\frac{df}{d\lambda }=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\stackrel{~}{N}1}{}}c_{n+1}^{\mathrm{in}}(n+1)\lambda ^n.$$
(78)
These teleportation-based manipulations as examined so far are in fact built up by connecting the EPR resources and Bell measurements. For example, shown in Fig. 4 is a chain of the elements to realize the reversal of photon number states, as described in Eq. (64). The circles and triangles represent the squeezed vacuum states and Bell measurements, respectively. The manipulations (a) and (d) are indicated with dotted boxes. It is also seen that the (d) is composed of the two (a)’s, as described in Eq. (66). The photon-subtracted EPR resource in Eq. (3) for the manipulation (b) is also obtained in these diagrams by attaching a beam splitter and a single-photon detector to each mode of a squeezed vacuum state OKW-2000-CRM-2002 . In this way, these manipulations form a semi-group as chains of the EPR resources and Bell measurements. The inverse, however, does not exist for any of them, since the number state is truncated by the number sum $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ of the Bell measurement.

The number state manipulations may also be applied to the multi-mode states. It is interesting that the truncated but ideally squeezed vacuum state is obtained by performing the (d) scaling of $`r=1/\lambda `$ on the one mode of $`|\lambda `$ so as to cancel the squeezing parameter $`\lambda <1`$. It achieves maximal entanglement with $`\lambda =1`$ in Eq. (2) but finite dimensional, as used for the teleportation in generic Hilbert spaces BBCJPW :

$`|\lambda =1,N`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{N+1}}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{N}{}}}|n|n`$ (79)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{|0|0+\mathrm{}+|N|N}{\sqrt{N+1}}}.`$
The success probability is estimated from Eqs. (14) and (58) with $`r=\lambda ^{\prime \prime }/\lambda ^{}=1/\lambda `$ and $`c_n^{\mathrm{in}}=(1\lambda ^2)^{1/2}\lambda ^n`$:

$$P(|\lambda =1,N)=\frac{p(N)^2}{(N+1)^2}(1\lambda ^2)(1\lambda ^{\prime \prime 2})(1\lambda ^2)\lambda ^{2N}.$$
(80)
Numerically, we have $`P(|\lambda =1,N=1)=1\times 10^2`$ for $`(|0|0+|1|1)/\sqrt{2}`$ and $`P(|\lambda =1,N=2)=2\times 10^4`$ for $`(|0|0+|1|1+|2|2)/\sqrt{3}`$, respectively, with $`\lambda =0.7`$, $`\lambda ^{}=0.49`$, $`\lambda ^{\prime \prime }=0.7`$and $`p(N=2)=3/8`$. More generally, by applying the scissors (71) we obtain

$$|\lambda =1,N_1,N_2=\frac{|N_1|N_1+\mathrm{}+|N_2|N_2}{\sqrt{(N_2N_1)+1}}.$$
(81)
Furthermore, we can make the munipulations as

$$|\lambda |N|N|N\mathrm{\Delta }N|N.$$
(82)
It should here be mentioned that an interesting scheme has been proposed recently for multi-mode operations on number states which are implemented conditionally with linear optical operations and zero-one-photon detections CKW-2003 . It will be relevant to the present investigation for teleportation-based manipulations. While we have used specific EPR resources so far, we may prepare on demand the EPR resources as templates for certain manipulations. For example, if we prepare the $`N`$-photon EPR resource $`|N,𝐝_{12}^{(+)}`$ with $`d_{N_1}=0`$ for only one component of $`k=N_1`$ in $`𝐝`$, we obtain the quantum filter of $`|N_1`$ state. In this way, we can make various manipulations of number states via teleportation with number sum measurement.

## V Summary

In summary, we have investigated the number state manipulation based on teleportation with number sum measurement. In the present scheme, squeezed vacuum states with number difference 0 are used as primary entanglement resource, while single-photon sources are not required. The projective measurement of the Bell state with certain number sum and phase difference 0 is adopted specifically as the number sum measurement, which may be done with linear optical elements, i.e., beam splitters, phase shifters and zero-one-photon detectors. The number-phase Bell states as $`N`$-photon EPR resource are really generated from a pair of squeezed vacuum states by the number sum measurement. Some basic manipulations are obtained via teleportation with these EPR resources and the number sum Bell measurement. Then, by combining these basic tools we can perform various manipulations of number states. The desired generation of these EPR resources as well as the number sum measurement will be realized experimentally with linear optics.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors would like to thank M. Senami for valuable discussions.


text:
# 1 The contribution to the quark form factor F₂(Q²) from a) one gluon exchange and b) instanton

The Pauli form factor of the quark induced by instantons
N.I. Kochelev1,2

1 BLTP, Joint Institute for Nuclear Research,
Dubna, Moscow region, 141980 Russia
2 Institute of Physics and Technology, Almaty, 480082, Kazakhstan

## Abstract

The non-perturbative contribution to the Pauli form factor of the quark, $`F_2(Q^2)`$, is calculated within an instanton model for the QCD vacuum. It is shown that the instantons give a large negative contribution to the form factor.

The interaction of photons with hadrons is one of the most powerful tools to investigate the structure of strong interactions. The electromagnetic form factors of hadrons are now widely discussed. This increased interest in the electromagnetic form factors is related to the significant theoretical progress in understanding the connection between form factors and structure functions of hadrons through the generalized parton distributions (GPD) , and to the need to explain the new experimental data from Jefferson Lab  for the nucleon and pion form factors at large $`Q^2`$. One of the basic components of the calculation of the form factors within the constituent quark model are the electromagnetic form factors of quarks. It has been shown that the non elementarity of the constituent quarks plays a crucial role for the understanding of the parton distributions and form factors . Moreover quarks form factors have been instrumental in the investigation of the scaling violations in deep-inelastic scattering . We should also mention that in order to explain the high twist effects in Drell-Yan processes , various perturbative and non-perturbative gluonic corrections to the photon-quark vertex must be taken into account .

The general formula for the photon-quark vertex is

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mu =F_1(Q^2)\gamma _\mu +\frac{iq_\nu \sigma _{\mu \nu }}{2m_q}F_2(Q^2),$$
(1)
where $`m_q`$ is the mass of quark, $`\sigma _{\mu \nu }=i(\gamma _\mu \gamma _\nu \gamma _\nu \gamma _\mu )/2`$ and $`F_1(Q^2)`$, $`F_2(Q^2)`$ are the Dirac and Pauli form factors, correspondingly. There exist calculations, both perturbative and non-perturbative, of QCD contributions to the $`F_1(Q^2)`$ form factor (see ,  and references therein).

The usual way to incorporate the non-perturbative QCD dynamics into the calculation of quark form factors is the consideration of the renormalon contributions . However, renormalon contributions amount only to a part of the QCD non-perturbative effects.

The instanton model for the QCD vacuum is now one of the most successful models for the description of non-perturbative effects in strong interactions (see the review ). Within this model, the QCD vacuum contains complex topological structures related to existence of the instantons, strong fluctuations of the gluon vacuum fields. In QCD the instantons play an important role in describing the realization of chiral symmetry breaking and the origin of the masses of constituent quarks and hadrons. In refs. - it was shown that the instantons produce also specific non-perturbative effects in various hadronic reactions. Recently, the first step in the calculation of instanton contributions to the quark form factor was done in refs. . Within the Wilson integral approach, it was shown that the instantons lead to a finite renormalization of the next-to-leading perturbative correction to the $`F_1(Q^2)`$ form factor.

One of the most important features of the instanton induced quark-quark and quark-gluon interactions, in comparison with the perturbative gluon exchange, is the possibility of having quark chirality-flip due to the instanton field. From this point of view, the chirality-flip $`F_2(Q^2)`$ quark form factor plays the role of a filter of instantons, since the perturbative contribution to this form factor at large $`Q^2>>m_q^2`$, is small, i.e. proportional to $`m_q^2/Q^2`$ . Therefore, the dominance of the instanton contribution to $`F_2(Q^2)`$ for the light $`u,d,s`$ quarks is expected even at large momentum transfers.

At small $`Q^2`$, the Pauli form factor receives also contributions from both, perturbative gluon exchanges and non-perturbative QCD effects . It is well known that the perturbative Schwinger correction  (Fig.1a) to the quark anomalous magnetic moment $`\kappa _q=F_2(0)`$ is rather large and positive

$$\kappa _q^{pQCD}=\frac{2\alpha _s(m_q^2)}{3\pi }0.14$$
(2)
where the so-called analytic running constant

$$\alpha _s(Q^2)=\frac{4\pi }{\beta _0}[\frac{1}{log(Q^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)}+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2Q^2}]$$
(3)
has been used with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }300MeV`$ and we have used $`m_q350MeV`$ for the constituent mass of the quark in the hadron, which corresponds to the magnitude of the quark effective mass in the instanton liquid model . Such large contribution would result in a modification of the constituent quark predictions for the electromagnetic properties of hadrons, which, however, describe rather well the data without a sizeable quark anomalous magnetic moment (see discussion in ). Furthermore, from the analysis of the scaling violations observed in deep-inelastic scattering at JLab, performed within the constituent quark model , a negative value of $`F_2(Q^2)`$ form factor at low $`Q^2`$ has been obtained. It is therefore very difficult to explain the behaviour of $`F_2(Q^2)`$ using only the perturbative QCD framework.

In this Letter we calculate the instanton contribution to the $`F_2(Q^2)`$ form factor of the quark (Fig.1b).

It is convenient to use the two component Dirac spinors

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\chi _L}{\chi _R}\right),$$

and the following representation for $`\gamma `$ matrices:

$$\gamma _\mu =\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{0\sigma _\mu }{\overline{\sigma }_\mu 0}\right),$$

where, in Minkowski space-time, $`\sigma _\mu =(1,\stackrel{}{\sigma _\mu })`$, $`\overline{\sigma }_\mu =(1,\stackrel{}{\sigma _\mu })`$, and in Euclidean space-time $`\sigma _\mu =(i\stackrel{}{\sigma _\mu },1)`$, $`\sigma _\mu =(i\stackrel{}{\sigma _\mu },1)`$. The photon-quark vertex which corresponds to the transition of the incoming left-hand quark to the outgoing right-hand quark in Fig.1b, is

$$A_\mu ^{LR}=F_2(Q^2)\frac{q_\nu \chi _R^+(\sigma ^\nu \overline{\sigma }^\mu \sigma ^\mu \overline{\sigma }^\nu )\chi _L}{4m_q},$$
(4)
As was discovered by t’Hooft  there is a zero mode for the quark in the instanton field. This mode has the chirality required to produce a helicity flip of scattered quark. The non-zero contribution to $`A_\mu ^{LR}`$ arises when either the incoming, or the outgoing quarks in Fig.1b scatter through the zero-mode of the instanton field. The result of calculation is

$`A_\mu ^{LR,inst}`$ $`=`$ $`i{\displaystyle }dUd\rho {\displaystyle \frac{d(\rho )}{\rho ^5}}\chi ^+(k_2)(ik_2)[\mathrm{\Phi }_0(k_2)V_\mu (q,k_1)`$ (5)
$`+`$ $`\overline{V}_\mu (q,k_2)\mathrm{\Phi }_0^+(ik_1)](ik_1)\chi _L(k_1)/m_q,`$
where

$`V_\mu (q,k_1)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle d^4xe^{iqx}\mathrm{\Phi }(x)^+\overline{\sigma }_\mu S_{nz}^{(I)}(x,k_1)}`$
$`\overline{V}_\mu (q,k_2)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle d^4xe^{iqx}\overline{S}_{nz}^{(I)}(k_2,x)\sigma _\mu \mathrm{\Phi }(x)},`$ (6)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_0^+)`$ and $`S_{nz}^{(I)}`$, $`\overline{S}_{nz}^{(I)}`$ are the zero-mode and non-zero mode quark propagators for the incoming (outgoing) quarks. In Eq.(5), $`\rho `$ is the instanton size, $`d(\rho )`$ is the instanton density, $`dU`$ stands for the integration over instanton orientation in colour space, and $`kk_\mu \sigma ^\mu `$, $`\overline{k}k_\mu \overline{\sigma }^\mu `$ for any four-vector $`k_\mu `$ . In Eq.(5) the continuation from Euclidean space-time to Minkowski space-time should be done by substituting $`k_{i4}(i+ϵ)\sqrt{\stackrel{}{k}_i^2},q_4(i+ϵ)q_0`$.

For the light quarks $`k_{1,2}^2=m_q^20`$ the zero-mode is well known asymptotically

$`((ik_2)\mathrm{\Phi }_0(k_2))^{\alpha i}`$ $``$ $`2\pi \rho U_\beta ^iϵ^{\beta \alpha }`$
$`(\mathrm{\Phi }_0(k_1)^+(i\overline{k}_1))^{\alpha i}`$ $``$ $`2\pi \rho ϵ^{\beta \alpha }(U^+)_\beta ^i,`$ (7)
where $`U`$ is the orientation matrix of the instanton in colour space. The asymptotic behaviour of the non-zero mode propagators at $`Q^2m_q^2`$ was found recently in ref.

$`S_{nz}^{(I)}(x,k_1)(ik_1)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e^{ik_1x}}{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Pi }(x)}}}\left(1+(1e^{ik_1x}){\displaystyle \frac{\rho ^2}{x^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{Ux\overline{k}_1U}{2k_1x}}\right)`$
$`(ik_2)\overline{S}_{nz}^{(I)}(k_2,x)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e^{ik_2x}}{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Pi }(x)}}}\left(1+(1e^{ik_2x}){\displaystyle \frac{\rho ^2}{x^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{Uk_2\overline{x}U}{2k_2x}}\right),`$ (8)
where $`\mathrm{\Pi }(x)=1+\rho ^2/x^2`$. By using these formulas, after integration over the colour orientations (see , ) and a simple algebra, we get

$`A_\mu ^{LR,inst}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4\pi ^2}{3Q^2m_q}}{\displaystyle 𝑑\rho \frac{d(\rho )}{\rho ^3}(\rho QK_1(\rho Q)1)}`$ (9)
$`q_\nu \chi _R^+(\sigma ^\nu \overline{\sigma }^\mu \sigma ^\mu \overline{\sigma }^\nu )\chi _L.`$
From (9) and (4), the following result is obtained for the instanton contribution to the form factor:

$$F_2^{inst}(Q^2)=\frac{16\pi ^2}{3Q^2}\frac{d\rho d(\rho )}{\rho ^3}(\rho QK_1(\rho Q)1).$$
(10)
For a numerical estimate of this contribution, we use the instanton liquid model suggested by Shuryak . Within this model, the density of instantons is

$$\frac{d(\rho )}{\rho ^5}=n_I\delta (\rho \rho _c),$$
(11)
where $`n_I1/2fm^4`$, $`\rho _c1/3fm`$ are the average density and size of instantons in the QCD vacuum, correspondingly. The final result for the form factor is

$$F_2^{inst}(Q^2)=\frac{8f}{3}\frac{(\rho _cQK_1(\rho _cQ)1)}{\rho _c^2Q^2},$$
(12)
where $`f=n_I\pi ^2\rho _c^40.1`$ is the so-called packing fraction (diluteness) of the instantons in the vacuum.

In the Fig.2 the contribution to the quark Pauli form factor arising from instantons (12) is compared with the result of the double-logarithmic perturbative calculation

$$F_2(Q^2)^{pQCD}=\frac{\alpha _s(Q^2)C_F}{\pi }\frac{m_q^2ln(Q^2/m_q^2)}{Q^2}exp\left(\frac{\alpha _s(Q^2)C_F}{4\pi }ln^2(\frac{Q^2}{m_q^2})\right),$$
(13)
at $`Q^2=0.25÷5GeV^2`$ for the quark mass111For the current mass of the quark $`m_q5MeV`$, the pQCD contribution to $`F_2`$ form factor is very tiny ($`10^5÷10^9)`$ in this interval of $`Q^2`$. $`m_q350MeV`$ and analytic running coupling constant $`\alpha _s(Q^2)`$ given in (3).

It is evident that the instantons give a large negative contribution to the quark form factor in the region of momentum transfer of order of a few $`GeV^2`$. This contribution is larger then the positive contribution coming from the perturbative exchange, and one may expect that the total Pauli form factor of the quark should be negative.

Therefore the instanton corrections to the chirality-flip quark-photon vertex can not be neglected in the photon induced reactions in this kinematic region. The application of the obtained result for the specific reactions will be the subject of forthcoming publications.

The author is thankful to I.O. Cherednikov, A.E. Dorokhov, B.I. Ermolaev, S.B. Gerasimov, E.V. Shuryak and V.Vento for useful discussions.

This work was supported in part by the Heisenberg-Landau program and the following grants: INTAS-2000-366, RFBR-01-02-16431, RFBR-02-02-81023, RFBR-03-02-17291.