text:
# Mapping of Large Scale 158 𝜇m [CII] Line Emission: Orion A

## 1 Introduction

In recent years it has been established that molecular clouds show definite evidence of internal structures in the forms of clumps and filaments. The UV radiation, from external or embedded OB stars, incident on the molecular clumps dissociates molecules and ionizes atoms within a shell of A$`{}_{\mathrm{v}}{}^{}5^m`$ on the surface of the clumps and forms the Photon Dominated Regions (PDR). The externally heated PDR gas cools via characteristic FIR and sub-mm lines of various atomic and molecular species. The fine structure lines of \[CII\] $`158`$ $`\mu `$m and \[OI\] $`63`$ $`\mu `$m typically account for $`1`$% of the cooling of the PDRs. One dimensional theoretical models for PDRs (Tielens & Hollenbach, 1985; Sternberg & Dalgarno, 1989) can explain the observed intensities of C+, C0 and O0 lines but fail to explain the extended nature of the \[CII\] emission. However a more realistic model suggests that the molecular clouds are clumpy in nature which allows the UV radiation to penetrate deeper and hence the observed emission consists of the contribution from many photodissociated clump surfaces along the line of sight (Köster et al., 1994). The observed \[CII\] as well as the CO line intensities scale with the density of the PDRs and the intensity of the UV radiation. Most of the high spatial resolution observational studies of \[CII\] line emission have concentrated on regions of high density and high UV radiation intensity. However large scale surveys with COBE (Wright et al., 1991), Balloon-borne Infra Red Telescope (BIRT) (Shibai et al., 1991) and Balloon-borne Infrared Carbon Explorer (BICE) (Nakagawa et al., 1998) have shown that the diffuse \[CII\] emission from the lower density regions contributes significantly to the cooling of the gas in our Galaxy and there is a significant drop in \[CII\] to continuum ratio towards regions of active star formation. Thus large scale high angular resolution studies of extended \[CII\] and CO emission from both the active star forming regions and PDRs with low densities and low UV radiation intensity are needed to understand the dominant cooling mechanisms under different physical conditions within the molecular clouds. However the \[CII\] fine structure line is observable only from above the earth’s atmosphere using aircraft and balloons, thus restricting the scope of the observational studies. Here we present the first results of a balloon-borne programme for observation of the \[CII\] emission from Galactic star forming regions.

Situated at a distance of 450 pc, the Orion molecular cloud is the nearest region of active star formation. It also shows clear evidence of ubiquity of PDRs (Genzel & Stutzki, 1989). Owing to its proximity and brightness, numerous observational studies have been directed towards Orion and these have resulted in improving our understanding of the interplay between stars and the interstellar matter (ISM). In addition, Orion is also a good benchmark source to test any new observing system. The Orion molecular cloud also has the advantage of being like a ridge extended along the north-south direction with much smaller extent along the east-west. This is particularly useful for chopped observational studies, so that the emission lost due to self-chopping is negligible.

Previous \[CII\] observations of Orion were carried out from the Kuiper Airborne Observatory. These include the mapping of a $`6`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`5\times 10`$′ region in OMC 1 by Stacey et al. (1993), the mapping of $`7`$$`\times 18`$′ region in the Orion Molecular Ridge (OMC 1 and 2) by Herrmann et al. (1997) and heterodyne spectroscopy of M42 by Boreiko et al. (1988); Boreiko & Betz (1996).

Here we present a large scale study of \[CII\] $`158`$ $`\mu `$m fine-structure line emission towards Orion A. The map is fully sampled and covers an area of $`30`$$`\times 15`$′. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: A brief description of the instrument, observational procedure and parameters are presented in Sect. 2. Sect. 3 presents the data analysis methods, Sect. 4 presents the results of observation, Sect. 5 presents comparison with other observations and Sect. 6 presents a discussion of the intensity profiles and interpretation of the line intensity ratios using a PDR model.

## 2 Instrument & Observation

### 2.1 FPS100

A Fabry Perot Spectrometer (FPS) tuned to the \[CII\] $`157.7409`$ $`\mu `$m line was installed at the focal plane of the $`100`$ cm TIFR balloon-borne FIR telescope (Ghosh et al., 1988). We refer to this new combination of instruments as FPS100. The FIR telescope has an f/8 Cassegrain configuration in which the secondary mirror can be wobbled with an amplitude of $`4`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`5`$ and a frequency of $`10`$ Hz. The FPS was designed at ISAS, Japan and in an earlier configuration was used at the focal plane of the BICE (Nakagawa et al., 1998). Interfacing of the FPS to the TIFR telescope necessitated modification of the optical components in order to achieve f-number compatibility between the two. New electronics was also designed and built to implement the observing modes (discussed in Sect. 2.2). We point out that the FPS on the BICE had an angular resolution of $`15`$′, while on the TIFR telescope the achieved angular resolution is $`1`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`5`$. The FPS, in brief is a tandem Fabry Perot Spectrometer, consisting of two Fabry Perot interferometers: one a high order interferometer with movable plates to scan the wavelength (Scanning Fabry Perot; SFP) and the other a low-order interferometer with fixed plates (Fixed Fabry Perot; FFP) which acts as an order sorter for the SFP. The two interferometers together with other optics of the spectrometer and the FIR detector, are cooled to $`2`$ K with liquid helium. The FIR detector used is a stressed Ge:Ga photoconductor (Hiromoto et al., 1989) with an NEP of $`3.1\times 10^{15}`$ Watt/$`\sqrt{\mathrm{Hz}}`$.

### 2.2 Observation Modes

The FPS100 has been designed for two observation modes, viz., chopped and unchopped. Both modes involve frequency modulation of the signal achieved by sweeping the SFP up and down at a preselected scan frequency and over a preselected velocity range around the expected position of the \[CII\] line. The spectral scanning, in addition to being important for background reduction is also useful for estimating the neighboring continuum reliably. The primary difference between the two modes of observation lies in the fact that, in the chopped mode the sky chopping (effected by wobbling the secondary mirror) is functional, while in the unchopped mode there is no sky chopping. In the chopped mode the frequency of chopping is $`10`$ Hz. For both modes it is possible to carry out spatial raster scans covering a rectangular box around the target source.

Thus, the chopped mode involves sky chopping, spatial and spectral scanning. For meaningful measurements the frequencies of spatial scan ($`\nu _{\mathrm{sp}}`$), sky chopping ($`\nu _{\mathrm{ch}}`$) and spectral scan ($`\nu _{\mathrm{wv}}`$) in this mode should maintain the following relation: $`\nu _{\mathrm{sp}}`$ $`<`$$`\nu _{\mathrm{wv}}`$$`<`$$`\nu _{\mathrm{ch}}`$. The signal detected in this mode is the difference between the emission in the two beams and is processed through linear phase band pass filters and further amplified (with selectable gains). There after the signal is phase sensitively detected (with online phase adjustment capability) and digitized for the telemetry. One of the outputs of the PreAmplifier for the SPectrometer (PASP) is used as the output signal for the $`chopped`$ mode. The signal is sampled at a frequency of $`10`$ Hz.

In the $`unchopped`$ mode, since there is no onboard background subtraction, the integration time over each spectral element is kept small, i.e., in effect a series of narrow band observations are done. Thus for this mode the spectral scan frequency is at least $`4`$ times higher than that for the $`chopped`$ mode. For this mode the relation between the different frequencies involved is $`\nu _{\mathrm{ch}}`$ $`<`$$`\nu _{\mathrm{sp}}`$$`<`$$`\nu _{\mathrm{wv}}`$. Since there is no modulation of the signal due to sky chopping ($`\nu _{\mathrm{ch}}=0`$), the corresponding output from the PASP is directly digitized using a $`16`$ bit ADC. The frequency of spectral modulation being higher in this mode, the signal is sampled at a frequency of $`40`$ Hz.

### 2.3 Observation Details

The FPS100 payload was flown for the first time from the TIFR Balloon Facility, Hyderabad, in Central India (Latitude = N$`17`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`47`$, Longitude = E$`78`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`57`$) on 1999 November 25. The observations presented here were carried out in the chopped mode. The choice of the chopped mode over the unchopped mode was based on considerations related to the noise level during the flights. For the chopped mode the noise level was found to be consistent with the pre-flight tests in which the flight condition was simulated by closing the window of the FPS and keeping the rest of the configuration identical to that during the flight.

Jupiter was observed for absolute flux calibration as well as for determining the point spread function (PSF). The angular resolution achieved during these observations was $`1`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`5`$. A rectangular region of $`30`$$`\times 15`$′ towards Orion A was observed in approximately $`50`$ minutes. The spatial scan rate was $`0`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`32`$/s and the spectral scan frequency was $`0.5`$ Hz.

## 3 Data Analysis

The entire dataset for Orion A was split into two parts depending on whether the SFP is scanned from lower to higher frequency (Up) or in the reverse sense (Down). The data analysis procedure described in the following text was applied independently to these two datasets.

The signal measured is a combination of the emission from the astronomical source and the residual (post sky chopping) foreground radiation contributed by the atmosphere and the instrument. In the present work we have estimated the foreground emission by considering the signal at the edges of the spatial scan lines where there is no apparent contribution from the astronomical source. As expected the residual emission in the chopped mode was found to be negligible.

Each spectral scan was corrected for foreground radiation. Since the instrumental profile is much wider than the intrinsic astronomical line profile, the observed spectral profiles are dominated by the instrumental profile. Since the Lorentzian profile is a good approximation for the instrumental profile, we have fitted each spectral profile by a combination of the Lorentzian profile and a linear function of the wavenumber $`\sigma `$, representing the contribution of the continuum emission at these wavelengths. The fitted function has the following form:

$$f=\frac{C_1}{2\pi }\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }}{(\sigma \mu _0)^2+(\mathrm{\Gamma }/2)^2}+C_2\sigma +C_3$$
(1)
The fitting procedure involves $`5`$ parameters viz., C1, C2, C3, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\mu _0`$. $`\mu _0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are respectively the central position and FWHM of the line. The observed line profile is slightly modified from the instrumental profile because the astronomical line emission slightly broadens its width and shifts its central position as well. Thus for regions with strong \[CII\] line emission, all the $`5`$ parameters are kept free and $`\mu _0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are determined accurately. Since the \[CII\] linewidth in the region near $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C is $`5`$ km/s (Boreiko et al., 1988). Hence the line being not resolved by the FPS100 we have kept $`\mu _0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ fixed for all spectral profiles and determined the values of the remaining parameters from the fit. Fig. 1 presents the observed data (shown as points) corresponding to a spectral profile and the function (shown as a continuous line with $`\mu _0`$=$`63.404`$ cm-1 and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$= $`0.045`$ cm-1) fitted to it. This value of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ corresponds to a velocity resolution of $`210`$ km/s.

This profile fitting results in two datasets corresponding to the intensities of the \[CII\] line and the continuum. Using the telescope aspect information the intensity (line or continuum) is gridded into a two dimensional matrix with pixels of size $`0`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`4\times 0`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`4`$. The sky matrix thus derived is a convolution of the intensity distribution of the source and the bipolar (due to sky chopping) PSF. Using the PSF determined from Jupiter observations the data was deconvolved using a Maximum Entropy Method (MEM) based deconvolution scheme (Ghosh et al., 1988) to obtain the intensity distributions of the \[CII\] line and the continuum. The deconvolved maps of the \[CII\] line (and continuum) intensity distributions obtained from the two independent datasets (Up and Down) match well. This confirms the reliability of most of the observed features. The final \[CII\] line and continuum maps are obtained by averaging the respective Up and Down datasets.

## 4 Observational Results

### 4.1 The \[CII\] map

Fig. 2 shows the fully sampled maps of velocity-integrated \[CII\] intensity and the continuum emission at $`158`$ $`\mu `$m. The \[CII\] emission peaks at the position of $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C. Features detected in the \[CII\] emission are similar to those observed by Stacey et al. (1993) and Herrmann et al. (1997). Both of these previous observations done with an effective beamsize of $`55`$″ were confined (particularly along the right ascension) to the immediate vicinity of the central part of Orion A, while Herrmann et al. (1997) extended the map northward along the ridge. The present observations, though with slightly lower angular resolution cover a larger extent and detect a strong emission far towards the east as well as from M43 in the north. The \[CII\] map also exhibits an additional emission peak to the west of the main structure in the Orion A region. The extended nature of the \[CII\] emission supports the present understanding that the \[CII\] emission not only arises from the direct interface between the ionized region (produced by the $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C) and the molecular cloud, but also from neutral atomic interfaces deeper into the molecular cloud produced by the diffuse UV radiation field. There is no enhancement of \[CII\] emission close to the outflow associated with BN/KL; this is consistent with the theoretical models (Hollenbach & McKee, 1989) which predict that not much \[CII\] is produced in shocks. The \[CII\] emission falls off sharply towards the west, but appears to be more extended in the east. This conforms well with the currently understood structure of the region (Wilson et al., 1997). This model assumes that the dense gas near the ionizing star shields the more distant gas to the east from the flux of the ionizing photons and to the west there being less dense neutral matter, the ionized gas flows in and dominates. The separated emission peak towards the west has also been detected in \[CI\](1-0) and CO(3-2) emissions, as will be discussed in detail later. \[CII\] emission detected from the HII region M43, possibly arises from the associated HII region which is energized by the star NU Ori.

### 4.2 Comparison of \[CII\] & Continuum emission at $`158`$ $`\mu `$m

Comparison of the \[CII\] emission with the continuum emission at $`158`$ $`\mu `$m (right panel of Fig. 2) reveals that although there is an overall correlation between the two, there are distinct differences as well. The salient difference in features between the continuum and the \[CII\] emission are: (1) the positions of the peaks of the two emissions are different and (2) the \[CII\] emission is more extended than the continuum emission.

In contrast to the \[CII\] emission which peaks at the position of $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C, the continuum emission peaks at the position of the BN/KL object. This possibly indicates that while the BN/KL object corresponds to the strongest embedded energizing source, giving rise to the dust emission peak, it is still not evolved enough to photodissociate gas which can emit \[CII\] strongly. An alternative or additional explanation for the difference in the peak positions could be the higher dust density close to the BN/KL object.

The \[CII\] emission is more extended compared to the continuum emission, indicating the extended presence of neutral photodissociated gas and leaking of the UV photons from $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C. The continuum emission in contrast falls off sharply with increasing distance from the embedded young stellar objects responsible for heating the dust in this region.

However we point out that for the lower contour levels, the sensitivity of the continuum emission presented here is limited. This also accounts for the lack of the northward and eastward extension of the continuum emission as compared to the \[CII\] emission. This becomes apparent if we compare the features of the continuum map with those in the $`138`$ $`\mu `$m map by Mookerjea et al. (2000). While the central features match exceedingly well, the extended nature of the continuum emission is clearly missed by the present observations.

### 4.3 Gas Heating Efficiency

The total \[CII\] luminosity detected in the central region enclosed within contours up to 20% of the peak line emission is $`45`$ $`L_{}`$. The total FIR continuum luminosity was calculated from the flux detected at $`158`$ $`\mu `$m up to 6% of the peak, using the formula proposed by Thronson & Telesco (1986). The calculation assumes a dust temperature of $`50`$ K (Mookerjea et al., 2000) and a dust emissivity of $`\lambda ^1`$ and the calculated FIR continuum luminosity is $`1.1\times 10^5`$$`L_{}`$. The choice of the lowest contour levels in the \[CII\] and continuum maps, up to which we integrate ensures integration over similar regions. Thus the \[CII\] luminosity detected is $`0.04\%`$ of the total FIR continuum luminosity.

Large scale survey of the Galactic \[CII\] emission (Nakagawa et al., 1998) using the BICE shows that the \[CII\]/FIR ratio is low towards the major star forming regions and the ratio is $``$ 0.2% for compact sources. The ratio presented in Nakagawa et al. (1998) uses the total continuum emission derived between 40 and 120 $`\mu `$m. If the same ratio is calculated over 1 to 500 $`\mu `$m, for a dust temperature of 50K and an emissivity index of 2.0 the ratio would be 0.1%. The BICE survey was conducted with an effective beamsize of 15′, which is much larger than the resolution of our observations (1$`\stackrel{}{.}`$5). The resulting difference in the beam filling factors of the two observations can possibly account for this discrepancy in the estimated ratio of the \[CII\] and the FIR luminosities.

The reduction in the \[CII\] to continuum ratio towards regions of high mass star formation is explained by model calculations. PDR models (Hollenbach et al., 1991) show that in high density regions with large G0, the \[CII\] line is rather saturated due to its lower excitation energy and lower critical density, while lines such as the \[O I\] $`63`$ $`\mu `$m line become dominant coolants. In addition, dust grains being positively charged in regions with high G0, the efficiency of photoelectric heating of gas decreases.

## 5 Morphological comparison with other observations:

We present a comparison of the observed \[CII\] and dust continuum emission with the 13CO(1-0), \[CI\](1-0), CO(3-2) and the radio continuum emission at $`1.5`$ GHz. The comparison with 13CO(1-0) is aimed at understanding the overall column density structure of this region, vis-a-vis the presence of heating sources. The comparison with \[CI\] and CO(3-2) emissions is aimed towards understanding the volume density structure and the distribution of the UV field, in an attempt to derive a coherent picture of PDRs giving rise to all of these emissions. The comparison of \[CII\] emission with the radio continuum emission is intended to identify ionized gas contributing substantially to the \[CII\] emission.

### 5.1 Comparison with 13CO(1-0): Column density tracer

Observations suggest that 12CO is optically thick (Castets et al., 1990) in Orion A. On the other hand, 13CO is optically thin in most cases and is a better tracer of the column density of the neutral molecular gas. We compare our \[CII\] data with that of 13CO(1-0) observed with a beam of $`47`$″, at the FCRAO by Plume et al. (2000). Fig. 3 also shows an overlay of the \[CII\] emission with the 13CO (1-0) emission. The 13CO (1-0) data has been integrated over velocities ranging between $`5`$ and $`12`$ km/s, smoothed to the resolution of the \[CII\] map ($`1`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`5`$) and regridded on a $`0`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`4`$ grid.

The velocity integrated 13CO (1-0) intensity map shows two prominent peaks, one coinciding with the infrared object BN/KL and the other lying to the south of it. The continuum emission also peaks at the location of the BN/KL object, thus implying a core of high column density (and possibly high volume density as well) with an embedded heating object at a reasonably early stage of evolution. The southward extension of the dust continuum emission is resolved into a clump in the 13CO(1-0) map. However, neither the 13CO(1-0) nor the dust continuum map show the separated emission peak to the west, which is seen in the \[CII\] map. The \[CII\] emission in contrast shows a single peak at the position of the ionizing star $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C. Since both \[CII\] and 13CO (1-0) emission are to a good extent optically thin, the dissimilarity in the overall emission features hint at the difference in the phases of the ISM which dominantly contribute to these emissions. The 13CO(1-0) emission originates from cold molecular material and hence is more widespread. We note that there is a distinct similarity in the eastward extension of the 13CO(1-0) emission with that of the \[CII\] emission. The 13CO(1-0) map shows an isolated peak at the position of M43 to the north, which is a little offset from the \[CII\] intensity enhancement in this direction.

### 5.2 Comparison with CI(1-0), CO(3-2): PDR view

The present understanding of the PDRs in molecular clouds suggests that the \[CII\] emission from the PDRs arises from the surface of UV irradiated clumpy molecular clouds. The penetration of UV into the molecular material creates a stratification in which several carbon bearing species appear and disappear sequentially with increasing visual extinction into the cloud. Other species which are present in the PDRs and contribute to the cooling of these regions include, the neutral atomic carbon and the CO (mid-J rotational transitions) from close to the edge of the UV irradiated surface and the low-J rotational transitions of CO and its isotopomers which trace the large scale gas distribution of the molecular cloud.

Fig. 4 shows the measured \[CI\] 3P1-3P0 ($`left`$) and CO (3-2) ($`right`$) emission from the same region of Orion A, as we have mapped in \[CII\]. The \[CI\] and CO(3-2) data have been taken from the paper by Ikeda et al. (1999). The \[CI\] and the CO (3-2) data were observed with angular resolutions of 2$`\stackrel{}{.}`$2 and 3′ respectively. Both datasets were presented in the paper with an angular resolution of 3′ and on a $`1`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`5`$ grid spacing. For proper morphological comparison, we have smoothed the \[CII\] data to a resolution of $`3`$′.

\[CI\] arises only from the neutral phase of the ISM, while CO (3-2) traces the warm and/or dense gas. In other words the CO(3-2) emission stems from the possible clumpy structures in the ISM which also harbour the \[CII\] and \[CI\] emitting regions closer to their surfaces. The \[CI\] emission originating from the neutral gas is more widespread than the \[CII\] emission and peaks at two positions, none coinciding either with the BN/KL object or $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C. The southern peak matches with the second peak of the 13CO(1-0) map. We point out that the peaks of the emissions of the three lines follow the sequence \[CII\]/CO/\[CI\], which is different from the PDR scenario in which the dominant carbon bearing species changes from C+ to C0 to CO. The eastward extension and the separated emission peak to the west seen in the \[CII\] map are clearly seen in the \[C I\] map also. We note that \[CI\] emission shows no enhancement at the position of M43 contrary to the expectation that presence of \[CII\] emission indicates the presence of PDR and hence \[CI\] emission. This indicates that the \[CII\] emission in M43 originates from the associated HII region, rather than from the neutral PDR.

At this angular resolution the CO(3-2) map shows much less features as compared to the \[CI\] map. The emission peaks at a single position centered on the BN/KL object, much like the continuum emission. The peak position is identical to the northern peak of the 13CO(1-0) emission. The extension towards the east and the separated emission peak to the west as seen in the \[CII\] map are also clearly distinguishable in the CO(3-2) map. Presence of these features in the CO(3-2) map suggests enhancement of temperature and hence presence of embedded sources. This is also substantiated by the observed \[CII\] emission.

### 5.3 Comparison with $`1.5`$ GHz radio continuum

The first ionization potential of carbon is $`11.26`$ eV (less than that of hydrogen). Hence, the \[CII\] emission stems not only from the neutral PDRs but also from the ionized gas in the HII regions. Model calculations of dust free HII regions imply that stars hotter than spectral type O7 produce sufficiently high flux of photons with energies greater than 24.587 eV to maintain all of the helium in the form of He+, and therefore all of the carbon in the form of C++ (the ionization energy required to produce C++ lies only 0.204 eV below that required to ionize He). However, presence of dust within the HII region causes the stellar Ly continuum radiation field to become depleted of He-ionizing photons. As a result some C+ may be found in dusty HII regions ionized by stars hotter than O7. Alternatively, the HII regions whose ionizing stars are O8 or cooler are incapable of maintaining a significant fraction of carbon in the C++ state and hence may have a significant population of C+.

Fig. 5 shows an overlay of the $`1.5`$ GHz radio continuum emission measured using VLA, with an angular resolution of $`1`$′ by Subrahmanyan et al. (2001), with the \[CII\] map. The basic features of the radio continuum emission are very different from the \[CII\] emission, implying origin in different components (ionized and/or neutral) of the ISM. The \[CII\] emission is extended along the north-south direction, while the radio continuum emission is extended in the east-west direction. The \[CII\] halo is more extended toward the east, while the radio continuum is extended mostly toward the west. This agrees well with the recent models for the Orion A region (Wilson et al., 1997). The radio continuum emission peaks at the positions of the two HII regions associated with M42 and M43. The \[CII\] map peaks at the position of M42 and shows enhanced emission close to M43, with no corresponding enhancement in \[CI\] emission.

We note, M42 is ionized by a O6-O7 star, so that the calculated \[CII\] intensity originating in the ionized gas is only 5% (Russell et al., 1980). However M43 is ionized by a B0.5 V star, so the enhancement of \[CII\] emission with no corresponding \[CI\] emission peak can be attributed to the ionized gas in the HII region.

## 6 Discussion

### 6.1 Line Intensity Profile & Ratios

In order to probe the density and the UV field strength distribution with increasing distance from $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C, we derive profiles of the \[CII\], \[CI\], CO(3-2) line intensities for a east-west cut at the declination of the $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C and calculate the intensity ratios at a few selected points. All three datasets have/are smoothed to an angular resolution of $`3`$′ and are gridded on a $`1`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$$`5`$ grid.

Fig. 6 shows the intensity profiles referred to above, of \[CII\], \[CI\] and CO(3-2) along the east-west direction at the declination of $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C. The \[CII\] emission falls off rapidly (steeper towards the west) away from $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C, but continues showing residual emission well beyond. The \[CI\] emission arising from cold neutral medium is more widespread. The CO(3-2) emission tracing warmer gas is moderately distributed, and it’s profile shows a hump towards the east which is similar to that seen in the \[CII\] intensity profile.

Table 1 presents the absolute \[CII\] intensities, the C+ column densities and ratios observed at several selected positions (offsets relative to $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C) along the E-W cut shown in Fig. 6 as well as the position of the BN/KL object (-90″,90″). In order to obtain a first order estimate the C+ column densities have been calculated assuming the line to be optically thin, the densities to be high enough so that the emission is thermalized to a temperature of $`165`$ K (Stacey et al., 1993) and the beam filling factor to be unity. The C+ column densities are thus lower limits. In Table 1 the UV flux and density correspond to the results of the PDR model analysis of these intensities. We discuss the PDR modeling in details in the next subsection.

### 6.2 Density and UV Flux from PDR Model

We have used the PDR model of Kaufman et al. (1999) to interpret the observed intensity ratios of \[CII\], \[CI\] and CO(3-2) lines and to estimate the volume density and the UV field strength at selected positions. Table 1 presents the observed line ratios and results of modeling including the values of the reduced $`\chi ^2`$ at each of these positions. The models by Kaufman et al. (1999) are similar in terms of chemistry, radiative transfer, thermal balance etc. to those presented by Tielens & Hollenbach (1985), Hollenbach et al. (1991) and Wolfire et al. (1990). But they use updated reaction rates, heating rates as well as chemical abundances and most importantly they take into account the heating due to PAHs which is important for the interpretation of the FIR cooling lines like \[CII\] and \[OI\]. Kaufman et al. (1999) have created a database of PDR models, for a density range from n$`=10`$ to $`10^7`$ cm-3 and for a far-ultraviolet (FUV) radiation field ranging between G$`{}_{0}{}^{}=0.3`$ to $`3\times 10^6`$ (where G0 is in units of an average interstellar flux of $`1.6\times 10^3`$ ergs s-1 cm-2).

In order to determine the densities and UV fluxes which can explain intensity ratios, we have done a $`\chi ^2`$ fitting of the observed ratios with respect to the model predictions. Fig. 7 shows in grey scales the reduced $`\chi ^2`$ for the observed line ratios at the selected positions. The grey scale is proportional to the $`\chi ^2`$ and weighted with the individual observational uncertainties. Based on the estimated calibration errors of the individual observations, we take an uncertainty of $`30`$% for the ratios involving \[CII\], while for the \[CI\]/CO(3-2) ratio the uncertainty is taken to be $`20`$%. The lines correspond to the observed intensity ratios and the absolute \[CII\] intensity (as described in the legends). The values for the volume density and UV flux at each position were determined from the location of the minimum $`\chi ^2`$. We discuss the result of modeling for each position separately.

#### 6.2.1 Positions away from the \[CII\] peak

(-90″,90″): This position corresponds to the peak of the CO (3-2) map and is approximately the location of the BN/KL object. The best fit model corresponds to an UV field of G$`{}_{0}{}^{}=10^{4.25}`$ and a volume density of $`10^5`$ cm-3. The density compares well with those derived from the multi-line study of Orion A by Wilson et al. (2001). We point out that the fitted model is not accurate; though it explains the line intensity ratios, the derived physical conditions predict an absolute \[CII\] intensity lower than the observed value.

East of $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C: We are able to explain all the intensity ratios as well as the \[CII\] intensity at the $`2`$ eastern positions ($`180`$″,$`0`$″) and ($`360`$″,$`0`$″) using the PDR models.

West of $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C: We restrict the analysis of the western side to a single point (-$`180`$″,$`0`$″) owing to the limited dynamic range of the \[CII\] map. The model fitted is acceptable, although we note that the predicted \[CII\] intensity is lower than the observed intensity.

#### 6.2.2 The \[CII\] peak

(0″,0″): This corresponds to the position of the star $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C. For the parameter space explored the models do not have any solution. We identify the failure as due to the excess of observed \[CII\] emission over the model predictions. We note that if models corresponding to higher UV field were considered, a solution could be derived, but it would not have been realistic. This is because for the given luminosity ($`10^5`$$`L_{}`$) of the ionizing stars, the Trapezium cluster, and their distance of 0.25 pc from the molecular cloud (O’Dell, 2001) the strength of the UV field at this position would at most be $`3.3\times 10^5`$G0.

Since the ionizing star is of the type O6 the contribution of the ionized gas towards the \[CII\] emission will be negligible, unless the high dust density plays a crucial role. However this scenario for the present is highly speculative, so we do not persist with it. Instead we keep in mind that the geometry and structure of Orion A is far too complicated and not fully understood to be satisfactorily modeled by the presently available PDR models. We consider the effect of inappropriate model geometry as a probable reason behind the failure of the PDR models to generate a satisfactory solution.

We first estimate the C+ column density which is needed to explain the detected \[CII\] intensity, assuming that the line is optically thin. For regions outside HII regions the almost temperature independent, critical density (ncrit) for collisional excitation is $`4\times 10^3`$ cm-3. Since the measured volume densities for these regions are well in excess of these values (typically $`10^5`$ cm-3), the \[CII\] emission is in thermal equilibrium. Stacey et al. (1993) suggest that the minimum gas kinetic temperature of the region is $`165`$ K. With these assumptions and values we estimate the C+ column density to be $`1.4\times 10^{18}`$ cm-2. Assuming an abundance ratio of \[C+\]/\[H\] $`3\times 10^4`$, this corresponds to a hydrogen column density of $`4.8\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2, which is equivalent to an Av of $`2.5`$ mag. The model of Kaufman et al. (1999) treats the PDRs for Av upto $`10`$ mag, but being a homogeneous slab model considers the \[CII\] emitting region to be confined to the surface. If instead of a single such surface, a number of such surfaces (optically thin for \[CII\] emission) are placed, then it is possible to enhance the C+ intensity relative to the other line intensities. The need to invoke a number of such surfaces, suggests the presence of non-homogeneity or clumpiness in the ISM. The scenario changes appreciably if a spherical clump model of PDRs is used, in which case the width of the \[CII\] emitting layer changes depending on the size of the clump (Köster et al., 1994). A model treating an ensemble of spheres is more realistic, since observations support that the ISM consists of clumps immersed in a tenuous inter-clump medium, rather than being a homogeneous slab. Mochizuki et al. (1994) have explicitly discussed that in the clumped scenario, the \[CII\] emission is enhanced significantly compared to the homogeneous case, if the average size of the clumps are such that A$`{}_{\mathrm{V}}{}^{}10`$ mag.

### 6.3 Summary of PDR modeling

The PDR models are able to explain the observed line intensity ratios, satisfactorily for positions away from the energizing sources like the $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C and the BN/KL object. At the position of the \[CII\] peak in particular it fails to provide a solution, mainly because of the excess in \[CII\] emission over the model prediction. This is probably because the actual geometry is far more complex than the model assumptions. However, in the absence of velocity-resolved \[CII\] observations it is difficult to throw more light on the actual structure of the \[CII\] emitting region. We note that although the contribution of the ionized gas towards the \[CII\] emission at the peak position in M42 is expected to be negligible it may not be totally absent and must be taken into account while attempting better constrained modeling at other positions.

According to the PDR model, the \[CI\]/CO(3-2) intensity ratio constrains the volume density, while the \[CII\]/\[CI\] is very sensitive to the strength of the UV flux. For all the selected positions, the \[CI\]/CO(3-2) intensity ratio varies very little and the derived volume densities are almost the same. The larger variation of \[CII\]/\[CI\] intensity ratios corresponds to a larger spatial variation of the UV field strength.

## 7 Summary

We have presented the first results of observations with a Fabry Perot spectrometer tuned to \[CII\] $`157.7409`$ $`\mu `$m onboard a balloon-borne FIR telescope, FPS100. These observations demonstrate the capabilities of the instrument we had planned for. The line integrated intensity map of \[CII\] emission from the Orion A region as well as the continuum emission at $`158`$ $`\mu `$m have been obtained here. The \[CII\] luminosity is $`0.04`$ % of the FIR continuum luminosity. Morphological comparison of the \[CII\] map with with \[CI\] at $`492`$ GHz, CO (3-2) and 13CO (1-0) data show (i) that the peaks of the emission occur in the sequence of \[CII\]/CO/\[CI\] which is contrary to the PDR scenario and (ii) the \[CII\] emission from M43 in the absence of corresponding \[CI\] emission stems from the HII region and not from the PDR.

The \[CII\], \[CI\] and CO (3-2) line intensity ratios have been modeled using the PDR models of Kaufman et al. (1999). The models though somewhat simplistic, considering homogeneous plane parallel slabs instead of the clumpy structure seen observationally, are a first step towards understanding the observations. The models do not reproduce the observed \[CII\] intensity as well as the intensity ratios involving \[CII\] for positions which are close to the ionizing source (viz., $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C and possibly BN/KL). This possibly is an effect of the assumption of plane parallel geometry instead of the more complicated structure of the region. The models produce acceptable solutions for regions with diffuse UV radiation. Similar to the \[CII\] intensity profile both the incident UV flux and the volume density show sharper decline towards the west of $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C, than towards the east. For all the selected positions the volume density derived using the PDR models varies little, while the UV field strength varies substantially.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank the referee, T. L. Wilson for his comments which have improved the scientific contents of this paper. It is a pleasure to thank all members of the Infrared Astronomy Group of TIFR and the Balloon Group and Control Instrumentation Group of the TIFR Balloon Facility, Hyderabad, for their support during the balloon flight. We thank M. Ikeda for providing the \[CI\] and CO (3-2) datasets, F. Bensch for providing the 13CO (1-0) dataset and R. Subrahmanyan for VLA $`1.5`$ GHz continuum image. We also thank M. Wolfire for generating the ratio plots for the PDR models specially for this work. BM acknowledges the research fellowship of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Germany. This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.


format: text

text:
# Consistent noncommutative quantum gauge theories?

## 1 Introduction

Perturbative aspects of noncommutative quantum theories were recently a subject of numerous investigations. These studies revealed some peculiar feathures of noncom-
mutative models. Noncommutativity introduces naturally nonlocality of interaction, which serves as an ultraviolet regulator. However the regularization is not complete and ultraviolet divergencies do not disappear completely. Planar diagrams of a noncommutative theory require renormalization similar to the procedure used in commutative models. Nonplanar diagrams become ultraviolet convergent due to the presence of phase factors, however the corresponding integrals have pole singularities in external momenta leading to infrared divergency of higher order diagrams (, , , , ). In particular these infrared singularities are present in noncommutative $`U(1)`$ gauge theory, and although planar diagrams may be renormalized in a gauge invariant way , the model is inconsistent (, , ).

Another unusual property of noncommutative gauge theories is related to the fact that noncommutative $`SU(N)`$ algebra is not closed and one is forced to consider $`U(N)`$ models which include a $`U(1)`$ sector and hence are also inconsistent (, ).

One could try to cure this desease by introducing nonlocal counterterms which cancel the infrared singularities. However it would lead to a drastic modification of the original action and nobody was able to prove that such a procedure may be carried out in a consistent and gauge invariant way.

Experience obtained in commutative theories suggests that appearance of diver-
gencies, which cannot be removed by renormalizing charges, masses and wave func-
tions is a signal that the underlying classical theory is not complete and should be modified in such a way that possible divergent structures have the same form as the terms present in the classical action.

Motivated by this observation we propose a modified noncommutative $`U(1)`$ invariant action which does not lead to infrared divergencies. All divergencies are ultraviolet and may be removed by a standard renormalization procedure. The classical theory in the limit when the noncommutativity parameter $`(\xi )`$ tends to zero reduces, contrary to naive expectations, not to free electrodynamics, but to a free scalar field theory. A similar procedure may be applied to $`U(N)`$ noncommutative gauge models, where the commutative classical limit describes $`SU(N)`$ vector bosons and $`U(1)`$ scalar particle.

## 2 Noncommutative gauge invariant models.

We start by reminding the basic facts about the conventional noncommutative $`U(1)`$ theory.

The model is described by the action

$$S=d^4x\{\frac{1}{4}F_{\mu \nu }F_{\mu \nu }\}$$
(1)
$$F_{\mu \nu }=_\mu A_\nu _\nu A_\mu +ig[A_\mu A_\nu ]$$
(2)
The star product is defined as follows

$$f(x)g(x)=\mathrm{exp}\{i\xi \theta _{\mu \nu }_\mu ^x_\nu ^y\}f(x)g(y)_{y=x}$$
(3)
where $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$ is a real antisymmetric matrix and $`\xi `$ is a noncommutativity parameter. In the limit $`\xi 0`$ the action (1) obviously reduces to the free electromagnetic action.

The gauge transformations look similar to nonabelian gauge transformations

$$\delta A_\mu =_\mu ϵig(A_\mu ϵϵA_\mu )$$
(4)
Note that although for a general skewsymmetric matrix $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$ the interaction (1) is nonlocal, models with $`\theta _{i0}=0`$ introduce only spatial nonlocality and the standard Hamiltonian formalism may be applied. In what folows we assume that $`\theta _{i0}=0`$ and Hamiltonian formalism may be used. Without loss of generality one may take $`\theta _{12}=\theta _{21}=1;\theta _{13}=\theta _{23}=0`$.

One sees that the $`U(1)`$ noncommutative theory is nonabelian, and the Feynman rules look similar to the usual Yang-Mills theory. In particular Faddeev-Popov ghosts, parametrizing $`det(_\mu D_\mu )`$, where $`D_\mu `$ is the covariant derivative, are present. The free propagators coincide with the propagators of Yang-Mills theory, and the vertex functions are obtained substituting Lie algebra structure constants by the phase factors. For example the three point gauge vertex with momenta $`p,q,k`$ and indices $`\mu ,\nu ,\rho `$ looks as follows

$$2ig\mathrm{sin}(\xi p\stackrel{~}{q})[(pq)_\rho \delta _{\mu \nu }+(qk)_\mu \delta _{\nu \rho }+(kp)_\nu \delta _{\mu \rho }]$$
(5)
Here we use the notation $`\stackrel{~}{p}_\mu =\theta _{\mu \nu }p_\nu `$.

The gauge field polarization operator has ultraviolet divergent part corresponding to the planar diagrams, and the convergent nonplanar part, which contains the term singular at $`p=0`$. Explicit calculation gives

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }(p)=\frac{g^2}{2\pi ^2}\frac{\stackrel{~}{p}_\mu \stackrel{~}{p}_\nu }{\xi ^2(\stackrel{~}{p}^2)^2}+\mathrm{}$$
(6)
where $`\mathrm{}`$ denotes less singular terms. One sees that $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }`$ has a pole singularity at $`p=0`$ and the limit $`\xi 0`$ does not exist. The diagrams which have several insertions of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }`$ into gauge field lines are infrared divergent.

Similar singularities appear in the three point function, which looks as follows

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu \rho }(p,q)\mathrm{cos}(\xi p\stackrel{~}{q})\{\frac{\stackrel{~}{p}_\mu \stackrel{~}{p}_\nu \stackrel{~}{p}_\rho }{\xi (\stackrel{~}{p}^2)^2}+sym\}+\mathrm{}$$
(7)
where $`\mathrm{}`$ again stands for less singular terms and $`sym`$ means symmetrization

$$pq,\mu \nu ;p(p+q),\mu \rho ;q(p+q),\nu \rho .$$
(8)
In general infrared pole singularities arise in the diagrams which in the absence of phase factors would be quadratically or linearly ultraviolet divergent. Logarihmically divergent diagrams produce only logarithmic infrared singularities which do not spoil integrability. In the commutative case gauge invariance prevents the appearance of linear and quadratic divergencies, but in the noncommutative theory they do appear. The only possible exception known so far is presented by supersymmetric gauge theories (, , ).

To avoid infrared divergencies one may try to subtract nonlocal counterterms (6, 7). However the meaning of such subtraction is not clear, as it does not correspond to renormalization of any parameter present in the original Lagrangian and the subtraction procedure is ambigous. Moreover, as was mentioned above, nobody proved that such subtraction can be done in a consistent and gauge invariant way.

We consider the appearance of singular terms proportional to $`\stackrel{~}{p}_\mu A_\mu `$ as a signal that original action must be modified to include the terms of this type.

The action (1) is not the only gauge invariant expression one can write in the noncommutative $`U(1)`$ theory. The most general gauge invariant action, which corresponds to a power counting renormalizable theory, posesses passive Lorentz invariance (i.e. is invariant if the tensor $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$ also undergoes Lorentz transformations), and introduces nonlocality only via star product has a form

$$S=d^4x\{\frac{1}{4}F_{\mu \nu }F_{\mu \nu }+\beta \lambda (x)\theta _{\mu \nu }F_{\mu \nu }(x)+\gamma (\theta _{\mu \nu }F_{\mu \nu }(x))^2\}$$
(9)
Here $`\beta `$ and $`\gamma `$ are arbitrary parameters and the Lagrange multiplier $`\lambda (x)`$ trans-
forms according to adjoint representation of the gauge group.

We choose $`\beta =1`$. Then obviously the last term is irrelevant and one may put $`\gamma =0`$. The action (9) describes a constrained system and to study its physical content one has to formulate the Hamiltonian dynamics. A natural requirement for a noncommutative theory is the condition that in the limit $`\xi 0`$ the Lorentz invariance is restored. The commutative limit of the action (9) is

$$S_0=d^4x\{\frac{1}{4}(_\mu A_\nu _\nu A_\mu )^2+\lambda (x)\stackrel{~}{}_iA_i(x)$$
(10)
We remind that we consider the case when the only nonzero elements of the matrix $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$ are $`\theta _{12}=\theta _{21}=1`$. In this case $`_i\stackrel{~}{}_i^2=_{i=1,2}_i^2=\stackrel{~}{}^2`$.

At first sight the Lorentz invariance is broken even in the commutative limit. The proper Hamiltonian analysis shows however that the action(10) describes a usual free scalar field.

Let us rewrite the equation (10) as the action of a generalized Hamiltonian system:

$$S_0=d^4x\{p_i\dot{A}_i\frac{p_i^2}{2}\frac{1}{4}(_iA_j_jA_i)^2+A_0_ip_i+\lambda \stackrel{~}{}_iA_i\}$$
(11)
To fix the gauge we choose the Coulomb condition $`_iA_i=0`$. Apart from the first class constraint $`_ip_i=0`$ the action (10) includes the additional constraint $`\stackrel{~}{}_iA_i=0`$. The commutator of this constraint with the Hamiltonian is different from zero:

$$[𝑑x\frac{p_i^2}{2},\theta _{ij}_iA_j]=\stackrel{~}{}_ip_i$$
(12)
That means the secondary constraint must be included and the complete action looks as follows

$`S_0={\displaystyle }d^4x\{p_i\dot{A}_i{\displaystyle \frac{p_i^2}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}(_iA_j_jA_i)^2+`$
$`A_0_ip_i+\lambda (x)\stackrel{~}{}_iA_i+\mu (x)\stackrel{~}{}_ip_i`$ (13)
Let us parametrize the field $`A_i`$ and momentum $`p_i`$ as follows

$`A_i=_i\chi +\stackrel{~}{}_i\psi +ϵ^{ijk}\stackrel{~}{}^2_j\stackrel{~}{}_k\varphi `$
$`p_i=_ip_\chi +\stackrel{~}{}_ip_\psi +ϵ^{ijk}\stackrel{~}{}^2_j\stackrel{~}{}_kp_\varphi `$ (14)
The Coulomb gauge condition and the constraint $`\stackrel{~}{}_iA_i=0`$ insure that $`\chi =\psi =0`$. The remaining constraints nullify the corresponding momenta.

After solution of the constraints and gauge condition the eq.(13) may be written in the following form

$$S_0=d^4x\{p_\varphi \dot{\varphi }\frac{p_\varphi ^2}{2}\frac{_i\varphi _i\varphi }{2}\}$$
(15)
which is the Lorentz invariant action for the scalar field. Contrary to naive expecta-
tions the limit $`\xi 0`$ of the modified electromagnetic action describes a scalar field.

Now we turn to the analysis of infrared singularities. We ignore possible local determinants which appear due to the second class constraints, assuming that some gauge invariant regularization (e.g. dimensional) is used, in which these factors are absent. The Feynman rules differ from the usual noncommutative $`U(1)`$ theory by the presence of propagators of $`\lambda `$-fields, mixed propagators $`\lambda A_\mu `$ and the new vertex $`g\lambda [A_\mu A_\nu ]\theta _{\mu \nu }`$. The corresponding elements of diagram technique are:

The propagator $`\lambda ,\lambda `$

$$k^2\stackrel{~}{k}^2$$
(16)
The propagator $`\lambda ,A_\mu `$

$$\stackrel{~}{k}_\mu (\stackrel{~}{k})^2$$
(17)
The vertex $`\lambda ,A^2`$

$$ig\mathrm{sin}(\xi p\stackrel{~}{q})\theta _{\mu \nu }$$
(18)
The propagator of the Yang-Mills field is also modified. In the diagonal Feynman gauge it is

$$\frac{1}{k^2}(g^{\mu \nu }\frac{\stackrel{~}{k}_\mu \stackrel{~}{k}_\nu }{\stackrel{~}{k}^2})$$
(19)
We start with the one loop polarization operator. To study the leading singularities we may put the external momentum equal to zero everywhere except for the phase factors. Thus we have

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }^{sing}(p)=d^4k\mathrm{sin}^2(\xi p\stackrel{~}{k})P_{\mu \nu }(k)$$
(20)
where $`P_{\mu \nu }`$ is a rational function with the dimention $`k^2`$. To separate the infrared singular contribution one presents the phase factor as

$$\mathrm{sin}^2(\xi p\stackrel{~}{k})=\frac{1}{2}(1\mathrm{cos}(2\xi p\stackrel{~}{k}))$$
(21)
The constant term corresponds to the planar contribution and produces ultraviolet divergency which is removed by the usual wave function renormalization, whereas the term proportional to $`\mathrm{cos}(2\xi p\stackrel{~}{k})`$ gives the infrared singular contribution

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }^{sing}(p)\frac{Ag^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{p}^2+B\stackrel{~}{p}^\mu \stackrel{~}{p}^\nu }{\xi ^2(\stackrel{~}{p}^2)^2}$$
(22)
The polarization operator must satisfy ST-identities, which in this case reduce to transversality condition

$$p_\mu p_\nu \mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }^{sing}=0A=0$$
(23)
Hence the pole singularity is proportional to $`\stackrel{~}{p}_\mu \stackrel{~}{p}_\nu `$. Recalling that the free propagator (19) of the Yang-Mills field $`A_\mu `$ is transversal with respect to $`\stackrel{~}{p}_\mu `$, we conclude that the infrared singularity is irrelevant if the polarization operator is connected to other part of a diagram by the gauge field propagator. The next possible singular term is $`\mathrm{ln}(p^2)`$ and does not lead to nonintegrable singularity.

In our model there is also a mixed propagator $`A_\mu \lambda `$. Due to this mixing the singular part of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }`$ may contribute to the amplitude with four external gauge field lines, obtained by connecting the polarization operator $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }`$ with the vertices (18) by the mixed propagators. The corresponding contribution is proportional to

$$\frac{\mathrm{sin}^2(\xi p\stackrel{~}{q})}{(\stackrel{~}{p}^2)^2\xi ^2}$$
(24)
and does not lead to infrared divergencies at small $`p`$. Note that the limit $`\xi 0`$ is also nonsingular.

There are also one-loop polarization operators $`\mathrm{\Pi }_\mu (p)`$, corresponding to diagrams with one external $`A_\mu `$-line and one $`\lambda `$-line, and $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)`$, corresponding to diagrams with two $`\lambda `$-lines. All these diagrams in the absence of phase factors diverge at most logarithmically and therefore are infrared safe.

However if the the polarization operator of $`\lambda `$-field, $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)`$ required renormalization, that would mean that the action (9) was not complete and new counterterms $`\lambda ^2`$ have to be introduced.

Moreover the complete $`\lambda `$-field propagator may include subsequent insertions of several polarization operators $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu },\mathrm{\Pi }_\mu ,\mathrm{\Pi }`$ connected by the mixed propagator $`A_\mu \lambda `$. For example

$$D_{\lambda \lambda }(p)=D_{\lambda A_\mu }(p)\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }(p)D_{A_\nu \lambda }(p)\mathrm{\Pi }(p)D_{\lambda A_\rho }(p)\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \sigma }(p)D_{A_\sigma \lambda }(p)$$
(25)
Obviously a diagram containing such propagator may produce infrared singularities due to accumulation of the $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }`$ poles.

Let us study the infrared behaviour of $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)`$ more closely. In the lowest order the polarization operator $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)`$ is equal to

$`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)={\displaystyle }d^4k[\mathrm{sin}(p\stackrel{~}{k}\xi )\theta _{\mu \nu }(g_{\mu \alpha }{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{k}_\mu \stackrel{~}{k}_\alpha }{\stackrel{~}{k}^2}})k^2\times `$
$`(g_{\nu \beta }{\displaystyle \frac{(\stackrel{~}{p}+\stackrel{~}{k})_\nu (\stackrel{~}{p}+\stackrel{~}{k})_\beta }{(\stackrel{~}{p}+\stackrel{~}{k})^2}})(p+k)^2\mathrm{sin}(p\stackrel{~}{k}\xi )\theta _{\alpha \beta }]`$ (26)
Performing the multiplication explicitely we can rewrite this expression in the form

$`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)={\displaystyle }d^4k\mathrm{sin}^2(p\stackrel{~}{k}\xi )[\theta _{\alpha \beta }{\displaystyle \frac{k_\beta \stackrel{~}{k}_\alpha }{\stackrel{~}{k}^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{(p+k)_\alpha (\stackrel{~}{k}+\stackrel{~}{p})_\beta }{(\stackrel{~}{k}+\stackrel{~}{p})^2}}+`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{(\stackrel{~}{p}k)\stackrel{~}{k}_\alpha (\stackrel{~}{k}+\stackrel{~}{p})_\beta }{\stackrel{~}{k}^2(\stackrel{~}{p}+\stackrel{~}{k})^2}}]k^2(p+k)^2\theta _{\alpha \beta }`$ (27)
According to our choice of $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$ in this equation $`\alpha ,\beta =1,2`$. The most singular terms vanish after summation over $`\alpha ,\beta `$, providing absolute convergence of the integral (27).

$$\mathrm{\Pi }(p)=d^4k\mathrm{sin}^2(p\stackrel{~}{k}\xi )\frac{(\stackrel{~}{p}k)^2}{\stackrel{~}{k}^2(\stackrel{~}{p}+\stackrel{~}{k})^2}k^2(p+k)^2$$
(28)
To estimate the infrared behaviour of $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)`$ let us take $`|p_1|=|p_2|=p`$. Rescaling the integration variables $`p\xi kx`$ we get

$$\mathrm{\Pi }(p)=p^4\xi ^2f(p^2\xi )$$
(29)
where the function $`f(p^2\xi )`$ has a logarithmic singularity at the origin $`f(p^2\xi )_{p0}\mathrm{ln}(p^2\xi )`$. Therefore up to logarithmic corrections $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)`$ vanishes at $`p=0`$ as $`p^4`$. It compensates the infrared singularity of the operator $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }`$ and guarantees the infrared convergence.

A general polarization operator $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)`$ may be analyzed in a similar way. It may be presented in the following form

$`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)={\displaystyle }d^4k\mathrm{}d^4s\{\mathrm{sin}(p\stackrel{~}{k}\xi )\theta _{\alpha \beta }(g_{\alpha \mu }{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{k}_\mu \stackrel{~}{k}_\alpha }{\stackrel{~}{k}^2}})(g_{\nu \beta }{\displaystyle \frac{(\stackrel{~}{p}+\stackrel{~}{k})_\nu (\stackrel{~}{p}+\stackrel{~}{k})_\beta }{(\stackrel{~}{p}+\stackrel{~}{k})^2}})\times `$
$`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }(p,k,s)(g_{\rho \lambda }{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{s}_\rho \stackrel{~}{s}_\lambda }{\stackrel{~}{s}^2}})(g_{\sigma \kappa }{\displaystyle \frac{(\stackrel{~}{s}+\stackrel{~}{p})_\sigma (\stackrel{~}{s}+\stackrel{~}{p})_\kappa }{(\stackrel{~}{s}+\stackrel{~}{p})^2}})\theta _{\lambda \kappa }\mathrm{sin}(p\stackrel{~}{s}\xi )\}`$ (30)
We consider the case when the outer vertices are connected with the internal part of the diagram by the gauge field propagators. There are also the diagrams where some of these propagators are replaced by the mixed propagators $`A_\mu \lambda `$. They are considered in a similar way and we shall not present the analysis here. The function $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }`$ in the eq.(30) may be separated into parts symmetric and antisymmetric with respect to $`\mu \nu `$ and $`\rho \sigma `$. The antisymmetric parts are proportional to $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$ and $`\theta _{\rho \sigma }`$ respectively. Performing the summation over all indices one sees that the first nonvanishing term is proportional to $`p^2`$. Therefore the integral is absolutely convergent and to study its behaviour at $`\xi 0`$ we may put $`\xi 0`$ in the integrand. In this way one sees that the $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p,\xi )`$ and its first derivative over $`\xi `$ vanish at $`\xi =0`$. Possible asymptotics of $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p,\xi )`$ at $`\xi 0`$ have the form

$$\mathrm{\Pi }(p,\xi )_{\xi 0}=\xi ^n\mathrm{ln}^m(\xi )$$
(31)
Therefore $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p,\xi )`$ for small $`\xi `$ is proportional to $`\xi ^2\mathrm{ln}^m(\xi )`$. By dimensinal reasons at $`p0`$, $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)p^4\xi ^2\mathrm{ln}^m(p^2\xi )`$, in accordance with the lowest order result.

Insertion of the mixed polarization operator $`\mathrm{\Pi }_\mu (p)`$ does not change our analysis. This operator vanishes at $`p=0`$ as $`|p|`$. At the same time the mixed propagator $`A_\mu \lambda `$ has a singularity $`|p|^1`$. So the product is not singular. It is important to note that to have two insertions of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }(p)`$ which might produce nonintegrable infrared singularity one needs at least one insertion of the operator $`\mathrm{\Pi }(p)`$, which cancels the singularity.

Now we turn to the study of three point gauge field vertex. It satisfies the ST-identity, which we take in the original form ():

$`<A_\mu (x)A_\nu (y)_\rho A_\rho (z)>=<_\mu M_{xz}^1A_\nu ^b(y)>+`$
$`g<A_\mu (x)M_{xz}^1A_\nu (y)>+(\mu \nu ,xy).`$ (32)
Here $`M_{xy}^1`$ is the Green function of ghost field in the external gauge field.

We start again with the one-loop diagrams. To pass to the proper vertex function we must amputate external propagators, which include both $`A_\mu A_\nu `$-propagators and mixed propagators $`A_\mu \lambda `$. However mixed propagators and mixed proper vertex functions do not have pole singularities and being interested in the leading singular terms, we may drop them. The gauge-ghost vertices and ghost propagators which enter the r.h.s. of eq.(32) also have no pole singularities as in the absence of phase factors the corresponding integrals diverge logarithmically. Keeping only the terms which may have pole singularities we rewrite the eq(32) in the form

$$\frac{(p+q)_\rho }{(p+q)^2}(g_{\mu \alpha }\frac{\stackrel{~}{p}_\mu \stackrel{~}{p}_\alpha }{\stackrel{~}{p}^2})(g_{\nu \beta }\frac{\stackrel{~}{q}_\nu \stackrel{~}{q}_\beta }{\stackrel{~}{q}^2})\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\alpha \beta \rho }^{1,sing}(p,q)=0$$
(33)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu \rho }^{1,sing}`$ is the pole singular part of the one-loop proper vertex function. In deriving this equation we used the transversality of the free gauge field propagators with respect to $`\stackrel{~}{p}_\mu `$ and established earlier fact that the singular part of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu }(p)`$ is proportional to $`\stackrel{~}{p}_\mu \stackrel{~}{p}_\nu `$. By the same reasonings as above the singular part of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu \rho }^1(p,q)`$ depends only on $`\stackrel{~}{p},\stackrel{~}{q}`$. The only possible structure which has a proper symmetry and dimension, and satisfies the identity (33) is

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu \rho }^{1,sing}(p,q)\{\frac{\stackrel{~}{p}_\mu \stackrel{~}{p}_\nu \stackrel{~}{p}_\rho }{\xi ^2|\stackrel{~}{p}|^4}+(pq)+(p(p+q))\}$$
(34)
Due to transversality of the free gauge field propagator $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu \rho }^{1,sing}`$ does not contribute to the vertex function with three external gauge lines. It might give a nonzero contribution to the diagram with four external gauge lines obtained by connecting $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu \rho }^{1,sing}`$ with the vertex (18) by the mixed propagators $`A_\mu \lambda `$. However as in the case of the two point polarization operator this diagram does not produce infrared singularities. Proper vertex functions with at least one external $`\lambda `$-line in the absence of the phase factors diverge logarithmically and do not produce infrared divergencies.

To analyze higher loop diagrams one should perform carefully the renormalization and check if our estimates remain valid. It is not done in the present paper. Assuming that renormalization does not introduce new problems we may basically repeat our arguments for arbitrary multiloop diagrams.

The singular part of the polarization operator again may be calculated by taking external momentum equal to zero everywhere except for the phase factors. (Of course we assume that necessary ultraviolet subtractions of divergent subgraphs are done in accordance with $`R`$-operation). Therefore the singular part of polarization operator at arbitrary order depends only on $`\stackrel{~}{p}`$. Gauge invariance and dimensional reasons fix the form of the singular part to $`\stackrel{~}{p}_\mu \stackrel{~}{p}_\nu |\stackrel{~}{p}|^4`$. Hence the arguments given above to prove the absence of infrared singularities may be applied directly.

The singular part of the three point function depends only on $`\stackrel{~}{p},\stackrel{~}{q}`$ and by gauge invariance must satisfy the identity (32). An analogue of the eq.(33) for a singular part of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu \rho }^n`$ will now include the terms

$$\frac{(p+q)_\rho }{(p+q)^2}\underset{m,l=1}{\overset{n1}{}}D_{\mu \alpha }^m(p)D_{\nu \beta }^l(q)\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu \rho }^{nml,sing}(p,q)$$
(35)
We proved that the two point Green functions and proper one-loop three-point Green functions have no pole singularities at zero momenta. Assuming that it is true for all $`m<n`$, we see that these terms do not produce singular contributions to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu \rho }^n(p,q)`$ and its structure is also given by the eq.(34). It completes the induction.

A similar modification allows to formulate a consistent noncommutative $`U(N)`$ gauge theory. The standard noncommutative $`U(N)`$ Yang-Mills action is

$$S=d^4x\mathrm{tr}[\frac{1}{8}F_{\mu \nu }F_{\mu \nu }]$$
(36)
where

$$F_{\mu \nu }=_\mu A_\nu _\nu A_\mu +g[A_\mu A_\nu ]$$
(37)
and $`A_\mu `$ belongs to $`U(N)`$ Lie algebra. Due to noncommutativity of the star product this action mixes the $`U(1)`$ and the $`SU(N)`$ gauge bosons, leading to UV/IR mixing analogous to the pure $`U(1)`$ case. The one loop diagrams in this theory were analyzed in (). It appears that the planar diagrams in this theory may be renormalized in a gauge invariant way. Nonplanar diagrams with the $`U(1)`$ boson external lines are infrared singular, whereas the nonplanar diagrams with only $`SU(N)`$ boson external lines do not exibit infrared singularities.

The infrared pole singularities may be eliminated in analogy with the $`U(1)`$ case.

Let us consider the modified $`U(N)`$ action:

$$S=d^4x\mathrm{tr}[\frac{1}{8}F_{\mu \nu }F_{\mu \nu }]+\lambda (x)\mathrm{tr}[\theta _{\mu \nu }F_{\mu \nu }]$$
(38)
where the Lagrange multiplier $`\lambda (x)`$ belongs to the adjoint representation of the $`U(1)`$ group, and $`F_{\mu \nu }`$ is the $`U(N)`$ curvature tensor.

The free action consists of the usual $`SU(N)`$ part and modified $`U(1)`$ action considered above. So the spectrum includes vector $`SU(N)`$ bosons and the scalar particle assosiated with the $`U(1)`$ group. The analysis of infrared singularities given above was based on the gauge invariance, power counting and the explicit form of $`U(1)`$ propagators. Therefore it may be applied directly to the diagrams with at least one external $`U(1)`$ line and leads to the same conclusion. These diagrams are free of infrared pole singularities. The one loop diagrams with only $`SU(N)`$ external lines were shown to be infrared safe. If this property holds at higher loops, the noncommutative $`U(N)`$ theory has the same infrared properties as the commutative one and is renormalizable.

## 3 Discussion

In this paper I wanted to show that consistent noncommutative quantum gauge theories free of infrared singularities may exist even in the absense of supersymmetry. The crucial observation which allows to construct such models is a possibility to describe by noncommutative gauge models not only vector but also scalar fields.

Several questions may be raised in this connection.

We did not consider carefully the ultraviolet renormalization of the theory. It seems very plausible that the ultraviolet renormalization preserves the invariance of the model and does not change our estimates of asymptotics, but it would be good to demonstrate it explicitely.

We concentrated in this paper on pole singularities, which lead to infrared divergency. However the logarithmic singularities, which do not cause infrared problems, may be present. Commutative limit of quantum theory deserves further investigation.

Our proof of existence of the noncommutative quantum $`U(N)`$ model assumed the absence of infrared singularities in the diagrams with pure $`SU(N)`$ external lines. To my knowleadge explicit proof of this fact has been given for one-loop diagrams (). Although it is likely to be true for a general diagram, a careful study would be useful.

Acknowledgements.
This work was initiated while the author was visiting the University of Heraklyon. I thank E.Kiritsis and the theoreical group for hospitality. I am grateful to D.Maison and J.Wess for hospitality at Max-Planck-Institute in Munich and Humboldt Foun-
dation for a generous support. My thanks to A.Koshelev for helpful discussions.The work was supported in part by Russian Basic Research Foundation under grant 02-01-00126, and grant for the support of leading scientific schools.


text:
# Continuous Averaging inDynamical Systems

## 1. The method

There are several problems in the perturbation theory, of real-analytic ordinary differential equations (ODE), where standard methods do not lead to satisfactory results. We mention as examples the problem of an inclusion of a diffeomorphism into a flow in the analytic set up, and the problem of quantitative description of exponentially small effects in dynamical systems. In this cases one of possible approaches is an application of the continuous averaging method. The method appeared as an extension of the Neishtadt averaging procedure . We begin with the description of the method.

Let us transform the system

$$\dot{z}=\widehat{u}(z),$$
(1.1)
by using the change of variables $`zZ(z,s)`$. Here $`z`$ is a point of the manifold $`M`$, $`\widehat{u}`$ is a smooth vector field on $`M`$, $`s`$ is a non-negative parameter, and the change is defined as a shift along solutions of the equation111Such method of constructing a change of variables is called the Lie method. The corresponding Hamiltonian version is called the Deprit-Hori method.

$$dZ/ds=f(Z,s),Z(z,0)=z,0sS.$$
(1.2)
Let the change $`zZ`$ transform (1.1) to the following system:

$$\dot{Z}=u(Z,s).$$
(1.3)
Differentiating (1.3) with respect to $`s`$, we have:

$$\dot{f}(Z,s)=u_s(Z,s)+_fu(Z,s)\text{or }u_s=[u,f].$$

Here $`_f`$ is the differential operator on $`M`$, corresponding to the vector field $`f`$, the subscript $`s`$ denotes the partial derivative, and $`[,]`$ is the vector commutator: $`[u_1,u_2]=_{u_1}u_2_{u_2}u_1`$. Putting $`f=\xi u`$, where $`\xi `$ is some fixed linear operator, we obtain the Cauchy problem

$$u_s=[\xi u,u],u|_{s=0}=\widehat{u}.$$
(1.4)
We call the system (1.4) averaging. The equation $`f=\xi u`$ is crucial for our method. The vector field $`f`$ is usually constructed as a series in the small parameter and not as a result of an application to $`u`$ of an operator $`\xi `$, chosen in advance.

A nonautonomous analog of (1.4) can be easily constructed. If $`\widehat{u}`$ depends explicitly on $`t`$ then $`f=\xi u`$ also depends on $`t`$ and (1.4) should be replaced by the system

$$u_s=(\xi u)_t[\xi u,u],u|_{s=0}=\widehat{u}(z,t).$$
(1.5)
Properties of the averaging system can be illustrated by the following example. Consider the non-autonomous real-analytic system

$$\dot{z}=\epsilon \widehat{u}(z,t),zM.$$
(1.6)
Here $`\epsilon `$ is a small parameter, $`\widehat{u}`$ is $`2\pi `$-periodic in $`t`$. Let us try to weaken the dependence of $`\widehat{u}`$ on time by the change $`zZ`$ (1.2) with $`f=\xi u`$. We put222Such an operator $`\xi `$ is called the Hilbert transform.

$$\xi u(z,t,s)=\underset{k𝐙}{}i\sigma _ku^k(z,s)e^{ikt},\sigma _k=\text{sign }k,$$
(1.7)
where $`u^k`$ are Fourier coefficients in the expansion $`u(z,t,s)=_{k𝐙}u^k(z,s)e^{ikt}.`$

Equation (1.5) takes the form

$`u_s^k=|k|u^k+i\epsilon \sigma _k[u^0,u^k]2i\epsilon {\displaystyle \underset{l+m=k,m<0<l}{}}[u^l,u^m],`$ (1.8)
$`u^k|_{s=0}=\widehat{u}^k,k𝐙.`$
To have an idea of properties of this system, we skip in (1.8) the last term. The equations

$$u_s^k=|k|u^k+i\epsilon \sigma _k[u^0,u^k],u^k|_{s=0}=\widehat{u}^k,k𝐙$$

can be solved explicitly:

$$u^k=e^{|k|s}\widehat{u}^kg^{i\epsilon \sigma _ks},$$
(1.9)
where $`g^s`$ is the time-$`s`$ shift $`z|_{t=0}z|_{t=s}`$ along solutions of the system $`\dot{z}=\widehat{u}^0(z)`$.

The complex singularities of the functions $`\widehat{u}^kg^\zeta `$ of the complex variable $`\zeta `$ prevent an unbounded continuation of the solutions (1.9) to all the set of positive $`s`$. Nevertheless, the functions (1.9) can be made exponentially small in $`\epsilon `$ since $`s`$ can be chosen of order $`1/\epsilon `$.

If $`\epsilon `$ is not small, the operator (1.7) can be used to smooth out the dependence of $`u`$ on $`t`$. Indeed, for arbitrarily small $`s>0`$ the Fourier coefficients $`u^k`$ in (1.9) decrease exponentially fast in $`k`$ even if $`\widehat{u}`$ is just continuous in $`t`$.

Certainly, these hewristic arguments cannot be regarded as a proof of the fact that systems of type (1.8) can be used for averaging or smoothing. Rigorous statements and estimates are based on the majorant method. In this paper we do not go into technical details, but present general ideas and applications.

If the vector field $`\widehat{u}`$ belongs to some subalgebra $`\chi `$ in the Lie algebra of vector fields on $`M`$, it is natural to look for the change $`zZ`$ from the corresponding Lie group of diffeomorphisms. This means that $`f`$ in (1.2) should be taken from $`\chi `$. The same remains reasonable in the non-autonomous case. Note that the operator (1.7) is such that if $`u(z,t,s)\chi `$ for any $`t`$, the vector field $`\xi u`$ also belongs to $`\chi `$ for any $`t`$.

## 2. Applications

### 2.1. Fast phase averaging: one-frequency case

Mathematical models of various physical processes use systems of ODE which contain an angular variable changing much faster than other variables in the system. Taking the fast phase as a new time, we can rewrite the equations in the form

$$\dot{z}=\epsilon \widehat{u}(z,t,\epsilon ),zM,$$
(2.1)
where $`M`$ is the $`m`$-dimensional phase space of the system, and $`\epsilon `$ is a small parameter. The vector field $`\widehat{u}`$ is assumed to be smooth and to depend on time $`2\pi `$-periodically.

It is well known that by a change of the variables it is possible to weaken the dependence of the system (2.1) on time. In particular, by using the standard averaging method, it is easy to construct a $`2\pi `$-periodic in $`t`$ change of the variables $`zz_{}`$ such that the equations (2.1) take the form

$$\dot{z}_{}=\epsilon \widehat{u}^0(z_{})+\epsilon ^2\widehat{u}_{}(z_{},\epsilon )+\epsilon \stackrel{~}{u}(z_{},t,\epsilon ).$$
(2.2)
Here the only term in the right-hand side depending explicitly on time is $`\epsilon \stackrel{~}{u}=O(\epsilon ^K)`$. The natural $`K`$ is arbitrary and $`\widehat{u}^0(z)=\frac{1}{2\pi }_0^{2\pi }\widehat{u}(z,t,0)𝑑t.`$

Now suppose that $`\widehat{u}`$ is real-analytic in $`z`$. Poincaré noted in some example that in this case power series in $`\epsilon `$ presenting a change of variables eliminating time from the equations, exist but diverge: terms at $`\epsilon ^k`$ in these series have the order $`k!`$. In a general situation this statement has been proved by Sauzin .

Neishtadt  noted that in this case it is possible to obtain in (2.2)

$$\stackrel{~}{u}=O(e^{\alpha /\epsilon }),\alpha =\text{const}>0$$
(2.3)
($`\epsilon `$ is assumed to be nonnegative). The method Neishtadt used to prove this assertion is based on a large (of order $`1/\epsilon `$) number of successive changes of variables. These changes weaken gradually explicit dependence of the equations on time. Ramis and Schafke  obtained analogous results analyzing diverging series, produced by the standard averaging method.

It is known also that in general a constant $`A>\alpha `$ exists such that it is impossible to construct $`2\pi `$-periodic in $`t`$ change $`zz_{}`$, such that $`\stackrel{~}{u}=O(e^{A/\epsilon })`$. This statement follows, for example, from an estimate of the separatrix splitting rate in Hamiltonian systems of type (2.1) with one and a half degrees of freedom.

In this section we estimate a “maximal” $`\alpha `$ for which the estimate (2.3) is possible.

Suppose that the manifold $`M`$ is real-analytic. We fix its complex neighborhood $`M_𝐂`$ and denote by $`g^t`$ the phase flow of the averaged system333It would be more correct to call it by the first approximation averaged system, written with respect to the fast time. $`\dot{z}=\widehat{u}^0(z)`$.

Let $`Q`$ be a compact in $`M`$ and $`V_Q`$ its neighborhood in $`M_𝐂`$. Suppose that for any real $`s`$ such that $`|s|<\alpha `$ and for any point $`zV_Q`$ the map $`g^{is}`$ is analytic at $`z`$ and moreover, $`g^{is}(z)M_𝐂`$. We define the set

$$U_{Q,\alpha }=\underset{\alpha <s<\alpha }{}g^{is}(V_Q).$$

Theorem 1 . Let the positive constants $`\alpha ,\rho ,\epsilon _0`$ be such that

(1) $`U_{Q,\alpha }M_𝐂`$.

(2) The vector field $`\widehat{u}`$ is analytic in $`z`$ and $`C^2`$-smooth in $`t,\epsilon `$ on $`U_{Q,\alpha }\times 𝐓\times [0,\epsilon _0]`$.

Then for sufficiently small $`\epsilon _0`$, there exists a $`2\pi `$-periodic in $`t`$ real-analytic in $`z`$ map $`F:V_Q^{}\times 𝐓\times (0,\epsilon _0)M_𝐂,QV_Q^{}V_Q,`$ such that

(a) The set $`V_Q^{}`$ is open in $`M_𝐂`$,

(b) $`F(z,t,\epsilon )=z_{}=z+O(\epsilon )`$,

(c) $`F`$ transforms (2.1) into (2.2) and the following estimate holds:

$$|\stackrel{~}{u}(z,t,\epsilon )|Ce^{\alpha /\epsilon },zV_Q^{},t\mathrm{\Sigma }_\rho ,\epsilon [0,\epsilon _0).$$
(2.4)
Theorem 1 means in particular, that in the case when components of the field $`\widehat{u}`$ are entire functions of $`z`$, the quantity $`\alpha `$ in (2.4) can be arbitrary positive number such that for all $`s[\alpha ,\alpha ]`$ the maps $`zg^{is}(z)`$ are holomorphic at any point $`zQ`$.

Proof of Theorem 1 is based on the continuous averaging. Namely, we solve the Cauchy problem (1.5), with $`\xi `$ defined by (1.7). The required change of variables corresponds to the value $`s=\alpha /\epsilon `$. The averaging can be performed inside a subalgebra $`\chi `$ in the Lie algebra of all real-analytic vector fields on $`M`$. In particular, if the initial vector field $`\widehat{u}`$ is Hamiltonian then $`u_{}=u(z,t,\epsilon ,\alpha /\epsilon )`$ is also Hamiltonian, and $`F`$ is symplectic.

### 2.2. Averaging: multi-frequency case

Consider a real-analytic slow-fast system

$$\dot{x}=\omega +\epsilon (\overline{u}(y)+\widehat{u}(x,y,\epsilon )),\dot{y}=\epsilon (\overline{v}(y)+\widehat{v}(x,y,\epsilon )),x𝐓^n,y𝐑^m.$$
(2.5)
Average in $`x`$ of $`\widehat{u}`$ and $`\widehat{v}`$ is assumed to be $`O(\epsilon )`$. The frequency vector $`\omega 𝐑^n`$ is constant and non-resonant.444The case of non-constant frequencies ($`\omega =\omega (y)`$) can be reduced to this one in a small neighbourhood of an unperturbed (may be, resonant) torus $`\{y=y^0\}`$.

We try to weaken the dependence of the right-hand side of the system on the fast variables $`x`$ by a near-identity change $`(xmod2\pi ,y)(x_{}mod2\pi ,y_{})`$. We put

$$z=\left(\begin{array}{c}x\\ y\end{array}\right),\overline{\omega }=\left(\begin{array}{c}\omega \\ 0\end{array}\right),\overline{w}=\left(\begin{array}{c}\overline{u}\\ \overline{v}\end{array}\right),\widehat{w}=\left(\begin{array}{c}\widehat{u}\\ \widehat{v}\end{array}\right).$$

Note that the vector fields $`\overline{\omega }`$ and $`\overline{w}`$ commute. The system (2.5) takes the form

$$\dot{z}=\overline{\omega }+\epsilon (\overline{w}+\widehat{w}).$$
(2.6)
A1. Diophantine condition. We assume that $`n2`$ and the frequency vector $`\omega `$ is Diophantine: there exist $`\gamma _0,\gamma >0`$ such that

$$|k,\omega |\gamma _0k^\gamma ,\text{for any }k𝐙^n\{0\}.$$
(2.7)
To formulate the next assumption, we need some definition. Let $`g^t`$ be the phase flow of the system

$$\dot{z}=\overline{w}(y).$$
(2.8)
For any real-analytic function $`f(y)`$ with values in $`𝐂^{n+m}`$ and the vector $`k𝐙^n`$ we put $`f_k=f(y)e^{ik,x}`$. The function

$$𝐠_k^sf=e^{ik,x}g_{}^{is}(f_kg^{is}),s𝐂$$

does not depend on $`x`$. Here $`g_{}^t`$ is the differential of the map $`g^t`$. Note that $`𝐠_k^s`$, $`s𝐑`$ include shifts along $`g^t`$ in purely imaginary direction. We put

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }_q`$ $`=`$ $`\{x𝐂^n/(2\pi 𝐙)^n:|\text{Im}x_j|q,j=1,\mathrm{},n\},`$
$`V_\nu `$ $`=`$ $`\{y𝐂^m:\text{Re}y(\overline{𝒟}+\nu )𝐑^m,|\text{Im}y_l|\nu ,l=1,\mathrm{},m\},`$
where $`\overline{𝒟}`$ is a compact domain and $`\overline{𝒟}+\nu `$ is the $`\nu `$-neighborhood of $`\overline{𝒟}`$.

Expand the function $`\widehat{w}`$ into the Fourier series:

$$\widehat{w}(z,\epsilon )=\underset{k𝐙^n}{}\widehat{w}^k(y,\epsilon )e^{ik,x}.$$

A2. Analyticity. Let the constant $`\alpha >0`$ be such that for any real $`s[\alpha ,\alpha ]`$, for any $`k𝐙`$ and for any $`(x,y)\overline{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_q\times \overline{V}_\nu =\text{closure}(\mathrm{\Sigma }_q)\times \text{closure}(V_\nu )`$ the map $`(x,y)g^{is}(x,y)`$ is analytic in $`x,y`$ and the map $`y𝐠_k^s\widehat{w}^k(y)`$ is analytic in $`y`$.

Moreover, suppose that for some real $`\rho `$

$$|𝐠_k^s\widehat{w}^k|_{\overline{V}_\nu \times [0,\epsilon _0)}\mu k^\rho e^{qk},k0.$$

The function $`\widehat{w}^0`$ is of order $`\epsilon `$ and we assume that $`|𝐠_0^s\widehat{w}^0|_{\overline{V}_\nu \times [0,\epsilon _0)}\epsilon \mu _0.`$

The constants $`\mu ,\mu _0,\nu ,q,\rho ,\gamma `$ must satisfy some conditions . Here we replace these conditions by more restrictive, but simple ones.

A3. $`\mu ,\mu _0,\nu ,q,\rho ,\gamma `$ are positive, do not depend on $`\epsilon `$, and $`\rho >\gamma /(\gamma +1)`$.

Theorem 2 . Suppose that assumptions A1A3 hold. Then there exists a change of variables

$$zz_{}=f(z,\epsilon ),f:\mathrm{\Sigma }_{2q/3}\times V_{2\nu /3}\times [0,\epsilon _0)𝐂^n/(2\pi 𝐙^n)\times 𝐂^m$$
(2.9)
such that $`f`$ is analytic in $`z`$, smooth in $`\epsilon `$, $`f(z,\epsilon )=z+O(\epsilon )`$, and the system (2.6) takes the form

$$\dot{z}_{}=\overline{\omega }+\epsilon (\overline{w}(y_{})+w_{}(z_{},\epsilon )).$$
(2.10)
Let $`w_{}^0(y_{},\epsilon )`$ be the average in $`x_{}`$ of $`w_{}`$. Then $`w_{}^0(y_{},0)=0`$. Moreover,

$$|w_{}w_{}^0|C\mu \epsilon ^{\rho /(\gamma +1)}e^{\overline{q}\epsilon ^{1/(\gamma +1)}},z_{}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{q/2}\times V_{\nu /2},$$
(2.11)
where $`C`$ is a constant, not depending on $`\epsilon `$ and $`\mu `$,

$$\overline{q}=(1+\gamma ^1)(\gamma \gamma _0\alpha q^\gamma )^{1/(\gamma +1)}.$$
(2.12)
If the system (2.6) is Hamiltonian with respect to a certain symplectic structure $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ then (2.10) is also $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$-Hamiltonian and the change (2.9) is $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$-symplectic.

In  we also present another theorem which shows that the Fourier series $`w_{}w_{}^0`$ can be divided into 2 parts: one is small and for another we have a sort of control.

Results analogous to Theorem 2 (without estimates for $`\alpha `$) are contained in .

### 2.3. Exponentially small separatrix splitting

The phenomenon of exponentially small separatrix splitting was discovered by Poincaré . Intensive quantitative studying of the problem was initiated by papers  (see also ). The method proposed by Lazutkin with collaborators  is based on an analysis of the separatrices in the complex domain. Another method was used in , where direct expansions of the Poincaré-Melnikov integral in an additional parameter are analyzed. The resurgent analysis is applyed to these problems in .

The main difficulty of the problem is that the traditional Poincaré-Melnikov method can not be applied directly. Indeed, its error has the order of square of the perturbation. Hence, the error considerably exceeds the expected result.

Exponentially small separatrix splitting can be studied with the help of the continuous averaging method. The main idea of to reduce the rate of the perturbation to an exponentially small quantity such that its square is much smaller than the result. Then the Poincaré-Melnikov method is applicable.

It is natural to measure the rate of the separatrix splitting by the area $`𝒜_{\text{lobe}}`$ of a lobe domain, bounded by segments $`I^{s,u}`$ of the stable $`(s)`$ and unstable $`(u)`$ separatrix such that $`I^s`$ and $`I^u`$ have the same boundary points, these points are homoclinic, and there are no other common points of $`I^s`$ and $`I^u`$.

Consider the system with Hamiltonian

$$\widehat{H}(\widehat{x},\widehat{y},t)=\epsilon (\widehat{y}^2/2+(1+2B\mathrm{cos}t)\mathrm{cos}\widehat{x}),$$
(2.13)
where $`\widehat{x},\widehat{y}`$ are canonically conjugated variables and $`\epsilon >0`$ is small. Theorem 1 implies that there exists a symplectic change of coordinates $`\widehat{x},\widehat{y}x,y`$ which is

i) close to the identity,

ii) $`2\pi `$-periodic in time,

iii) real-analytic in a complex neighborhood of the separatrices $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^\pm `$ of the system with Hamiltonian $`H_0=\widehat{y}^2/2+\mathrm{cos}\widehat{x}`$

iv) such that the new Hamiltonian function takes the form:

$$H(x,y,t)=\epsilon \left(H_0(x,y)+\epsilon H_1(x,y,\epsilon )+\mathrm{exp}(c/\epsilon )H_2(x,y,t,\epsilon )\right).$$

Here $`H_0=y^2/2+\mathrm{cos}x`$, the constant $`c[0,\pi /2)`$ is arbitrary, the functions $`H_1,H_2`$ are real-analytic in $`x,y`$ in the vicinity of the unperturbed separatrices of the hyperbolic fixed point $`(\widehat{x},\widehat{y})=(0,0)`$, smooth in $`\epsilon >0`$ and the function $`H_2`$ is analytic and $`2\pi `$-periodic in $`t`$.

The ordinary Poincaré-Melnikov theory applied to this system for positive $`\stackrel{~}{c}`$ gives a correct asymptotics of the separatrix splitting, . The following estimate holds:

$$𝒜_{\text{lobe}}=\frac{8\pi }{\epsilon }\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{\pi }{2\epsilon }\right)\left(Bf(B^2)+O\left(\frac{\epsilon }{\mathrm{log}\epsilon }\right)\right),$$

where $`f`$ is an entire real-analytic function, $`f(0)=2`$. In  numerical values of several Tailor coefficients of $`f`$ are presented.

Analogous results for the Standard Chirikov Map and for some Hamiltonian systems with 2 degrees of freedom can be found in .

### 2.4. Inclusion of a map into a flow

In this section we consider the following problem: to present a given self-map of a manifold $`M`$ as the time-one map (the Poincaré map) in some ODE system, generated by a periodic in time vector field.

The problem can be formulated for various classes of maps and the corresponding vector fields. For example, it is possible to consider generic maps and vector fields, reversible ones with respect to some involution, Hamiltonian, preserving a volume, etc. Here we discuss the analytic set up i.e., assuming that the map is real-analytic, we look for its inclusion into a flow generated by a real-analytic vector field. The problem in $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ category is much simpler.

The following construction is well-known. Given a diffeomorphism $`T`$ of a manifold $`M`$ onto itself consider the direct product $`M\times [0,1]`$ with the vector field $`/t`$, where $`t`$ is the coordinate on $`[0,1]`$. The map $`T`$ generates the identification

$$M\times \{0\}M\times \{1\},(z,0)(T(z),1).$$

This identification converts $`M\times [0,1]`$ into a manifold $``$. Let $`\pi :M\times [0,1]`$ be the natural projection. The smooth vector field $`/t`$ generates on the surface $`\pi (M\times \{0\})`$ the Poincaré map coinciding with $`T`$.

This construction does not solve the problem we deal with because in general it is not clear if $``$ is real-analytically diffeomorphic to $`M\times 𝐓^1`$. Nevertheless, sometimes this can be proven.

The problem is solved in the symplectic set up for maps which are close to integrable,  and for generic maps .

Note that all the known proofs in the analytic set up use essentially the Grauert theorem on the inclusion of an analytic manifold into Euclidean space (or modified versions of this theorem). Our result is based on the method of continuous averaging.

First, note that any map which is not isotopic to the identity555Two smooth maps $`T_j:M^{}M^{\prime \prime }`$, $`j=0,1`$ ($`M^{}`$ and $`M^{\prime \prime }`$ are manifolds) are called isotopic if there exists a family of maps $`\widehat{T}_s:M^{}M^{\prime \prime }`$ of the same smoothness class continuous in the parameter $`s[0,1]`$, such that $`\widehat{T}_0=T_0`$ and $`\widehat{T}_1=T_1`$. In other words, if $`T_0`$ can be continuously deformed into $`T_1`$. obviously can not be included into a flow. Let $`M`$ be an $`m`$-dimensional compact real-analytic manifold. Let $`\chi `$ be a closed subalgebra in the Lie algebra $`(,[,])`$ of all analytic vector fields on $`M`$.

We denote by $`X`$ the subset of all analytic diffeomorphisms of $`M`$ obtained as a result of the time-one shift along solutions of a system

$$\dot{z}=u(z,t),u(,t)\chi ,t[0,1],zM$$
(2.14)
(it is not assumed that $`u(z,0)=u(z,1)`$). We assume that the vector field $`u`$ is $`C^2`$-smooth with respect to time. This smoothness condition is technical. For example, it can be replaced by continuity in $`t`$ in Hamiltonian case and in the general one.

Obviously, all diffeomorphisms from $`X`$ are isotopic to the identity inside $`X`$.

Theorem 3 For any map $`TX`$ there exists a vector field

$$U=U(z,t),U(,t)\chi ,t𝐑,zM$$

which is analytic in $`z`$ and $`t`$, $`2\pi `$-periodic in $`t`$, and such that the time-$`2\pi `$ shift along its trajectories coincides with $`T`$.

As a corollary we obtain a possibility of the inclusion of analytic maps into analytic flows in general, symplectic, and volume-preserving cases.

The vector field $`U`$ is obviously not unique.

It can be also proved that if $`T`$ is reversible with respect to some involution $`I:MM`$, $`I^2=\text{id}_M`$ (i.e., $`TI=IT^1`$), the corresponding vector field $`U`$, can be also regarded $`I`$-reversible: $`U(z,t)=dIU(Iz,t)`$.

Suppose that the map $`T`$ is close to $`T_0`$ ($`\text{dist}(T,T_0)=\epsilon `$ in a complex neighborhood of $`M`$),666The distance can be defined for example as follows:
$$\text{dist}(T,T_0)=\underset{zM^{}}{sup}\rho (T(z),T_0(z)),$$
where $`M^{}`$ is a complex neighborhood of $`M`$, and $`\rho `$ is some metric. The choice of the neighborhood and of the metric plays no role due to compactness of the manifold $`M`$. where $`T_0`$ is included into the flow generated by a periodic analytic vector field $`U_0`$. Then the vector field $`U`$ can be chosen close to $`U_0`$ ($`|UU_0|=O(\epsilon )`$ in a smaller complex neighborhood of $`M`$). In particular, in the symplectic case if $`T`$ is close to an integrable map, a Hamiltonian system associated with $`T`$ also can be chosen close to an integrable one and the orders of closeness are the same.

Continuous averaging in the proof is used to smooth out the dependence of the original vector field (2.14) on time, .

Acknowledgements. The work was partially supported by Russian Foundation of Basic Research grants 02-01-00400 and 00-15-99269, and by INTAS grant 00-221.