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# 1 Introduction and preliminaries.

## 1 Introduction and preliminaries.

Kummer’s confluent hypergeometric function $`M(\alpha ,\beta ,x)_1F_1(\alpha ,\beta ,x)`$ can be introduced in a number of equivalent ways  . For real values $`\beta >\alpha >0`$ of the parameters and for all real $`x`$, we can regard this function to be defined by

$$M(\alpha ,\beta ,x):=\frac{1}{B(\alpha ,\beta \alpha )}_0^1𝑑tt^{\alpha 1}(1t)^{\beta \alpha 1}e^{xt},$$
(1.1)
where $`B`$ is the Beta function (see the notes following this Introduction). The object of this paper is a series expansion for $`M`$ derived from the above integral representation; for dealing more efficiently with this expansion, we will work on the ”reparametrized Kummer function”

$$N(\alpha ,\delta ,x):=_0^1𝑑tt^{\alpha 1}(1t)^\delta e^{xt}\text{for }\alpha (0,+\mathrm{}),\delta (1,+\mathrm{}),x[0,+\mathrm{}).$$
(1.2)
The knowledge of this function, with the variable $`x`$ confined to the nonnegative semiaxis, allows to reconstruct the standard function $`M`$ on the full real axis: in fact, for all $`\alpha (0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\beta (\alpha ,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$ it is

$$M(\alpha ,\beta ,x)=\frac{1}{B(\alpha ,\beta \alpha )}N(\alpha ,\beta \alpha 1,x)\text{and}$$
(1.3)
$$M(\alpha ,\beta ,x)=\frac{1}{B(\alpha ,\beta \alpha )}e^xN(\beta \alpha ,\alpha 1,x),$$

where the first equality follows immediately from the definition of $`N`$, and the second one is inferred from the known identity  $`M(\alpha ,\beta ,x)=e^xM(\beta \alpha ,\beta ,x)`$.

Let us fix the attention on $`N`$. If we expand in Taylor series the term $`(1t)^\delta `$ in the integral representation (1.2) and integrate term by term, we obtain

$$N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{+\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}\frac{\gamma (\alpha +k,x)}{x^{\alpha +k}},$$
(1.4)
where the $`\gamma `$’s in the r.h.s. are incomplete Gamma functions, and $`()_k`$ is the Pochhammer symbol (see again the notes at the end of the Section; each summand in the above expansion also makes sense for $`x=0`$, for it admits a finite $`x0^+`$ limit). A very simple case of Eq. (1.4) occurs when $`\delta `$ is integer: then $`(1t)^\delta `$ is a polynomial of degree $`\delta `$, and the above series for $`N`$ is a finite sum with $`k=0,1,\mathrm{},\delta `$. Also, it should be noted that for integer $`\alpha `$ all the above $`\gamma `$’s are elementary functions, expressible in terms of exponentials and powers of $`x`$.

For large $`x`$, each incomplete function $`\gamma (\alpha +k,x)`$ approaches the ”complete” $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha +k)`$; thus, one obtains a representation

$$N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)\underset{k=0}{\overset{+\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha +k)}{x^{\alpha +k}}\text{for }x+\mathrm{},$$
(1.5)
which has been extensively studied ; this must be dealt with carefully, because (for noninteger $`\delta `$) the series in the r.h.s. is not convergent, but only asymptotic in the Poincaré sense .

In comparison with (1.5), the series (1.4) seems to have attracted less attention in the literature: for example, a recent survey  on computational methods for the Kummer function presents (1.4) as a ”new method” for calculating this function. An argument of  proves convergence of the series for all $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$; we think that it is worth to continue the analysis of (1.4) deriving accurate estimates on the error for the series truncated at any finite order, and its rate of convergence.

Obtaining these estimates is the aim of the present paper. Our approach will be based on some general inequalities about integrals of the form $`_0^b𝑑t\psi (t)e^{xt}`$, of which Eq.(1.2) for $`N`$ gives an example. The behaviour of these integrals for $`x+\mathrm{}`$ is the object of the classical Watson Lemma ; here we present a variant of Watson’s analysis, allowing to derive upper and lower bounds on these integrals for all $`x0`$ by finite sums of incomplete Gammas. These bounds are almost self-evident, but in fact very useful in connection with $`N`$: after some technicalities, their application to $`N`$ will yield the conclusions listed below.

i) Upper and lower approximants of arbitrary accuracy can be derived for $`N`$, using finite sums of incomplete Gammas.

ii) The results i) imply convergence of the series (1.4) on the whole interval $`[0,+\mathrm{})`$, not only pointwisely but also uniformly in $`x`$; uniform convergence can be expressed using appropriate sup-norms.

iii) The approximants for $`N`$ obtained in i) are accurate on the whole semiaxis $`[0,+\mathrm{})`$ even when one sums very few terms (however, for very small $`x`$ the Taylor expansion of $`N`$ is generally more precise).

iv) The accuracy of the low order expansions in incomplete Gammas is essentially preserved if, for noninteger $`\alpha `$, one replaces these functions with some known approximants of Padé or other types. In conclusion, it is possible to obtain accurate upper and lower approximants for $`N`$ for both integer and noninteger $`\alpha `$ using only exponentials, real powers of $`x`$ and rational functions.

Let us outline the organization of the paper. The rest of this Section fixes some notations and reviews some basic facts about Gamma functions and their approximations, the Beta function and the Pochhammer symbols employed extensively in the sequel. Sect.2 presents the upper and lower bounds for a general integral of the Watson type in terms of incomplete Gammas. Sect.3 analyses the error in the Taylor expansion of the funtion $`t(1t)^\delta `$, globally on the interval $`[0,1)`$; this is necessary for applying the bounds of Sect.2 to the integral representation of $`N`$. Sect.4 contains the main results about the expansion of $`N`$ by incomplete Gammas, and the error for the expansion truncated at any finite order. Bounds for the error are derived analytically, both pointwisely and uniformly in $`x`$; some numerical tests on these theoretical bounds are presented, for an appreciation of their reliability. Sect.5 illustrates by some examples the low order expansions for $`N`$, and the elementary substitutes derived from them replacing the incomplete Gammas with their known approximants by exponentials, powers of $`x`$ and rational functions. Miscellaneous notations. Throughout the paper N and $`\text{N}_0`$ are, respectively, the nonnegative and the positive integers. The symbol $``$ indicates that two functions or sequences are asymptotic in the elementary sense, i.e., that their ratio tends to unity.

On Gamma functions. We use the standard notations for the incomplete and ”complete” Gamma functions; in the ranges indicated below, we can regard them to be defined by

$$\gamma (\nu ,x):=_0^x𝑑ss^{\nu 1}e^s,\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu ):=_0^+\mathrm{}𝑑ss^{\nu 1}e^s\text{for }\nu (0,+\mathrm{}),x[0,+\mathrm{}).$$
(1.6)
For either $`\nu `$ or $`x`$ fixed, the incomplete function has the asymptotics

$$\gamma (\nu ,x)\{\begin{array}{ccc}x^\nu /\nu \hfill & & \text{for }x0^+\text{,}\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )\hfill & & \text{for }x+\mathrm{}\text{ ;}\hfill \end{array}$$
(1.7)
$$\gamma (\nu ,x)\frac{x^\nu }{\nu }e^x\text{for }\nu +\mathrm{}.$$
(1.8)
Of course,

$$\frac{d}{dx}\gamma (\nu ,x)=x^{\nu 1}e^x;$$
(1.9)
also, we have the recursion rule

$$\gamma (\nu ,x)=(\nu 1)\gamma (\nu 1,x)x^{\nu 1}e^x.$$
(1.10)
Concerning the complete function, we will continuously use the relations

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu +1)=\nu \mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )$$
(1.11)
and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(n+1)=n!`$ for $`n\text{N}`$. Sometimes we need the standard extension of the complete function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ from $`[0,+\mathrm{})`$ to $`\text{R}(\text{N})`$, which is uniquely determined asking (1.11) to hold everywhere on this enlarged domain. It is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )\mathrm{}`$ for $`\nu p\text{N}`$.

Practical evaluation of $`\gamma \mathbf{(}\nu \mathbf{,}x\mathbf{)}`$ for fixed $`\nu \mathbf{}\mathbf{(}\mathrm{𝟎}\mathbf{,}\mathbf{+}\mathbf{}\mathbf{)}`$. This is very simple for integer $`\nu `$: using the recursion rule (1.10), we reduce the computation to the case

$$\gamma (1,x)=1e^x.$$
(1.12)
For arbitrary $`\nu `$ one constructs approximants of $`\gamma (\nu ,x)`$ of different types, for $`x`$ small or large. Some elementary approximants are derived from Taylor’s formula applied to the exponential $`e^s`$ in Eq.(1.6). For $`s0`$ and $`m\text{N}_0`$, we have $`e^s=_{j=0}^{m1}(1)^js^j/j!+(1)^me^cs^m/m!`$, where $`c[0,s]`$; of course, $`e^xe^c1`$ if $`s[0,x]`$. Thus

$$\underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}\frac{(1)^j}{j!}s^j+\frac{u_m(x)}{m!}s^me^s\underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}\frac{(1)^j}{j!}s^j+\frac{U_m(x)}{m!}s^m$$
(1.13)
for $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`s[0,x]`$, $`m\text{N}_0`$, where

$$u_m(x):=\mathrm{min}((1)^m,(1)^me^x)=\{\begin{array}{ccc}e^x\hfill & & \text{for }m\text{ even,}\hfill \\ 1\hfill & & \text{for }m\text{ odd;}\hfill \end{array}$$
(1.14)
$$U_m(x):=\mathrm{max}((1)^m,(1)^me^x)=\{\begin{array}{ccc}1\hfill & & \text{for }m\text{ even,}\hfill \\ e^x\hfill & & \text{for }m\text{ odd;}\hfill \end{array}$$
(1.15)
We substitute the inequalities (1.13) in the definition (1.6) for $`\gamma `$, and integrate term by term. This gives

$$\tau _m(\nu ,x)\gamma (\nu ,x)\text{T}_m(\nu ,x)\text{for }\nu (0,+\mathrm{})\text{}x[0,+\mathrm{})\text{}m\text{N}_0,$$
(1.16)
$$\tau _m(\nu ,x):=\underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}\frac{(1)^j}{j!}\frac{x^{\nu +j}}{\nu +j}+\frac{u_m(x)}{m!}\frac{x^{\nu +m}}{\nu +m},$$
(1.17)
$$\text{T}_m(\nu ,x):=\underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}\frac{(1)^j}{j!}\frac{x^{\nu +j}}{\nu +j}+\frac{U_m(x)}{m!}\frac{x^{\nu +m}}{\nu +m}.$$

The ”Taylor” approximants $`\tau _m`$, $`\text{T}_m`$ are interesting for small $`x`$ only; for large $`x`$, a completely different approach must be employed. As a preliminary, one observes that repeated application of the recursion rule (1.10) starting from a noninteger value of $`\nu `$ reduces the problem to the case $`\nu (0,1)`$: in this case reliable approximants are known for large $`x`$, mainly of two types.

Firstly, there is a sequence of ”Laurent” approximants, involving negative powers of $`x`$. These are constructed working on the representation $`\gamma (\nu ,x)=\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )_x^+\mathrm{}𝑑ss^{\nu 1}e^s`$; by repeated integrations by parts, one infers

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )x^{\nu 1}e^x\mathrm{\Lambda }_q(\nu ,x)\gamma (\nu ,x)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )x^{\nu 1}e^x\lambda _q(\nu ,x)$$
(1.18)
for all $`\nu (0,1)`$, $`x(0,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`q\text{N}_0`$, where

$$\lambda _q(\nu ,x):=\underset{k=0}{\overset{q1}{}}\frac{\nu 1_k}{x^k}+\frac{\nu 1_q^{}}{x^q},\mathrm{\Lambda }_q(\nu ,x):=\underset{k=0}{\overset{q1}{}}\frac{\nu 1_k}{x^k}+\frac{\nu 1_q^+}{x^q};$$
(1.19)
$$\mu _0:=1,\mu _h:=\mu (\mu 1)(\mu 2)\mathrm{}(\mu h+1)\text{for }h\text{N}_0,$$
(1.20)
$$\chi ^+:=\mathrm{max}(\chi ,0),\chi ^{}:=\mathrm{min}(\chi ,0)\text{for }\chi \text{R}.$$

Typically, these Laurent approximants are accurate for very large $`x`$ but less satisfactory for intermediate values, close to $`1`$. This defect is overcome by the Padé approximants, constructed by more refined techniques : these have the form

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )x^{\nu 1}e^x\mathrm{\Pi }_q(\nu ,x)\gamma (\nu ,x)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )x^{\nu 1}e^x\pi _q(\nu ,x)$$
(1.21)
for $`\nu (0,1)`$, $`x(0,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`q\text{N}`$, where both $`\mathrm{\Pi }_q`$, $`\pi _q`$ are ratios of polynomials of degree $`q`$ in $`x`$; the lowest order cases are

$$\pi _0(\nu ,x):=0,\mathrm{\Pi }_0(\nu ,x):=1;\pi _1(\nu ,x):=\frac{x}{x+1\nu },\mathrm{\Pi }_1(\nu ,x):=\frac{x+1}{x+2\nu };$$
(1.22)
$$\pi _2(\nu ,x):=\frac{x(x+3\nu )}{x^2+2(2\nu )x+(1\nu )(2\nu )},\mathrm{\Pi }_2(\nu ,x):=\frac{x^2+(5\nu )x+2}{x^2+2(3\nu )x+(2\nu )(3\nu )}.$$

Of course, one can match the approximants of the above different types to get globally accurate estimates. For example, let us evaluate $`\gamma (1/2,x)`$ using the Taylor bounds of order $`m=4`$, and the Padé bounds of order $`q=1`$; this gives the inequalities $`h(x)\gamma (1/2,x)H(x)`$ where $`h`$ is the maximum of the two lower bounds, and $`H`$ the minimum of the two upper bounds ($`h`$ is the Taylor lower bound for $`0x1.16`$, and the Padé one for $`x1.17`$; $`H`$ is the Taylor upper bound for $`0x1.48`$, and the Padé one for $`x1.49`$). The relative uncertainty $`(Hh)/(H+h)`$ is $`<0.005`$ for all $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$, and attains its maximum at a point $`x_0(1.48,1.49)`$.

Pochhammer’s symbol. For $`\alpha \text{R}`$ and $`k\text{N}`$, this is defined setting

$$(\alpha )_0:=1,(\alpha )_k:=\alpha (\alpha +1)(\alpha +2)\mathrm{}(\alpha +k1);$$
(1.23)
one has

$$(\alpha )_{k+1}=(\alpha )_k(\alpha +k)=\alpha (\alpha +1)_k,\frac{(\alpha +1)_m}{m!}=\underset{k=0}{\overset{m}{}}\frac{(\alpha )_k}{k!}$$
(1.24)
(the first two equalities are elementary, the last one is proved recursively). It must be noted that

$$(\alpha )_k=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha +k)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha )},$$
(1.25)
(provided that, for $`\alpha \text{N}`$, the r.h.s. be intended as a limit from noninteger values; incidentally, the above relation allows to compute $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(1/2+k)`$ starting from $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(1/2)=\sqrt{\pi }`$). The behaviour of Pochhammer’s symbol for real $`\alpha `$ and large $`k\text{N}`$ is described by the equation

$$(\alpha )_k\{\begin{array}{ccc}k!k^{\alpha 1}/\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha )\hfill & & \text{for }\alpha \text{N}\text{}k+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ =0\hfill & & \text{for }\alpha \text{N},k1\alpha \text{ ;}\hfill \end{array}$$
(1.26)
(the statement for $`\alpha \text{N}`$ is evident, the other one follows from known properties of the Gamma function ).

The Beta function $`B`$. The standard definition reads

$$B(\mu ,\nu ):=_0^1𝑑tt^{\mu 1}(1t)^{\nu 1}\text{for }\mu ,\nu (0,+\mathrm{});$$
(1.27)
this function is related to the complete Gamma by the identity

$$B(\mu ,\nu )=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\mu )\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\mu +\nu )}.$$
(1.28)
Elementary facts about $`N`$. Throughout the paper we stick to the definition (1.2) of $`N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)`$, for all $`\alpha (0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\delta (1,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$. Even though our main interest is the representation (1.4) for $`N`$ in terms of incomplete Gammas, it is convenient to review the Taylor expansion of $`N`$ that will be sometimes compared with (1.4). The derivation of the Taylor expansion is elementary: we substitute in Eq. (1.2) the inequalities (1.13), with $`s=tx`$, and we integrate term by term. Recalling the definition (1.27) of $`B`$, we obtain the final result

$$t_m(\alpha ,\delta ,x)N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)T_m(\alpha ,\delta ,x)$$
(1.29)
for $`\alpha (0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\delta (1,+\mathrm{})`$, $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`m\text{N}_0`$, where

$$t_m(\alpha ,\delta ,x):=\underset{k=0}{\overset{m1}{}}\frac{(1)^k}{k!}B(\alpha +k,\delta +1)x^k+\frac{u_m(x)}{m!}B(\alpha +m,\delta +1)x^m,$$
(1.30)
$$T_m(\alpha ,\delta ,x):=\underset{k=0}{\overset{m1}{}}\frac{(1)^k}{k!}B(\alpha +k,\delta +1)x^k+\frac{U_m(x)}{m!}B(\alpha +m,\delta +1)x^m,$$

and $`u_m`$, $`U_m`$ are as in Eq.s (1.14-1.15). Sending $`m`$ to $`+\mathrm{}`$ in Eq. (1.29), we obtain the power series representation

$$N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{+\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{(1)^k}{k!}B(\alpha +k,\delta +1)x^k,$$
(1.31)
converging for all $`x`$ in the chosen domain $`[0,+\mathrm{})`$. The power series expansion is often used as a definition of the Kummer function, alternative to the integral representation adopted here as our starting point. As a final remark about (1.31), we note that Eq.s (1.28) (1.25) imply

$$B(\alpha +k,\delta +1)=\frac{(\alpha )_k}{(\alpha +\delta +1)_k}B(\alpha ,\delta +1).$$
(1.32)
## 2 Integrals of the Watson type.

By a Watson type integral, we mean an (improper) Riemann integral depending on a real parameter $`x`$, of the form

$$W(x):=_0^b𝑑t\psi (t)e^{xt},b(0,+\mathrm{}],\psi C((0,b),\text{R});$$
(2.1)
in the sequel, the expression ”$`W(x)`$ exists” will mean that the integral (2.1) is convergent, for the considered value of the parameter $`x`$. Watson’s Lemma  was originally formulated as a statement on the behaviour of $`W(x)`$ for $`x+\mathrm{}`$, under appropriate conditions on $`\psi `$. Here we present a simple Watson-type statement giving upper or lower bounds on $`W(x)`$, without sending $`x`$ to infinity: this is an inequality, holding for both small and large $`x`$.

###### 2.1

Proposition. Assume

$$\psi (t)(\text{resp.})\underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}p_kt^{\lambda _k}t(0,b),$$
(2.2)
where $`n\text{N}`$, $`p_k\text{R}`$, $`\lambda _k(1,+\mathrm{})`$ for $`k=1,\mathrm{},n`$. If $`x(0,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`W(x)`$ exists, then

$$W(x)(\text{resp.})\underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}p_k\frac{\gamma (\lambda _k+1,bx)}{x^{\lambda _k+1}}.$$
(2.3)
In the above equation, for $`b=+\mathrm{}`$ one intends $`bx:=+\mathrm{}`$, $`\gamma (\lambda _k+1,+\mathrm{}):=\mathrm{\Gamma }(\lambda _k+1)`$.

If $`b<+\mathrm{}`$ and $`W(0)`$ exists, the inequality (2.3) holds for it replacing each term $`\gamma (\lambda _k+1,bx)/x^{\lambda _k+1}`$ with its $`x0^+`$ limit, which equals $`b^{\lambda _k+1}/(\lambda _k+1)`$.

Proof. We simply insert the inequality (2.2) in the definition (2.1) of $`W(x)`$; this gives $`W(x)`$ (resp. $``$) $`_{k=0}^np_k_0^b𝑑tt^{\lambda _k}e^{xt}`$. For $`x(0,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`b`$ either finite or infinite, the variable change $`t=s/x`$ in the integrals yields the thesis.

For $`x=0`$, and $`b`$ finite, each integral in the previous sum equals $`b^{\lambda _k+1}/(\lambda _k+1)`$, which is the $`x0^+`$ limit of $`\gamma (\lambda _k+1,bx)/x^{\lambda _k+1}`$ due to (1.7). $``$

## 3 The error in Taylor’s expansion of $`\mathbf{(}\mathrm{𝟏}\mathbf{}𝒕\mathbf{)}^𝜹`$.

The function $`N(\alpha ,\beta ,x)`$ of Eq.(1.2) is a Watson type integral of the form (2.1), with $`b=1`$ and $`\psi (t)\psi (\alpha ,\delta ,t):=t^{\alpha 1}(1t)^\delta `$.

We want to find both upper and lower bounds for $`\psi `$ in terms of powers of $`t`$, of the form (2.2); the problem can be reduced to studying the Taylor expansion about $`t=0`$ of the function

$$t[0,1)(1t)^\delta C^{\mathrm{}}([0,1),\text{R}).$$
(3.1)
For our purposes, it is essential to discuss carefully the behaviour of the error everywhere on the interval $`t[0,1)`$; this is the object of the following

###### 3.1

Lemma. For all $`\mathrm{\delta }\text{R}`$ and $`\mathrm{n}\text{N}_0`$, there is a unique function $`\mathrm{\rho }_\mathrm{n}(\mathrm{\delta },)\mathrm{C}^{\mathrm{}}([0,1),\text{R})`$ such that

$$(1t)^\delta =\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}t^k+\rho _n(\delta ,t)t^nt[0,1).$$
(3.2)
It is

$$\rho _n(\delta ,t)=\frac{(\delta )_n}{(n1)!}_0^1𝑑u(1u)^{n1}(1tu)^{\delta n},\text{sign}\rho _n(\delta ,t)=\text{const.}=\text{sign}(\delta )_n.$$
(3.3)
Furthermore,

$$\rho _n(\delta ,0)=\frac{(\delta )_n}{n!};\underset{t1^{}}{lim}\rho _n(\delta ,t)=\{\begin{array}{ccc}(1\delta )_{n1}/(n1)!\hfill & & \text{if }\delta >0\text{,}\hfill \\ 0\hfill & & \text{if }\delta =0\text{,}\hfill \\ +\mathrm{}\hfill & & \text{if }\delta <0\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.4)
For all $`t[0,1)`$, the derivative of $`\rho _n(\delta ,)`$ is described by

$$\rho _n^{}(\delta ,t)=\frac{(\delta )_{n+1}}{(n1)!}_0^1𝑑uu(1u)^{n1}(1tu)^{\delta n1},$$
(3.5)
$$\text{sign}\rho _n^{}(\delta ,t)=\text{const.}=\text{sign}(\delta )_{n+1}.$$

(All statements on the signs include the zero case, intending $`\text{sign}(0):=0`$.)

Proof. Taylor’s formula for an arbitrary $`fC^m([0,b),\text{R})`$, ($`mn`$) ensures the existence of a unique function $`\rho _nC^{mn}([0,b),\text{R})`$ such that

$$f(t)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{1}{k!}f^{(k)}(0)t^k+\rho _n(t)t^n\text{for }t[0,b),$$
(3.6)
which has the integral representation

$$\rho _n(t)=\frac{1}{(n1)!}_0^1𝑑u(1u)^{n1}f^{(n)}(tu).$$
(3.7)
The function $`f(t)f(\delta ,t)=(1t)^\delta `$ on $`[0,1)`$ has derivatives

$$f^{(k)}(t)=\frac{d^k}{dt^k}(1t)^\delta =(\delta )_k(1t)^{\delta k};$$
(3.8)
this yields Eq.s (3.2), (3.3). The integral in Eq.(3.3) is clearly positive, so $`\rho _n(\delta ,t)`$ has the sign of the coefficient $`(\delta )_n`$.

In general, for the function $`\rho _n`$ of the expansion (3.6) we have $`\rho _n(0)=f^{(n)}(0)/n!`$, which equals $`(\delta )_n/n!`$ in the present case. The results (3.4) for $`lim_{t1^{}}\rho _n(\delta ,t)`$ can be derived from (3.2): if $`\delta >0`$, the $`t1^{}`$ limit computed from (3.2) is in fact $`_{k=0}^{n1}(\delta )_k/k!`$, but this equals $`(1\delta )_{n1}/(n1)!`$ due to the third relation (1.24). (This case could be treated alternatively by the integral representation (3.3), which implies

$$\underset{t1^{}}{lim}\rho _n(\delta ,t)=\frac{(\delta )_n}{(n1)!}_0^1𝑑u(1u)^{\delta 1}=\frac{(\delta )_n}{(n1)!}\frac{1}{\delta }=\frac{(1\delta )_{n1}}{(n1)!}$$

due to the second relation (1.24)).

To obtain the representation (3.5) for $`\rho _n^{}(\delta ,t)`$, one derivates Eq.(3.3) and then employs the first identity (1.24) to express the coefficient before the integral in the form $`(\delta )_{n+1}/(n1)!`$. The integral in (3.5) is positive, so the derivative $`\rho _n^{}`$ has the sign of $`(\delta )_{n+1}`$. $``$ Remark. $`\rho _n(\delta ,)`$ and its derivative are hypergeometric functions of the Gaussian type . The Gaussian hypergeometric function $`F_2F_1`$ with parameters $`a,b,c`$ can be defined setting

$$F(a,b,c;t):=\frac{1}{B(b,cb)}_0^1𝑑uu^{b1}(1u)^{cb1}(1tu)^a.$$
(3.9)
By comparison, we see that

$$\rho _n(\delta ,t)=\frac{(\delta )_n}{n!}F(n\delta ,1,n+1;t),\rho _n^{}(\delta ,t)=\frac{(\delta )_{n+1}}{(n+1)!}F(n+1\delta ,2,n+2;t).$$
(3.10)
$``$ The previous Lemma implies

###### 3.2

Corollary. For $`\mathrm{\delta }\text{R}`$ and $`\mathrm{n}\text{N}_0`$, consider again the function $`\mathrm{\rho }_\mathrm{n}(\mathrm{\delta },)`$ of Eq.(3.2); then, its $`sup`$ and $`inf`$ are as follows.

For $`\delta 0`$,

$$\underset{t[0,1)}{inf}\rho _n(\delta ,t)=r_n(\delta ),\underset{t[0,1)}{sup}\rho _n(\delta ,t)=R_n(\delta ),$$
(3.11)
$$r_n(\delta ):=\mathrm{min}(\frac{(\delta )_n}{n!},\frac{(1\delta )_{n1}}{(n1)!})=\{\begin{array}{ccc}\text{the left term}\hfill & & \text{if }(\delta )_{n+1}0\text{,}\hfill \\ \text{the right term}\hfill & & \text{if }(\delta )_{n+1}<0\text{,}\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.12)
$$R_n(\delta ):=\mathrm{max}(\frac{(\delta )_n}{n!},\frac{(1\delta )_{n1}}{(n1)!})=\{\begin{array}{ccc}\text{the right term}\hfill & & \text{if }(\delta )_{n+1}>0\text{,}\hfill \\ \text{the left term}\hfill & & \text{if }(\delta )_{n+1}0\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.13)
For $`\delta <0`$, it is

$$\underset{t[0,1)}{inf}\rho _n(\delta ,t)=r_n(\delta ),\underset{t[0,1)}{sup}\rho _n(\delta ,t)=+\mathrm{},$$
(3.14)
with

$$r_n(\delta ):=\frac{(\delta )_n}{n!}.$$
(3.15)
Proof. In any case $`\rho _n(\delta ,)`$ is monotonic, so its $`sup`$ and $`inf`$ are the limit values at $`t=0`$ or $`t=1`$. The thesis follows from the results of the previous Lemma about these limits and the sign of $`\rho _n^{}(\delta ,)`$. $``$ Remarks. i) For all $`n\text{N}_0`$, it is

$$\frac{(1\delta )_{n1}}{(n1)!}=\frac{n}{\delta }\frac{(\delta )_n}{n!}\text{ if }\delta \text{R}\{0\};\frac{(1\delta )_{n1}}{(n1)!}=1,\frac{(\delta )_n}{n!}=0\text{if }\delta =0$$
(3.16)
(the first relation above follows from the second identity (1.24)).

ii) Many of the previous statements involve the signs of the Pochhammer symbols of $`\delta `$; therefore, the following tables can be useful. For a real noninteger $`\delta `$, with integer part $`[\delta ]`$, and for all $`k\text{N}`$ it is

$$\text{sign}(\delta )_k=\{\begin{array}{ccc}(1)^k\hfill & & \text{if }\delta 0\text{}0k[\delta ]\text{,}\hfill \\ (1)^{[\delta ]+1}\hfill & & \text{if }\delta 0\text{}k[\delta ]+1\text{,}\hfill \\ 1\hfill & & \text{if }\delta <0\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.17)
For $`\delta `$ a relative integer and $`k\text{N}`$,

$$\text{sign}(\delta )_k=\{\begin{array}{ccc}(1)^k\hfill & & \text{if }\delta 0\text{}0k\delta \text{,}\hfill \\ 0\hfill & & \text{if }\delta 0\text{}k\delta +1\text{,}\hfill \\ 1\hfill & & \text{if }\delta <0\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.18)
(Of course, the vanishing of $`(\delta )_k`$ for $`\delta \text{N}`$ and $`k\delta +1`$ reflects the fact that, in this case, $`(1t)^\delta `$ is a polynomial of degree $`\delta `$). $``$

## 4 Expanding the Kummer function.

We are now ready to derive the main results on the above expansion. As in Sect.1, we fix the attention on the reparametrized function $`N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)`$ of Eq.(1.2) for $`\alpha (0,+\mathrm{}),\delta (1,+\mathrm{}),x[0,+\mathrm{})`$ (the relations of $`N`$ with the standard Kummer function $`M`$ have been exploited in the Introduction).

We first discuss the case $`\delta 0`$, where the function $`\rho _n(\delta ,)`$ of the previous Section is bounded both from below and above for all $`n`$.

###### 4.1

Proposition. Let $`\mathrm{\delta }[0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\mathrm{\alpha }(0,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`\mathrm{n}\text{N}_0`$. For all $`\mathrm{x}[0,+\mathrm{})`$, it is

$$g_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)G_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x),$$
(4.1)
where

$$g_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x):=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}\frac{\gamma (\alpha +k,x)}{x^{\alpha +k}}+r_n(\delta )\frac{\gamma (\alpha +n,x)}{x^{\alpha +n}},$$
(4.2)
$$G_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x):=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}\frac{\gamma (\alpha +k,x)}{x^{\alpha +k}}+R_n(\delta )\frac{\gamma (\alpha +n,x)}{x^{\alpha +n}}$$

and $`r_n`$, $`R_n`$ are as in (3.12-3.13). For $`x=0`$, each term $`\gamma (\alpha +h,x)/x^{\alpha +h}`$ in the above is intended to mean its $`x0^+`$ limit, equal to $`1/(\alpha +h)`$.

Proof. As already noted, $`N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)`$ is a Watson type integral (2.1), with $`b=1`$ and $`\psi (t)\psi (\alpha ,\delta ;t):=t^{\alpha 1}(1t)^\delta `$. On the other hand, Corollary 3.2 gives the inequalities

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}t^k+r_n(\delta )t^n(1t)^\delta \underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}t^k+R_n(\delta )t^n,$$
(4.3)
whence

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}t^{\alpha 1+k}+r_n(\delta )t^{\alpha 1+n}t^{\alpha 1}(1t)^\delta \underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}t^{\alpha 1+k}+R_n(\delta )t^{\alpha 1+n};$$
(4.4)
thus, the thesis follows immediately from Prop.2.1. $``$ We pass to the case $`\delta <0`$, where the function $`\rho _n(\delta ,)`$ of the previous Section is bounded only from below; in this case, a different method will be used to get an upper bound on $`N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)`$.

###### 4.2

Proposition. Let $`\mathrm{\delta }(1,0)`$, $`\mathrm{\alpha }(0,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`\mathrm{n}\text{N}_0`$. For all $`\mathrm{x}[0,+\mathrm{})`$, it is

$$g_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)G_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x).$$
(4.5)
Here $`g_n`$ is as in Eq. (4.2), with $`r_n(\delta )=(\delta )_n/n!`$ as prescribed by (3.15); furthermore

$$G_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x):=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}\frac{\gamma (\alpha +k,x)}{x^{\alpha +k}}+S_n(\alpha ,\delta )\frac{\gamma (\alpha +n,x)}{x^{\alpha +n}},$$
(4.6)
$$S_n(\alpha ,\delta ):=\frac{(\delta )_{n1}}{(n1)!}\left(\frac{\alpha +n}{\delta +1}\frac{\alpha +\delta +1}{n}\right).$$
(4.7)
(As usually, for $`x=0`$ one intends the previous definitions in a limit sense).

Proof. In this case Corollary 3.2 implies

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}t^{\alpha 1+k}+r_n(\delta )t^{\alpha 1+n}t^{\alpha 1}(1t)^\delta .$$
(4.8)
Using again Prop.2.1 on Watson integrals we infer from here the lower bound $`g_n`$, of the form (4.2).

In order to obtain the upper bound, we use a known recurrence relation for the Kummer function. This is the identity $`M(\alpha ,\beta ,x)=M(\alpha ,\beta +1,x)+(\alpha x/\beta (\beta +1))M(\alpha +1,\beta +2,x)`$  that becomes, in terms of the reparametrized function $`N`$,

$$N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)=\frac{\alpha +\delta +1}{\delta +1}N(\alpha ,\delta +1,x)\frac{x}{\delta +1}N(\alpha +1,\delta +1,x).$$
(4.9)
The identity holds for all $`\delta (1,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`\alpha (0,+\mathrm{})`$; with the assumption $`\delta (1,0)`$, the $`N`$ functions in the r.h.s. depend on the parameter $`\delta +1(0,1)`$ and their expansions in terms of Gamma functions can be performed via Prop.4.1. More precisely, we have

$$N(\alpha ,\delta +1,x)\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta 1)_k}{k!}\frac{\gamma (\alpha +k,x)}{x^{\alpha +k}}+R_n(\delta +1)\frac{\gamma (\alpha +n,x)}{x^{\alpha +n}},$$

$$N(\alpha +1,\delta +1,x)\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta 1)_k}{k!}\frac{\gamma (\alpha +k+1,x)}{x^{\alpha +k+1}}+r_n(\delta +1)\frac{\gamma (\alpha +n+1,x)}{x^{\alpha +n+1}},$$
(4.10)
$$R_n(\delta +1)=\frac{(\delta 1)_n}{n!},r_n(\delta +1)=\frac{(\delta )_{n1}}{(n1)!}.$$

Inserting these inequalities into the identity (4.9), we get an upper bound for $`N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)`$. This upper bound can be written as in Eq.s (4.6-4.7) reexpressing $`\gamma (\alpha +k+1,x)`$ and $`\gamma (\alpha +n+1,x)`$ by means of the recursion rule (1.10), and then manipulating some of the occurring Pochhammer’s symbols via the identities (1.24). $``$ Remarks. i) For $`\delta (1,0)`$ and all $`\alpha (0,+\mathrm{})`$, it is $`0<r_n(\delta )<S_n(\alpha ,\delta )`$.

ii) The remaining part of the Section will be devoted to the $`n+\mathrm{}`$ limit in Prop.s 4.1, 4.2, yielding the convergent series expansion (1.4) for $`N`$.

iii) Comparing the definitions (1.2), (1.27) for $`N`$ and $`B`$, we see that

$$N(\alpha ,\delta ,0)=B(\alpha ,\delta +1).$$
(4.11)
Thus, Prop.s 4.1, 4.2 imply

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}\frac{1}{\alpha +k}+\frac{r_n(\delta )}{\alpha +n}B(\alpha ,\delta +1)\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}\frac{1}{\alpha +k}+\frac{R_n(\delta )\text{or}S_n(\alpha ,\delta )}{\alpha +n}.$$
(4.12)
For $`n+\mathrm{}`$, this gives a series expansion for the Beta function. $``$ The error $`ϵ_n`$ in the expansion of $`N`$. For conveniency, let us define

$$ϵ_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x):=N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}\frac{\gamma (\alpha +k,x)}{x^{\alpha +k}};$$
(4.13)
this is the error in the approximation of $`N`$ by means of $`n`$ incomplete Gammas. Prop.s 4.1 and 4.2 can be rephrased as

$$e_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)ϵ_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)E_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)$$
(4.14)
for $`\alpha (0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\delta (1,+\mathrm{})`$, $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`n\text{N}_0`$, where

$$e_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x):=r_n(\delta )\frac{\gamma (\alpha +n,x)}{x^{\alpha +n}},E_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x):=\left(R_n(\delta )\text{or}S_n(\alpha ,\delta )\right)\frac{\gamma (\alpha +n,x)}{x^{\alpha +n}}.$$
(4.15)
The coefficient in the definition of $`E_n`$ is $`R_n(\delta )`$ for $`\delta [0,+\mathrm{})`$, and $`S_n(\alpha ,\delta )`$ for $`\delta (1,0)`$; as usually, $`\gamma (\nu ,x)/x^\nu :=1/\nu `$ for $`x=0`$. The quantities $`e_n`$, $`E_n`$ are the theoretical bounds on the error $`ϵ_n`$, derived from the previous Propositions. Of course, by the asymptotics (1.7) of $`\gamma `$, fixing $`n`$ we have

$$e_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)r_n(\delta )\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha +n)}{x^{\alpha +n}},E_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)\left(R_n(\delta )\text{or}S_n(\alpha ,\delta )\right)\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha +n)}{x^{\alpha +n}}\text{for }x+\mathrm{}$$
(4.16)
(to get a better insight into $`e_n`$ and $`E_n`$ as functions of $`x`$, one could employ for $`\gamma (\alpha +n,x)`$ the approximants described in Sect.1, for example the Taylor approximants for small $`x`$ and the Padé ones for large $`x`$).

Let us discuss the error bounds when $`n`$ is large, starting from a pointwise analysis in $`x`$ (a uniform analysis is be performed in the sequel).

###### 4.3

Proposition. Fix $`\mathrm{\alpha }(0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\mathrm{\delta }`$ as below and $`\mathrm{x}[0,+\mathrm{})`$. Then

$$e_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)\{\begin{array}{ccc}e^x/\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^{1+\delta }\hfill & & \text{for }\delta (1,+\mathrm{})\text{N}\text{}[\delta ]\text{ even, }n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ e^x/\mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^{2+\delta }\hfill & & \text{for }\delta (1,+\mathrm{})\text{N}\text{}[\delta ]\text{ odd, }n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ =0\hfill & & \text{for }\delta \text{N}\text{}n\delta +1\text{;}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.17)
$$E_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)\{\begin{array}{ccc}e^x/\mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^{2+\delta }\hfill & & \text{for }\delta (0,+\mathrm{})\text{N}\text{}[\delta ]\text{ even, }n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ e^x/\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^{1+\delta }\hfill & & \text{for }\delta (0,+\mathrm{})\text{N}\text{}[\delta ]\text{ odd, }n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ e^x/(1+\delta )\mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^{1+\delta }\hfill & & \text{for }\delta (1,0)\text{}n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ =0\hfill & & \text{for }\delta \text{N}\text{}n\delta +1\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.18)
In any case $`e_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)`$, $`E_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)0`$, and thus

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}\frac{\gamma (\alpha +k,x)}{x^{\alpha +k}}N(\alpha ,\delta ,x)\text{for }n+\mathrm{}$$
(4.19)
(in the special case $`\delta \text{N}`$, the sum in the l.h.s. equals $`N(\alpha ,\beta ,x)`$ if $`n1\delta `$).

Proof. The definitions of the coefficients $`r_n`$, $`R_n`$ and $`S_n`$, with Eq.s (3.17-3.18) and (1.26) on the signs and asymptotics of the Pochhammer symbols, yield the conclusions

$$r_n(\delta )\{\begin{array}{ccc}1/\mathrm{\Gamma }(1\delta )n^\delta =1/\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^\delta \hfill & & \delta (1,+\mathrm{})\text{N}\text{}[\delta ]\text{ even, }n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ 1/\mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^{1+\delta }\hfill & & \delta (1,+\mathrm{})\text{N}\text{}[\delta ]\text{ odd, }n+\mathrm{},\hfill \\ =0\hfill & & \delta \text{N}\text{}n\delta +1\text{;}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.20)
$$R_n(\delta )\{\begin{array}{ccc}1/\mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^{1+\delta }\hfill & & \delta (0,+\mathrm{})\text{N}\text{}[\delta ]\text{ even, }n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ 1/\mathrm{\Gamma }(1\delta )n^\delta =1/\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^\delta \hfill & & \delta (0,+\mathrm{})\text{N}\text{}[\delta ]\text{ odd, }n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ =0\hfill & & \delta \text{N}\text{}n\delta +1\text{;}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.21)
$$S_n(\alpha ,\delta )\frac{1}{(\delta +1)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^\delta },\delta (1,0)\text{}n+\mathrm{}.$$
(4.22)
Furthermore, Eq.(1.8) implies $`\gamma (\alpha +n,x)/x^{\alpha +n}e^x/n`$ for $`n+\mathrm{}`$; the thesis follows immediately. $``$ Of course, the absolute value of the error $`ϵ_n`$ can be bounded as well by means of Prop.s 4.1, 4.2, which imply

$$|ϵ_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)|_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x):=X_n(\alpha ,\delta )\frac{\gamma (\alpha +n,x)}{x^{\alpha +n}},$$
(4.23)
for all $`\alpha (0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\delta (1,+\mathrm{})`$, $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$, where

$$X_n(\alpha ,\delta ):=\{\begin{array}{ccc}\mathrm{max}(|(\delta )_n|/n!,|(1\delta )_{n1}|/(n1)!)\hfill & & \text{for }\delta [0,+\mathrm{}),\hfill \\ S_n(\alpha ,\delta )\hfill & & \text{for }\delta (1,0)\text{ .}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.24)
The analogue of Prop.4.3 for the theoretical bound $`_n`$ is the following

###### 4.4

Proposition. For fixed $`\mathrm{\alpha }(0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\mathrm{\delta }`$ as below and $`\mathrm{x}[0,+\mathrm{})`$, it is

$$_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)\{\begin{array}{ccc}e^x/|\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )|n^{1+\delta }\hfill & & \text{for }\delta (0,+\mathrm{})\text{N}\text{}n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ e^x/(1+\delta )\mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^{1+\delta }\hfill & & \text{for }\delta (1,0)\text{}n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ =0\hfill & & \text{for }\delta \text{N}\text{}n\delta +1\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.25)
Proof. The thesis follows from the known behaviour of $`\gamma (\alpha +n,x)/x^{\alpha +n}`$ and from the asymptotics

$$X_n(\alpha ,\delta )\{\begin{array}{ccc}1/|\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )|n^\delta \hfill & & \text{for }\delta (0,+\mathrm{})\text{N}\text{}n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ 1/(1+\delta )\mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^\delta \hfill & & \text{for }\delta (1,0)\text{}n+\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ =0\hfill & & \text{for }\delta \text{N}\text{}n\delta +1\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.26)
$``$ Reliability of the error bound $`\mathbf{|}ϵ_n\mathbf{|}\mathbf{}_n`$: numerical tests. Of course, one would like the actual error $`|ϵ_n|`$ to be close to its theoretical estimator $`_n`$. Figures 3-3 report the ratio $`|ϵ_n|/_n`$ for fixed values of $`\alpha ,\delta ,x`$ as a function of $`n`$. They were generated by the MATHEMATICA package, using its internal routines for computing numerically the Kummer function and the incomplete Gammas. For reasons related to numerical accuracy, the analysis has been limited to $`1n13`$; the outcomes seem to indicate that $`|ϵ_n|/_n`$ approaches for large $`n`$ a constant value not far from $`1`$, which was just the hoped result. For a better appreciation of the trends, the points in the pictures corresponding to $`n=1,2,\mathrm{},13`$ have been interpolated by continuous or dashed lines, according to the considered values of $`x`$.

Uniform analysis of the error. We consider again the error $`ϵ_n`$ defined by (4.13), and analyse it uniformly in $`x`$; to this purpose, it is convenient to introduce an appropriate functional setting. For $`\sigma [0,+\mathrm{})`$, we consider the space

$$𝒞_\sigma :=\{fC([0,+\mathrm{}),\text{R})|+\mathrm{}>\underset{x(0,+\mathrm{})}{sup}x^\sigma |f(x)|:=f_\sigma \};$$
(4.27)
this is a Banach space with $`_\sigma `$ as a norm. We note that

$$\frac{\gamma (\nu ,)}{^\nu }𝒞_\sigma \text{for }\nu >0\text{}\sigma [0,\nu ],N(\alpha ,\delta ,)C_\sigma \text{for }\alpha >0,\delta >1,\sigma [0,\alpha ]$$
(4.28)
(in the case of $`\gamma (\nu ,)/^\nu `$, this follows from the asymptotics (1.7); in the case of $`N(\alpha ,\delta ,)`$ the statement follows from Prop.s 4.1, 4.2 with $`n=1`$, and from the asymptotics of the Gammas therein).

The following result will be used to bind the $`\sigma `$-th norm of $`\gamma (\nu ,)/^\nu `$ .

###### 4.5

Lemma. For all $`\mathrm{\sigma },\mathrm{x}[0,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`\mathrm{\mu }(0,+\mathrm{})`$, it is

$$0\frac{\gamma (\mu +\sigma ,x)}{x^\mu }\frac{\sigma ^\sigma e^\sigma }{\mu }$$
(4.29)
(intending this in a limit sense for vanishing $`\sigma `$ or $`x`$: in particular, $`\sigma ^\sigma :=1`$ if $`\sigma =0`$).

Proof. The lower bound is obvious, let us prove the upper bound. We can assume $`\sigma >0`$, and then recover the zero case taking the limit. So, let $`\sigma >0`$; due to (1.7), the function $`x\gamma (\mu +\sigma ,x)/x^\mu `$ vanishes for $`x`$ approaching both $`0^+`$ and $`+\mathrm{}`$, and thus it attains its absolute maximum at a point $`c(0,+\mathrm{})`$; $`c`$ is a stationary point, i.e., a solution of the equation

$$0=\frac{d}{dx}\frac{\gamma (\mu +\sigma ,x)}{x^\mu }=\frac{1}{x}\left(x^\sigma e^x\mu \frac{\gamma (\mu +\sigma ,x)}{x^\mu }\right).$$
(4.30)
Thus, the maximum of the function is

$$\frac{\gamma (\mu +\sigma ,c)}{c^\mu }=\frac{c^\sigma e^c}{\mu }\frac{\sigma ^\sigma e^\sigma }{\mu };$$
(4.31)
the first equality follows from Eq.(4.30) and the subsequent inequality is elementary, since the function $`x[0,+\mathrm{})x^\sigma e^x`$ attains its maximum at $`x=\sigma `$. $``$ Remark. There is numerical evidence that the maximum point $`c=c_{\mu \sigma }`$ of the above function is unique, and that $`\gamma (\mu +\sigma ,c_{\mu \sigma })/(c_{\mu \sigma })^\mu `$ is not only bounded by $`\sigma ^\sigma e^\sigma /\mu `$, but in fact asymptotic to the latter for $`\mu +\mathrm{}`$. $``$

###### 4.6

Corollary. For all $`\mathrm{\sigma }[0,+\mathrm{})`$ and $`\mathrm{\nu }(\mathrm{\sigma },+\mathrm{})`$, it is

$$\frac{\gamma (\nu ,)}{^\nu }_\sigma \frac{\sigma ^\sigma e^\sigma }{\nu \sigma }.$$
(4.32)
Proof. The above norm equals $`sup_{x[0,+\mathrm{})}\gamma (\nu ,x)/x^{\nu \sigma }`$; now apply the previous Lemma. $``$

###### 4.7

Proposition. Let $`\mathrm{\alpha }(0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\mathrm{\delta }(1,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\mathrm{\sigma }[0,\mathrm{\alpha }]`$. For all $`\mathrm{n}\text{N}_0`$ it is

$$ϵ_n(\alpha ,\delta ,)_\sigma X_n(\alpha ,\delta )\frac{\sigma ^\sigma e^\sigma }{\alpha \sigma +n},$$
(4.33)
with $`X_n`$ is as in Eq.(4.24).

Proof. Eq.(4.23) implies

$$ϵ_n(\alpha ,\delta ,)_\sigma X_n(\alpha ,\delta )\frac{\gamma (\alpha +n,)}{^{\alpha +n}}_\sigma ;$$
(4.34)
now, use the previous Corollary. $``$

###### 4.8

Proposition. Let $`\mathrm{\alpha }(0,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\mathrm{\delta }(1,+\mathrm{})`$, $`\mathrm{\sigma }[0,\mathrm{\alpha }]`$. Then

$$\text{r.h.s. of (}\text{4.33}\text{}\{\begin{array}{ccc}\sigma ^\sigma e^\sigma /|\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )|n^{1+\delta }0\hfill & & \text{for }\delta (0,+\mathrm{})\text{N}\text{ and }n+\mathrm{}\hfill \\ \sigma ^\sigma e^\sigma /(1+\delta )\mathrm{\Gamma }(\delta )n^{1+\delta }0\hfill & & \text{for }\delta (1,0)\text{ and }n+\mathrm{}\hfill \\ =0\hfill & & \text{for }\delta \text{N}\text{ and }n\delta +1\text{;}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.35)
thus

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{(\delta )_k}{k!}\frac{\gamma (\alpha +k,)}{^{\alpha +k}}N(\alpha ,\delta ,)\text{for }n+\mathrm{}\text{, in the Banach space }𝒞_\sigma .$$
(4.36)
Proof. Use the asymptotics (4.26) for $`X_n`$. $``$ The accuracy of the expansion of $`N`$ via $`n`$ incomplete Gammas can be discussed from a slightly different viewpoint, where the attention passes from the ”absolute error” $`ϵ_n`$ to the relative uncertainty

$$\xi _n(\alpha ,\delta ,x):=\frac{G_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)g_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)}{|G_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)+g_n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)|};$$
(4.37)
here $`G_n`$ and $`g_n`$ denote, as usually, the upper and lower bounds for $`N`$ in Prop.s 4.1, 4.2 (<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1A comment is worthy on the absolute value in the denominator of $`\xi _n`$. The function $`N`$ is positive for all $`\alpha ,\delta `$ and $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$, so its upper bound $`G_n`$ is also positive. The lower bound $`g_n`$ and the sum $`g_n+G_n`$ can be negative in some peculiar cases with large $`\alpha ,\delta `$ and very small $`n,x`$. For example, $`G_1(10,10,0)+g_1(10,10,0)<0`$.). From the expressions of these bounds, it is clear that $`\xi _n(\alpha ,\delta ,x)=O(1/x^n)`$ for $`x+\mathrm{}`$.

In the next section, the $`x`$-dependence of $`\xi _n`$ will be appreciated numerically in a number of examples.

## 5 Low order approximants for $`𝑵`$.

Let us show by some examples that Prop.s 4.1, 4.2 give good approximants for $`N`$ even if they are used with low $`n`$. The second example will show that a good accuracy is kept even if we replace the incomplete Gammas with the approximants in terms of exponentials, real powers of $`x`$ and rational functions reviewed in Sect.1 (in the other examples the Gammas are elementary functions, with exact expressions in terms of exponentials and powers of $`x`$). In all the examples, the low order approximants for $`N`$ will be compared with the Taylor ones (also presented in Sect.1), which are found to be more precise for small $`x`$, namely, for $`x`$ ranging from $`0`$ to some value of the order of unity. i) We consider the case $`\alpha =2`$, $`\delta =3/2`$ and apply Prop.4.1 with $`n=2`$. This gives

$$g(x)N(2,\frac{3}{2},x)G(x)\text{for all }x[0,+\mathrm{}),$$
(5.1)
where

$$g(x):=\frac{\gamma (2,x)}{x^2}\frac{3\gamma (3,x)}{2x^3}+\frac{3\gamma (4,x)}{8x^4},G(x):=\frac{\gamma (2,x)}{x^2}\frac{3\gamma (3,x)}{2x^3}+\frac{\gamma (4,x)}{2x^4}$$
(5.2)
$$\left(g(0)=\frac{3}{32},G(0)=\frac{1}{8}\right).$$

All the above incomplete Gammas are of integer order, so they can be computed by the recursion method recalled in Sect.1: $`\gamma (2,x)=1(x+1)e^x`$, $`\gamma (3,x)=2(x^2+2x+2)e^x`$, $`\gamma (4,x)=6(x^3+3x^2+6x+6)e^x`$. The conclusion is

$$g(x)=\frac{1}{x^2}\frac{3}{x^3}+\frac{9}{4x^4}+\left(\frac{1}{8x}+\frac{7}{8x^2}+\frac{3}{4x^3}\frac{9}{4x^4}\right)e^x,$$
(5.3)
$$G(x)=\frac{1}{x^2}\frac{3}{x^3}+\frac{3}{x^4}+\left(\frac{1}{2x^2}\frac{3}{x^4}\right)e^x.$$

Figure 6 contains the graphs of $`g`$, $`G`$ defined as above, and of $`N(2,3/2,)`$ as computed numerically by the MATHEMATICA package; the chosen interval for $`x`$ is $`[0,7]`$. For a better appreciation of the separation between $`N(2,3/2,)`$ and the bounds $`g`$, $`G`$, Figures 6 and 6 report the graphs of the same functions for $`x[0,1]`$ and $`x[6,7]`$, respectively.

Let us describe the discrepancy of the bounds $`g,G`$ through the relative uncertainty (<sup>2</sup><sup>2</sup>2here and in the forthcoming examples, the bounds for which we evaluate the relative uncertainty are always positive, for all $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$.)

$$\xi (x):=\frac{G(x)g(x)}{G(x)+g(x)}.$$
(5.4)
This function is decreasing: $`\xi (0)=1/7<0.15`$, $`\xi (1)<0.098`$, $`\xi (3)<0.045`$, $`\xi (7)<0.012`$ and $`\xi (x)0`$ for $`x+\mathrm{}`$.

The approximants for $`N(2,3/2,x)`$ constructed above can be improved for small $`x`$, using in place of $`g,G`$ the Taylor bounds (1.29-1.30); with the choice $`m=4`$, these are

$$t(x)N(2,\frac{3}{2},x)T(x)\text{for }x[0,+\mathrm{}),$$
(5.5)
$$t(x):=\frac{4}{35}\frac{16}{315}x+\frac{16}{1155}x^2\frac{128}{45045}x^3+\frac{64}{135135}x^4e^x,$$
(5.6)
$$T(x):=\frac{4}{35}\frac{16}{315}x+\frac{16}{1155}x^2\frac{128}{45045}x^3+\frac{64}{135135}x^4.$$

The final bounds arising from (5.1) and (5.5) are

$$j(x):=\mathrm{max}(t(x),g(x))N(2,\frac{3}{2},x)J(x):=\mathrm{min}(T(x),G(x))$$
(5.7)
for all $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$. One finds numerically that: $`j(x)=t(x)`$ for $`0x1.92`$ and $`j(x)=g(x)`$ for $`x1.93`$; $`J(x)=T(x)`$ for $`0x2.16`$ and $`J(x)=G(x)`$ for $`x2.17`$. Let us introduce the relative uncertainty

$$\eta (x):=\frac{J(x)j(x)}{J(x)+j(x)}.$$
(5.8)
Then: $`\eta (0)=0`$, $`\eta (1)<0.0021`$; $`sup_{x[0,+\mathrm{})}\eta (x)<0.062`$, the sup being attained at the point $`x_0(2.16,2.17)`$ where $`T(x_0)=G(x_0)`$; $`\eta (x)=\xi (x)`$ for $`x2.17`$. $``$ ii) We keep $`\delta =3/2`$ as before, but assume $`\alpha =1/2`$. Prop.4.1 with $`n=2`$ gives

$$g(x)N(\frac{1}{2},\frac{3}{2},x)G(x)\text{for all }x[0,+\mathrm{}),$$
(5.9)
where

$$g(x):=\frac{\gamma (1/2,x)}{\sqrt{x}}\frac{3\gamma (3/2,x)}{2x^{3/2}}+\frac{3\gamma (5/2,x)}{8x^{5/2}},G(x):=\frac{\gamma (1/2,x)}{\sqrt{x}}\frac{3\gamma (3/2,x)}{2x^{3/2}}+\frac{\gamma (5/2,x)}{2x^{5/2}}$$
(5.10)
$$\left(g(0)=\frac{23}{20},G(0)=\frac{6}{5}\right).$$

One can express $`\gamma (5/2,)`$, and $`\gamma (3/2,)`$ in terms of $`\gamma (1/2,)`$ by means of the recursion rule (1.10); in this way, the previous bounds take the form

$$g(x)=\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}}\frac{3}{4x^{3/2}}+\frac{9}{32x^{5/2}}\right)\gamma (\frac{1}{2},x)+\left(\frac{9}{8x}\frac{9}{16x^2}\right)e^x,$$
(5.11)
$$G(x)=\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}}\frac{3}{4x^{3/2}}+\frac{3}{8x^{5/2}}\right)\gamma (\frac{1}{2},x)+\left(\frac{1}{x}\frac{3}{4x^2}\right)e^x.$$

From the above result we can infer upper and lower bounds for $`N(1/2,3/2,x)`$ in terms of elementary functions, using for $`\gamma (1/2,x)`$ the Padé approximants described in Sect.1.

Let us recall the general Padé approximants (1.21-1.22). To get a lower bound for $`g(x)`$, we substitute in Eq.(5.11) the inequalities $`(1/\sqrt{x}+9/32x^{5/2})\gamma (1/2,x)`$ $`(1/\sqrt{x}+9/32x^{5/2})\times `$ (the Padé lower bound of order $`q=1`$), $`3/4x^{3/2}\gamma (1/2,x)`$ $`3/4x^{3/2}\times `$ (the Padé upper bound of order $`1`$); we proceed similarly to obtain an upper bound for $`G(x)`$, using again the approximants with $`q=1`$. In this way, for all $`x(0,+\mathrm{})`$ we find

$$g(x)p(x):=\frac{\sqrt{\pi }}{\sqrt{x}}\frac{3\sqrt{\pi }}{4x^{3/2}}+\frac{9\sqrt{\pi }}{32x^{5/2}}+(\frac{9}{8x}\frac{2}{3+2x}+$$

$$+\frac{3}{2x(1+2x)}\frac{2}{x(3+2x)}\frac{9}{16x^2}\frac{9}{16x^2(3+2x)}\frac{9}{16x^3(3+2x)})e^x;$$
(5.12)
$$G(x)P(x):=\frac{\sqrt{\pi }}{\sqrt{x}}\frac{3\sqrt{\pi }}{4x^{3/2}}+\frac{3\sqrt{\pi }}{8x^{5/2}}+(\frac{1}{x}\frac{2}{1+2x}+$$

$$\frac{3}{4x^2}+\frac{3}{2x(3+2x)}\frac{3}{4x^2(1+2x)}+\frac{3}{2x^2(3+2x)})e^x.$$
(5.13)
The approximants $`p,P`$ are not accurate for small $`x`$ and tend to $`\mathrm{}`$, respectively, for $`x0^+`$. For this reason, we match them with the Taylor bounds (1.29-1.30) of order $`m=4`$, which have the form

$$t(x)N(\frac{1}{2},\frac{3}{2},x)T(x)$$
(5.14)
$$t(x):=\frac{3\pi }{8}\frac{\pi }{16}x+\frac{3\pi }{256}x^2\frac{\pi }{512}x^3+\frac{7\pi }{24576}x^4e^x,$$
(5.15)
$$T(x):=\frac{3\pi }{8}\frac{\pi }{16}x+\frac{3\pi }{256}x^2\frac{\pi }{512}x^3+\frac{7\pi }{24576}x^4.$$

The final bounds for $`N`$ are

$$\mathrm{}(x):=\mathrm{max}(t(x),p(x))N(\frac{1}{2},\frac{3}{2},x)L(x):=\mathrm{min}(T(x),P(x))\text{for }x[0,+\mathrm{}).$$
(5.16)
One finds numerically that: $`\mathrm{}(x)=t(x)`$ for $`0x1.95`$ and $`\mathrm{}(x)=p(x)`$ for $`x1.96`$; $`L(x)=T(x)`$ for $`0x2.41`$ and $`L(x)=P(x)`$ for $`x2.42`$. Let us introduce the relative uncertainty

$$\vartheta (x):=\frac{L(x)\mathrm{}(x)}{L(x)+\mathrm{}(x)}.$$
(5.17)
Then: $`\vartheta (0)=0`$, $`\vartheta (1)<0.00028`$; $`sup_{x[0,+\mathrm{})}\vartheta (x)<0.0074`$, the sup being attained at the point $`x_0(2.41,2.42)`$ where $`T(x_0)=P(x_0)`$; $`\vartheta (3)<0.0051`$, $`\vartheta (7)<0.0011`$, $`\vartheta (x)0`$ for $`x+\mathrm{}`$. $``$ iii) We assume $`\alpha =2`$, $`\delta =1/2`$ and apply Prop.4.2; in this case, to get satisfactory results it is convenient to increase the order of the approximation, so we choose $`n=4`$. In this way, we obtain

$$g(x)N(2,\frac{1}{2},x)G(x)\text{for all }x[0,+\mathrm{}),$$
(5.18)
where

$$g(x):=\frac{\gamma (2,x)}{x^2}+\frac{\gamma (3,x)}{2x^3}+\frac{3\gamma (4,x)}{8x^4}+\frac{5\gamma (5,x)}{16x^5}+\frac{35\gamma (6,x)}{128x^6},$$

$$G(x):=\frac{\gamma (2,x)}{x^2}+\frac{\gamma (3,x)}{2x^3}+\frac{3\gamma (4,x)}{8x^4}+\frac{5\gamma (5,x)}{16x^5}+\frac{455\gamma (6,x)}{128x^6}$$
(5.19)
$$\left(g(0)=\frac{667}{768},G(0)=\frac{1087}{768}\right).$$

All the above incomplete Gammas are elementary: the ones of orders $`2`$, $`3`$, $`4`$ are read from Example i), the other ones are $`\gamma (5,x)=24(x^4+4x^3+12x^2+24x+24)e^x`$, $`\gamma (6,x)=120(x^5+5x^4+20x^3+60x^2+120x+120)e^x`$. Thus

$$g(x)=\frac{1}{x^2}+\frac{1}{x^3}+\frac{9}{4x^4}+\frac{15}{2x^5}+\frac{525}{16x^6}\left(\frac{315}{128x}+\frac{735}{128x^2}+\frac{399}{32x^3}+\frac{837}{32x^4}+\frac{645}{16x^5}+\frac{525}{16x^6}\right)e^x,$$
(5.20)
$$G(x)=\frac{1}{x^2}+\frac{1}{x^3}+\frac{9}{4x^4}+\frac{15}{2x^5}+\frac{6825}{16x^6}\left(\frac{735}{128x}+\frac{2835}{128x^2}+\frac{2499}{32x^3}+\frac{7137}{32x^4}+\frac{6945}{16x^5}+\frac{6825}{16x^6}\right)e^x.$$

The relative difference

$$\xi (x):=\frac{G(x)g(x)}{G(x)+g(x)}$$
(5.21)
is a decreasing function. It is: $`\xi (0)=210/877<0.24`$, $`\xi (1)<0.22`$, $`\xi (3)<0.15`$, $`\xi (7)<0.046`$ and $`\xi (x)0`$ for $`x+\mathrm{}`$.

Again, for small $`x`$ we can improve the previous estimates using the Taylor bounds (1.29-1.30); with $`m=4`$, these are

$$t(x)N(2,\frac{1}{2},x)T(x)\text{for }x[0,+\mathrm{}),$$
(5.22)
$$t(x):=\frac{4}{3}\frac{16}{15}x+\frac{16}{35}x^2\frac{128}{945}x^3+\frac{64}{2079}x^4e^x,$$
(5.23)
$$T(x):=\frac{4}{3}\frac{16}{15}x+\frac{16}{35}x^2\frac{128}{945}x^3+\frac{64}{2079}x^4.$$

The final bounds arising from (5.18) and (5.22) are

$$j(x):=\mathrm{max}(t(x),g(x))N(2,\frac{1}{2},x)J(x):=\mathrm{min}(T(x),G(x))$$
(5.24)
for all $`x[0,+\mathrm{})`$. One finds numerically that: $`j(x)=t(x)`$ for $`0x1.57`$ and $`j(x)=g(x)`$ for $`x1.58`$; $`J(x)=T(x)`$ for $`0x1.54`$ and $`J(x)=G(x)`$ for $`x1.55`$. The relative uncertainty

$$\eta (x):=\frac{J(x)j(x)}{J(x)+j(x)}$$
(5.25)
has the following features: $`\eta (0)=0`$, $`\eta (1)<0.016`$; $`sup_{x[0,+\mathrm{})}\eta (x)<0.20`$, the sup being attained at the point $`x_0(1.57,1.58)`$ where $`t(x_0)=g(x_0)`$; $`\eta (x)=\xi (x)`$ for $`x1.58`$. $``$

Acknowledgments. We are grateful to S. Paveri-Fontana for useful discussions. This work was partly supported by INdAM and by MIUR, COFIN/2001 Research Project ”Geometry of Integrable Systems”.