text:
# Analogue of the Kubo Formula for Conductivity of Spatially Inhomogeneous Systems and Electric Fields.

## I Introduction

In connection with an increased interest to experimental and theoretical study of low dimensional semiconductor objects - quantum wells, wires and dots - a construction of the fundamental theory of interaction of electromagnetic fields with spatially inhomogeneous systems becomes actual.

R. J. Kubo  obtained the formula for the conductivity tensor $`\sigma _{\alpha \beta }(\omega )`$, applicable in a case of spatially homogeneous systems and electric fields $`𝐄(t)`$ independent of spatial coordinates. This formula takes into account exactly the interaction of current carriers with the medium. Consequently, it is a powerful tool for the solution of concrete conductivity problems in solids.

In present work we generalize the Kubo formula on a case of spatially inhomogeneous systems and fields. Previously we calculate average densities of currents and charges induced by electromagnetic field.

Kubo  used the interaction operator of current carriers with the electric field as

$$U_K=\underset{i}{}e_i𝐫_i𝐄(t),$$
(1)
where $`e_i`$ and $`𝐫_i`$ are the charge and radius - vector of $`i`$ -th particle, respectively, $`𝐄(t)`$ is the time-dependent, but spatially homogeneous electric field. However, it follows from the Maxwell equations that the time-dependent electric field necessarily depends and on coordinates, so the use of Eq. (1) is always a certain approximation, if the field $`𝐄`$ depends on $`t`$. In spatially inhomogeneous systems the dependence of fields on coordinates can be essential.

Our task consists in taking into account of heterogeneity of systems and in obtaining of additional terms in the Kubo formula containing derivatives from electric field on coordinates.

The operator of interaction of an electromagnetic field with a system of charged particles is expressed through the vector $`𝐀(𝐫,t)`$ and scalar $`\phi (𝐫,t)`$ potentials (see, for example, , page 68), but it is not expressed through electric $`𝐄(𝐫,t)`$ and magnetic $`𝐇(𝐫,t)`$ fields, except of individual cases as, for example, a constant electric field. Accordingly and operators of densities of currents $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)`$ and charges $`\rho _1(𝐫,t)`$ in linear approximation on vector and scalar potentials are not expressed through $`𝐄(𝐫,t)`$ and $`𝐇(𝐫,t)`$. However, average values $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)`$ and $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)`$ should be expressed through fields, as the observable values. At finite temperatures $`T`$ an average value is defined as

$$\mathrm{}=\frac{Sp\{\mathrm{exp}(\beta )\mathrm{}\}}{Sp\{\mathrm{exp}(\beta )\}},\beta =\frac{1}{kT},$$
(2)
$``$ is the Hamiltonian without an interaction of particles with a weak electromagnetic field.

The expressions for average $`0|𝐣_1(𝐫,t)|0`$ and $`0|\rho _1(𝐫,t)|0`$ for $`T=0`$ (when average $`\mathrm{}`$ passes in average $`0|\mathrm{}|0`$ on the ground state $`|0`$ are obtained in . The present work is a direct continuation of . The designations and many results of  will be used below.

The problem of an expression of average $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)`$ and $`\rho _1(𝐫,t)`$ through electric and magnetic fields is essential also because if to express average $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)`$ through vector and scalar potentials, this average contains the contribution $`(e/mc)\rho (𝐫)𝐀(𝐫,t))`$, where $`e=e_i,m=m_i`$ are the charge and mass of the particle, $`c`$ is the light velocity, $`\rho (𝐫)`$ is the operator of the charge density in a zero approximation on fields (see Eq. (9) below). This contribution creates complexities at solutions of some concrete tasks, for example, about light reflection and absorption by semiconductor quantum wells. These complexities may be avoided if to express the average $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)`$ and $`\rho _1(𝐫,t)`$ through electric fields and their derivatives on coordinates.

The question on what kind of interaction to use - containing the vector potential or electric field - was discussed earlier in  with reference to a task about light scattering in bulk crystals. In  apparently for the first time the reception is used of transition from the operators $`𝐯_i`$ of particles velocities to the operators $`𝐫_i`$ of coordinates according to a quantum ratio $`𝐯_i=(i/\mathrm{})[,𝐫_i]`$, due to which it is possible to pass from expressions containing vector potential to expressions containing electric fields. However, as we should solve other tasks about spatially - inhomogeneous systems, it is necessary again to come back to this theme.

Considering finite temperatures we use mathematical receptions offered in . We compare our results with conclusions of  devoted to construction of the quantum theory of a spatial dispersion electric and magnetic susceptibilities. It is supposed below that there are no charges and currents on the indefinitely removed distances and that the fields $`𝐄(𝐫,t)`$ and $`𝐇(𝐫,t)`$ are equal $`0`$ on times $`t\mathrm{}`$ what corresponds to adiabatic field switching.

## II The system Hamiltonian and operators of current and charge densities.

Let us consider a system of $`N`$ particles with the charge $`e`$ and the mass $`m`$ in any arbitrary weak electromagnetic field, characterized by intensities $`𝐄(𝐫,t)`$ and $`𝐇(𝐫,t)`$. Let us introduce vector $`𝐀(𝐫,t)`$ and scalar $`\phi (𝐫,t)`$ potentials so that

$`𝐄(𝐫,t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle \frac{𝐀(𝐫,t)}{t}}grad\phi (𝐫,t),`$ (3)
$`𝐇(𝐫,t)`$ $`=`$ $`rot𝐀(𝐫,t).`$ (4)
The fields are assumed classical, the gauge of potentials $`𝐀`$ and $`\phi `$ is any. For completeness of the task we shall admit, that the system of particles may be placed in the constant magnetic field $``$ which may be strong. The vector potential $`𝒜(𝐫)`$ corresponds to this field, so that $`𝐇=rot𝒜(𝐫)`$. The total Hamiltonian $`_{total}`$ is as follows

$`_{total}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2m}}{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}(𝐏_i{\displaystyle \frac{e}{c}}𝒜(𝐫_i){\displaystyle \frac{e}{c}}𝐀(𝐫_i,t))^2`$ (5)
$`+`$ $`V(𝐫_1,\mathrm{}𝐫_N)+e{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\phi (𝐫_i,t),`$ (6)
where $`𝐏_i=i\mathrm{}(/𝐫_i)`$ is the generalized momentum operator, $`V(𝐫_1\mathrm{}𝐫_N)`$ is the potential energy, including interaction between particles and an external potential. In Eq. (4) it is necessary to take into account non-commutativity of $`𝐏_i`$ and $`𝒜(𝐫_i),𝐀(𝐫_i,t)`$. Let us allocate in Eq. (4) the energy $`U`$ of the interaction of particles with electromagnetic field, including interaction with a strong magnetic field in the basic Hamiltonian $``$

$$_{total}=+U,$$
(7)
where the designations are introduced

$$=\frac{1}{2m}\underset{i}{}𝐩_i^2+V(𝐫_1\mathrm{}𝐫_N),𝐩_i=𝐏_i\frac{e}{c}𝒜(𝐫_i),$$
(8)
$`U`$ $`=`$ $`U_1+U_2,`$ (9)
$`U_1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r𝐣(𝐫)𝐀(𝐫,t)}+{\displaystyle d^3r\rho (𝐫)\phi (𝐫,t)},`$ (10)
$`U_2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e}{2mc}}{\displaystyle d^3r\rho (𝐫)𝐀^2(𝐫,t)}`$ (11)
The operators of densities of currents and charges are also introduced

$$𝐣(𝐫)=\underset{i}{}𝐣_i(𝐫),$$

$$𝐣_i(𝐫)=\frac{e}{2}[\delta (𝐫𝐫_i)𝐯_i+𝐯_i\delta (𝐫𝐫_i)],𝐯_i=𝐩_i/m,$$

$$\rho (𝐫)=\underset{i}{}\rho _i(𝐫),\rho _i(𝐫)=e\delta (𝐫𝐫_i).$$

The operators $`𝐣_i(𝐫)`$ and $`\rho _i(𝐫)`$ are connected by the continuity equation

$$div𝐣_i(𝐫)+\dot{\rho }_i(𝐫)=0,\dot{\rho }_i(𝐫)=\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}[,\rho (𝐫)],$$
(12)
which will be used below. The operator $`U_2`$ is out of the frameworks of linear approximation on fields and is omitted below.

In the Heisenberg representation the additives to the operators of densities of currents and charges linear on potentials $`𝐀(𝐫,t)`$ and $`\phi (𝐫,t)`$ are equal

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)={\displaystyle \frac{e}{mc}}\rho (𝐫,t)A_\alpha (𝐫,t)`$ (13)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^t}𝑑t^{}[U_1(t^{}),j_\alpha (𝐫,t)],`$ (14)
$`\rho _1(𝐫,t)={\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^t}𝑑t^{}[U_1(t^{}),\rho (𝐫,t)],`$ (15)
where the subscript 1 means a linear approximation on fields, $`\rho (𝐫,t),j(𝐫,t)`$ and $`U_1(t)`$ are operators in the interaction representation, for example,

$$\rho (𝐫,t)=e^{it/\mathrm{}}\rho (𝐫)e^{it/\mathrm{}},$$

$`[F,Q]=FQQF`$ is the commutator of the operators $`F`$ and $`Q`$. By substituting Eq. (7) into Eq. (9) we obtain for $`U_1`$

$`j`$ $`{}_{1\alpha }{}^{}(𝐫,t)={\displaystyle \frac{e}{mc}}\rho (𝐫,t)A_\alpha (𝐫,t)`$ (16)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}[j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t),j_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})]A_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})}`$ (17)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}[j_\alpha (𝐫,t),\rho (𝐫^{},t^{})]\phi (𝐫^{},t^{})},`$ (18)
$`\rho `$ $`{}_{1}{}^{}(𝐫,t)={\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}c}}{\displaystyle }d^3r^{}{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^t}dt^{}[\rho (𝐫,t),j_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})]A_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})`$ (19)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}[\rho (𝐫,t),\rho (𝐫^{},t^{})]\phi (𝐫^{},t^{})}.`$ (20)
## III Average values of induced densities of currents and charges.

The case $`T=0`$ is considered in . And operators of Eqs. (10) and (11) are averaged on the ground state of system. It is shown in  (page 84) that at averaging it is necessary to use wave functions $`|0`$ of the ground state without taking into account the interaction $`U`$. Transforming expressions for the averaged values $`0|j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)|0`$ and $`0|\rho _1(𝐫,t)|0`$ from  we obtain the results

$`0|j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)|0`$ $`=`$ $`0|j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)|0_E+0|j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)|0_{E/r},`$ (21)
$`0|\rho _1(𝐫,t)|0`$ $`=`$ $`0|\rho _1(𝐫,t)|0_E+0|\rho _1(𝐫,t)|0_{E/r},`$ (22)
where subscripts $`E`$ and $`E/r`$ designate the contributions, containing an electric field and derivative from field on coordinate, respectively. Passing to consideration of systems at finite temperatures, we replace in Eq. (12) averaging $`0|\mathrm{}|0`$ on the ground state by averaging $`\mathrm{}`$, defined in Eq. (2). Legality of such replacement will be proved below at comparison with results of the authors . Thus, in Eq. (12) we replace averaging $`0|\mathrm{}|0`$ by $`\mathrm{}`$. According to  we have

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_E`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}[j_\alpha (𝐫,t),d_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})]}`$ (23)
$`\times `$ $`E_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{}),`$ (24)
$`\rho _1(𝐫,t)_E`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}[\rho (𝐫,t),d_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})]}`$ (25)
$`\times `$ $`E_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{}),`$ (26)
$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_{E/r}={\displaystyle \frac{e}{mc}}d_\beta (𝐫){\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫,t)}{r_\alpha }}`$ (27)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}[j_\alpha (𝐫,t),Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{},t^{})]}`$ (28)
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})}{r_\gamma ^{}}},`$ (29)
$`\rho _1(𝐫,t)_{\frac{E}{r}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}}`$ (30)
$`\times `$ $`[\rho (𝐫,t),Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{},t^{})]{\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})}{r_\gamma ^{}}},`$ (31)
where the designations are introduced

$$𝐝(𝐫)=𝐫\rho (𝐫),Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫)=r_\beta j_\gamma (𝐫),$$
(32)
$$𝐚(𝐫,t)=c_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}𝐄(𝐫,t^{}).$$
(33)
Let us transform the obtained expressions so that the transition to the Kubo formula for spatially homogeneous systems and electric field independent on coordinates would be seen clearly. We use the ratio

$$\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}[F(t),Q(t^{})]=_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda \frac{dQ(t^{})}{dt^{}}F(t+i\mathrm{}\lambda ),$$
(34)
true for any pair operators $`F`$ and $`Q`$. Using Eq. (19) we obtain from Eq. (13)

$``$ $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_E={\displaystyle }d^3r^{}{\displaystyle }_{\mathrm{}}^tdt^{}{\displaystyle }_0^\beta d\lambda `$ (35)
$`\times `$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{d_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})}{t^{}}}j_\alpha (𝐫,t+i\mathrm{}\lambda )E_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{}).`$ (36)
It is possible to show that

$$\frac{d_\beta (𝐫,t)}{t}=r_\beta \frac{j_\gamma (𝐫,t)}{r_\gamma }.$$
(37)
Substituting Eq. (21) in Eq. (20) and integrating on $`𝐫^{}`$ in parts we obtain

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_E`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda }`$ (38)
$`\times `$ $`j_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,t+i\mathrm{}\lambda )E_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})`$ (39)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda }`$ (40)
$`\times `$ $`Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{},t^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,t+i\mathrm{}\lambda ){\displaystyle \frac{E_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})}{r_\gamma ^{}}}.`$ (41)
In agreement with Eq.(15) the expression for $`j_{1\alpha }(,𝐫,t)_{E/r}`$ consists of two parts. We do not transform first of them, and in the second we integrate on $`t^{}`$ in parts and afterwards use Eq. (19). It results in

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_{E/r}={\displaystyle \frac{e}{mc}}d_\beta (𝐫){\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫,t)}{r_\alpha }}`$ (42)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )\frac{a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\gamma ^{}}}`$ (43)
$`{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{},t^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,t+i\mathrm{}\lambda )}`$ (44)
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{E_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})}{r_\gamma ^{}}}.`$ (45)
Summing Eqs. (22) and (23) we see that last terms in the RHSs of both formulas are reduced. Total expression we break on two parts

$$j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)=j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(1)}+j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}$$
(46)
so, that the first part contains an electric field, and the second contains a derivative from field on coordinates, i. e.

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(1)}={\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda }`$ (47)
$`\times j_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,t+i\mathrm{}\lambda )E_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{}),`$ (48)
$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{e}{mc}}d_\beta (𝐫){\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫,t)}{r_\alpha }}`$ (49)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )\frac{a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\gamma ^{}}}.`$ (50)
It is obvious, that the splitting Eq. (24) does not coincide with splitting Eq. (12) convenient only at $`T=0`$.

By similar way we obtain from Eqs. (14) and (16)

$$\rho _1(𝐫,t)=\rho _1(𝐫,t)^{(1)}+\rho _1(𝐫,t)^{(2)},$$
(51)
$`\rho _1(𝐫,t)^{(1)}={\displaystyle d^3r^{}_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda }`$ (52)
$`\times j_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{})\rho (𝐫,t+i\mathrm{}\lambda )E_\beta (𝐫^{},t^{}),`$ (53)
$`\rho _1(𝐫,t)^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda }`$ (54)
$`\times Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{})\rho (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda ){\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\gamma ^{}}}.`$ (55)
By obtaining Eqs. (24) - (29) we have reached our main goal: We have allocated the basic contributions with subscript (1) in average values of induced densities of currents and charges and also have shown that the additional contributions with subscript (2) contain derivatives from, electric field on coordinates. The sense of splitting on basic and additional contributions is that at solution of any tasks, in which the field $`𝐄(𝐫,t)`$ is spatially inhomogeneous, it is possible to estimate magnitudes of additional contributions and to determine: It is necessary to take them into account or it is possible to reject them. As well as in the case $`T=0`$, obtained expressions contain the operators $`𝐫_i`$ of particle coordinates unlike initial Eqs. (10) and (11) which do not contain these operators.

## IV Comparison with results of .

In  the expressions for values $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)`$ are received at finite temperatures, but these expressions differ from deduced by us and above mentioned. Parallel we make similar calculations of the value $`\rho _1(𝐫,t)`$, which was not considered in , but in the Maxwell equations it acts on the equal rights with average density of a current. Let us notice that in  it was considered homogeneous medium, in  - inhomogeneous. Solving the equation for the density matrix authors of  and  come to the formula, which may be obtained from Eq. (10), if in the RHS and in the LHS to realize averaging $`\mathrm{}`$ determined in Eq. (2). It is obvious, that similar expression for $`\rho _1(𝐫,t)`$ may be obtained by averaging both sides of Eq. (11).

Further the authors of  and  transform the expression for the average induced current density in such a manner that the electric field $`𝐄(𝐫,t)`$ appears in it and it contains the vector potential $`𝐀(𝐫,t)`$ simultaneously. By doing similar procedure in initial expression for the average induced charge density we obtain the result of a kind of Eq. (27), in which the contribution $`\rho _1(𝐫,t)^{(1)}`$ is determined by Eq. (28) and the contribution $`\rho _1(𝐫,t)^{(2)}`$ is equal

$`\rho _1(𝐫,t)^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda j_\beta (𝐫^{})\rho (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )}`$ (56)
$`\times A_\beta (𝐫^{},t).`$ (57)
For the contribution $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(1)}`$ from the RHS of Eq. (24) in  the result of Eq. (25) is obtained, as well as the expression

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{e}{mc}}\rho (𝐫)A_\alpha (𝐫,t)`$ (58)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda j_\beta (𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )A_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}.`$ (59)
The authors of  went further. With the help of Eq. (31) they have expressed the derivative from $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}`$ through an electric field. Integrating this derivative on time we obtain

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{e}{mc}}\rho (𝐫)a_\alpha (𝐫,t)`$ (60)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda j_\beta (𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}`$ (61)
and analogously

$`\rho _1(𝐫,t)^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda j_\beta (𝐫^{})\rho (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )}`$ (62)
$`\times a_\beta (𝐫^{},t).`$ (63)
Thus, the formulas for the additional contributions of two kinds are obtained: Eqs. (26) and (29), containing only derivatives of electric fields on coordinates, and Eqs. (32) and (33), containing the electric field itself.

Let us show how it is possible to pass from Eq. (26) to Eq. (32), and from Eq. (29) to Eq. (33). In last term from the RHS of Eq. (26) we integrate on $`r_\gamma ^{}`$ in parts. Then we use the equality

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dY_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫)}{dr_\gamma }}=j_\beta (𝐫)+r_\beta (j_\gamma (𝐫)/r_\gamma )`$ (64)
$`=j_\beta (𝐫)r_\beta \dot{\rho }(𝐫).`$ (65)
Then from Eq. (26) we have

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{e}{mc}}d_\beta (𝐫){\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫,t)}{r_\alpha }}`$ (66)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda j_\beta (𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}`$ (67)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}r_\beta ^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda \dot{\rho }(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}.`$ (68)
In the last term we use Eq. (19) and integrate on $`𝐫^{}`$. We obtain that this last term is equal

$`{\displaystyle \frac{ie}{\mathrm{}c}}[j_\alpha (𝐫),{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}r_{i\beta }a_\beta (𝐫_i,t)]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e}{mc}}[\rho (𝐫)a_\alpha (𝐫,t)`$ (69)
$`+`$ $`d_\beta (𝐫){\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫,t)}{r_\alpha }}].`$ (70)
By substituting it in Eq. (35) we come to result of Eq. (32), as it was required to prove. We transform similarly Eq. (29) for $`\rho _1(𝐫,t)^{(2)}`$. The difference consists only that instead of Eq. (36) we have

$$\frac{ie}{\mathrm{}c}[\rho (𝐫),\underset{i}{}r_{i\beta }a_\beta (𝐫_i,t)]=0$$

and from Eq. (29) we pass to Eq. (33).

Thus, comparing our results with results of  and , we have proved applicability of Eqs. (26) and (29) for the additional contributions in average values of the induced densities of current and charge containing only derivatives on coordinates from electric fields.

## V The analysis of the formulas for the additional contribution to the average density of a current.

The value $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}`$ is determined in three forms of Eqs. (26), (31) and (32). In  some properties of this value are listed. Let us continue its research and we shall obtain the fourth expression for $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}`$ through derivatives of vector potential $`𝐀(𝐫,t)`$ on coordinates. In the second term of Eq. (31) for $`j_\beta (𝐫^{})`$ we use Eq. (34). It results in splitting of the second term into two parts: In first of them we integrate on $`r_\gamma ^{}`$ in parts, in the second we use the formula

$$\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}[F,Q]=_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda \dot{Q}F(i\mathrm{}\lambda ),$$
(71)
which follows from Eq. (19) at $`t^{}=t`$. By calculating the commutator we obtain

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{e}{mc}}d_\beta (𝐫){\displaystyle \frac{A_\beta (𝐫,t)}{r_\alpha }}`$ (72)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )\frac{A_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\alpha ^{}}}.`$ (73)
For reception one more - fifth - expression for the additional contribution to the density of a current we apply Eq. (34) to the value $`j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )`$ from Eq. (31), and also following updating of Eq. (37)

$$\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}[F,Q]=_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda F\dot{Q}(i\mathrm{}\lambda ).$$
(74)
It results in

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{e}{mc}}{\displaystyle \frac{}{r_\beta }}\{d_\alpha (𝐫)A_\beta (𝐫,t)\}`$ (75)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle \frac{}{r_\gamma }}\left\{{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda j_\beta (𝐫^{})Y_{\alpha \gamma }(𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )A_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}\right\}.`$ (76)
From Eq. (40) it follows, that the integral on all space from $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}`$ is equal $`0`$ .

## VI The transition to expressions containing a magnetic field.

Let us obtain the sixth expression for $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}`$, in which we shall introduce a magnetic field. Let us break Eq. (38) on two parts

$$j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}=j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{()}+j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(+)},$$
(77)
$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(\pm )}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e}{2mc}}d_{\alpha \beta }(𝐫)\left({\displaystyle \frac{A_\beta (𝐫,t)}{r_\alpha }}\pm {\displaystyle \frac{A_\alpha (𝐫,t)}{r_\beta }}\right)`$ (78)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )}`$ (79)
$`\times `$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{A_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\gamma ^{}}}\pm {\displaystyle \frac{A_\gamma (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\beta ^{}}}\right).`$ (80)
Since $`𝐇=rot𝐀`$, the value $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{()}`$ is expressed through the magnetic field

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{()}={\displaystyle \frac{e}{2mc}}(𝐇(𝐫,t)\times 𝐫)_\alpha \rho (𝐫)`$ (81)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda (𝐇(𝐫^{},t)\times 𝐫^{})_\beta j_\beta (𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )},`$ (82)
and $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(+)}`$ may be expressed through the second derivatives from the vector potential on coordinates

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(+)}={\displaystyle \frac{e}{2mc}}\rho (𝐫)r_\beta r_\gamma {\displaystyle \frac{^2A_\beta }{r_\alpha r_\gamma }}`$ (83)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}r_\beta ^{}r_\delta ^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda j_\gamma (𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )\frac{^2A_\beta }{r_\gamma ^{}r_\delta ^{}}}.`$ (84)
To deduce Eq. (44) from Eq. (42) we have acted as follows: In Eq. (42) we have used a ratio $`Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{})=r_\beta ^{}j_\gamma (𝐫^{}),`$ and for $`j_\gamma (𝐫^{})`$ we have used Eq. (34). Further in the term, containing $`Y_{\gamma \delta }(𝐫^{})/r_\delta ^{},`$ we integrated on $`r_\delta ^{}`$ in parts and in the term, containing $`\dot{d}_\gamma (𝐫^{})`$, we used Eq. (39), integrated on $`𝐫^{}`$ and have calculated the commutator.

It is possible to show that values $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(+)}`$ and $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{()}`$ separately have properties

$$div𝐣_1(𝐫,t)^{(\pm )}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},d^3rj_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(\pm )}=0.$$
(85)
Let us show that the contribution $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(+)}`$ may be expressed through the second derivatives from an electric field on coordinates. For this purpose we shall substitute the expression

$$𝐀(𝐫,t)=𝐚(𝐫,t)c_{\mathrm{}}^t𝑑t^{}\frac{\phi (𝐫,t^{})}{𝐫}$$
(86)
for the vector potential (following from Eq. (3)) in Eq. (42). Then in values $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(\pm )}`$ it is possible to allocate the contributions from scalar potential, to which we shall attribute index $`\phi `$, i. e.

$$j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(\pm )}=j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_E^{(\pm )}+j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_\phi ^{(\pm )}.$$
(87)
At once we obtain that

$$j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_\phi ^{()}=0,$$
(88)
and

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_\phi ^{(+)}={\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^t}dt^{}[{\displaystyle \frac{e}{m}}d_\beta (r){\displaystyle \frac{^2\phi (𝐫,t^{})}{r_\alpha r_\beta }}`$ (89)
$`+{\displaystyle }d^3r^{}{\displaystyle _0^\beta }d\lambda Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda ){\displaystyle \frac{^2\phi }{r_\beta ^{}r_\gamma ^{}}}].`$ (90)
In the second term of Eq. (49) we integrate twice in parts, at first on variable $`r_\gamma ^{}`$, then on variable $`r_\beta ^{}`$. Further we use the equation of a continuity Eq. (8) and Eq. (37). In a result we obtain that the second term from Eq. (49) is equal to the first with opposite sign and

$$j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_\phi ^{(+)}=0.$$
(91)
Taking into account Eqs. (48) and (50) we obtain from Eqs. (47) and (42)

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(\pm )}`$ $`=`$ $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_E^{(\pm )}`$ (92)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e}{2mc}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫,t)}{r_\alpha }}\pm {\displaystyle \frac{a_\alpha (𝐫,t)}{r_\beta }}\right)`$ (93)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫^{})j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )}`$ (94)
$`\times `$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\gamma ^{}}}\pm {\displaystyle \frac{a_\gamma (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\beta ^{}}}\right).`$ (95)
Taking into account the Maxwell equations $`rot𝐄=(1/c)(𝐇/t)`$ and definition Eq. (18) of $`𝐚(𝐫,t)`$ again we come to Eq. (43) for $`j_\alpha (𝐫,t)^{()}`$, and we obtain also

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(+)}={\displaystyle \frac{e}{2mc}}\rho (𝐫)r_\beta r\gamma {\displaystyle \frac{^2a_\beta (𝐫,t)}{r_\alpha r_\gamma }}`$ (96)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda r_\beta ^{}r_\gamma ^{}j_\gamma (𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )\frac{^2a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\gamma ^{}r_\delta ^{}}}.`$ (97)
Taking into account definition Eq. (18) we find that $`J_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(+)}`$ is expressed through the second derivatives from an electric field on coordinates. Thus, the sixth and last formula for the additional contribution $`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}`$ is determined by the sum of Eqs. (43) and (52).

## VII The exception of diagonal elements of operators

$`𝐫_i.`$

Eqs. (26) and (29) for the additional contributions in average induced densities of currents and charges, as against Eqs. (32) and (33), contain the operators $`𝐫_i`$ of coordinates of particles. Really, the definitions Eq. (17) may be copied as

$$𝐝(𝐫)=e\underset{i}{}𝐫_i\delta (𝐫𝐫_i),$$
(98)
$$Y_{\beta \gamma }=\frac{e}{2}\underset{i}{}(r_{i\beta }j_{i\gamma }+j_{i\gamma }r_{i\beta }).$$
(99)
But average magnitudes $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)`$ and $`\rho _1(𝐫,t)`$ should not depend on a point of readout of coordinates $`𝐫_i`$. It means that Eqs. (26) and (29) contain only non-diagonal elements of the operators $`𝐫_i`$, and the diagonal elements may be excluded. Let us show that it is so indeed.

Let us transform Eq. (54) so that the operator $`r_{i\beta }`$ stood only at the left

$$Y_{\beta \gamma }(𝐫)=\frac{i\mathrm{}}{2m}\delta _{\beta \gamma }\rho (𝐫)+\underset{i}{}r_{i\beta }j_{i\gamma }(𝐫).$$
(100)
Substituting Eqs. (53) and (55) in Eq. (26) we obtain

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{i\mathrm{}}{2mc}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda \rho (𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )}`$ (101)
$`\times div𝐚(𝐫^{},t)+{\displaystyle \frac{e^2}{mc}}{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}r_{i\beta }\delta (𝐫𝐫_i){\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫,t)}{r_\alpha }}`$ (102)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda \underset{i}{}r_{i\beta }j_{i\gamma }(𝐫^{})j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )}`$ (103)
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\gamma ^{}}}.`$ (104)
First two terms in Eq. (56) we shall leave without changes, and in the last let us split the operator $`𝐫_i`$ in two parts:

$$𝐫_i=𝐫_i^d+𝐫_i^{nd},$$
(105)
where superscripts $`d`$ and $`nd`$ mean diagonal and non-diagonal contributions, respectively. The operator $`𝐫_i^d`$ is determined through its matrix elements

$$n|𝐫_i^d|m=n|𝐫_i|mn|m,$$
(106)
where $`|n`$ are the eigen-functions of the Hamiltonian $``$. The commutativity property is obvious

$$[,𝐫_i^d]=0.$$

Let us consider the contribution from the operator $`𝐫_i^d`$ in the last term in Eq. (56) and designate this contribution as $`I_\alpha (𝐫,t)`$. We execute integration on $`r_\gamma ^{}`$ in parts and use a continuity ratio of Eq. (8). We obtain

$`I_\alpha (𝐫,t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda \underset{i}{}r_{i\beta }^d\dot{\rho }_i(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )}`$ (107)
$`\times `$ $`a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)).`$ (108)
As the operator $`𝐫_i^d`$ commutes with the Hamiltonian $``$ it is possible to rewrite Eq. (59) as

$`I_\alpha (𝐫,t)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda }`$ (109)
$`\times {\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\dot{\rho }_i(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )r_{i\beta }^d(i\mathrm{}\lambda )a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)).`$ (110)
Let us substitute in Eq. (60) $`r_{i\beta }^d=r_{i\beta }r_{i\beta }^{nd}`$. Then the value $`I_\alpha (𝐫,t)`$ will be split on two parts

$$I_\alpha (𝐫,t)=I_\alpha ^{}(𝐫,t)+I_\alpha ^{\prime \prime }(𝐫,t),$$
(111)
where

$`I_\alpha ^{}(𝐫,t)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda }`$ (112)
$`\times {\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\dot{\rho }_i(𝐫^{}))j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )r_{i\beta }(i\mathrm{}\lambda )a_\beta (𝐫^{},t).`$ (113)
$`I_\alpha ^{\prime \prime }(𝐫,t)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda }`$ (114)
$`\times {\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\dot{\rho }_i(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )r_{i\beta }^{nd}(i\mathrm{}\lambda )a_\beta (𝐫^{},t).`$ (115)
Eq. (62) with the help of Eq. (37) turns in

$$I_\alpha ^{}(𝐫,t)=\frac{i}{\mathrm{}c}d^3r^{}\underset{i}{}[j_\alpha (𝐫)r_{i\beta },\rho (𝐫^{})]a_\beta (𝐫^{},t).$$
(116)
Integrating on $`𝐫^{}`$ and calculating the commutator we obtain the expression

$$I_\alpha ^{}(𝐫,t)=\frac{e^2}{mc}\underset{i}{}r_{i\beta }\delta (𝐫𝐫_i)\frac{a_\beta (𝐫,t)}{r_\alpha },$$
(117)
which is reduced with the second term in Eq. (56). There remains the value $`I_\alpha ^{\prime \prime }(𝐫,t),`$ which we shall transform using the continuity equation of Eq. (8) and integrating on variable $`r_\gamma ^{}`$ in parts. It results in

$`I_\alpha ^{\prime \prime }(𝐫,t)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle }d^3r^{}{\displaystyle _0^\beta }d\lambda {\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}j_{i\gamma }(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )`$ (118)
$`\times r_{i\beta }^{nd}(i\mathrm{}\lambda ){\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\gamma ^{}}}.`$ (119)
Using Eqs. (61), (65) and (66) we obtain the final expression for the additional contribution to the average induced density of a current not containing of diagonal matrix elements of the operator $`𝐫_i`$:

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)^{(2)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i\mathrm{}}{2mc}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda \rho (𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )}`$ (120)
$`\times div𝐚(𝐫^{},t)`$ $`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle }d^3r^{}{\displaystyle _0^\beta }d\lambda {\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}j_{i\gamma }(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )`$ (121)
$`\times `$ $`r_{i\beta }^{nd}(i\mathrm{}\lambda )`$ (122)
$``$ $`r_{i\beta }^{nd}j_{i\gamma }(𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda ){\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\gamma ^{}}}.`$ (123)
Similarly we obtain

$`\rho (𝐫,t)^{(2)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i\mathrm{}}{2mc}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda \rho (𝐫^{})\rho (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )𝑑iv𝐚(𝐫^{},t)}`$ (124)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle }d^3r^{}{\displaystyle _0^\beta }d\lambda {\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}j_{i\gamma }(𝐫^{})\rho (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda )r_{i\beta }^{nd}(i\mathrm{}\lambda )`$ (125)
$``$ $`r_{i\beta }^{nd}j_{i\gamma }(𝐫^{})\rho (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda ){\displaystyle \frac{a_\beta (𝐫^{},t)}{r_\gamma ^{}}}.`$ (126)
## VIII The Conductivity Tensor.

Let us make the Fourier-transformation of an electric field

$$E_\alpha (𝐤,\omega )=d^3r_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑tE_\alpha (𝐫,t)e^{i(\mathrm{𝐤𝐫}\omega t)},$$
(127)
$$E_\alpha (𝐫,t)=\frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}d^3k_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\omega E_\alpha (𝐤,\omega )e^{i(\mathrm{𝐤𝐫}\omega t)}+c.c..$$
(128)
Average induced density of a current may be written down as

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle d^3k_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\omega \sigma _{\alpha \beta }(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)}`$ (129)
$`\times E_\beta (𝐤,\omega )e^{i(\mathrm{𝐤𝐫}\omega t)}+c.c.,`$ (130)
where $`\sigma _{\alpha \beta }(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)`$ is the conductivity tensor dependent on spatial coordinates (this designation is borrowed from ).

Using Eqs. (25) and (67) for basic and additional contributions, respectively, into the average induced density of a current, we obtain

$$\sigma _{\alpha \beta }(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)=\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^{(1)}(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)+\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^{(2)}(𝐤,\omega |𝐫),$$
(131)
where

$`\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^{(1)}(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle }d^3r^{}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}dt{\displaystyle _0^\beta }d\lambda j_\beta (𝐫𝐫^{},i\mathrm{}\lambda )`$ (132)
$`\times `$ $`j_\alpha (𝐫,t)e^{i(\mathrm{𝐤𝐫}^{}\omega t)},`$ (133)
$`\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^{(2)}(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)={\displaystyle \frac{i\mathrm{}k_\beta }{2m\omega }}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}e^{i\mathrm{𝐤𝐫}^{}}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda }`$ (134)
$`\times \rho (𝐫𝐫^{},i\mathrm{}\lambda )j_\alpha (𝐫)+{\displaystyle \frac{k_\gamma }{\omega }}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}e^{i\mathrm{𝐤𝐫}^{}}_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda }`$ (135)
$`\times {\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}j_{i\gamma }(𝐫𝐫^{},i\mathrm{}\lambda )j_\alpha (𝐫)r_{i\beta }^{nd}r_{i\beta }^{nd}(i\mathrm{}\lambda )`$ (136)
$`\times j_{i\gamma }(𝐫𝐫^{},i\mathrm{}\lambda )j_\alpha (𝐫).`$ (137)
In the case $`T=0`$ instead of Eq. (72) we have

$`\sigma _{\alpha \beta ,0}(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)=\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^I(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)+\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^{II}(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)`$ (138)
$`+\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^{III}(𝐤,\omega |𝐫),`$ (139)
where

$`\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^I(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)={\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑te^{i(\mathrm{𝐤𝐫}^{}\omega t)}}`$ (140)
$`\times {\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}0|j_\alpha (𝐫,t)\rho _i(𝐫`$ (141)
$`𝐫^{})r_{i\beta }^{nd}r_{i\beta }^{nd}\rho _i(𝐫𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,t)|0,`$ (142)
$`\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^{II}(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)={\displaystyle \frac{e^2k_\alpha }{m\omega }}{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}0|r_{i\beta }^{nd}\delta (𝐫𝐫_i)|0`$ (143)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{ik_\gamma }{\mathrm{}\omega }}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑te^{i(\mathrm{𝐤𝐫}^{}\omega t)}}`$ (144)
$`\times {\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}0|j_\alpha (𝐫,t)j_{i\gamma }(𝐫𝐫^{})r_{i\beta }^{nd}`$ (145)
$`r_{i\beta }^{nd}j_{i\gamma }(𝐫𝐫^{})j_\alpha (𝐫,t)|0,`$ (146)
$`\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^{III}(𝐤,\omega |𝐫)={\displaystyle \frac{k_\beta }{2m\omega }}{\displaystyle d^3r^{}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑te^{i(\mathrm{𝐤𝐫}^{}\omega t)}}`$ (147)
$`\times 0|[j_\alpha (𝐫,t),\rho (𝐫𝐫^{})]_+|0,`$ (148)
$`[F,Q]_+=FQ+QF`$ is the anti-commutator of two operators. It is possible to pass from Eq. (75) to Eq. (72) if in Eqs. (76) - (78) to replace averaging $`0|\mathrm{}|0`$ by $`\mathrm{}`$ and to use Eq. (37). <sup>*</sup><sup>*</sup>*In  the formula for the conductivity tensor is given at $`T=0`$, which does not coincide with Eq. (75). This is because in  only diagonal elements $`0|𝐫_i|0`$ are excluded and the operator $`\overline{𝐫}_i=𝐫_i0|𝐫_i|0`$ is introduced, distinguished from $`𝐫_i^{nd}`$.

## IX The approximation of a spatially homogeneous electric field.

In some cases it is possible to neglect the contributions to average values of the induced densities of currents and charges containing derivatives from electric field on coordinates, i. e. to believe

$$𝐄(𝐫,t)𝐄(t),$$
(149)
as it is made, for example, in  though, strictly speaking, spatially homogeneous field $`𝐄`$ may be only time-independent. In approximation Eq. (79) the Fourier-transformation is

$$E_\alpha (\omega )=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑te^{i\omega t}E_\alpha (t).$$
(150)
Then it is possible to write down

$$j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)_h=\frac{1}{2\pi }_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\omega \sigma _{\alpha \beta }(\omega |𝐫)E_\beta (\omega )e^{i\omega t}+c.c.,$$
(151)
where the subscript $`h`$ means a spatially homogeneous field. It is easily to see that

$$\sigma _{\alpha \beta }(\omega |𝐫)=\sigma _{\alpha \beta }(𝐤=0,\omega |𝐫).$$
(152)
Then with the help of Eqs. (72)-(74) we obtain

$$\sigma _{\alpha \beta }(\omega |𝐫)=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑t_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda J_\beta (i\mathrm{}\lambda )j_\alpha (𝐫,t)e^{i\omega t},$$
(153)
where

$$J_\alpha =e\underset{i}{}\dot{r}_{i\alpha }$$
(154)
is the current operator.

Eq. (83) is the generalization of the Kubo formula for the spatially inhomogeneous medium when the conductivity tensor depends on $`𝐫`$.

Further we shall consider a case of a spatially homogeneous medium in which any average values can not depend on coordinates $`𝐫`$. Then the tensor $`\sigma _{\alpha \beta }(\omega |𝐫)`$ does not depend on $`𝐫`$ and we obtain from Eq. (83)

$$\sigma _{\alpha \beta }(\omega )=\frac{1}{V_0}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑t_0^\beta 𝑑\lambda J_\beta (i\mathrm{}\lambda )J_\alpha (t)e^{i\omega t},$$
(155)
where $`V_0`$ is the normalization volume. The obtained formula coincides with the Kubo result  if to replace in the RHS $`\omega `$ on $`\omega `$ and to take into account that in  $`V_0=1`$.

## X The case of a constant magnetic field.

Let us consider a case when an external weak electromagnetic field is reduced to a constant in space and time-independent magnetic field $`𝐇(𝐫,t)=𝐇`$ and an electric field $`𝐄(𝐫,t)=0`$. Let us remind that we have included the vector potential $`𝒜(𝐫),`$ appropriate to a constant magnetic field $`𝐇`$, in the basic Hamiltonian Eq. (6). However, in the present section we believe $`𝐇=0,𝒜(𝐫)=0`$ and the field $`𝐇=const`$ is considered so weak that it is possible to be limited by linear on a field contributions to the induced densities of currents and charges. Then, according to Eq. (25), the basic contribution to induced density of a current $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)^{(1)}=0`$, since $`𝐄(𝐫,t)=0`$. Let us choose the vector potential as

$$𝐀(𝐫)=\frac{1}{2}(𝐇\times 𝐫).$$
(156)
Then it is obvious from Eq. (44) that $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)^{(+)}=0`$ since it contains second derivatives from $`𝐀(𝐫)`$ on coordinates. There is only contribution $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)^{()}`$ determined in Eq. (43). Thus, at $`𝐇=const`$ in linear approximation on the field we managed to express the density of the induced current through the magnetic field intensity. Now we shall exclude diagonal matrix elements of the operators $`𝐫_i`$ from expression for $`𝐣_1(𝐫,t)`$ at $`𝐇=const.`$ For this purpose let us take advantage of Eq. (67) in which vector $`𝐚(𝐫,t)`$ can be replaced by vector potential $`𝐀(𝐫,t)`$, since the initial expression of Eq. (26) can be replaced by Eq. (38). By substituting Eq. (86) in Eq. (67) we obtain

$`j_{1\alpha }(𝐫,t)={\displaystyle \frac{e^2}{2mc}}{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}(𝐇\times 𝐫_i^{nd})_\alpha \delta (𝐫𝐫_i)`$ (157)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{ie}{2\mathrm{}c}}{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}j_\alpha (𝐫)H_\beta (𝐫_i^{nd}\times 𝐫_i^{nd})_\beta `$ (158)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{e}{2c}}{\displaystyle _0^\beta }𝑑\lambda {\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}(𝐇\times 𝐫_i^{nd})_\beta v_{i\beta }j_\alpha (𝐫,i\mathrm{}\lambda ).`$ (159)
Let us notice that the vector $`𝐫_i^{nd}\times 𝐫_i^{nd}0`$ because projections $`r_{i\alpha }^{nd}`$ with different subscripts $`\alpha `$ do not commute among themselves, for example,

$$(𝐫_i^{nd}\times 𝐫_i^{nd})_z=[𝐫_{ix}^{nd},𝐫_{iy}^{nd}].$$
(160)
## XI Conclusion.

Let us list the obtained basic results. It is shown that average values of densities of currents and charges induced by weak electromagnetic field at finite temperatures and spatially inhomogeneous systems are expressed through electric fields and their derivatives on coordinates. The contributions expressed through electric field were called ”basic” and through derivatives \- ”additional”.

For the ”additional” contributions to average values of induced densities of currents and charges six pairs of various expressions are obtained. Two of these expressions for the density of a current coincide with the results of . But the expressions from  contain electric fields or vector potentials, instead of derivatives from these values on coordinates, that complicates an estimation of value of the ”additional” contributions. Generally speaking, integrating on $`𝐫^{}`$ in parts it is possible to get rid of derivatives $`E_\beta (𝐫^{},t)/r_\gamma ^{}`$ passing to the formulas containing only fields instead of derivative from them. However, the opposite procedure - transition from a field to derivatives - is not possible always. In the ”basic” contributions the fields are always kept.

The sixth expression obtained in section VI for the ”additional” contribution to average induced density of a current breaks up on two parts. First of them with an index $`()`$ is expressed only through magnetic field $`𝐇(𝐫,t)`$, the second with an index $`(+)`$ \- through the second derivative from an electric field on coordinates. The similar result is obtained for the average induced density of charge. If the ”additional” contributions are expressed through derivatives from electric fields, the operators $`𝐫_i`$ of coordinates of particles enter in the appropriate formulas necessary. It may seem that this result is absurd, since coordinate $`𝐫_i`$ depends on a point of a beginning of readout. However, it appears that diagonal matrix elements $`n|𝐫_i|n`$ do not enter into the average induced densities of currents and charges, that is shown in section VII, and the non-diagonal elements do not depend on a beginning point of readout .

In section VIII the ”basic” and ”additional” contributions are calculated in the conductivity tensor for spatially inhomogeneous systems and fields. In approximation, when the electric field is homogeneous in space, but time-dependent (section IX), the ” basic ” contributions are kept only. For this case for the conductivity tensor, dependent on frequency $`\omega `$ and coordinates $`𝐫`$, the modified Kubo formula is obtained which passes in the formula from  for spatially homogeneous systems.

At last, in section X the expression for the average induced density of a current is obtained in a case when a weak electromagnetic field is reduced to a constant magnetic field.

It follows from Eq. (74) that the ”additional” contributions in conductivity contain a factor $`k_\gamma /\omega `$. If a field $`𝐄(𝐫,t)`$ is the plane wave extending with the light velocity $`c`$ (at a monochromatic irradiation) or the wave package (at a pulse irradiation), then $`k\omega /c`$ and additional contributions contain in comparison with basic a small factor $`v/c`$, where $`v`$ is the speed of particles in system. However, this estimation is not correct always in case of spatially inhomogeneous systems, for example, in semiconductor quantum wells, wires or dots. It is possible to consider a field $`𝐄(𝐫,t)`$ as an external or stimulating field only in the case of calculating the density of the induced current and charge in the lowest order on interaction of a field with system of charged particles. Such approximation is allowable in case of quantum wells under condition of  $`\gamma _r\gamma ,`$ where $`\gamma _r(\gamma )`$ is the radiative (non-radiative) broadening of electronic excitations.

Otherwise, when $`\gamma _r\gamma ,`$ it is necessary to take into account interaction of a field with particles in all orders of the perturbation theory, and then $`𝐄(𝐫,t)`$ is the genuine field within the low dimensional object. This field already cannot be presented as a superposition of plane waves for which $`k=\omega /c`$. For example, genuine field strongly varies within a quantum well along an axis $`z`$, perpendicular to the well plane, if light is directed along an axis $`z`$, and the frequency $`\omega `$ is in a resonance with one of discrete energy levels of the electronic system excitations in a quantum well . Then the values $`kd1`$, where $`d`$ is the quantum well width, instead of small factor $`v/c`$ appears a the factor

$$M\frac{v}{\omega d}=\frac{v\lambda }{2\pi cd}.$$

If a wave length $`\lambda d`$ it can appear that the new factor $`M`$ is greater than $`v/c`$. In concrete cases one needs to estimate its value. In  it was supposed that $`M1`$ and the ”additional” contributions to average induced densities of currents and charges (the case $`T=0`$ was considered ) were neglected. By substituting the received expressions for average densities of a currents and charges in the Maxwell equations, basically it is possible to determine true fields inside and outside of low-dimension semiconductor objects. Thus, it is possible to calculate factors of reflection and absorption of light by these objects (see, for example, ).

The authors are grateful M. Harkins for a critical reading of the manuscript.


format: text

text:
# 1 Dirac’s equation

## 1 Dirac’s equation

Much of modern physics starts with the Dirac equation. Its deceptively simple form

$$\gamma ^\alpha p_\alpha \mathrm{\Psi }=p/\mathrm{\Psi }=0,$$
(1)
obscured the significance of the simple algebraic relation for its anticommutator

$$\{p/,p/\}=p^2.$$
(2)
Today we understand this as the seed of supersymmetry, which could be called protosupersymmetry. In the context of string models, this relation turned out to be very potent. There, the momentum was generalized to a momentum density along the string

$$P^\alpha (\sigma )=p^\alpha +\text{oscillators},$$
(3)
suggesting that the momentum operator is the average of the momentum density

$$p^\alpha =
.$$
(4)
If we assume that the Dirac matrices are themselves like dynamical variables (as envisioned by the Master himself)

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }^\alpha (\sigma )=\gamma ^\alpha +\text{oscillators},$$
(5)
with

$$\gamma ^\alpha =<\mathrm{\Gamma }^\alpha >,$$
(6)
it is not unnatural to expect that

$$\gamma ^\alpha p_\alpha =<\mathrm{\Gamma }^\alpha ><P_\alpha ><\mathrm{\Gamma }^\alpha P_\alpha >,$$
(7)
which generalizes the Dirac equation to the string. If we write

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }^\alpha (\sigma )P_\alpha (\sigma )=\underset{n}{}F_ne^{in\sigma },$$
(8)
we find the superVirasoro algebra

$`\{F_n,F_m\}`$ $`=`$ $`2L_{n+m},`$ (9)
$`[L_n,F_m]`$ $`=`$ $`(2nm)F_{n+m},`$ (10)
$`[L_n,L_m]`$ $`=`$ $`(nm)L_{n+m}.`$ (11)
We should have read another of Dirac’s paperson the importance of $`c`$numbers, which were found later by the late Joe Weiss. The rest is history as this algebra opened the Pandora box of theories with bosons and fermions, which we call supersymmetric.

## 2 Divergences and Group Theory

It is well-known how the running of the couplings in local field theory is related to the divergent part of some diagrams. For example, the one-loop beta function is given by

$$\beta =\frac{11}{3}I_{adj}^{(2)}\frac{2}{3}I_f^{(2)}\frac{1}{3}I_H^{(2)},$$
(12)
where the $`I_{adj,f,H}^{(2)}`$ are the quadratic Dynkin indices associated with the adjoint (for the gauge bosons), with spin one-half Weyl fermions, and with complex spin zero fields, respectively. These “external” group theoretical factors are given by

$$\mathrm{Tr}(T_r^AT_r^B)=I_r^{(2)}\delta ^{AB},$$
(13)
wher $`A,B`$ run over the gauge group, and $`T_r^A`$ are the representation matrices in the $`r`$ representation. The other numerical factors stem from group theory of the “internal” space. As shown by Hughes, they can be understood for massless particles as,

$$\frac{1}{3}(112h^2),$$
(14)
where $`h`$ is the helicity of the particle circulating around the loop. In some sense the square of the helicity can be viewed as the quadratic Dynkin index of the light-cone spin group, although in four dimensions, it is only $`SO(2)`$, which is not much of a group.

Curtright generalized this notion when he considered loop integrals coming from theories in higher dimensions, where the spin light-cone little group is more substantial. For instance, the one loop vacuum polarization in $`N=4`$ Yang-Mills can be obtained directly in ten dimensions where the little group is $`SO(8)`$. Evaluate the loop integrals in four dimensions. The divergent part is proportional to

$$(1)^f\left(\frac{1}{3}I^{(0)}(\delta _{\mu \nu }^{(4)}q^2q_\mu q_\nu )\frac{4}{r}I^{(2)}(\delta _{\mu \nu }^{(D)}q^2q_\mu q_\nu )\right),$$
(15)
where $`I^{(0)}`$ is the dimension of the transverse little group representation, $`r`$ its rank, and $`I^{(2)}`$ is the quadratic Dynkin index of the same. In the case of $`N=4`$ Yang Mills, we have $`D=10`$ and the transverse little group is $`SO(8)`$. With its triality property, the group theoretical factors are the same for bosons and fermions. This is the genesis of the cancellation of ultraviolet divergences for that theory. It is the peculiar properties of the transverse little group that leads to ultraviolet finiteness, together with supersymmetry in the form of equality of fermions and bosons. This is true for all higher order Dynkin indices as well: since $`SO(8)`$ has rank four, it has three more independent Dynkin indices, of order $`4,6`$, and $`8`$, which are the same for bosons and fermions by triality. No other group has that property.

This is puzzling since all string theories stem from eleven-dimensional $`M`$-theory. The little group there is $`SO(9)`$, a totally unremarkable group, or so it seems. In eleven dimensions, supergravity is described by three fields, the graviton $`h_{\mu \nu }`$, a Rarita-Schwinger fermion $`\psi _\mu `$ and a three-form boson $`A_{\mu \nu \rho }`$. Their physical degrees of freedom fall in three $`SO(9)`$ representations whose group-theoretical properties are summarized in the following table:

| $`\mathrm{Field}`$ | $`\mathrm{\Psi }_i`$ | $`h_{ij}`$ | $`A_{ijk}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`\mathrm{irrep}`$ | $`(1001)`$ | $`(2000)`$ | $`(0010)`$ |
| $`I^{(0)}`$ | $`128`$ | $`44`$ | $`84`$ |
| $`I^{(2)}`$ | $`256`$ | $`88`$ | $`168`$ |
| $`I^{(4)}`$ | $`640`$ | $`232`$ | $`408`$ |
| $`I^{(6)}`$ | $`1792`$ | $`712`$ | $`1080`$ |
| $`I^{(8)}`$ | $`5248`$ | $`2440`$ | $`3000`$ |

The Dynkin indices have the remarkable property that they cancel between fermions and bosons

$$I_{\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟖}}^{(k)}I_{\mathrm{𝟒𝟒}}^{(k)}I_{\mathrm{𝟖𝟒}}^{(k)}=0,k=0,2,4,6,$$
(16)
except for the highest invariant

$$I_{\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟖}}^{(8)}I_{\mathrm{𝟒𝟒}}^{(8)}I_{\mathrm{𝟖𝟒}}^{(8)}=192.$$
(17)
This led Curtright to speculate that the theory is divergent because of this inequality. The lowest order divergent diagram that contains the eighth-order invariant is a three-loop four-graviton amplitude. While it is hopeless to calculate such a beast, this is the diagram for which there appears to be no local counterterm.

## 3 Euler Triplets

Sometime ago, it was found that this pattern of group-theoretical partial cancellations among three representations generalized to other $`SO(9)`$ representations.

There are three equivalent embeddings of $`SO(9)`$ inside the exceptional group $`F_4`$, much like the I- U- and V-spins for the embedding of $`SU(2)\times U(1)`$ inside $`SU(3)`$. As a result, one can associate with each $`F_4`$ representation three $`SO(9)`$ representations, whose properties are summarized in the character formula

$$V_\lambda S^+V_\lambda S^{}=\underset{c}{}\mathrm{sgn}(c)U_{c\lambda }.$$
(18)
On the left-hand side, $`V_\lambda `$ is a representation of $`F_4`$ written in terms of its $`SO(9)`$ subgroup, $`S^\pm `$ are the two spinor representations of $`SO(16)`$ written in terms of its anomalously embedded subgroup $`SO(9)`$, and $``$ denotes the normal Kronecker product of representations. On the right-hand side, the sum is over $`c`$, the three elements of the Weyl group which map the Weyl chamber of $`F_4`$ into the (three times larger) chamber of $`SO(9)`$. Finally $`U_{c\lambda }`$ denotes the $`SO(9)`$ representation with highest Dynkin weight $`c\lambda `$, where

$$c\lambda =c(\lambda +\rho _{F_4})\rho _{SO(9)},$$

and $`\rho `$’s are the sum of the fundamental weights for each group, and $`\mathrm{sgn}(c)`$ is the index of $`c`$. Thus to each $`F_4`$ representation corresponds a triplet, called Euler triplet. The three representations of supergravity appear in the trivial case associated with the singlet of $`F_4`$. Since

$$SO(16)SO(9),S^+\mathbf{\hspace{0.17em}128}=\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟖},S^{}\mathbf{\hspace{0.17em}128}^{}=\mathrm{𝟒𝟒}+\mathbf{\hspace{0.17em}84},$$

the character formula reduces to

$$\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟖}\mathbf{\hspace{0.17em}44}\mathbf{\hspace{0.17em}84}=\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟖}\mathbf{\hspace{0.17em}44}\mathbf{\hspace{0.17em}84}.$$

In general, the representations describe (in light-cone variables) fields with spin greater than two. For each $`F_4`$ representation with Dynkin labels $`[a_1a_2a_3a_4]`$ one obtains three $`SO(9)`$ representations listed in order of increasing dimensions:

$$(2+a_2+a_3+a_4,a_1,a_2,a_3),(a_2,a_1,1+a_2+a_3,a_4),(1+a_2+a_3,a_1,a_2,1+a_3+a_4)$$

For spinor representations, the fourth entry is an odd integer. Euler triplets for which the largest representation is the spinor have equal number of fermions and bosons; this occurs whenever both $`a_3`$ and $`a_4`$ are even integers or zero.

## 4 Kostant Equation

We find here again the long hand of Dirac, for the minus sign in the character formula suggests that it is the index formula for a Dirac-like operator. This is Kostant’s operator associated with the coset $`F_4/SO(9)`$. The Clifford algebra over this coset

$$\{\mathrm{\Gamma }^a,\mathrm{\Gamma }^b\}=2\delta ^{ab},a,b=1,2,\mathrm{},16,$$
(19)
is generated by $`(256\times 256)`$ matrices, and the Kostant equation is defined as

$$K/\mathrm{\Psi }=\underset{a=1}{\overset{16}{}}\mathrm{\Gamma }^aT^a\mathrm{\Psi }=0,$$
(20)
where $`T_a`$ are the $`F_4`$ generators not in $`SO(9)`$, with commutation relations

$$[T^a,T^b]=if^{abij}T^{ij}.$$
(21)
These are conveniently expressed in terms of copies of $`26`$ oscillators with the usual Bose-like commutation relations: $`A_0^{[s]},A_i^{[s]},i=1,\mathrm{},9,B_a^{[s]},a=1,\mathrm{},16`$, and their hermitian conjugates, and where $`s=1,2,3`$. Under $`SO(9)`$, the $`A_i^{[s]}`$ transform as $`\mathrm{𝟗}`$, $`B_a^{[s]}`$ transform as $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟔}`$, and $`A_0^{[s]}`$ is a scalar. Note that the $`B_a^{[s]}`$ satisfy Bose-like commutation relations, even though they are $`SO(9)`$ spinors. The $`F_4`$ generators are then

$`T_{ij}`$ $`=`$ $`i{\displaystyle \underset{s=1}{\overset{4}{}}}\left\{\left(A_i^{[s]}A_j^{[s]}A_j^{[s]]}A_i^{[s]}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}B^{[s]}\gamma _{ij}B^{[s]}\right\},`$
$`T_a`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{s=1}{\overset{4}{}}}\left\{(\gamma _i)^{ab}\left(A_i^{[s]}B_b^{[s]}B_b^{[s]}A_i^{[s]}\right)\sqrt{3}\left(B_a^{[s]}A_0^{[s]}A_0^{[s]}B_a^{[s]}\right)\right\}.`$
One can just as easily have used the coordinate representation of the oscillators by introducing real coordinates $`u_i`$ which transform as transverse space vectors, $`u_0`$ as scalars, and $`\zeta _a`$ as the space spinors. It is amusing to note that the internal cordinates span three exceptional Jordan algebras, which have been the subject of much interest as possible charge spaces.

The solutions of Kostant’s equation are then simply described by a chiral superfield. Listing only its highest weight components, it is of the form

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_\stackrel{}{a}=\theta ^1\theta ^8h(y^{},\stackrel{}{x},u_i,\zeta _a)+\theta ^1\theta ^4\theta ^8\psi (y^{},\stackrel{}{x},u_i,\zeta _a)+\theta ^1\theta ^4\theta ^5\theta ^8A(y^{},\stackrel{}{x},u_i,\zeta _a).$$
(22)
The three fields are polynomials in three sets of “internal” bosonic coordinates. A possible violation of the spin-statistics connection is avoided when the fields are even functions of the $`\zeta _a`$. This happens whenever $`a_3`$ and $`a_4`$ are even, but this is the case where each Euler triplet contains as many fermions as bosons. Hence there is an intriguing relation in this solution space between spin-statistics and equality between bosons and fermions. Supergravity is the trivial solution for which the three fields $`h,A,`$ and $`\psi `$ are independent of the internal coordinates.

## 5 A Zero Sum Game

Since the Dynkin indices of the product of two representations satisfy the composition law

$$I^{(n)}[\lambda \mu ]=d_\lambda I^{(n)}[\mu ]+d_\mu I^{(n)}[\lambda ],$$

where $`d`$ is the dimension, it follows that the deficit in $`I^{(8)}`$ is always proportional to

$$d_\lambda (I_{S^+}^{(8)}I_S^{}^{(8)}),$$

where $`d_\lambda `$ is the dimension of the $`F_4`$ representation that generates it. It is always of the same sign, so cancellation, if it happens will come only after summing over an infinite number of triplets.

Each triplet contains particles with spin greater than two. As we have shown, they cannot have mass since they do not assemble in massive little group multiplets. The only evasion route from the well documented difficulties  with higher spin massless fields interacting with gravity theories is to allow for an infinite number, but to this date no such theory has been put forth, perhaps with good reason.

If indeed the divergences of supergravity all stem from the deficit in the eighth order Dynkin, we are led to the bizarre equation

$$\mathrm{\Delta }I^{(8)}=192\underset{a_1,a_2,a_3,a_4}{}d^{F_4}(a_1,a_2,a_3,a_4)=0,$$
(23)
where $`d^{F_4}(a_1,a_2,a_3,a_4)`$ is the dimension of the $`F_4`$ representation with Dynkin labels $`[a_1a_2a_3a_4]`$. It can only vanish if the sum is over an infinite number of representations. In order to make sense of this at least two obstacles have to be surmounted. One is to specify the regularization procedure, and the second is to determine the subset of $`F_4`$ representations over which to take the sum.

We seek an algebraic structure which contains an infinite number of $`F_4`$ representations such that the (regulated) trace, or character, over the dimensions of these representations is zero. It would be wonderful if the triality properties of affine $`E_6^{(1)}`$ somehow became important. In quantum groups, zero traces can occur when the $`q`$ parameter is a root of unity111 I thank E. Mukhin and P. di Francesco for an instructive discussion, so we are perhaps dealing with such an object. At any rate, it will be a miracle if such a structure exists, but then we are looking for a unique theory where miracles are expected on a daily basis.

Dimensions of $`F_4`$ representations are expressed as $`24`$th order polynomials in their Dynkin indices. A zero-sum game can be clearly set up: assuming $`\zeta `$-function regularization, or a quantum group, find a subset of $`F_4`$ representations with zero total dimension. The existence of such a set would be strong indication for a finite structure underlying eleven-dimensional supergravity.

## Acknowledgments

I wish to thank Professor H. Baer for his kind hospitality and giving this mere mortal the honor to speak at the commemoration of one of the Gods of Physics. This work was supported in part by the US Department of Energy under grant DE-FG02-97ER41029