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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Because of their non-perturbative, yet quantifiable nature, D-branes  have played a central role in many string theory settings. Following the discovery of a new exact string theory background  \- the maximally supersymmetric plane-wave of the Type IIB theory - it is natural to investigate D-branes in this spacetime.

In light-cone gauge the superstring action in the plane-wave background is quadratic and has been quantised . The spectrum of closed string states consists of a unique massless groundstate and an infinite tower of excited states whose masses are of order $`\omega _n/(\alpha ^{}p^+)`$ where

$$\omega _n\sqrt{n^2+(\alpha ^{}\mu p^+)^2},n\mathrm{I}\mathrm{N},$$
(1.1)
$`p^+`$ is momentum along the $`x^{}`$ direction and $`\mu `$ is the R-R flux. Because the action is quadratic, it has been possible to analyse D-branes in this background through the open strings that end on them . In this approach worldsheets with boundaries in $`\sigma `$ are considered; consistent D-branes can then be thought of as boundary conditions on fields which are compatible with the variational principle. Since the closed string spectrum is known explicitly, it is also possible to investigate D-branes as sources for closed string states. In this approach boundary conditions for closed string states are enforced at constant $`\tau `$, and are implemented, at the Fock space level, by coherent states . The two approaches are compatible via the open-closed string duality of the cylinder diagram; this consistency condition is often refered to as the Cardy condition and has been explicitly verified for a large class of D-branes in the plane-wave background  where a number of beautiful identities were proved. Given this understanding of D-branes, their interactions in this background merit further investigation.

In light-cone gauge in flat spacetime the action has a classical conformal symmetry which can be exploited to use a vertex operator approach to interactions. This symmetry is lost in the plane-wave background and the study of string interactions becomes much more difficult. The light-cone string field theory formalism has been succesfully used to study closed string interactions in the plane-wave background . This formalism was originaly developed in flat spacetime for the bosonic string  in which a cubic interaction vertex for the scattering of three strings is constructed by requiring continuity of string fields on the worldsheet. This continuity is enforced by a delta function on string fields

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(X_1+X_2X_3).$$
(1.2)
It is particularily useful to express the above functional delta function in Fourier modes and to construct a vertex as an exponential of Fock space creation operators which enforce the above continuity conditions mode by mode . The formalism was subsequently extended to the superstring in flat spacetime . In this approach the cubic interaction vertex is a first order correction in string coupling $`g_s`$ to the free Hamiltonian. In order to satisfy the superalgebra with this new Hamiltonian, dynamical supercharges also receive corections. As a result, in the oscilator basis, the vertex (and the dynamical supercharges) is no longer given by an exponential of Fock space creation operators as in the bosonic case. Instead it also contains a prefactor polynomial in creation operators. These prefactors are such that they do not destroy worldsheet continuity enforced by the exponential part of the vertex. They also ensure that the superalgebra is satisfied order by order in the string coupling.

In this paper we will construct the cubic interaction vertex and dynamical supercharges for open strings in the plane-wave background ending on D--branes. These constitute a large class of half-supersymmetric D-branes in this background. They extend along $`q=0,\mathrm{},4`$ directions in $`SO(4)`$ and along $`q\pm 2`$ directions along $`SO(4)^{}`$, as well as, in the open string light-cone gauge, along the light-cone directions. In the bulk of the paper we will take the D-branes to lie at $`x^r^{}=0`$ in the transverse space. It is, of course, possible to move such D--branes away from the origin using the isometries that they preserve . The cubic vertex and dynamical supercharges for such D--branes can be easily obtained, by applying the aforementioned isometries to the vertex and supercharges computed explicitly below.

The interaction vertex presented below uses the $`SU(4)`$ formalism developed in flat spacetime in . In  the $`SO(8)`$ symmetry of the problem was broken to a $`SO(6)\times SO(2)SU(4)\times U(1)`$ subgroup. In the $`SO(8)`$ formalism the spinor $`S_a`$ is its own conjugate momentum which introduces constraints that can significantly complicate the problem. The $`SU(4)`$ formalism circumvents this problem since an $`SO(8)`$ spinor breaks into two fields, one of which can be treated as the coordinate and the other as the conjugate momentum. We extend the $`SU(4)`$ formalism to open strings ending on D--branes in the plane-wave background. While it is true that the D--branes do not preserve the $`SU(4)\times U(1)`$ symmetry, the cubic vertex can still be written using $`SU(4)`$ notation. This is analogous to the closed string vertex in the plane-wave background which is written in $`SO(8)`$ notation even though the backgorund only preserves a $`SO(4)\times SO(4)`$ subgroup.

Following its discovery, the plane-wave background has received substantial interest within the AdS/CFT correspondence . It was conjectured  that string theory in this background is dual to a double scaling limit of $`SU(N)`$, $`𝒩=4`$ Super Yang-Mills theory. Subsequently, the duality has been extensively tested and investigated . Since D-branes are classical vacua of string field theory, one may expect that they will have to manifest themselves in the dual gauge theory. Several authors investigated gauge theories dual to D-branes in the plane-wave background . A general picture was proposed in , where it was argued that the D-branes in the plane-wave background would be dual to suitable limits of the $`SU(N)`$, $`𝒩=4`$ Super Yang-Mills theory coupled to a defect CFT . The cubic vertex constructed in this paper can be used to investigate this correspondence at the level of open-string interactions.

While this paper was in the final stages of preparation  appeared on the archive in which functional expressions in $`(SU(2)\times U(1))^2`$ notation are given for the cubic interaction vertex for the D7-brane in the plane wave background.

This paper is organized as follows. In section 2 we present the free open string in the plane-wave background and set out the $`SU(4)`$ notation. In sections 3 we construct the open superstring three point vertex in the plane-wave background. An appendix is included which contains some of the computational details.

## 2 The free open string theory on the plane-wave in the $`SU(4)`$ formalism

In the $`SU(4)`$ formalism the $`SO(8)`$ vector representation decomposes as

$$\mathrm{𝟖}_v=\mathrm{𝟔}_0+\mathrm{𝟏}_1+\mathrm{𝟏}_1,$$
(2.1)
where the subscripts denote $`U(1)`$ quantum numbers. The $`\mathrm{𝟖}_v`$ index $`I=1,\mathrm{},8`$ breaks into $`i=1,\mathrm{},6`$ of the $`\mathrm{𝟔}`$, as well as $`L`$ and $`R`$ of the two singlets. We will take $`i`$ to lie along the $`X^1,\mathrm{},X^6`$ directions and

$$X^R=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(X^7+iX^8\right),X^L=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(X^7iX^8\right).$$
(2.2)
The spinor representations decompose as

$$\mathrm{𝟖}_s=\mathrm{𝟒}_{1/2}+\overline{\mathrm{𝟒}}_{1/2},\mathrm{𝟖}_c=\mathrm{𝟒}_{1/2}+\overline{\mathrm{𝟒}}_{1/2}.$$
(2.3)
The $`\mathrm{𝟒}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{𝟒}}`$ indices will be denoted by a superscript and subscript $`A=1,\mathrm{},4`$ index, respectively. An open string ending on a half-supersymmetric D-branes in the plane-wave background in light-cone gauge is described, in the $`SU(4)`$ formalism by $`x_u^i(\sigma _u)`$, $`x_u^L(\sigma _u)`$, $`x_u^R(\sigma _u)`$, and $`\lambda _u^A(\sigma _u)`$, $`\theta _{uA}(\sigma _u)`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\lambda }_u^A(\sigma _u)`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\theta }_{uA}(\sigma _u)`$ 111We will often suppress these indices in what follows. together with a set of boundary conditions. These have been discussed at length in . For D-branes presently under consideration these are

$`_\sigma x_u^r|_{\sigma =0,\pi |\alpha _u|}`$ $`=`$ $`0,x_u^{r^{},L,R}|_{\sigma =0,\pi |\alpha _u|}=0`$ (2.4)
$`\theta _{uA}|_{\sigma =0,\pi |\alpha _u|}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }_A{}_{}{}^{B}\stackrel{~}{\theta }_{uB}^{}|_{\sigma =0,\pi |\alpha _u|},\lambda _u^A|_{\sigma =0,\pi |\alpha _u|}=\mathrm{\Omega }^A{}_{B}{}^{}\stackrel{~}{\lambda }_{u}^{B}|_{\sigma =0,\pi |\alpha _u|}.`$ (2.5)
Above the superscripts $`r`$ and $`r^{}`$, which together span $`i`$, correspond to Neumann and Dirichlet boundary conditions respectively; the matrix $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is defined as 222We are using the same gamma-matrix conventions as .

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\rho ^{RL}\underset{r^{}}{}\rho ^r^{}.$$
(2.6)
Recall that for D--branes $`\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }=1`$ with $`\mathrm{\Pi }=\rho ^{1234}`$. The index $`u=1,2,3`$ denotes the $`u`$th string (see Figure 1). All the D-branes under consideration here have at least two Dirichlet directions; we take $`L,R`$ to be Dirichlet througout.

In a collision process $`p_u^+`$ will be positive for an incoming string and negative for an outgoing one and it is convenient to define

$$\alpha _u=\alpha ^{}p_u^+.$$
(2.7)
The mode expansions of the bosonic fields at $`\tau =0`$ are

$`x_u^r(\sigma _u)`$ $`=`$ $`x_{0(u)}^r+\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}x_{n(u)}^r\mathrm{cos}{\displaystyle \frac{n\sigma _u}{|\alpha _u|}},`$ (2.8)
$`p_u^r(\sigma _u)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi |\alpha _u|}}[p_{0(u)}^r+\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}p_{n(u)}^r\mathrm{cos}{\displaystyle \frac{n\sigma _u}{|\alpha _u|}}],`$ (2.9)
$`x_u^r^{}(\sigma _u)`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}x_{n(u)}^r^{}\mathrm{sin}{\displaystyle \frac{n\sigma _u}{|\alpha _u|}},`$ (2.10)
$`p_u^r^{}(\sigma _u)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{2}}{\pi |\alpha _u|}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}p_{n(u)}^r^{}\mathrm{sin}{\displaystyle \frac{n\sigma _u}{|\alpha _u|}},`$ (2.11)
with the $`L,R`$ directions having the same expansions as the $`r^{}`$. The Fourier modes can be re-expressed in terms of creation and annihilation operators as

$$x_{n(u)}^I=i\sqrt{\frac{\alpha ^{}}{2\omega _{n(u)}}}\left(a_{n(u)}^Ia_{n(u)}^I\right),p_{n(u)}^I=\sqrt{\frac{\omega _{n(u)}}{2\alpha ^{}}}\left(a_{n(u)}^I+a_{n(u)}^I\right),$$
(2.12)
with $`n`$ non-negative for $`I=r`$ and negative for $`I=r^{},L,R`$. Canonical quantization of the bosonic coordinates

$$[x_r^I(\sigma _u),p_s^J(\sigma _v)]=i\delta ^{IJ}\delta _{uv}\delta (\sigma _u\sigma _v)$$
(2.13)
implies the commutation relations

$$[a_{n(u)}^I,a_{m(v)}^J]=\delta ^{IJ}\delta _{nm}\delta _{uv}.$$
(2.14)
The following linear combinations of the fermionic fields are the fermionic normal modes

$`\lambda _{\pm u}^A(\sigma _u)`$ $`=`$ $`\lambda _u^A(\sigma _u)\pm \mathrm{\Omega }^A{}_{B}{}^{}\stackrel{~}{\lambda }_{u}^{B}(\sigma _u),`$ (2.15)
$`\theta _{\pm uA}(\sigma _u)`$ $`=`$ $`\theta _{uA}(\sigma _u)\pm \mathrm{\Omega }_A{}_{}{}^{B}\stackrel{~}{\theta }_{uB}^{}(\sigma _u).`$ (2.16)
At $`\tau =0`$ the mode expansions of $`\lambda _{\pm (u)}^A`$ and $`\theta _{\pm (u)A}`$ are

$`\lambda _{+u}^A(\sigma _u)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi |\alpha _u|}}\left[\sqrt{2}\lambda _{0(u)}^A+2{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\lambda _{n(u)}^A\mathrm{cos}{\displaystyle \frac{n\sigma _u}{|\alpha _u|}}\right],`$ (2.17)
$`\lambda _u^A(\sigma _u)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi |\alpha _u|}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\lambda _{n(u)}^A\mathrm{sin}{\displaystyle \frac{n\sigma _u}{|\alpha _u|}},`$ (2.18)
$`\theta _{+uA}(\sigma _u)`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}\theta _{0(u)A}+2{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\theta _{n(u)A}\mathrm{cos}{\displaystyle \frac{n\sigma _u}{|\alpha _u|}},`$ (2.19)
$`\theta _{uA}(\sigma _u)`$ $`=`$ $`2{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\theta _{n(u)A}\mathrm{sin}{\displaystyle \frac{n\sigma _u}{|\alpha _u|}}.`$ (2.20)
The non-zero anti-commutators are

$$\{\theta _{\pm Au}(\sigma _u),\lambda _{\pm v}^B(\sigma _v^{})\}=2\delta _{uv}\delta _A^B\delta (\sigma _u\sigma _v^{}),$$
(2.21)
or in terms of modes

$$\{\theta _{m(u)A},\lambda _{n(v)}^B\}=\delta _{mn}\delta _{uv}\delta _A^B.$$
(2.22)
It is convenient to define a new basis of non-zero moded oscilators

$`\lambda _{n(u)}^A`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{|n|}{2\omega _{n(u)}}}}\left(P_{n(u)C}^1{}_{}{}^{A}R_{n(u)}^{C}+P_{n(u)C}{}_{}{}^{A}R_{n(u)}^{C}\right),`$ (2.23)
$`\lambda _{n(u)}^A`$ $`=`$ $`i\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{|n|}{2\omega _{n(u)}}}}\left(P_{n(u)C}{}_{}{}^{A}R_{n(u)}^{C}P_{n(u)C}^1{}_{}{}^{A}R_{n(u)}^{C}\right),`$ (2.24)
$`\theta _{n(u)A}`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{|n|}{2\omega _{n(u)}}}}\left(P_{n(u)A}{}_{}{}^{C}R_{n(u)C}^{}+P_{n(u)A}^1{}_{}{}^{B}R_{n(u)B}^{}\right),`$ (2.25)
$`\theta _{n(u)A}`$ $`=`$ $`i\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{|n|}{2\omega _{n(u)}}}}\left(P_{n(u)A}^1{}_{}{}^{C}R_{n(u)C}^{}P_{n(u)A}{}_{}{}^{B}R_{n(u)B}^{}\right).`$ (2.26)
Here

$$P_{n(u)A}^{\pm 1}{}_{}{}^{B}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1\rho _{n(u)}^2}}(1i\rho _n\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })_A{}_{}{}^{B},$$
(2.27)
is the generalisation of the $`P_{n(r)}^{\pm 1}`$ in the closed string and

$$\rho _{n(r)}=\rho _{n(r)}=\frac{\omega _{n(r)}|n|}{\mu \alpha _r},c_{n(r)}=c_{n(r)}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1+\rho _{n(r)}^2}}.$$
(2.28)
These modes satisfy

$$\{R_{An(u)},R_{m(v)}^B\}=\delta _A^B\delta _{n+m}\delta _{uv}.$$
(2.29)
The free string light-cone Hamiltonian is

$`H_{2(u)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\pi |\alpha _u|}}d\sigma _u[{\displaystyle \frac{e(\alpha _u)}{2\pi \alpha ^{}}}(\pi ^2\alpha ^{}{}_{}{}^{2}(p_u^I)_{}^{2}+(_\sigma x_u^I)^2+\mu ^2(x_u^I)^2)`$ (2.30)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2i}}(e(\alpha _u)(\theta _{+uA}\lambda _u^A+\theta _{uA}\lambda _{+u}^A)+\mu (\lambda _{+u}^A(\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })_A{}_{}{}^{B}\theta _{+uB}^{}\lambda _u^A(\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })_A{}_{}{}^{B}\theta _{uB}^{}))].`$
It is convenient to define

$$R_{\pm 0(u)}^A=\frac{1}{2}(1ie(\alpha _u)\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })^A{}_{B}{}^{}\lambda _{0(u)}^{B},R_{\pm 0(u)A}=\frac{1}{2}(1ie(\alpha _u)\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })_A{}_{}{}^{B}\theta _{0(u)B}^{},$$
(2.31)
which satisfy

$$\{R_{\pm 0A(u)},R_{\pm 0(v)}^B\}=0,\{R_{\pm 0A(u)},R_{0(v)}^B\}=\delta _{uv}\frac{1}{2}(1i\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })_A{}_{}{}^{B},$$
(2.32)
The mode-expanded Hamiltonian is then

$`H_{2(u)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\alpha _u}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\omega _{n(u)}\left(a_{n(u)}^ra_{n(u)}^r+a_{n(u)}^r^{}a_{n(u)}^r^{}+R_{n(u)A}R_{n(u)}^A+R_{n(u)}^AR_{An(u)}\right)`$ (2.33)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _{0(u)}}{\alpha _u}}(a_{0(u)}^ra_{0(u)}^r+R_{0(u)A}R_{+0(u)}^A+R_{0(u)}^AR_{+0(u)A})+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mu e(\alpha _u)(p5),`$
where the last term is the zero-mode normal ordering constant for a D$`p_{}`$-brane. The vacuum $`|v_u`$ is defined as 333This vacuum is the $`SU(4)`$ version of the vacuum defined in .

$$a_{n(u)}^I|v_u=0,R_{m(u)}^A|v_u=0,R_{m(u)A}|v_u=0,m>0$$
(2.34)
with $`n`$ negative (non-negative) for $`I`$ Dirichlet (Neumann) and for

$$R_{+0(u)}^A|v_u=0,R_{+0(u)A}|v_u=0.$$
(2.35)
The 16 supersymmetries are generated by the kinematical $`q_{(u)A}^+`$, $`q_{(u)}^{+A}`$ and the dynamical $`q_{(u)A}^{}`$, $`q_{(u)}^A`$. The superalgebra was computed explicitly in . In the $`SU(4)`$ formalism the part of the superalgebra of importance throughout this paper is

$$\{q_{(u)}^A,q_{(u)B}^{}\}=2\delta ^A{}_{B}{}^{}\delta _{uv}^{}H_{2(u)}+i\mu \delta _{uv}\left((\gamma ^{ij}\mathrm{\Pi }){}_{}{}^{A}{}_{B}{}^{}J_{(u)}^{ij}+(\gamma ^{i^{}j^{}}\mathrm{\Pi }^{}){}_{}{}^{A}{}_{B}{}^{}J_{(u)}^{i^{}j^{}}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Pi }}^A{}_{B}{}^{}J_{(u)}^{LR}\right),$$
(2.36)
where $`\mathrm{\Pi }^{}=\rho ^{5678}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Pi }}=\mathrm{\Pi },\mathrm{\Pi }^{}`$ for $`R,L`$ in $`SO(4)`$ or $`SO(4)^{}`$, respectively. The non-linearly realized supercharges can be expressed in terms of the normal modes of the system as

$`q_{(u)A}^{}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\pi |\alpha _u|}}d\sigma _u[e(\alpha _u)(\pi \alpha ^{}p_u^r\rho _{AB}^r\lambda _{+u}^B_\sigma x_u^r\rho _{AB}^r\lambda _u^B)\mu x_u^r(\rho ^r\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })_{AB}\lambda _{+u}^B`$ (2.37)
$`e(\alpha _u)(\pi \alpha ^{}p_u^r^{}\rho _{AB}^r^{}\lambda _u^B_\sigma x_u^r^{}\rho _{AB}^r^{}\lambda _{+u}^B)+\mu x_u^r^{}(\rho ^r^{}\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })_{AB}\lambda _u^B`$
$`+\sqrt{2}(\alpha ^{}p_u^R\theta _{uA}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi }}_\sigma x_u^R\theta _{+uA}e(\alpha _u){\displaystyle \frac{\mu }{\pi }}x_u^R(\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })_A{}_{}{}^{B}\theta _{uB}^{})],`$
$`q_{(u)}^A`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\pi |\alpha _u|}}d\sigma _u[(\alpha ^{}p_u^r\rho ^{rAB}\theta _{+uB}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi }}_\sigma x_u^r\rho ^{rAB}\theta _{uB}+e(\alpha _u){\displaystyle \frac{\mu }{\pi }}x_u^r(\rho ^r\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })^{AB}\theta _{+uB})`$ (2.38)
$`+(\alpha ^{}p_u^r^{}\rho ^{r^{}AB}\theta _{uB}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi }}_\sigma x_u^r^{}\rho ^{r^{}AB}\theta _{+uB}e(\alpha _u){\displaystyle \frac{\mu }{\pi }}x_u^r^{}(\rho ^r^{}\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })^{AB}\theta _{uB})`$
$`+\sqrt{2}e(\alpha _u)(\pi \alpha ^{}p_u^L\lambda _u^A_\sigma x_u^L\lambda _{+u}^A)\sqrt{2}\mu x_u^L(\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })^A{}_{B}{}^{}\lambda _{u}^{B})].`$
Expanding in modes one finds

$`q_{(u)A}^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha ^{}}{\alpha }}p_{0(u)}^r(\rho ^r\lambda _{0(u)})_A\sqrt{2}\mu x_{0(u)}^r(\rho ^r\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }\lambda _{0(u)})_A`$ (2.39)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\alpha _u}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha ^{}}{2}}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\sqrt{n}[a_{n(u)}^r(\rho ^rP_{n(u)}R_{n(u)})_A+a_{n(u)}^r(\rho ^rP_{n(u)}^1R_{n(u)})_Aia_{n(u)}^r^{}(\rho ^r^{}P_{n(u)}^1R_{n(u)})_A`$
$`+ia_{n(u)}^r^{}(\rho ^r^{}P_{n(u)}R_{n(u)})_A+i\sqrt{2}\alpha _ua_{n(u)}^R(P_{n(u)}R_{n(u)})_Ai\sqrt{2}\alpha _ua_{n(u)}^R(P_{n(u)}^1R_{n(u)})_A]`$
$`q_{(u)}^A`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}\alpha ^{}p_{0(u)}^r(\rho ^r\theta _{0(u)})^A+\sqrt{2}\mu \alpha _ux_{0(u)}^r(\rho ^r\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }\theta _{0(u)})^A`$ (2.40)
$`+\sqrt{2\alpha ^{}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\sqrt{n}[a_{n(u)}^r(\rho ^rP_{n(u)}^1R_{n(u)})^A+a_{n(u)}^r(\rho ^rP_{n(u)}R_{n(u)})^Aia_{n(u)}^r^{}(\rho ^r^{}P_{n(u)}R_{n(u)})^A`$
$`+ia_{n(u)}^r^{}(\rho ^r^{}P_{n(u)}^1R_{n(u)})^Ai{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{2}}{\alpha _u}}a_{n(u)}^L(P_{n(u)}^1R_{n(u)})^A+i{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{2}}{\alpha _u}}a_{n(u)}^L(P_{n(u)}R_{n(u)})^A]`$
## 3 The cubic open string interaction

In this section we construct the cubic open string interaction vertex, corresponding to two strings joining into a third string. This will be done in two steps. Firstly, we will construct a state $`|V`$ which satisfies

$`{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}p_{(u)}^I(\sigma )|V`$ $`=`$ $`0,{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}e(\alpha _u)x_{(u)}^I(\sigma )|V=0,`$ (3.1)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}\lambda _{(u)}^A(\sigma )|V`$ $`=`$ $`0,{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}e(\alpha _u)\theta _{(u)A}(\sigma )|V=0,`$ (3.2)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}\stackrel{~}{\lambda }_{(u)}^A(\sigma )|V`$ $`=`$ $`0,{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}e(\alpha _u)\stackrel{~}{\theta }_{(u)A}(\sigma )|V=0.`$ (3.3)
These equations implement the functional delta function constraints (1.2) at the Fock space level. The coordinates of the three strings shown in Figure 1 are parameterized by

$`\sigma _1`$ $`=`$ $`\sigma 0\sigma \pi \alpha _1,`$
$`\sigma _2`$ $`=`$ $`\sigma \pi \alpha _1\pi \alpha _1\sigma \pi (\alpha _1+\alpha _2),`$ (3.4)
$`\sigma _3`$ $`=`$ $`\sigma 0\sigma \pi (\alpha _1+\alpha _2),`$ (3.5)
and $`\alpha _1+\alpha _2+\alpha _3=0`$ with $`\alpha _3<0`$. Further

$$x_u^I(\sigma )=x_u^I(\sigma _u)\mathrm{\Theta }_u,$$
(3.6)
with similar expressions for the other fields, where

$$\mathrm{\Theta }_1=\{\begin{array}{ccc}1\hfill & & \hfill \sigma <\pi \alpha _1\\ 0\hfill & & \hfill \sigma >\pi \alpha _1,\end{array}\mathrm{\Theta }_2=\{\begin{array}{ccc}0\hfill & & \hfill \sigma <\pi \alpha _1\\ 1\hfill & & \hfill \sigma >\pi \alpha _1,\end{array}\mathrm{\Theta }_3=\mathrm{\Theta }_1+\mathrm{\Theta }_2=1.$$
(3.7)
The above constraints can then be expanded in $`\sigma `$ Fourier modes to give the restrictions on $`|V`$ in terms of creation and annihilation operators444The state $`|V`$ can also be found by performing a functional integral over the functional delta function. (see for example equation (3.9) below).

Secondly, we will require that the interaction vertex together with the dynamical supercharges satify the supersymmetry algebra at $`𝒪(g_\text{s})`$. The full cubic vertex will be given by an exponential of creation operators in the Fock spaces of the three strings, which enforces the kinematical constraints and a prefactor, polynomial in creation operators, which implements the dynamical constraints. We conclude this section by re-interpreting the operator expressions for the cubic interaction vertex and dynamical supercharges in a functional language. The reader should be aware that using functional expressions directly in the plane-wave background is much more suble than in flat spacetime. For example equation (3.34) is no longer valid when the anti-commutator does not act directly on $`|V`$; in flat spacetime on the other hand there is no need to place the commutator next to $`|V`$ (see equation (4.29b) of ). This type of behaviour was already encountered in the closed string cubic vertex in the plane-wave background .

### 3.1 The kinematical constraints

The bosonic continuity conditions, and mode expansions are very similar to the closed string ones. In particular the Neumann directions are like the positive modes of the closed string and the Dirichlet directions like the negative modes. The bosonic part of the vertex is then

$$|V_{\text{bos}}=\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{1}{2}\underset{u,v=1}{\overset{3}{}}\left(\underset{m,n}{}a_{m(u)}^I\overline{N}_{mn}^{uv}a_{n(v)}^I\right)\right\}|0_{123}.$$
(3.8)
where $`|0_{123}|0_1|0_2|0_3`$ with $`|0_u`$ defined in equation (3.17) below. $`N_{mn}^{uv}`$ is the usual plane-wave background Neumann matrix, whose explicit form (up to exponential corrections) has recently been found . For $`I`$ Dirichlet the indices $`m`$ and $`n`$ run over the negative integers, while for $`I`$ Neumann they run over the non-negative integers. It is easy to repeat the analysis of  in order to confirm that $`|V_{\text{bos}}`$ satisfies the continuity conditions enforced by the functional delta function.

The continuity conditions for fermions can be recombined as

$$\underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}\lambda _{\pm (u)}^A(\sigma _u)|V=0,\underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}e(\alpha _u)\theta _{\pm (u)A}(\sigma _u)|V=0,$$
(3.9)
where $`\lambda _{\pm (u)}`$, $`\theta _{\pm (u)}`$ are defined in equations (2.15) and (2.16). The functional delta functions can then be written as an infinite product of delta functions of the $`\mathrm{sin}`$ and $`\mathrm{cos}`$ modes. One may then perform the Gaussian integration to obtain the fermionic vertex. Instead we will write down the Fourier modes of the above constraints and solve for the vertex as an eigenstate of these equations. The continuity conditions (3.9) reduce to

$$\underset{u,n}{}X_{mn}^{(u)}\lambda _{n(u)}^A|V_{\text{ferm}}=0,\underset{u,n}{}\alpha _uX_{mn}^{(u)}\theta _{n(u)A}|V_{\text{ferm}}=0.$$
(3.10)
The Fourier transform matrices $`X_{mn}^{(u)}`$ were defined in ; we note here that they are block diagonal with the negative modes forming one block and the non-negative modes the other. Re-writing these in terms of the creation and annihilation operators we get

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{\alpha _u}(A^{(u)}CC_{(u)}^{1/2})_{mn}(P_{n(u)C}{}_{}{}^{A}R_{n(u)}^{C}P_{n(u)C}^1{}_{}{}^{A}R_{n(u)}^{C})|V_{\text{ferm}}& =0\hfill \\ \hfill \left[\underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(A^{(u)}C_{(u)}^{1/2})_{mn}(P_{n(u)C}^1{}_{}{}^{A}R_{n(u)}^{C}+P_{n(u)C}{}_{}{}^{A}R_{n(u)}^{C})+B_m\mathrm{\Lambda }^A\right]|V_{\text{ferm}}& =0\hfill \\ \hfill \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(A^{(u)}CC_{(u)}^{1/2})_{mn}(P_{n(u)A}^1{}_{}{}^{C}R_{n(u)C}^{}P_{n(u)A}{}_{}{}^{C}R_{n(u)C}^{})|V_{\text{ferm}}& =0\hfill \\ \hfill \left[\underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\alpha _u(A^{(u)}C_{(u)}^{1/2})_{mn}(P_{n(u)A}{}_{}{}^{C}R_{n(u)C}^{}+P_{n(u)A}^1{}_{}{}^{C}R_{n(u)C}^{})\alpha B_m\mathrm{\Theta }_A\right]|V_{\text{ferm}}& =0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.11)
where

$$\alpha \alpha _1\alpha _2\alpha _3,$$
(3.12)
and the matrices $`A^{(u)}`$, $`C`$, $`C_{(u)}`$ and vector $`B`$ are the same as in  and

$$\alpha _3\mathrm{\Theta }_A\theta _{0(1)A}\theta _{0(2)A},\mathrm{\Lambda }^A=\alpha _1\lambda _{0(2)}^A\alpha _2\lambda _{0(1)}^A.$$
(3.13)
In appendix A we show that these are satisfied by

$$|V_{\text{ferm}}=\mathrm{exp}\left\{\underset{u,v=1}{\overset{3}{}}\underset{m,n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}R_{m(u)}^AQ_{mn}^{uv}{}_{A}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{B}R_{n(v)B}^{}\underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}\underset{m=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}R_{m(u)}^AQ_m^u{}_{A}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{B}\mathrm{\Theta }_{B}^{}\right\}|V_{\text{ferm}}^0,$$
(3.14)
with

$$|V_{\text{ferm}}^0=\underset{A=1}{\overset{4}{}}\left[\underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}\alpha _u\theta _{0(u)A}\right]|0_{123},$$
(3.15)
enforcing the zero-mode constraints. Here

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill Q_{nA}^u^B& =\frac{\alpha /\alpha _u}{14\mu \alpha K}(12\mu \alpha K(1+i\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }))_A{}_{}{}^{C}(C_{(u)}^{1/2}P_{(u)C}{}_{}{}^{B}C_{}^{1/2}\overline{N}^u)_{n}^{},\hfill \\ \hfill Q_{mnA}^{uv}^B& =\frac{\alpha _v}{\alpha _u}(P_{(u)A}^1{}_{}{}^{C}U_{(u)}^{}C^{1/2}\overline{N}^{uv}C^{1/2}U_{(v)}P_{(v)C}^1{}_{}{}^{B})_{mn}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.16)
The state $`|0_{123}|0_1|0_2|0_3`$ on which the vertex is built is defined as

$`a_{n(u)}^I|0_u=0,R_{m(u)}^A|0_u`$ $`=`$ $`0,R_{m(u)A}|0_u=0,m>0`$
$`\lambda _{0(u)}^A|0_u`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (3.17)
with $`n`$ negative (non-negative) for $`I`$ Dirichlet (Neumann).

In summary, the part of the cubic contribution to the dynamical generators satisfying the kinematic constraints is

$$|V|V_{\text{ferm}}|V_{\text{bos}}\delta \left(\underset{r=1}{\overset{3}{}}\alpha _r\right).$$
(3.18)
### 3.2 The dynamical constraints

In interacting lightcone string field theory $`H`$, $`q_A^{}`$ and $`q^A`$ receive $`g_s`$ corrections, while operators such as $`J`$, $`P`$ and $`q^+`$ do not. As a result, the superalgebra relation (2.36) at $`𝒪(g_s)`$ implies

$$\underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}q_{A(u)}^{}|Q^B+\underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}q_{(u)}^B|Q_A^{}=2\delta _A^B|H.$$
(3.19)
This relation places tight constraints on the form of the dynamical supercharges and cubic interaction vertex. These dynamical constraints are solved by introducing a prefactor , polynomial in creation operators, in front of $`|V`$. The constituents of this polynomial prefactor have to commute with the dynamical constraints

$`[{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}p_u(\sigma _u),𝒫]`$ $`=`$ $`0=[{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}e(\alpha _u)x_u(\sigma _u),𝒫],`$ (3.20)
$`\{{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}\lambda _u(\sigma _u),𝒫\}`$ $`=`$ $`0=\{{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}e(\alpha _u)\vartheta _u(\sigma _u),𝒫\}.`$ (3.21)
The bosonic constituents are again similar to the closed string case, and for the Neumann directions they give

$$𝒦^r𝒦_0^r+𝒦_+^r^ri\mu \frac{\alpha }{\alpha ^{}}^r+\underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}F_{n(u)}a_{n(u)}^r,$$
(3.22)
where

$$^r\alpha _1p_{0(2)}^r\alpha _2p_{0(1)}^r,\alpha _3^rx_{0(1)}^rx_{0(2)}^r,[^r,^s]=i\delta ^{rs}$$
(3.23)
and in terms of the zero-mode creation oscillators

$$^ri\mu \frac{\alpha }{\alpha ^{}}^r=\sqrt{\frac{2}{\alpha ^{}}}\sqrt{\mu \alpha _1\alpha _2}\left(\sqrt{\alpha _1}a_{0(2)}^r\sqrt{\alpha _2}a_{0(1)}^r\right).$$
(3.24)
In the Dirichlet directions the bosonic prefactor will be built out of

$$𝒦^{r^{},L,R}\underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}F_{n(u)}a_{n(u)}^{r^{},L,R},$$
(3.25)
where $`F_{(u)}`$ is the same as in the closed string.

The solution involving subscripted fermionic creation operators is

$$𝒴_A\frac{\alpha }{\sqrt{\alpha ^{}}}\mathrm{\Theta }_A+\underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}G_{n(u)A}{}_{}{}^{B}R_{n(u)B}^{},$$
(3.26)
where

$$G_{n(u)A}{}_{}{}^{B}=\frac{\alpha /\sqrt{\alpha ^{}}}{14\mu \alpha K}(12\mu \alpha K(1i\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }))_A{}_{}{}^{C}(P_{(u)nC}^1{}_{}{}^{B}C_{(u)}^{1/2}C^{1/2}\overline{N}^u)_{n}^{}.$$
(3.27)
As in flat space , it turns out that the prefactors do not involve superscripted fermionic creation oscillators.

Given the above, the simplest ansatz for the dynamical supercharges is

$`|Q^{}{}_{A}{}^{}`$ $`=`$ $`Y_A|V,`$ (3.28)
$`|Q^A`$ $`=`$ $`kϵ^{ABCD}Y_BY_CY_D|V,`$ (3.29)
with $`k`$ a constant to be determined and

$$Y_A(14\mu \alpha K)^{1/2}(12\mu \alpha K(1+i\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }))_A{}_{}{}^{B}𝒴_{B}^{}.$$
(3.30)
One can show that

$`{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}q_{(u)}^A|V`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2\alpha ^{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha ^{}}{\alpha }}(𝒦^r\rho ^r+𝒦^r^{}\rho ^r^{})^{AB}(12\mu \alpha K(1+i\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }))_B{}_{}{}^{C}𝒴_{C}^{}|V,`$ (3.31)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}q_{(u)A}^{}|V`$ $`=`$ $`2\sqrt{\alpha ^{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha ^{}}{\alpha }}𝒦^R(12\mu \alpha K(1+i\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }))_A{}_{}{}^{B}𝒴_{B}^{}|V,`$ (3.32)
and

$`\{{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}q_{(u)}^A,𝒴_B\}|V`$ $`=`$ $`2\sqrt{\alpha ^{}}𝒦^L(12\mu \alpha K(1i\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }))_B{}_{}{}^{A}|V,`$ (3.33)
$`\{{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}q_{(u)A}^{},𝒴_B\}|V`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2\alpha ^{}}(𝒦^r\rho ^r+𝒦^r^{}\rho ^r^{})_{AC}(12\mu \alpha K(1i\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }))_B{}_{}{}^{C}|V.`$ (3.34)
Using these one is led to the solution

$$|H=(14\mu \alpha K)^{1/2}\left[\sqrt{\alpha ^{}}𝒦^L+\sqrt{\frac{\alpha ^{}}{2}}\frac{\alpha ^{}}{2\alpha }𝒦^i\rho ^{iCD}Y_CY_D+\frac{(\alpha ^{})^{5/2}}{24\alpha ^2}𝒦^Rϵ^{CDEF}Y_CY_DY_EY_F\right]|V,$$
(3.35)
and

$$k=\frac{\alpha ^{}}{6\alpha }.$$
(3.36)
It is important to note that as in the case of the closed string in the plane-wave background, the overall normalisation of the dynamical supercharges, and hence also the cubic vertex cannot be fixed in this way.555The normalisation may well be a $`\mu `$ dependent quantity. Since we have constructed the vertex by enforcing continuity conditions, rather then by performing a functional integral, we have already dropped a normalisation coming from the mismatch between the fermionic and bosonic determinants. The non-zero modes’ determinants cancel between bosons and fermions. On the other hand the bosonic zero-modes contribute a factor $`(4\mu \alpha _1\alpha _2/\alpha ^{}\pi ^3\alpha _3)^{(p1)/4}`$ for a D$`p`$-brane while the fermionic zero modes do not contribute at all. It would be tempting then to speculate that the relative normalisations of $`|H`$ between a D$`p`$\- and a D$`p^{}`$-brane would be $`(4\mu \alpha _1\alpha _2/\alpha ^{}\pi ^3\alpha _3)^{(pp^{})/4}`$.

### 3.3 Functional interpretation

The bosonic constituents of the prefactor can be obtained via the operators

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill X^I(\sigma )& =4\pi \frac{\sqrt{\alpha }}{\alpha ^{}}(\pi \alpha _1\sigma )^{1/2}\left(_\sigma x_1^I(\sigma )+_\sigma x_1^I(\sigma )\right),\hfill \\ \hfill P^I(\sigma )& =2\pi \sqrt{\alpha }(\pi \alpha _1\sigma )^{1/2}\left(p_1^I(\sigma )+p_1^I(\sigma )\right).\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.37)
Acting on the exponential part of the vertex these satisfy

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \underset{\sigma \pi \alpha _1}{lim}K^r(\sigma )|V& \underset{\sigma \pi \alpha _1}{lim}P^r(\sigma )=f(\mu )𝒦^r|V,\hfill \\ \hfill \underset{\sigma \pi \alpha _1}{lim}K^{r^{},L,R}(\sigma )|V& \underset{\sigma \pi \alpha _1}{lim}\frac{1}{4\pi }X^{r^{},L,R}(\sigma )=f(\mu )𝒦^{r^{},L,R}|V.\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.38)
Here we defined

$$f(\mu )2\frac{\sqrt{\alpha }}{\alpha _1}\underset{e0}{lim}\epsilon ^{1/2}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(1)^nn\mathrm{cos}(n\epsilon /\alpha _1)\overline{N}_n^1=(14\mu \alpha K)^{1/2}$$
(3.39)
where the last equality was conjectured in  and proved in . For the fermionic constituent of the prefactor one considers

$$Y(\sigma )=2\pi \frac{\sqrt{2\alpha }}{\sqrt{\alpha ^{}}}(\pi \alpha _1\sigma )^{1/2}\left(\theta _1(\sigma )+\theta _1(\sigma )\right)$$
(3.40)
which satisfies

$$\underset{\sigma \pi \alpha _1}{lim}Y(\sigma )|V=f(\mu )(14\mu \alpha K)^1(12\mu \alpha K(1+i\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi }))𝒴|V=Y|V.$$
(3.41)
The oscilator expressions for the dynamical supercharges may then be replaced by functional integrals. For example

$$Q_{3A}^{}=g_s𝑑\mu _3Y_A\text{tr}(\mathrm{\Phi }(1)\mathrm{\Phi }(2)\mathrm{\Phi }(3)),$$
(3.42)
where the trace is over Chan-Patton factors. Here

$`d\mu _3`$ $``$ $`\left({\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}d\alpha _uD^4\lambda _{+u}(\sigma )D^4\lambda _u(\sigma )D^8p_u(\sigma )\right)`$ (3.43)
$`\times \delta \left({\displaystyle \underset{v}{}}\alpha _v\right)\mathrm{\Delta }^4\left[{\displaystyle \underset{v}{}}\lambda _{+v}(\sigma )\right]\mathrm{\Delta }^4\left[{\displaystyle \underset{v}{}}\lambda _v(\sigma )\right]\mathrm{\Delta }^8\left[{\displaystyle \underset{v}{}}p_v(\sigma )\right]`$
is the functional expression leading to the exponential part of the vertex . Similar expressions can be written down for $`Q_3^A`$ and $`H_3`$ with $`Y_A`$ replaced by corresponding expressions from equations (3.29) and (3.35).

## 4 Conclusion

We have constructed the cubic interaction vertex and dynamical supercharges for D--branes in the plane-wave background. The expressions were obtained in terms of oscilator expressions, allowing for immediate computation of three-point functions of open strings ending on such D--branes. They have also been reinterpreted in the functional language. In the above construction the $`SU(4)`$ formalism has been used. The $`SU(4)`$ language allows for a unified treatment of all D--branes even though they do not preserve an $`SU(4)`$ symmetry. The situation is analogous to the closed string vertex in the plane-wave background, where $`SO(8)`$ notation is used, with the theory preserving only an $`SO(4)\times SO(4)`$ subgroup. While the explicit expressions given here have been for D-branes placed at the origin in transverse space, as was discussed in the introduction, it is straightforward to generalise this to other D--branes. The oscilator formulas have been constructed on the state $`|0_{123}`$ rather than on the open string vacuum $`|v_{123}`$. This too is similar to the closed string vertex. It may be interesting to investigate if the open string cubic vertex could be also constructed on $`|v_{123}`$, in the spirit of . Finally, we note that it is of course possible to add terms of the form $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_uq_{(u)}^{}|V`$ to the dynamical supercharges and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_uH_{2(u)}|V`$ to the cubic hamiltonian as has been recently suggested by .

The D--branes in the plane-wave background are expected to be dual to the BMN-like limit of certain defect theories. It would be interesting to compare the open-string three-point functions which can be obtained using the three-point vertex computed here with the corresponding gauge theory results. It would also be interesting to extend the string bit model  to include open strings.

## Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Ari Pankiewicz for discussions and comments on the manuscript. I am greatful to Luis Ibañez, Angel Uranga and the Physics group at Universidad Aut noma de Madrid for their hospitality during the final stages of this project. This work was supported by FOM, the Dutch Foundation for Fundamental Research on Matter.

## Appendix A Dynamical fermionic constraints

In this appendix we show that the continuity conditions (3.10) are solved by (3.14). Note first that given the ansatz (3.14) equations (3.11) become

$`{\displaystyle \underset{u,n}{}}A_{mn}^{(u)}C_nC_{n(u)}^{1/2}P_{n(u)A}^1{}_{}{}^{C}Q_{nC}^{u}^B`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (A.1)
$`\alpha B_m\delta _A^B+{\displaystyle \underset{u,n}{}}\alpha _uA_{mn}^{(u)}C_{(u)n}^{1/2}P_{(u)nA}{}_{}{}^{C}Q_{n}^{u}{}_{C}{}^{}^B`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (A.2)
$`(A^{(v)}CC_{(v)}^{1/2}P_{(v)}{}_{A}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{B})_{mn}{\displaystyle \underset{u=1}{\overset{3}{}}}(A^{(u)}CC_{(u)}^{1/2}P_{(u)A}^1{}_{}{}^{C}Q_{}^{uv}{}_{C}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{B})_{mn}`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (A.3)
$`\alpha _v(A^{(v)}C_{(v)}^{1/2}P_{(v)}^1{}_{A}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{B})_{mn}+{\displaystyle \underset{u}{}}\alpha _u(A^{(u)}C_{(u)}^{1/2}P_{(u)}{}_{A}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{C}Q_{}^{uv}{}_{C}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{B})_{mn}`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (A.4)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\alpha _v}}(P_{(v)}^1{}_{B}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{A}CC_{(v)}^{1/2}A^{(v)})_{mn}+{\displaystyle \underset{u}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\alpha _u}}(Q^{vu}{}_{B}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{C}P_{(u)C}^{}{}_{}{}^{A}C_{(u)}^{1/2}CA^{(u)})_{mn}`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (A.5)
$`2Q_m^v{}_{B}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{A}B_{n}^{}+(P_{(v)}{}_{B}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{A}C_{(v)}^{1/2}A^{(v)})_{mn}{\displaystyle \underset{u}{}}(Q_B^{vu}{}_{}{}^{C}P_{(u)}^{1}{}_{C}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{A}C_{(u)}^{1/2}A^{(u)})_{mn}`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (A.6)
In order to verify that the solutions are given in equations (3.16) one needs to generalise some of the fermionic identities in . For example

$$P_{(u)A}^2{}_{}{}^{C}U_{(u)}^{}\overline{N}^{uv}U_{(v)}P_{(u)C}^2{}_{}{}^{B}=\delta _A^B\overline{N}^{uv}+\mu \alpha (1i\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Pi })_A{}_{}{}^{B}C_{(u)}^{1/2}\overline{N}^u(C_{(v)}^{1/2}\overline{N}^v)^T$$
(A.7)
The above constraints are then shown to be satisfied identically using the bosonic identities in .


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# Shock Waves

## 1. Introduction

The most basic equations for shock wave theory are the systems of hyperbolic conservation laws

$$u_t+_xf(u)=0,$$

where $`xR^m`$ is the space variables and $`uR^n`$ is the basic dependence variables. Such a system represents basic physical model for which $`u=u(x,t)`$ is the density of conserved physical quantities and the flux $`f(u)`$ is assumed to be a function of $`u`$. More complete system of partial differential equations takes the form

$$u_t+_xf(u)=_x(B(u,\epsilon )_xu)+g(u,x,t),$$

with $`B(u,\epsilon )`$ the viscosity matrix and $`\epsilon `$ the viscosity parameters, and $`g(u,x,t)`$ the sources. Other evolutionary equations which carry shock waves include the interacting particles system, Boltzmann equation, and discrete systems. Discrete systems can appear as difference approximations to hyperbolic conservation laws. In all these systems, shock waves yield rich phenomena and also present serious mathematical difficulties due to their strong nonlinear character.

## 2. Hyperbolic conservation laws

Much has been done for hyperbolic conservation laws in one space dimension

$$u_t+f(u)_x=0,xR^1,$$

see , , , and the article by Bressan in this volume. Because the solutions in general contain discontinuous shock waves, the system provides impetus for the introduction of new ideas, such as the Glimm functional, and is a good testing ground for new techniques, such as the theory of compensated compactness, in nonlinear analysis.

## 3. Viscous conservation laws

Physical models of the form of viscous conservation laws are not uniformly parabolic, but hyperbolic-parabolic. Basic study of the dissipation of solutions for such a system has been done using the energy method, see . Study of nonlinear waves for these systems has been initiated, , , however, much more remains to be done. The difficulty lies in the nonlinear couplings due to both the nonlinearity of the flux $`f(u)`$, which is the topic of consideration for hyperbolic conservation laws, as well as that of the viscosity matrix $`B(u,\epsilon )`$. For instance, the study of zero dissipation limit $`\epsilon 0`$, see Bressan’s article, has been done only for the artificial viscosity matrix $`B(u,\epsilon )=\epsilon I`$.

## 4. Conservation laws with sources

Sources added to conservation laws may represents geometric effects, chemical reactions, or relaxation effects. Thus there should be no unified theory for it. When the source represents the geometric effects, such the multi-dimensional spherical waves , hyperbolic conservation laws takes the form

$$u_t+f(u)_r=\frac{m1}{r}h(u),r^2=\underset{i=1}{\overset{m}{}}(x_i)^2.$$

There has stablizing and destablizing effects, such as in the nozzle flows, . The chemical effects occur in the combustions. There is complicated, still mostly not understood, phenomena on the rich behaviour of combustions. One interesting problem is the transition from the detonations to deflagrations, where the combined effects of dissipation, compression and chemical energy gives rise to new wave behaviour. Viscous effects are important on the qualitative behaviour of nonlinear waves when the hyperbolic system is not strictly hyperbolic, see . Relaxation, such as for the kinetic models and thermal non-equilibrium in general, is interesting because of the rich coupling of dissipation, dispersion and hyperbolicity, .

## 5. Discrete conservation laws

Conservative finite differences to the hyperbolic conservation laws, in one space dimension, take the form:

$$u^{n+1}(x)u^n(x)=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }t}{\mathrm{\Delta }x}(F[u^n](x+\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }x}{2})F[u^n](x\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }x}{2})).$$

It has been shown for a class of two conservation laws and dissipative schemes, such as Lax-Friedrichs and Godunov scheme that the numerical solutions converge to the exact solutions of the conservation laws, . On the other hand, qualitative studies on the nonlinear waves for difference schemes indicate rich behaviour. In particular, the shock waves depend sensitively on the its C-F-L speeds, , .

## 6. Multi-dimensional gas flows

Shock wave theory originated from the study of the Euler equations in gas dynamics. The classical book  is still important and mostly updated on multi-dimensional gas flows. Because of its great difficulty, the study of multi-dimensional shocks concentrate on flows with certain self-similarity property. One such problem is the Riemann problem, with initial value consisting of finite many constant states. In that case, the solutions are function of $`x/t`$, not general function of $`(x,t)`$, see . See also  for other self-similar solutions. However, unlike single space case, multi-dimensional Riemann solutions do not represent general scattering data, and are quite difficult to study. It is more feasible to consider flows with shocks and solid boundary, e.g.  .

## 7. Boltzmann equation

The Boltzmann equation

$$f_t+\xi _xf=Q(f,f)$$

contains much more information than the gas dynamics equations. Nevertheless, the shock waves for all these equations have the same Rankine-Hugoniot relation at the far states. The difference is on the transition layer. There is beginning an effort to make use of the techniques for the conservation laws to study the Boltzmann shocks, . This is a line of research quite different from the intensive current efforts on the incompressible limits of the Boltzmann equation.

## 8. Interacting particle systems

Interacting particle systems is even closer to the first physical principles than the Boltzmann equation. There is the long-standing problem, the Zermelo paradox, in passing from the reversible particle systems to the irreversible systems such as the Boltzmann equation, and the Euler equations with shocks. This is fine for particle system with random noises. However, except for scalar models, so far the derivation of Euler equations from the particle systems has been done only for solutions with no shocks, .


text:
# Harmonic Analysis on Real Reductive Symmetric Spaces

## 1. Introduction

Let $`G`$ be a real reductive group in the Harish-Chandra class \[H-C1\], e.g. a connected semisimple Lie group with finite center, or the group of real points of a connected reductive algebraic group defined over $``$. Let $`\sigma `$ be an involution of the Lie group $`G`$, $`H`$ an open subgroup of the subgroup of fixed points of $`\sigma `$.

Important problems of harmonic analysis on the so-called reductive symmetric space $`G/H`$ are :

(a) to make the simultaneous spectral decomposition of the elements of the algebra $`𝔻(G/H)`$ of left invariant differential operators under $`G`$ on $`G/H`$. In other words, one wants to write the elements of $`L^2(G/H)`$ with the help of joint eigenfunctions under $`𝔻(G/H)`$.

(b) to decompose the left regular representation of $`G`$ in $`L^2(G/H)`$ into an Hilbert integral of irreducible unitary representations of $`G`$ : this is essentially the Plancherel formula.

(c) to decompose the Dirac measure at $`eH`$, where $`e`$ is the neutral element of $`G`$, into an integral of $`H`$-fixed distribution vectors : this is essentially the Fourier inversion formula.

These problems were solved for the “group case” (i.e. the group viewed as a symmetric space : $`G=G_1\times G_1`$, $`\sigma (x,y)=(y,x)`$, $`H`$ is the diagonal of $`G_1\times G_1`$ ) by Harish-Chandra in 1970s (see \[H-C1,2, 3\]), the Riemannian case ($`H`$ maximal compact) had been treated before (see \[He\]). Later, there were deep results by T. Oshima \[O1\]. When $`G`$ is a complex group and $`H`$ is a real form, the Problems (a), (b), (c) were solved by P. Harinck, together with an inversion formula for orbital integrals (\[Ha\], see also \[D3\] for the link of her work with the work of A. Bouaziz on real reductive groups).

Then, E. van den Ban and H. Schlichtkrull, on the one hand, and I, on the other hand, obtained different solutions to problems (a), (b), (c). Moreover, they obtained a Paley-Wiener theorem (see \[BS3\] for a presentation of their work). I present here my point of view, with an emphasize on problem (a), because it simplifies the formulations of the results (nevertherless, the important aspect of representation theory is hidden). It includes several joint works, mainly with J. Carmona , and also with E. van den Ban and J.L. Brylinski. Severals works of T. Oshima, linked to the the Flensted-Jensen duality, alone and with T. Matsuki are very important in my proof, as well as earlier results of E. van den Ban and H. Schlichtkrull.

I have to acknowledge the deep influence of Harish-Chandra ’s work. The crucial role played by the work \[Be\] of J. Bernstein on the support of the Plancherel measure, and some part of Arthur’s article on the local trace formula \[A\] will be appearant in the main body of the article.

## 2. Temperedness of the spectrum

Let $`\theta `$ be a Cartan involution of $`G`$ commuting with $`\sigma `$, let $`K`$ be the fixed point set of $`\theta `$. Let $`𝔤`$ be the Lie algebra of $`G`$, etc. Let $`𝔰`$ (resp. $`𝔮`$) be the space of elements in $`𝔤`$ which are antiinvariant under the differential of $`\theta `$ (resp. $`\sigma `$). Let $`𝔞_{\mathrm{}}`$ be a maximal abelian subspace of $`𝔰𝔮`$. If $`P`$ is a $`\sigma \theta `$-stable parabolic subgroup of $`G`$, containing $`A_{\mathrm{}}:=exp𝔞_{\mathrm{}}`$, we denote by $`P=M_PA_PN_P`$ its Langlands $`\sigma `$-decomposition. More precisely $`A_P`$ is the subgroup of the elements $`a`$ of the split component of the Levi factor $`L_P=P\theta (P)`$ such that $`\sigma (a)=a^1`$. Here $`M_P`$ is larger than that for the usual Langlands decomposition.

In order to simplify the exposition we will make the following simplifying assumption:

Hypothesis:  For any $`P`$ as above, $`HP`$ is the unique open $`(H,P)`$-double coset.

When $`\sigma =\theta `$ (the case of a riemannian symmetric space ) or the “group case”, this hypothesis is satisfied.

To get the Plancherel formula, it is useful to use $`K`$-finite functions. They are often replaced by $`\tau `$-spherical functions. Here $`(\tau ,V_\tau )`$ is a finite dimensional unitary representation of $`K`$ and a $`\tau `$-spherical function on $`G/H`$ is a function $`f:G/HV_\tau `$ such that $`f(kx)=\tau (k)f(x)`$, $`kK`$, $`xG/H`$.

Some spaces of $`\tau `$-spherical functions on $`G/H`$ play a crucial role in the theory, namely:

(a) $`𝒞(G/H,\tau )`$ : the Schwartz space of $`\tau `$-spherical functions on $`G/H`$ which are rapidly decreasing as well as their derivatives by elements of the enveloping algebra $`U(𝔤)`$ of $`𝔤`$ (see \[B2\]).

(b) $`𝒜(G/H,\tau )`$: the space of smooth $`\tau `$-spherical functions on $`G/H`$ which are $`𝔻(G/H)`$ finite. Here $`𝒜`$ is used to evoke automorphic forms.

(c) $`𝒜_{temp}(G/H,\tau )`$: the space of elements of $`𝒜(G/H,\tau )`$ which have tempered growth as well as their derivatives by elements of $`U(𝔤)`$ (\[D2\]). Integration of functions on $`G/H`$ defines a pairing between $`𝒜_{temp}(G/H,\tau )`$ and $`𝒞(G/H,\tau )`$.

(d) $`𝒜_2(G/H,\tau )`$: the space of square integrable elements of $`𝒜(G/H,\tau )`$. This is a subspace of the three preceeding spaces.

One has:

Theorem 1 ( \[D2\] ):  The space $`𝒜_2(G/H,\tau )`$ is finite dimensional.

This is deduced from the theory of discrete series for $`G/H`$ initiated by M. Flensted-Jensen \[F-J\] and achieved by T. Oshima and T. Matsuki, using the Flensted-Jensen duality \[OM\]. One has also to use the behaviour of the discrete series under certain translation functors, studied by D. Vogan \[V\] and a result of H. Schlichtkrull \[S\] on the minimal $`K`$-types of certain discrete series.

The next result follows from the work of J. Bernstein \[Be\] on the support of the Plancherel measure.

Theorem 2 (\[CD1\], Appendice C):  Every function in $`𝒞(G/H,\tau )`$ can be canonically desintegrated as an integral of elements of $`𝒜_{temp}(G/H,\tau )`$.

This information appeared to be crucial at the end of our proof.

## 3. The continuous spectrum: Eisenstein integrals

Let $`P=MAN`$ the Langlands $`\sigma `$-decomposition of a $`\sigma \theta `$-stable parabolic subgroup $`P`$ of $`G`$. Let $`\rho _P`$ be the half sum of the roots of $`𝔞`$ in $`𝔫`$ and $`\lambda 𝔞_{}^{}`$ be such that the real part of $`\lambda \rho _P`$ is strictly dominant with respect to the roots of $`𝔞`$ in $`𝔫`$. Let $`\tau _M`$ be the restriction of $`\tau `$ to $`MK`$. Then, if $`xG/H`$ and $`\psi 𝒜_2(M/MH,\tau _M)`$, the following integral is convergent:

$$E(P,\psi ,\lambda )(x):=_K\tau (k^1)\mathrm{\Psi }_\lambda (kx)𝑑k,$$

where $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\lambda (x)=0`$ if $`xPH`$, and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\lambda (x)=a^{\lambda +\rho _P}\psi (m)`$ if $`x=namH`$ with $`nN`$, $`aA`$, $`mM`$. Moreover $`E(P,\psi ,\lambda )`$ is an element of $`𝒜(G/H,\tau )`$. Eisenstein integrals are the $`\tau `$-spherical versions of $`K`$-finite functions of the form: $`gH<\pi ^{}(g)\xi ,v>`$, where $`\pi ^{}`$ is the contragredient of a generalized principal series $`\pi `$, $`\xi `$ is a certain $`H`$-fixed distribution vector of $`\pi `$, $`v`$ is a $`K`$-finite vector of $`\pi `$.

Theorem 3 (\[BrD\]):  The function $`\lambda E(P,\psi ,\lambda )`$ admits a meromorphic continuation in $`\lambda 𝔞_{}^{}`$. This meromorphic continuation, denoted in the same way, multiplied by a suitable product, $`p_\psi `$, of functions of type $`\lambda (\alpha ,\lambda )+c`$, where $`\alpha `$ is a root of $`𝔞`$ and $`c`$, is holomorphic around $`i𝔞^{}`$.

This meromorphic continuation is an interesting feature of the theory. For the the “group case”, it comes down to the meromorphic continuation of Knapp-Stein intertwining integrals. My proof with Brylinski uses $`D`$-modules arguments.

The case where $`P`$ is minimal had been treated separately by E. van den Ban \[B1\] and G. Olafsson \[Ol\]. One has also to mention the earlier work of T. Oshima and J. Sekiguchi \[OSe\] on the spaces of type $`G/K_\epsilon `$.

The proof which gives the best results uses a method of tensoring by finite dimensional representations. It is a joint work with J. Carmona. It was initiated by D. Vogan and N. Wallach (see \[W\], chapter 10) for the meromorphic continuation of the Knapp-Stein intertwining integrals. For symmetric spaces and the most continuous spectrum, the proof is due to E. van den Ban \[B2\]. This proof uses Bruhat’s thesis and tensoring by finite dimensional modules. This implies rough estimates for Eisenstein integrals, which generalize those obtained by E. van den Ban when $`P`$ is minimal \[B2\].

Theorem 4 (\[D1\]):  If $`\lambda i𝔞^{}`$ is such that $`E(P,\psi ,\lambda )`$ is well defined, then it is tempered, i.e. is an element of $`𝒜_{temp}(G/H,\tau )`$.

This is a natural result but the proof is quite long. It uses the behaviour under translation functors of $`H`$-fixed distribution vectors of discrete series and of generalized principal series, and also of the Poisson transform. Moreover the duality of M. Flensted-Jensen, \[F-J\], and a criteria of temperedness due to Oshima \[O2\] play a crucial role (apparently, J. Carmona has a way to avoid boundary values).

With the help of this theorem and by using techniques due to E. van den Ban \[B2\], the rough estimates for Eisenstein integrals can be improved to get uniform sharp estimates for $`p_\psi (\lambda )E(P,\psi ,\lambda )`$, $`\lambda i𝔞^{}`$ (cf. \[D1\]).

## 4. $`𝑪`$-functions

Let $`P`$ be as above and let $`L`$ be equal to $`MA`$. The theory of the constant term, due to J. Carmona \[C1\] (Harish-Chandra for the group case, \[H-C1\]), gives a linear map from $`𝒜_{temp}(G/H,\tau )`$ into $`𝒜_{temp}(L/LH,\tau _L)`$, $`\phi \phi _P`$, characterized by :

$$lim_{t+\mathrm{}}\delta _P^{1/2}((exptX)l)\phi ((exptX)l)\phi _P((exptX)l)=0,$$

where $`lL/LH`$, $`X𝔞_P`$ is $`P`$-dominant and $`\delta _P`$ is the modular function of $`P`$.

Let $`Q`$ be a $`\sigma \theta `$-stable parabolic subgroup of $`G`$ with the same $`\theta `$-stable Levi subgroup $`L`$ other than $`P`$. Let $`W(𝔞)`$ be the group of automorphisms of $`𝔞`$ induced by an element of $`Ad(G)`$. One defines meromorphic functions on $`𝔞_{}^{}`$, $`\lambda C_{QP}(s,\lambda )`$ with values in $`End(𝒜_2(M/MH,\tau _M))`$ such that :

$$E(P,\psi ,\lambda )_Q(ma)=\underset{sW(𝔞)}{}(C_{QP}(s,\lambda )\psi )(m)a^{s\lambda },mM,aA,\lambda i𝔞^{},$$

or rather for $`\lambda `$ in an open dense subset of $`i𝔞^{}`$.

The $`C`$-functions allow to normalize Eisenstein integrals as folllows:

$$E^0(P,\psi ,\lambda ):=E(P,C_{PP}(1,\lambda )^1\psi ,\lambda ).$$

## 5. Truncation, Maass-Selberg relations and the regularity of normalized Eisenstein integrals

Let $`P`$ be as above and let $`P^{}=M^{}A^{}N^{}`$ be the Langlands $`\sigma `$-decomposition of another $`\sigma \theta `$-stable parabolic subgroup of $`G`$. Let $`\psi `$ (resp. $`\psi ^{}`$) be an element of $`𝒜_2(M/MH,\tau _M)`$ (resp. $`𝒜_2(M^{}/M^{}H,\tau _M^{})`$). One chooses $`p_\psi `$ as in Theorem 3, such that the product of $`p_\psi `$ with the $`C`$-functions are holomorphic in a neighbourhood of $`i𝔞^{}`$ which is a product of $`i𝔞^{}`$ with a neighbourhood of 0 in $`𝔞^{}`$ . We do the same for $`\psi ^{}`$. One defines $`F(\lambda ):=p_\psi (\lambda )E(P,\psi ,\lambda )`$. One defines similarly $`F^{}`$.

One assumes, for the rest of the article, that $`G`$ is semisimple. This is just to simplify the exposition. One chooses $`T𝔞_{\mathrm{}}`$, regular with respect to the roots of $`𝔞_{\mathrm{}}`$ in $`𝔤`$. Let $`C_T^1`$ be the convex hull of $`W(𝔞_{\mathrm{}})T`$ and let $`C_T`$ be equal to the subset $`K(expC_T^1)H`$ of $`G/H`$.

Theorem 5 (\[D2\]):

(i) One gets an explicit expression $`\omega ^T(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})`$, involving the $`C`$-functions (see an example below) and vanishing when $`A`$ and $`A^{}`$ are not conjugate under $`K`$, which is asymptotic to

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^T(\lambda ,\lambda ^{}):=_{C_T}(F(\lambda )(x),F^{}(\lambda ^{})(x))𝑑x,$$

when $`T`$ goes to infinity and $`\lambda i𝔞^{}`$, $`\lambda ^{}i𝔞^{}`$. More precisely for $`\delta >0`$ there exists $`C>0`$, $`k`$ and $`\epsilon >0`$, such that for all $`T`$ satisfying $`\alpha (T)\delta T`$ for every root $`\alpha `$ of $`𝔞_{\mathrm{}}`$ in $`𝔤`$, one has:

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^T(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})\omega ^T(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})C(1+\lambda )^k(1+\lambda ^{})^ke^{\epsilon T}.$$

(ii) Moreover $`\omega ^T`$ is analytic in $`(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})i𝔞^{}\times i𝔞^{}`$.

This generalizes a result of J. Arthur for the group case \[A\], Theorem 8.1. My proof is quite similar, but I was able to avoid his use of the Plancherel formula.

(ii) is an easy consequence of (i). In fact, the explicit form of $`\omega ^T`$ implies that it is meromorphic around $`i𝔞^{}\times i𝔞^{}`$. Moreover $`\mathrm{\Omega }^T`$ is holomorphic, hence locally bounded, around $`i𝔞^{}\times i𝔞^{}`$. From the inequality in (i), one deduces that $`\omega ^T`$ is locally bounded, hence holomorphic, around $`i𝔞^{}\times i𝔞^{}`$.

We will now show, by an example, how the explicit form of $`\omega ^T`$ and its analyticity in $`(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})i𝔞^{}\times i𝔞^{}`$ imply the Maass-Selberg relations.

Let $`\sigma `$ be equal to $`\theta `$, $`H=K`$, and $`\tau `$ be the trivial representation. Let $`P,P^{}`$ be minimal parabolic subgroups of $`G`$. Then $`dim𝒜_2(M/MH,\tau )=1`$ and the $`C`$-functions are scalar valued. One assumes $`𝔤`$ to be semisimple and that the dimension of $`A`$ is one. Then $`W(𝔞)`$ has 2 elements, $`\pm 1`$, and one has the following explicit expression of $`\omega ^T`$:

$$\omega ^T(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})=p_\psi (\lambda )p_\psi ^{}(\lambda ^{})\underset{s=\pm 1,s^{}=\pm 1}{}e^{s\lambda Ts^{}\lambda ^{}T}C_{PP}(s,\lambda )\overline{C_{PP}(s^{},\lambda ^{})}(s\lambda s^{}\lambda ^{})^1.$$

Thus $`\omega ^T(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})`$ is the sum of a product of $`(\lambda \lambda ^{})^1`$ by an analytic function with a product of $`(\lambda +\lambda ^{})^1`$ by an analytic function. The analyticity at $`(\lambda ,\lambda )`$ implies easily that the factor in front of $`(\lambda \lambda ^{})^1`$ vanishes for $`\lambda =\lambda ^{}`$. Hence we get $`C_{PP}(1,\lambda )^2=C_{PP}(1,\lambda )^2`$, $`\lambda i𝔞^{}`$. This is one of the Maass-Selberg relations(cf. \[D2\], Theorem 2, and the work with J. Carmona \[CD2\], Theorem 2 for the general case, see \[B1\], \[B2\] for the case where $`P`$ is minimal). These relations imply that the $`C`$-functions attached to normalized Eisenstein integrals are unitary, when defined, for $`\lambda `$ purely imaginary. Hence they are locally bounded . This implies that they are holomorphic around the imaginary axis. This implies in particular some holomorphy property of the constant term of normalized Eisentein integrals. From this, with the help of \[BCD\], one deduces:

Theorem 6 (Regularity theorem for normalized Eisenstein integrals, \[CD2\], \[BS1\] for $`P`$ minimal):  The normalized Eisenstein integrals are holomorphic in a neighbourhood of the imaginary axis.

## 6. Fourier transform and wave packets

Theorem 7 (\[CD2\], \[BS1\] for $`𝑷`$ minimal):  For $`f𝒞(G/H,\tau )`$, one has $`_P^0f𝒮(i𝔞^{})𝒜_2(M/MH,\tau _M)`$, where $`_P^0f`$ is characterized by:

$$((_P^0f)(\lambda ),\psi )=_{G/H}(f(x),E^0(P,\psi ,\lambda )(x))𝑑x,\lambda i𝔞^{},\psi 𝒜_2(M/MH,\tau _M),$$

here $`𝒮(i𝔞^{})`$ is the usual Schwartz space.

This theorem follows from the sharp estimates of Eisenstein integrals.

Theorem 8 (\[BCD\]):  If $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is an element of $`𝒮(i𝔞^{})𝒜_2(M/MH,\tau _M)`$, one has $`_P^0𝒞(G/H,\tau )`$, where :

$$_P^0(x):=_{i𝔞^{}}E^0(P,\mathrm{\Psi }(\lambda ),\lambda )𝑑\lambda ,xG/H.$$

This theorem follows from the regularity theorem and from the joint work with E. van den Ban and J. Carmona, \[BCD\].

Now we want to compute $`_P^{}^0_P^0`$. For this purpose one has to study the integral:

$$I:=_{G/H}(_{i𝔞^{}}\alpha (\lambda )E^0(P,\psi ,\lambda )(x)𝑑\lambda ,E^0(P^{},\psi ^{},\lambda ^{})(x))𝑑x.$$

One truncates the integral on $`G/H`$ to $`C_T`$ and let $`T`$ goes to infinity (far from the walls). Let us denote the truncated inner product of the normalized Eisenstein integrals by $`{}_{}{}^{0}\mathrm{\Omega }_{}^{T}(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})`$. Using Fubini’s theorem one has:

$$I=lim_T\mathrm{}_{i𝔞^{}}\alpha (\lambda )^0\mathrm{\Omega }^T(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})𝑑\lambda .$$

As for unnormalized Eisentein integrals, one has an asymptotic evaluation of $`{}_{}{}^{0}\mathrm{\Omega }_{}^{T}(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})`$ by an explicit expression $`{}_{}{}^{0}\omega _{}^{T}(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})`$. One can replace $`{}_{}{}^{0}\mathrm{\Omega }_{}^{T}`$ by $`{}_{}{}^{0}\omega _{}^{T}`$ in the previous formula. By using an expression of $`{}_{}{}^{0}\omega _{}^{T}(\lambda ,\lambda ^{})`$, viewed as a distribution in $`\lambda `$, for fixed $`\lambda ^{}`$ , involving Fourier transforms of cones ( \[D2\], Theorem 3) one gets:

Theorem 9 (\[CD2\]):  Let $`𝔽`$ be a set of representative of $`\sigma `$-association classes of $`\sigma \theta `$-stable parabolic subgroups. Here $`\sigma `$-association means that the $`𝔞`$ are conjugated under $`K`$. Define:

$$𝒫_\tau =\underset{P𝔽}{}((W(𝔞_P))^1_P^0_P^0.$$

Then $`𝒫_\tau `$ is an orthogonal projection operator in $`𝒞(G/H,\tau )`$ endowed with the $`L^2`$ scalar product.

## 7. The Plancherel formula

Essentially, the solution to problem (a) is contained in the following:

Theorem 10 (\[D4\]):  The projection $`𝒫_\tau `$ is the identity operator on $`𝒞(G/H,\tau )`$.

Actually, this gives an expression of every element in $`𝒞(G/H,\tau )`$ as a wave packet of normalized Eisenstein integrals. The proof goes as follows. If $`𝒫_\tau `$ was not the identity, using Theorem 1 on the temperedness of the spectrum, one could find a non zero element of $`𝒜_{temp}(G/H,\tau )`$ which is orthogonal to the image of $`𝒫_\tau `$. Then, generalizing Theorem 5 to the truncated inner product of an Eisenstein integral with a general element of $`𝒜_{temp}(G/H,\tau )`$, this orthogonality can be explicitely described (cf. the evaluation of $`I`$ before Theorem 9). As a result, this function has to be zero, a contradiction which proves the theorem.

The theorem translates to $`K`$-finite functions, involving representations and $`H`$-fixed distribution vectors.

The theorem can also be expressed with the unnormalized Eisenstein integrals. Then there are certain Plancherel factors involved. They are linked, as in the group case , to the intertwining integrals. Following the approach of A.Knapp and G.Zuckerman, \[KZ\], their computation is reduced to find an embedding of discrete series into principal series attached to minimal parabolic subgroups. For connected groups, this has been done by J. Carmona \[C2\].

## 8. Applications and open problems

Schwartz space for the hypergeometric Fourier transform

The image of a natural Schwartz space by the hypergeometric Fourier transform is characterized \[D5\]. The work uses the Plancherel formula of E. Opdam \[Op\], and the techniques mentioned above : theory of the constant term, $`C`$-functions, truncation …

Generalized Schur orthogonality relations

Using the Plancherel formula for reductive symmetric spaces groups, K. Ankabout, \[An\], has proved generalized Schur orthogonality relations for generalized coefficients related to real reductive symmetric spaces. In particular, at least if we assume multiplicity one in the Plancherel formula, it implies the following:

There exists an explicit positive function $`d`$ on $`G/H`$, such that, for almost all representations $`\pi `$ occuring in the Plancherel formula, for $`\xi `$ an $`H`$-fixed distribution vector of $`\pi `$ occuring in the decomposition of the Dirac measure, there exists an explicit non zero constant $`C_\pi `$ such that, for all $`v,v^{}`$, $`K`$-finite vectors in the space of $`\pi `$:

$$\underset{\epsilon 0^+}{lim}\epsilon ^{n_\pi }_{G/H}e^{\epsilon d(x)}<\pi ^{}(g)\xi ,v>\overline{<\pi ^{}(g)\xi ,v^{}>}dx=C_\pi (v,v^{}).$$

Here $`n_\pi `$ is the dimension of the support of the Plancherel decomposition, around $`\pi `$. This refines and generalizes a work of Mirodikawa. It suggests to look for such type of relations in other situations.

$`𝔻\mathbf{(}𝑮\mathbf{/}𝑯\mathbf{)}`$-finite $`\tau `$-spherical functions on reductive symmetric spaces

S. Souaifi \[So\] showed how these functions appear as linear combinations of derivatives along the complex parameter $`\lambda `$, of Eisenstein integrals. For $`K`$-finite functions, filtrations are introduced, whose subquotients are described in terms of induced representations. The starting point is an adaptation of ideas used by J. Franke to study spaces of automorphic forms. The use of the spectral decomposition by Langlands is replaced here by the use of the Plancherel formula. For reductive $`p`$-adic groups, and for the group case, I got similar results.

Invariant harmonic analysis on real reductive symmetric spaces

The goal is to study the $`H`$-invariant eigendistributions under $`𝔻(G/H)`$ on $`G/H`$ and to express invariant measures on certain $`H`$-orbits in terms of these distributions ( cf \[D3\] for the work of A.Bouaziz and P.Harinck for the group case and $`G()/G()`$, see also \[OSe\]).

Harmonic analysis on $`p`$-adic reductive symmetric spaces

For the group case, the Problems (b) and (c) of the Introduction have been solved by Harish-Chandra, up to the explicit description of the discrete series. In general, the problems are open (see \[HH\] for interesting structural results).


text:
# Microscopic model for the magnetization plateaus in NH4CuCl3

(September 12, 2003)

## Abstract

A simple model consisting of three distinct dimer sublattices is proposed to describe the magnetism of NH4CuCl3. It explains the occurrence of magnetization plateaus only at 1/4 and 3/4 of the saturation magnetization. The field dependence of the excitation modes observed by ESR measurements is also explained by the model. The model predicts that the magnetization plateaus should disappear under high pressure.

NH4CuCl3, TlCuCl3, and KCuCl3 are isostructual quantum spin systems consisting of two-leg ladders separated by NH$`{}_{}{}^{+}{}_{4}{}^{}`$, Tl+, and K+ ions. The two-leg ladders are composed of Cu2+ ions with spin $`S=1/2`$ which interact antiferromagnetically (AF) through the Cl- ions. These compounds can be considered as coupled two-leg $`S=1/2`$ Heisenberg AF spin ladders, and show various types of magnetization curves. Shiramura et al. found that NH4CuCl3 has magnetization plateaus at 1/4 and 3/4 of the saturation moment, Shiramura-1998  while TlCuCl3 and KCuCl3 have no plateaus in their magnetization curves. Shiramura-1997  For NH4CuCl3, Kurniawan et al. performed ESR experiments which revealed that NH4CuCl3 has a finite excitation gap in the plateau regions. Kurniawan-1  By studying specific heat, they found AF order already at zero field and suggested a phase diagram in finite fields containing three magnetically ordered phases. Kurniawan-2

The origin of magnetization plateaus has attracted much interest recently. For weakly interacting dimer systems, the ground state is a spin singlet liquid with only short-range correlations between spins, and the triplet excitations require a finite excitation energy. An excited gas of triplet magnons has two characteristic energies. Rice  Exchange interactions cause the transfer of excited triplets between neighboring dimers leading to a form of kinetic energy. They also lead to a short range repulsion between triplets in addition to the hard core repulsion forbidding double occupancy of a dimer. The triplet excitations are split in an external magnetic field, and the energy of the lowest component can be driven through zero. When the kinetic energy is dominant, which is realized in TlCuCl3 and KCuCl3, we have no plateaus in the magnetization curve. Shiramura-1997  In these case, antiferromagnetic order perpendicular to the field appears simultaneously with magnetization parallel to the field, creating field-induced magnetic order, Tanaka-2001  which can be interpreted as a condensation of the lowest lying magnon mode. Kato ; Oosawa-2002 ; Cavadini-1999 ; Cavadini-2001 ; Cavadini-2002 ; Rueegg-2002 ; Rueegg-2003 ; Nikuni ; Matsumoto  In contrast to these case, when the interaction energy dominates, magnetization plateaus can appear accompanied by a magnetic superlattice. Oshikawa  Such plateaus have been observed at a rational fraction of the saturation moment. Shiramura-1998 ; Narumi  In SrCu2(BO3)2, the frustrated form of the dimer lattice leads to a narrow bandwidth for triplet excitations and magnetization plateaus associated with a magnetic superlattice of localized triplets. Miyahara ; Kodama

An unexpected feature of NH4CuCl3 is the absence of a magnetization plateau at a value 1/2 of the saturation magnetization although this would correspond to the simplest superlattice. In this letter, an explanation of the appearance of only the values 1/4 and 3/4 is proposed. Recently, Oosawa et al. performed an inelastic neutron scattering experiment at zero field in ND4CuCl3, and found two almost non-dispersive excitation branches at 1.8 meV and 3 meV. Oosawa-2003  The feature of these excitation gaps is also reported in specific heat measurements above the transition temperature. Kurniawan-2  Since the system is already ordered at zero field, we can expect another low lying gapless branch which is hard to resolve. Very recently, Shimaoka et al. found by using NMR that 1/4 of the dimers are in a triplet configuration below 8.5K in both the ordered phase and the 1/4 plateau magnetic field regions ($`H<6`$T), Shimaoka  indicating that the symmetry is lowered already above the magnetic transition temperature, and that three weakly interacting dimer sublattices are preformed already above the transition temperature. These results are completely different from the SrCu2(BO3)2 case where a phase transition breaking translational symmetry takes place in 1/8 plateau region. Motivated by these results, we propose a model composed of three distinct dimer sublattices to account for the magnetization plateaus of NH4CuCl3. In addition, we will discuss the consequences of increased interladder interactions, e.g. due to application of an external pressure, which can lead to the suppression of the plateaus.

The NH$`{}_{}{}^{+}{}_{4}{}^{}`$ ion is not spherical and is much larger than Tl+ and K+ ions. The NH4 molecules rotate at high temperatures, and they freeze at low temperatures. Rueegg-private  In fact, elastic constant shows anomaly at 70K, Schmidt  and the NMR line splits below this temperature. Shimaoka  We speculate that the inclusion of the NH$`{}_{}{}^{+}{}_{4}{}^{}`$ ions between the ladders gives rise to a lattice distortion at low temperatures, modulating the exchange couplings. It is possible, because the angle of Cu-Cl-Cu pathway for the intradimer interaction is close to 90 (close to ferromagnetic exchange interaction), and a slight change of the angle may give drastic change in the intradimer interaction. There are various ways to distribute the three distinct dimer sublattices. We show a possible simple model in Fig. 1 with three distinct ladders consisting of the A, B, and C dimers. The left and right side of each dimer is equivalent in this model. Two-leg ladders run along the $`a`$ axis. $`J_i`$ $`(i=a,b,c)`$ is an intradimer interaction for A, B, and C dimers, respectively. We assume $`J_a0.3`$ meV, $`J_b1.8`$ meV, and $`J_c3`$ meV to reproduce the magnon excitation modes. $`J_i^{}`$ $`(i=a,b,c)`$ is an interdimer interaction along the ladder. $`J_{ij}`$ $`(i,j=a,b,c)`$ is an interdimer interaction between $`i`$ and $`j`$ ladders. These path ways between $`S=1/2`$ spins are extracted from the crystal structure of NH4CuCl3. In our model, we neglect other interactions, because they are expected to be small. The spin structure in the ordered phases of NH4CuCl3 has not yet been determined, so we assume that its pattern is similar to field-induced staggered order of TlCuCl3 and KCuCl3. Due to the modulation of the exchange couplings, the unit cell is larger than that of TlCuCl3 and KCuCl3, with A and C dimers and two B dimers in the unit cell. In the limit A, B, and C dimers are identical, the present model reduces to the models for TlCuCl3 and KCuCl3 in our previous work. Matsumoto

Taking the $`z`$ axis parallel to the external magnetic field, we introduce the following variational wave function at the $`i`$th dimer: Oosawa-2002-2

$$\psi _i=c_{si}|S+c_ie^{i\chi _i}|+c_ie^{i\chi _i}|.$$
(1)
Here, $`|S`$ is the singlet wave function. $`c_{si}`$, $`c_i`$, and $`c_i`$ are coefficients expressed as $`c_{si}=\mathrm{cos}\theta _i`$, $`c_i=\mathrm{sin}\theta _i\mathrm{cos}\varphi _i`$, and $`c_i=\mathrm{sin}\theta _i\mathrm{sin}\varphi _i`$. Since the left and right side of the dimer is equivalent in our model, the $`|+|`$ triplet component does not appear in the wavefunction. The expectation value of the spin operator of each site of a dimer is given by

$`S_x_r`$ $`=`$ $`S_x_l={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\sqrt{2}}}\mathrm{sin}2\theta _i(\mathrm{cos}\varphi _i+\mathrm{sin}\varphi _i)\mathrm{cos}\chi _i,`$ (2)
$`S_y_r`$ $`=`$ $`S_y_l={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\sqrt{2}}}\mathrm{sin}2\theta _i(\mathrm{cos}\varphi _i+\mathrm{sin}\varphi _i)\mathrm{sin}\chi _i,`$ (3)
$`S_z_r`$ $`=`$ $`S_z_l={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _i\mathrm{cos}2\varphi _i.`$ (4)
Here, $`\mathrm{}_{r(l)}`$ represents the expectation value on the right (left) side of the dimer. The perpendicular ($`x`$ and $`y`$) component is staggered (i.e. spins are aligned oppositely on $`l`$ and $`r`$ sites). The parameter $`\chi _i`$ governs the rotation around the $`z`$-axis, and we can determine only the relative phase, $`\chi _a=\chi _c=\chi _b+\pi `$, such that the spin configuration gains the AF interladder interaction energy. The angles, $`\theta _i`$ and $`\varphi _i`$ $`(i=a,b,c)`$, are variational parameters to be determined minimizing the expectation value of the Hamiltonian. This variational method is identical to that used in our previous paper where we introduced unitary transformations and minimized the $`c`$ number term of the transformed Hamiltonian. Matsumoto

Figure 2 shows the magnetization curves obtained by the variational wavefunction. There are three ordered phases, I, II, and III, which are driven by the A, B, and C dimers, respectively. At the A site, there is a finite staggered moment ($`M_{xy}`$) already at zero field, which induces staggered moment at B and C sites. As the field increases, this staggered moment first develops and then decreases. At $`H_{c1}`$, which is a saturation field for the A dimer, the staggered moments disappear and the A dimer is fully polarized by the field. Since there is one A dimer in the unit cell as in Fig. 1, we have a magnetization plateau at 1/4 for $`H>H_{c1}`$. Above $`H_{c2}`$, which is a critical field for the B dimer, a staggered moment develops at the B site, inducing staggered moments at A and C sites. Although this field region is above the saturation field for the A dimer, the interaction between the A and B ladders induces a staggered moment at the A site. Accordingly, the uniform magnetization ($`M_z`$) at the A site decreases somewhat in the phase II as we can see in Fig. 2(b). Above $`H_{c3}`$, which is a saturation field for the B dimer, both B and A dimers are fully polarized. Since there are two B dimers in the unit cell, we have a magnetization plateau at 3/4 for $`H>H_{c3}`$. Above $`H_{c4}`$ (critical field for the C dimer), a staggered moment develops at the C site, inducing the staggered moment at A and B sites. Above $`H_s`$ (saturation field for the C dimer), the all dimers are fully polarized. Thus, the magnetization plateaus at 1/4 and 3/4 of the saturation moment can be understood as successive quantum phase transitions driven by magnetic field, which occur in interacting three distinct dimer sublattices.

Specific heat and high-field magnetization measurements found three magnetically ordered phases on the $`HT`$ phase diagram. Kurniawan-2  It is interesting to compare it with Fig. 2(a). Since we expect a larger staggered magnetic moment leads to a higher transition temperature, we can account for the resemblance between the $`HT`$ phase diagram and $`M_{xy}(H)`$ curves.

In our model, the excitation branches at 1.8 meV and 3 meV found by neutron scattering measurements are triplet excitations. Therefore, each of them should split into three branches when we apply external magnetic field. It can explain the origins of the four low lying excitation modes, $`\omega _i(i=14)`$ (see Fig. 3), detected by ESR measurements. Kurniawan-1  In the 1/4-plateau region, a $`\omega _1`$-mode increases linearly with the field, while the $`\omega _2`$-mode decreases and goes soft at $`H_{c2}`$. In this field region, each A dimer is fully polarized by the field, and is in the lowest lying triplet $`|`$, while the configuration of B dimer is dominated by the singlet component. Therefore, the $`\omega _1`$-mode can be identified with an excitation from a triplet to singlet on the A dimer, and the $`\omega _2`$-mode with an excitation from the singlet to the lowest lying triplet on the B dimer. Thus, an excitation energy gap opens up in the 1/4-plateau region. In the 3/4-plateau region, the energy of the $`\omega _3`$-mode increases with the field, while $`\omega _4`$-mode decreases and goes soft at $`H_{c4}`$. Similarly to the 1/4-plateau region, the $`\omega _3`$-mode can be identified with an excitation from the lowest triplet to the singlet on the B dimer, and $`\omega _4`$ with an excitation from singlet to the lowest triplet on the C dimer. $`\omega _6`$ in Fig. 3 is an excitation from the lowest triplet to the singlet on the C dimer, which is not detected by ESR measurements. There is no singlet-triplet excitation gap on the A dimer, since an AF order appears on the A dimer already at zero field.

Consider now what we can predict from our model. The critical fields ($`H_{c1}`$, $`H_{c2}`$, $`H_{c3}`$, $`H_{c4}`$) are functions of interdimer interactions which we can control by pressure. If we assume that interladder interactions increase linearly with pressure, while the intraladder interactions are constant, we obtain the pressure dependence of the critical fields shown in Fig. 4. As pressure increases, the three distinct dimer sublattices couple more strongly, and a stronger field is required to saturate spins. Thus the plateau onset fields, $`H_{c1}`$, $`H_{c3}`$, and $`H_s`$, increase with pressure, since they correspond to saturation fields for A, B, and C dimers, respectively. The plateau end fields, $`H_{c2}`$ and $`H_{c4}`$, are critical fields where the lowest triplet component on the B and C dimers are driven to zero energy. Consider first the case of the B-sublattice. The increase with pressure of the intrasublattice, $`J_{bb}`$, broadens the triplet magnon bandwidth for the B dimer and lowers $`H_{c2}`$. The coupling through the C-sublattice $`J_{bc}`$ acts similarly but the coupling to the already polarized A-sublattice acts oppositely to increase $`H_{c2}`$, since the spins on the A sites are oriented parallel to the field. The net result however is a decrease in $`H_{c2}(p)`$ as in Fig. 4. This decrease leads to the disappearance of the plateau between $`H_{c1}`$ and $`H_{c2}`$ at a critical pressure. In Fig. 5, we show the magnetizations $`M_{xy}(H)`$ and $`M_z(H)`$ at this quantum critical point. The case of the 3/4-plateau is slightly different, since $`H_{c4}(p)`$ increases with the pressure. This occurs because there is negligible direct intrasublattice coupling for C dimers and both the A and B sublattices are now polarized parallel to $`H`$. None the less the 3/4-plateau width also narrows with increasing $`p`$ and eventually disappears at a higher critical pressure above which all the ordered phases I, II, and III merge into a single phase.

In summary, we have proposed a model consisting of three distinct dimer sublattices in order to account for the magnetization plateaus that appear in NH4CuCl3. There are various way to distribute the three distinct dimer sublattices. In this paper, we proposed a simple model in which the dimer sublattices distribute on the $`bc`$ plane as illustrated in Fig. 1. In this case, triplet magnon excitations propagate predominantly along the ladder direction. Below $`H_{c2}`$, the spin structure of our model is characterized by a wave vector (0,$`\pi `$,$`\pi `$) or (0,0,2$`\pi `$). An alternate possibility is to distribute the three distinct dimer sublattices along the ladders ($`a`$ axis), which is proposed by studying NMR. Shimaoka  Our theory is applicable also to this case. The distribution pattern of the three distinct dimer sublattices is not essential to our main results. The important assumption of our model is that there are three weakly interacting distinct dimer sublattices whose intradimer interactions are characterized by the values 0.3 meV, 1.8 meV, and 3 meV observed by the neutron experiments. Oosawa-2003  The volume fraction of the dimers should be 1/4, 1/2, and 1/4, respectively. Note this is consistent with the fact that the intensity of the magnon branch at 1.8 meV is about twice as large as the branch at 3 meV, Oosawa-2003  and it explains why the magnetization plateaus take place only at 1/4 and 3/4. We made a prediction that the magnetization plateaus disappear by applying pressure, which is supported by a recent magnetization measurement under high pressure. Tanaka-2003

The author expresses his sincere thanks to T. M. Rice for valuable discussions and critical reading of the manuscript. He is very grateful to F. Mila, C. Rüegg, and H. Tanaka for fruitful discussions. He also would like to thank H. Kusunose, B. Lüthi, B. Normand, A. Oosawa, Y. Shimaoka, and M. Sigrist for many useful discussions. This work is supported by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) and the MaNEP program of the Swiss National Fund.