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# On the theory of quasielastic lepton-hadron scattering

## 1 INTRODUCTION

It is known that gluons are masless particles due to 1) principles renormalization theory, 2) asymptotic freedom and 3) exact $`SU(3)_c`$ symmetry and local invariance assumption. However, the question of a non-zero gluon mass possibility and its physical consequences is discussed for a long time in literature. It was assumed, in particular, that gluons become massive due to symmetry breaking . In this case the requirements 1) and 2) can be fulfilled. In Section 2, proposed another mechanism for the gluon mass generation(of course our supposition dose not extenuate the significant of result ). Gluon becomes massive due to the interaction with quarks. In this case the quarks-gluons mass is nothing else but polarization correction to its self-energy. This quantity is a real correction to quarks-gluon self energy, no matter if particle is on or out of mass surface. Therefore, this assumption does not lead to impossibility to use Katkowski rules for the full cross section calculations by using the optical theorem . We assume that this quantity at low energy 1.)has not energy momentum dependence and is an effective theory parameter $`M^2`$, which can have anarbitrary sign, 2.) leads as $`k^2L^2(k^2)`$, where $`L^2(k^2)`$ is $`k^2`$ momentum dependence and $`k^2`$-transfer moment of gluon and 2.1) use parametrization  put $`L^2=\stackrel{~}{L}^2(ln[(\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2+k^2)/\mu _{QCD}^2]/ln[\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2/\mu _{QCD}^2])`$ ( $`\mathrm{ln}(\mu ^2)=ln(\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)+4\pi /(\beta _0\alpha _0)`$), where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_N`$\- uncalculable factor that describe unperturbativ contribution in strong coupling or quarks-gluon self-energy, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}216(_+^{}25)MeV`$  is the constant of QCD. In our model $`M_{gq}^2`$ not only gluon self-energy. This parameter also discount (check) quarks self-energy according theory of renormalizable (see eq. (1) andless). Its calculation can not be performed exactly since the perturbation theory is not applicable in the QCD theory. Justification for investigate this not momentum dependence parameter can be obtained in modern Effective Field Theory and Quantum Hadrodynamics (see for example ,,). This correction $`M_{gq}`$ must be small, but greater with respect to quark mass. However, it can lead to some physical effects. Namely, we show that the self-energy correction leads to a significant change in the lepton-hadron scattering cross section. This effect takes place because the set of ladder diagrams with infinite number of gluon lines must be taken into account. Thus, the intercept correction is of order $`M_{gq}^2/Q^2`$, and the logarithm is of order $`M_{gq}^2(Q^2,\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)`$, where $`Q^2`$ is the squire of transferred momentum ($`Q^2=q^2`$). Formally, the contribution of structural function to cross section becomes important at small $`Q^2`$, but at these moment perturabtive ladder approximation does not work, and the polarization correction is not known so far. It is known that at large transfer moment polarizability contribution can be taken into account by renormalization of the coupling constant $`gg(k^2)`$, since these contributions can be factorized and by using the Ward identity . In this case ”polarization mass” is

$$M_{pol}^2(k^2)_{k^2>Q_0^2}k^2\stackrel{~}{L}^2(ln[(\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2+k^2)/\mu _{QCD}^2]/ln[\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2/\mu _{QCD}^2])2$$

$$_{k^2\mathrm{}}k^2b\mathrm{ln}(k^2/\mu ^2),(\stackrel{~}{L^2}/Ln(\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2/\mu _{QCD}^2)b)$$
(1)
($`Im[\frac{e}{1+e\mathrm{ln}(k^2/\mu ^2)}\frac{1}{k^2+i0}]=e\delta (k^2+k^2e\mathrm{ln}(k^2/\mu ^2))=e\delta (k^2M^2)=`$
$`\frac{e}{1+e\mathrm{ln}(k^2/\mu ^2)}\delta (k^2)`$ ) where $`b=11(2/3)n_f`$,$`n_f`$-quarks flowers . Comparison of the cross-section calculated in this way with experimental results is a possible indirect way to estimate the value of possible quarks-gluon mass . It is important to say that processes of creation of other particles also give a contribution to “gluon mass”, therefore our effective $`M_g`$ is assumed to take into account these contributions too. This gives as a possibility to describe the quasiperturbative region of scattering when $`Q^2`$ is not very large, and maybe even when $`Q^2`$ is rather large, in contrast to the previous results, we the polarization correction was calculated at large $`Q^2`$ .It is shown (eq.(16)), that in case large $`Q^2`$ our results traversed to results . At fig1.,2 we present the model  (14), and our estimation with massive effective particles with different value of parameter and variables. Of course, this solution (14),(15) is not correct at very small $`Q^2`$, when one loop approximation is incorrect. But the one-lop solutions at large $`Q^2`$ and our solution (14), (16) at intermediate $`Q^2`$ will be “sewed” at some point of transfer momentum.(method ”sewed” see for example ,). Analytically this ”sewed” give formula (16)-(18). Also, the non-singlet diagrams give the biggest contribution at $`x1`$, but in this case delta-functions will give large contributions in terms which is difficult to calculate, and we did not take into account. It was shown in , for example, that these diagrams lead to a good description of experiment at $`x>0.65`$. Finally, Section 3. contains a summary and conclusions.

## 2 ONE-LOOP DIAGRAMS

Let us use the axial gauge $`A_\mu \eta ^\mu =0`$. It should be mentioned, that in the case of massive particles the gauge is not arbitrary and the propagator is

$$G_{\mu \nu }=\frac{1}{p^2m^2+i0}(g_{\mu \nu }\frac{p_\mu p_\nu }{m^2}).$$

As it was mentioned in the Introduction, we assume that virtual gluons have non-zero self-energy, or polarization mass $`M_g(Q^2)`$. In this case the hadron tensor has the next form  ($`S_2(V)`$-color multiply, M-mass of hadron)

$`W_{\mu \nu }(p,q)={\displaystyle \frac{g^2S_2(V)}{2M}}{\displaystyle }{\displaystyle \frac{d^4k}{(2\pi )^3}}\times `$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\delta [(pk)^2+M_{gq}^2]\delta [(q+k)^2]}{k^4}}d^{\rho \sigma }(pk)T_{\rho \mu \nu \sigma }+\mathrm{\Delta }W_{\mu \nu }.`$ (2)
Where $`\mathrm{\Delta }W_{\mu \nu }`$ discount, that $`M_{gq}^2`$ can have more composite structure, then constant or $`k^2L^2`$. Here we substitute the quark and gluon propagator by delta-functions with arguments equal to the denominator of propagator expressions.

Let us introduce the Sudakov variables:

$$k_\mu =\xi p_\mu +\beta q_\mu ^{}+k_\mu $$

with

$$q^2p^20,pq^{}pq,$$

and a new variable $`x`$: $`q^{}=q+xp`$. In this case the integral in (2) can be transformed as

$$d^4k\delta [(pk)^2M_g^2]\delta [(q+k)^2]=$$

$$=2\pi pq𝑑\beta 𝑑\xi 𝑑k_{}^2\frac{1}{2pq(1\xi )}\delta [\beta \frac{k_{}^2M_{gq}^2}{2\pi pq(1\xi )}]$$

$$\times \frac{1}{2pq}\delta [\xi x+\frac{(1x)k^2}{2pq}+\frac{M^2x}{2pq}]$$
(3)
(see Appendix) where we use the substitution $`d^4k=2\pi pqd\beta d\xi dk_{}^2`$ and approximation $`\frac{k_{}}{q^{}}+\beta ^2\frac{q^2}{2pq(1\xi )}0`$.
If

$$\beta <1\xi =>\xi x$$
(4)
,where

$$\xi x_f\frac{2x_b}{1+\sqrt{1+4M^2x_b^2/Q^2}}$$
(5)
(,, when $`Q^2>>M_n^2`$, $`\xi x_b=x`$). Similarly to , the appearance of the term $`ln(q^2/p^2)`$ is related to the phase space regions, where the relations (4) are correct. Therefore, variable $`x`$ which corresponds to the parton model variable ia part of longitudinal momentum and it justifies the approximation $`q^20`$.

The square of $`k_\mu `$ can be expressed as $`k^2=\xi ^2p^2+\beta \xi p^\mu q_\mu ^{}+\xi p^\mu k_{,\mu }+\beta \xi q^\mu p_\mu +\beta ^2q^2+\beta q^\mu k_{,\mu }+\xi k_{}^\mu p_\mu +\beta k_{,\mu }q^\mu +k_{}^22\beta \xi (q^{}p)+k_{}^2`$ use (3) , obtain

$$k^2\frac{k_{}^2}{(1\xi )}\frac{M_{gq}^2\xi }{(1\xi )}.$$
(6)
Convolution of the hadron and gluon polarization tensors with putting $`\eta =q^{}`$ and using of $`\gamma `$-matrix algebra, (3),(6) gives the main contribution to the hadron tensor, which corresponds to the tree diagram. If $`\beta <1\xi =>\xi x`$ , obtain

$`d^{\rho \sigma }(pk)T_{\rho \mu \nu \sigma }\mathrm{\Delta }W_{\mu \nu }=2tr[\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ](\widehat{k}\widehat{p}\widehat{k}+`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{k^2}{(pk,q^{})}}[(pq^{})\widehat{k}+(kq^{})\widehat{p}+(pk,p)\widehat{q}^{}])`$ (7)
and use (20)-(23)(see Appendix), obtain at case
1.1) $`M^2(k^2)M^2`$

$`2k^2tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ]\left({\displaystyle \frac{1+\xi ^2}{1\xi }}+{\displaystyle \frac{M_g^2\xi }{pq}}+{\displaystyle \frac{M_g^2\xi }{pq(1\xi )}}{\displaystyle \frac{M_g^4\xi }{2pqk^2}}\right)`$ (8)
2.1) and at case $`M^2(k^2)L^2k^2`$ (supply it at (23),obtain)

$`2k^2tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ]\left({\displaystyle \frac{1+\xi ^2}{1\xi }}+L^2\xi \right)`$ (9)
and if $`\beta >1\xi =>\xi x\frac{(1x)k^2}{2pq}\frac{M^2x}{2pq}`$ (see Appendix, eq.(24))

$$d^{\rho \sigma }(pk)T_{\rho \mu \nu \sigma }\mathrm{\Delta }W_{\mu \nu }2tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ]$$

$$\left(\frac{(k^2M_g^2)^2\xi }{2pq}+M_g^2\xi +k^2(1x)+\frac{k^22\xi }{\beta }\frac{k^22\xi (1\xi )}{\beta }\right)$$
(10)
2.2.) if $`M^2=k^2L^2,\beta >1\xi =>\xi x\frac{(1x)k^2}{2pq}\frac{k^2L^2x}{2pq}`$ (see Appendix, eq. (25))

$$(eq.\text{10})2k^2tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ](L^2x+(1x)\frac{2(xx^2+L^2x^2)}{(1L^2)})$$
(11)
To obtain the expression (8),(10),(11) the first and the second terms (equal to $`(1\xi )k^2`$ and $`2\xi k^2/(1\xi )`$, correspondingly) in gluon propagator were considered. We also neglecting $`1/k^4`$ and $`k^4`$, because at high $`k^2`$ $`|M_g^2|k^2ln(k^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)>k^2`$, and $`k^2/2pq=k^2x/Q^2k^2L^2/Q_{Q^2\mathrm{}}^20`$ . However, in contrast to the paper , first and the third term in (22) was also taken into account, since it gives the contribution from the polarization mass in (8) and (9) respectively. If $`\beta <1\xi =>\xi x`$ use (3),(6),(8), obtain in cases
1.1.) $`M^2(k^2)M^2`$

$$(\text{26})=\frac{3g^2S_2(V)}{2M_n(2\pi )^3}\pi _{m^2f(M^2)}^{Q^2f(M^2)}\frac{d\beta d\xi dk^2}{k^2}2tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ]\times $$

$$\times (\frac{1+\xi ^2}{1\xi }+\frac{M_g^2\xi }{pq}+\frac{M_g^2\xi }{pq(1\xi )}\frac{M_g^4\xi }{2pqk^2})\times $$

$$\times \frac{1}{2pq}\delta [\beta (k^2M_g^2)/2pq]\delta ((\xi x)+\frac{(1x)k^2}{2pq}+\frac{M^2(x\xi ^2)}{2pq})$$
(12)
2.1.)According (1), put $`M^2k^2L^2`$

$$=\frac{3g^2S_2(V)}{2M_n(2\pi )^32pq}\pi \mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{Q^2Q^2L^2x/(1x)}{m^2m^2L^2x/(1x)}\right]2[8\xi p_\nu p_\mu $$

$$4M\nu g_{\mu \nu }+\mathrm{}](\frac{1+x^2}{1x}+A^2x+\frac{A^2x}{1x}(\frac{1+x^2}{1x}+A^2x))$$
(13)
According (12) we obtain with equations (2) and (8) give (if $`\beta <1\xi ,M^2(k^2)=M^2`$)

$$f(x,Q^2)\mathrm{\Delta }f(x,Q^2)g^2\frac{M_g^4x^2}{Q^4}+$$

$$+g^2ln[\frac{Q^2M_g^2x/(1x)}{m^2+M_g^2x/(1x)}](\frac{1+x^2}{1x}+\frac{2M_g^2x^2}{Q^2}+\frac{2M_g^2x^2}{Q^2(1x)})$$
(14)
(for massive gluons $`\mathrm{\Delta }f(x,Q^2)=0`$ and we have put $`x=Q^2/2pq`$ in the last expression), and if $`M^2=k^2L^2,\beta <1\xi `$ (13) give (put
$`L^2=\stackrel{~}{L}^2(ln[(\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2+Q^2)/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2]/ln[\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2])`$$`|ln(\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)|>>4\pi /(\beta _0\alpha _0)`$ )

$$f(x,Q^2)\mathrm{\Delta }f(x,Q^2)g^2\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{Q^2Q^2L^2x/(1x)}{m^2m^2L^2x/(1x)}\right]$$

$$\left(\frac{1+x^2}{1x}+A^2x+\frac{A^4x^2}{(1x)}+\frac{A^2x(1+x^2)}{(1x)^2}\right)_{Q^2\mathrm{}}$$
(15)
$$_{Q^2\mathrm{}}g^2(\mathrm{ln}(Q^2/m^2)+ln[\frac{Ln(Q^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)}{Ln(m^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)}])\times (\frac{1+x^2}{1x}+$$

$$\stackrel{~}{A}^2(\frac{x(1+x^2)}{(1x)^2}+x+\frac{\stackrel{~}{A^2}x^2}{(1x)}))$$
(16)
Compare this result with standard result at high $`Q^2`$, obtain that at $`Q^2\mathrm{}`$

$$\mathrm{\Delta }f(x,Q^2)g^2\mathrm{ln}(Q^2/m^2)[\left(\frac{1+x^2}{1x}\right)+1+\frac{\stackrel{~}{A^2}}{g^2\mathrm{ln}(Q^2/m^2)}$$

$$\times Ln[\frac{Ln(Q^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)}{Ln(m^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)}]](\frac{x(1+x^2)}{(1x)^2}+x+\frac{\stackrel{~}{A^2}x^2}{(1x)})$$
(17)
and at $`L^20`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }f(x,Q^2)0`$ But this result(eq. (16)) give badly behavior at $`L0`$($`A^20`$), because at $`Q^2+\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2=\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2`$ must be fulfillment condition $`m^2=\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2`$. Good behavior have another renormalizable result, that received similarly (we know polarized mass only at high $`k^2`$ .This unknown function we can transform into Teilor series $`M^2=const_{}^+(Q^2/Q_{unpert}^2)f(m^2)_+^{}\mathrm{}_{Q^2>>Q_{unpert}^2}Q^2\mathrm{ln}(m^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2),Q_{unpert}^235Gev^2`$ ,$`L^2`$ gives (1)):

$$f(x,Q^2)const\frac{48g^2S_2(V)}{2(2\pi )^3}\pi [\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{Q^2Q^2L^2(Q^2)x/(1x)}{m^2Q^2\stackrel{~}{f(m^2)}x/(1x)}\right]\times $$

$$\times (\frac{1+x^2}{1x}+A^2x+\frac{A^2x}{1x}(\frac{1+x^2}{1x}+A^2x))Ln[\frac{Ln(Q^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)}{Ln(m^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)}]\times $$

$$\times \stackrel{~}{A}^2\left(x+\frac{x}{1x}(\frac{1+x^2}{1x}+\stackrel{~}{A}^2x)\right)$$
(18)
## 3 CONCLUSIONS

It has been shown that the contribution to inelastic lepton-hadron scattering cross section from the quarks-gluon polarization mass can be rather large. Polarization mass consideration can be a possible way to decrease the difference between experimental data and theoretical calculations of the structure functions of inelastic hadron lepton scattering. Another application of the results obtained in this paper is a possible estimation of the quarks-gluon self-energy results calculated by formula (14) (18), which contains quarks-gluon self-energy as a function-parameter. We believe that quarks-gluon polarization mass presence will make the condition $`k_1<<k_2<<\mathrm{}<<k_N`$ weaker , even if these other processes are not taken into account. And that this gives as a possibility to describe the quasiperturbative region of scattering when $`Q^2`$ is not very large, and maybe even when $`Q^2`$ is rather large, in contrast to the previous results, where the polarization correction was calculated at large $`Q^2`$ . At fig.1.,2. we present our calculation for the model  (14), and our estimation (18) with effective polarization mass with different value of parameter and variables. How apparently at fig.1 ”skailing” increase with increase mass of gluons. In fig.2 ”skailing” is more visible and in principle can be used for describe experimental data.

## Acknowledgments

Ya.D.K.-E. would like to thank V.M. Turkowski, A.P.Kobushkin and V.V.Davidovsky for useful discussions which have resulted in an improvement of the paper. Ya.D.K.-E. acknowledges the financial support from the Applied Physics Department of Kiev National Technical University, Project N2700/162.He also thanks V.M.Kolomiec for aid.

## APPENDIX

For obtain (3), use
$`\delta ((pk)^2M_g^2)=\delta (\beta ^2q^2+k_{}^22pq^{}\beta (1\xi )2pk_{}(1\xi )M_{gk}^2)`$ $`\frac{1}{2pq(1\xi )}\delta (\beta +\frac{k_{}^2M_g^2}{2\pi pq(1\xi )}\frac{k_{}}{q^{}}+\beta ^2\frac{q^2}{2pq(1\xi )})\frac{1}{2pq(1\xi )}\delta (\beta +\frac{k_{}^2M_g^2}{2\pi pq(1\xi )})`$, and
$`\delta (k+q)^2\delta ((\beta +1)q^{}+(\xi x)p+k_{})^2\delta (2(\beta +1)(\xi x)pq+k_{}^2)\frac{1}{2pq}\delta ((\xi x)\beta x+\frac{k^2}{2pq}\frac{k^2\xi }{2pq}+\beta \xi +\frac{M^2\xi (1\xi )}{2pq})\frac{1}{2pq}\delta ((\xi x)+\frac{(1x)k^2}{2pq}+\frac{M^2(x\xi ^2)}{2pq})`$

$$\frac{1}{2pq}\delta (\xi x+\frac{(1x)k^2}{2pq}+\frac{M^2x}{2pq})=\frac{1}{2pq}\delta (\xi x+\frac{(1x)k^2x}{Q^2}+\frac{M^2x^2}{Q^2})$$
(19)
Supplied

$$(p(pk))^2=p^2(pk)^2+2p(pk)=p^2M_g^2+2p(pk)$$
(20)
and $`(pk)^2=M_g^2p(pk)=p^2/2k^2/2+M_g^2/2p^2/2+M_g^2/(2(1\xi ))k_{}^2/(1\xi )`$ in to (7) , obtain

$`d^{\rho \sigma }(pk)T_{\rho \mu \nu \sigma }=2tr[\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ]`$
$`\times (\widehat{k}\widehat{p}\widehat{k}+{\displaystyle \frac{k^2}{(pk,q^{})}}[(pq^{})\widehat{k}+(kq^{})\widehat{p}+(p^2/2+M_g^2/2k^2/2)\widehat{q}^{}])`$ (21)
and use

$$\widehat{k}\widehat{p}\widehat{k}=2\beta (pq)(\beta \widehat{q}^{}+k_{})(k^2(1\xi )+M_g^2\xi )\widehat{p}$$
(22)
$`(pk)q^{}=(1\xi +\beta )\frac{k^2k_{}^2}{2\beta \xi }`$, $`(pq^{})\widehat{k}+(kq^{})\widehat{p}=\frac{k^2k_{}^2}{2\beta \xi }(\widehat{k}+\xi \widehat{p})`$ ,
$`k^2=2\beta \xi (pq)+k_{}^2`$$`\beta (k_{}^2M_g^2)/(2pq(1\xi ))=(k^2M_g^2)/2pq`$ rewrite (21) as

$$2tr[\mathrm{}](2\beta (pq)\beta \widehat{q}^{}+(k^2(1\xi )+M_g^2\xi )\widehat{p}+\frac{k^2}{1\xi +\beta }(\widehat{k}+\xi \widehat{p}\frac{k^2M_g^2}{2pq}\widehat{q}^{}))$$

$$2tr[\mathrm{}]\left(2\beta (pq)\beta \widehat{q}^{}+(k^2(1\xi )+M_g^2\xi )\widehat{p}+\frac{k^2}{1\xi }(\beta \widehat{q}^{}+2\xi \widehat{p}\beta \widehat{q}^{})\frac{k^22\beta \xi \widehat{p}}{1\xi }\right)$$

$$2tr[\mathrm{}](k^2\frac{1+\xi ^2}{1\xi }\frac{(k^2M_g^2)^2\xi }{2pq}\frac{(k^2M_g^2)k^2\xi }{pq(1\xi )}+M_g^2\xi )(eq.\text{8})$$
(23)
if $`\beta <1\xi `$ , and if $`\beta >1\xi `$, obtain

$$2tr[\mathrm{}](2\beta (pq)\beta \widehat{q}^{}+(k^2(1\xi )+M_g^2\xi )\widehat{p}+\frac{k^2}{1\xi +\beta }2\xi \widehat{p})$$

$$2tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ](\frac{(k^2M_g^2)^2\xi }{2pq}+M_g^2\xi +k^2(1\xi )+\frac{k^22\xi }{1\xi +\beta })=(eq.(\text{10}))$$
(24)
1.) if $`M^2=k^2L^2,\beta >1\xi `$

$$2tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ](k^2L^2x+k^2(1x)+\frac{2\xi Q^2}{(1L^2)x}\frac{2\xi (1\xi )Q^2}{(1L^2)x})=(eq.(\text{11}))$$
(25)
At the case $`M^2(k^2)M^2`$,and $`\beta <1\xi `$ supply (3),(8) and (6) into (2), obtain

$$\frac{3g^3}{2M_n(2\pi )^3}2\pi pq\frac{d\beta d\xi dk_{}^2}{k^4}2k^2tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ]\left(\frac{1+\xi ^2}{1\xi }+\frac{M_g^2\xi }{pq}+\frac{M_g^2\xi }{pq(1\xi )}\frac{M_g^4\xi }{2pqk^2}\right)$$

$$\frac{1}{2pq(1\xi )}\delta [\beta \frac{k_{}^2M_g^2}{2\pi pq(1\xi )}]\times \frac{1}{2pq}\delta ((\xi x)+\frac{(1x)k^2}{2pq}+\frac{M^2(x\xi ^2)}{2pq})$$

$$=\frac{3g^3}{2M_n(2\pi )^3}\pi _{m^2f(M^2)}^{Q^2f(M^2)}\frac{d\beta d\xi d(k^2+\frac{M^2\xi }{1\xi })}{k^2}2tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ]\left(\frac{1+\xi ^2}{1\xi }+\frac{M_g^2\xi }{pq}+\frac{M_g^2\xi }{pq(1\xi )}\frac{M_g^4\xi }{2pqk^2}\right)$$

$$\frac{1}{2pq}\delta [\beta (k^2M_g^2)/2pq]\delta ((\xi x)+\frac{(1x)k^2}{2pq}+\frac{M^2(x\xi ^2)}{2pq})$$
(26)
2.)According (1), put $`M^2k^2L^2`$ into (2) and use (9),obtain

$$=\frac{3g^3}{2M_n(2\pi )^3}\pi _{m^2\stackrel{~}{f(M^2,Q^2)}}^{Q^2f(M^2,Q^2)}\frac{d\beta d\xi d(k^2+k^2\frac{L^2\xi }{1\xi })}{k^2}2tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ]\left(\frac{1+\xi ^2}{1\xi }+L^2\xi \right)$$

$$\frac{1}{2pq}\delta [\beta (k^2M_g^2)/2pq]\delta ((\xi x)+\frac{(1x)k^2}{2pq}+\frac{M^2(x\xi ^2)}{2pq})$$

$$=\frac{3g^3}{2M_n(2\pi )^3}\pi _{m^2m^2L^2(m^2)\xi /(1\xi )}^{Q^2Q^2L^2(Q^2)\xi /(1\xi )}\frac{d\beta d\xi dk^2(1+\frac{L^2\xi }{1\xi })}{k^2}2tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\widehat{k})\gamma _\nu ]\left(\frac{1+\xi ^2}{1\xi }+L^2\xi \right)$$

$$\frac{1}{2pq}\delta [\beta (k^2M_g^2)/2pq]\delta ((\xi x)+\frac{(1x)k^2}{2pq}+\frac{M^2(x\xi ^2)}{2pq})$$

$`tr[\widehat{p}\gamma _\mu (\widehat{q}+\xi \widehat{p})\gamma _\nu ]=4[p_\mu (\xi p+q)_\nu +(\xi p+q)_\mu p_\nu p(\xi p+q)g_{\mu \nu }]=[8\xi p_\nu p_\mu 4M\nu g_{\mu \nu }+\mathrm{}]`$

$$\frac{24g^2S_2(V)\pi }{M_n(2\pi )^3}\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{Q^2Q^2L^2x/(1x)}{m^2m^2L^2x/(1x)}\right](1+\frac{A^2x}{(1x)})$$

$$[\xi \frac{p_\nu p_\mu }{82pq}\frac{2M\nu g_{\mu \nu }}{42pq}+..](\frac{1+x^2}{1x}+A^2x)=(\text{13})$$
(27)
where $`A^2b\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2+Q^2Q^2L^2x/(1x)}{\mathrm{\Lambda }_n^2+m^2m^2L^2x/(1x)}\right]_{Q^2\mathrm{}}bLn[\frac{Ln(Q^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)}{Ln(m^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2)}]=\stackrel{~}{A^2}`$

## Figure caption

Fig.1 Our calculation for structural function $`F_2`$ in Shirkov approximation  (14) is presented as a function of $`Q^2`$ at different values of sign of the effective massive particles square $`M_p^2`$ and in the case of massless particles (16)-(17).

Fig.2 Structural function $`F_2`$ in our approximation (18) is presented as a function of $`Q^2`$ at different values of parameters of the effective ”polarized masse” $`M_g^2`$($`\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2=Labda=3GeV^2`$). This results compare with well known perturbative result (16)-(17) for massless gluons.


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# Dynamical domain walls and spin-Peierls order in doped antiferromagnets: evidence from exact diagonalization of small clusters

## Abstract

The hole-doped 2D t-J model is studied by exact diagonalization on a $`5\times 4`$ cluster which, unlike the standard tilted square clusters, can in principle accomodate an antiphase domain wall. For hole concentration $`10\%`$ and $`J/t0.5`$ the ground state energy/site is lower than the conventional tilted square $`\sqrt{20}\times \sqrt{20}`$-cluster. In the ground state two holes form a loosely bound pair pinned to an antiphase domain wall. The dynamical density correlation function shows sharp quasiparticle-like peaks, reminiscent of the ‘holons’ in 1D chains, which suggest the existence of soliton-like propagating domain walls. The dynamical correlation function of the bond-singlet operator has a low-energy peak structure characteristic of columnar spin-Peierls order, the dynamical spin correlation function shows an intense and isolated ‘resonance peak’ near $`(\pi ,\pi )`$.

The presence of stripe-like structuresTranquada  which were predicted early on by mean-field studies of Hubbard-like modelshf , is the basic idea underlying much of the recent theoretical workLoew ; TsunetsuguTroyerRice ; Zaanen ; VojtaSachdev ; CastroNeto  on cuprate superconductors. An interesting question is whether the ‘pure’ 2D t-J model, which still represents the simplest theoretical description of the CuO2 planes, develops any stripe-like structures, either in its ground state or in low-energy excited states. The most conclusive evidence for the spontaneous formation of such stripes in the 2D t-J model is probably the density-matrix renormalization group (DMRG) study of White and Scalapino WhiteScalapino  and the related work by Martins et al. Martinsetal . Exact diagonalization (ED) of small clustersDagotto  on the other hand, so far has not produced really compelling evidence for hole stripes, at least in the physical parameter regime. Evidence for stripe-like hole-density correlations from ED calculations has been reported by Prelovshek and XotosPrelovshekXotos , but only for relatively large values of $`J/t1.5`$. This is astonishing, because all effective interactions in the t-J model are expected to be short ranged, whence any strong tendency to form stripe-like structures should make itself felt even in small lattices - unless it is suppressed by finite-size effects.
As already stressed by White and ScalapinoWhiteScalapino  a potential source of such finite-size effects are the boundary conditions imposed by the cluster geometry. Most studies to date have been performed on tilted-square clustersDagotto  with periodic boundary conditions (PBC), which are chosen such as to accomodate the Néel-type order parameter in the undoped system. On the other hand, such a geometry is precisely the wrong one when an antiphase domain wall is present in the ground state. The mere geometry of the cluster then can frustrate the domain wall, thus artificially enforcing a homogeneous ground state. An ideal system to check this would be the $`5\times 4`$-cluster with PBC, which on one hand is appropriate to accomodate an antiphase domain wall parallel to the $`y`$-direction and on the other hand can be compared directly to the tilted square $`20`$-site cluster. As will be demonstrated, this cluster shows very clear and unambigous evidence for a stripe-like domain wall not only in the ground state, but also in the form of excited states corresponding to a soliton-like propagating domain wall. The 2D t-J model thus has a very strong intrinsic tendency to form stripes - if it is allowed to do so. Moreover, the formation of stripes seems intimately related to spin-Peierls-like columnar singlet order VojtaSachdev ; Sushkov\_doped .
The Hamiltonian of the t-J model reads

$$H=t\underset{i,j,\sigma }{}(\widehat{c}_{i,\sigma }^{}\widehat{c}_{j,\sigma }+H.c.)+J\underset{i,j}{}(𝐒_i𝐒_j\frac{n_in_j}{4})$$

Here $`i,j`$ denotes summation over nearest neighbor pairs, $`\widehat{c}_{i,\sigma }=c_{i,\sigma }(1n_{i,\overline{\sigma }})`$ and $`𝐒_i`$ and $`n_i`$ denotes the operators of electron spin and density at site $`i`$, respectively.

We begin with a comparison of the ground state (GS) energy for the $`5\times 4`$ cluster and the tilted square $`20`$-site cluster. One might expect that this can give an indication, as to whether a given cluster has the proper geometry to describe the system. Inappropriate boundary conditions introduce ‘frustration’ thereby raising the energy. For example, at half filling the GS energy in $`5\times 4`$ is $`1.165J/`$site, whereas in the square-shaped cluster it is $`1.191J/`$site, the higher energy for $`5\times 4`$ obviously being due to the frustration of the (quasi-) Néel order along the odd-numbered side of this rectangular cluster. Interestingly enough, this changes when holes are added. Figure 1 compares the GS energy of the two clusters with $`2`$ holes as function of $`J/t`$. For $`J/t>0.5`$ the rectangular cluster indeed has the lower energy, indicating that for the doped case the different boundary conditions are at least as reasonable to represent the bulk system as is the square cluster. All data to be presented below have been obtained for the value $`J/t=0.5`$ and $`2`$ holes.

Table 1 shows the static density and spin correlation functions for the $`5\times 4`$ cluster with $`2`$ holes. These are defined as the GS expectation values $`g_D(𝐑)=_jn_jn_{j+𝐑}`$ and $`g_S(𝐑)=\frac{1}{N}_j𝐒_j𝐒_{j+𝐑}`$. There is pronounced anisotropy in $`g_D(𝐑)`$ , particularly so at short distances, which immediately suggests a ‘hole stripe’ in $`y`$-direction. The fact that the hole density correlation is stronly directional might seem to suggest that this state is related to the $`p`$-like pairing states, which usually form the first exited state above the $`d_{x^2y^2}`$-like ground state (and sometimes in fact the ground state itself)Symmetry of two holes in square clusters. These p-like pairs, however, are spin-triplets whereas the present ground state is a spin singlet which moreover is even under reflection by both the $`x`$\- and $`y`$-axis. This state therefore is qualitatively very different from those seen so far in square-shaped clusters. Pronounced anisotropy is also seen in the spin-correlation function, where in particular the nearest neighbor spin correlation in $`y`$-direction (i.e. parallel to the stripe) exceeds the one in $`x`$-direction by $`50\%`$. While some anisotropy in the correlation functions is to be expected solely due to the rectangular shape of the $`5\times 4`$ cluster, the edges differ in length by only $`20\%`$ which seems to be rather small to explain the strong anisotropy.

To further clarify the nature of the ground state, Figure 2 shows the ‘representatives’ of those basis states, which have the largest weight in the GS wave function, labelled by their coefficients in the GS. Taken together, these $`9`$ states exhaust $`14.1\%`$ of the GS wave function - which is a lot, given that there are all in all 59000 basis states for this system. For clarity we mention that a basis state for the ED scheme is created from the ‘representative’ by a) translating it by all $`N`$ different lattice vectors of the cluster, b) applying all $`N^{}`$ point group operations of the little group of the total momentum $`𝐤`$ c) applying the time reversal operator and d) adding up the resulting $`2NN^{}`$ states with the proper phase factors so as to create a state with prescribed momentum, point group symmetry and parity under time reversal. All states in Figure 2 show a domain wall separating two perfect Néel states. In the configuration with the largest weight (top left) the two holes form a pair parallel to the domain wall. All subsequent states can be generated from this ‘seed state’ either by hole hopping, by a quantum spin flip along the domain wall, or by a combination of both. This is very much reminiscent of ‘string picture’ theories for holes populating a domain wall between two Néel statesEderWrobel ; Chernyshev  and in particular highlights the importance of charge fluctuations transverse to the stripeEderWrobel ; Chernyshev . Taken together the data presented so far show that the $`5\times 4`$ cluster has a qualitatively new (as compared to the tilted square clusters) ground state: a loosely bound hole pair pinned to an antiphase domain wall of the staggered magnetization, with strong quantum spin fluctuations along the fault line.
Having established the nature of the ground state, we consider the excitation spectra of the system. As a first step, we address the existence of dynamical domain walls. Here the appropriate quantity to look at is the dynamical density correlation function (DCF), defined as

$$D(𝐪,\omega )=\mathrm{}\frac{1}{\pi }\underset{\nu }{}\frac{|\mathrm{\Psi }_\nu |n_𝐪|\mathrm{\Psi }_0|^2}{\omega (E_\nu E_0)i0^+},$$
(1)
where $`n_𝐪=\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}_jn_je^{i𝐪𝐑_j}`$ is the Fourier transform of the electron-density operator $`n_j`$. Figure 3 compares $`D(𝐪,\omega )`$ for the $`5\times 4`$ and the tilted square $`20`$-site cluster. Whereas the DCF for the tilted square cluster is essentially incoherentdensity\_corr , the DCF for the rectangular cluster shows intense and well defined peaks at the lower edge of the spectra, particularly so at $`𝐪=(2\pi /5,0)`$ and $`𝐪=(4\pi /5,0)`$. In fact, it is tempting to compare the DCF for the $`4\times 5`$ cluster to the one for 1D chains. Figure 3 also

shows the DCF for an 11-site t-J chain with one hole. The DCF here really is an almost ideal single-peak spectrum, with a dispersion that can be fitted very accurately by the expression $`ϵ(q)=2t(1+\mathrm{cos}(q))`$. Obviously these peaks originate from the particle-hole excitations of the single ‘holon’ in the system. Since the holon is nothing but a domain wall, this suggests that the sharp peaks in the $`5\times 4`$ DCF for momenta $`(q_x,0)`$ also originate from the propagation of the domain wall as a whole. The stronger $`𝐪`$-dependence of the peak weight in the 2D cluster is probably due to the finite width of the domain wall: whereas the holon really is a point-like object, making its density structure factor $`g_D(q)`$ flat in $`q`$-space, the domain wall in 2D has some extension in $`x`$-direction, whence its structure factor must have a $`q_x`$-dependence.
Next, we focus on the anisotropic spin correlations. Read and SachdevReadSachdevI  have proposed a spontaneous spin-Peierls-like dimerization to occur as a general feature of $`S=\frac{1}{2}`$ antiferromagnets in 2D - which would explain the anisotropy of $`g_S(𝐑)`$. The appropriate quantity to check this hypothesis is $`B_\alpha (𝐪,\omega )`$, the dynamical correlation function (defined as in (1)) of the bond-singlet operator $`B_{\alpha ,𝐪}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}_j\left(𝐒_j𝐒_{j+𝐞_\alpha }\frac{n_jn_{j+𝐞_\alpha }}{4}\right)e^{i𝐪𝐑_j}`$. Thereby $`\alpha [x,y]`$ denotes the direction of the singlet-bond. Also of interest is $`S(𝐪,\omega )`$, the dynamical correlation function of the spin operator $`S_𝐪=\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}_jS_je^{i𝐪𝐑_j}`$. These spectra are shown in Figure 4. To begin with, $`B_\alpha (𝐪,\omega )`$ in $`5\times 4`$ has a prominent low energy peak for both singlet directions, $`\alpha =x,y`$, at $`𝐪=(2\pi /5,0)`$.

This peak (as well as the similar peaks at $`(0,\frac{\pi }{2})`$ and $`(4\pi /5,0)`$) is simply a replica of the intense low energy peak seen at the same $`𝐪`$ in the DCF. Just as the density operator itself, $`B_{\alpha ,𝐪}`$ is a number-conserving spin singlet, whence $`B_\alpha (𝐪,\omega )`$ probes exactly the same final state manifold as the DCF. Since the bond singlet operator (partially) couples to fluctuations of the electron density, $`B_\alpha (𝐪,\omega )`$ must pick up the signal from the propagating domain wall. This interpretation is confirmed by the fact, that the excitation energies $`E_\nu E_0`$ of the respective peaks in the DCF and $`B_\alpha (𝐪,\omega )`$ agree to computer accuracy, i.e. these peaks originate from the same final state $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_\nu `$. More interesting therefore is the second high-intensity and low energy peak, at $`(0,\pi )`$. This peak appears only in $`B_y(𝐪,\omega )`$, that means for bonds parallel to the domain wall. The wave vector $`(0,\pi )`$ for bonds in $`y`$-direction corresponds exactly to the Spin-Peierls order found by Read and SachdevReadSachdevI  and proposed to be a general feature of doped antiferromagnets by various workersVojtaSachdev ; Sushkov\_doped . This peak has a lower excitation energy than the dominant peak in the spin correlation function $`S(𝐪,\omega )`$ at $`(\frac{4\pi }{5},\pi )`$, indicating that spin-Peierls order is the most likely instability of the system. $`S(𝐪,\omega )`$ itself is quite remarkable, especially when we compare it to the tilted square cluster. There $`S(𝐪,\omega )`$ shows a series of low energy peaks near $`𝐪=(\pi ,\pi )`$, which suggest a relatively smooth dispersion with a shallow minimum at the incommensurate wave vector $`(\frac{3\pi }{5},\frac{4\pi }{5})`$. $`S(𝐪,\omega )`$ in $`5\times 4`$, on the other hand, consists of a rather diffuse high-energy continuum and an isolated low-energy peak at $`(\frac{4\pi }{5},\pi )`$. The dispersion of the spin excitations (if it exists) must be rather discontinuous near this momentum. Such a spin-excitation spectrum is very much reminiscent of the ‘resonance peaks’ observed in neutron scattering experiments on the superconducting stateMook . In the framework of the spin-Peierls scenario, the peak should be interpreted as follows: starting from a columnar spin-Peierls state with singlets in $`y`$-direction, a Néel-ordered state can be generated by condensation of (Bosonic) bond-triplet excitationsSachdevBhatt  with momentum $`𝐐=(\pi ,0)`$. In the present case of an antiphase domain wall, this should be replaced by $`𝐐=(\frac{4\pi }{5},0)`$. The spin operator $`𝐒_{(\frac{4\pi }{5},\pi )}`$ then creates and annihilates the condensed triplet-excitationsGopalanetal , so that the intense low-enery peak at $`(\frac{4\pi }{5},\pi )`$ is simply the fingerprint of the (quasi)-condensate of triplets, which creates antiphase Néel-like spin correlations out of the columnar spin-Peierls state. To conclude our discussion of the spin dynamics, we note that $`B_y(𝐪,\omega )`$ for the $`\sqrt{20}\times \sqrt{20}`$ cluster also does show a low-energy peak at $`(0,\pi )`$ \- the tendency towards spin-Peierls instability thus really seems to be quite generalReadSachdevI ; VojtaSachdev ; Sushkov\_doped . Since the geometry of square cluster is unfavourable for an antiphase domain wall, however, this does not make itself felt as clearly as in the $`5\times 4`$ cluster.
In summary, it has been shown that a rectangular cluster of the t-J model whose geometry does not explicitely frustrate an antiphase domain wall, shows rather different behavior than the tilted square clusters used conventionally for exact diagonalization. The GS in this cluster shows the clear and unambiguous signatures of a stripe-like domain wall, a comparison of the GS energies shows, that such rectangular clusters are at least as well suited to describe the bulk system, as are the square clusters. Clearly, this does not prove the existence of stripes in the thermodynamic limit - just as a square-shaped cluster will tend to suppress a domain wall, the rectangular one will favour it - but given the previous evidence for stripes found by White and ScalapinoWhiteScalapino  on much larger systems, it is quite plausible that the stripes in the rectangular cluster have a similar structure.
Stripe-like structures in the rectangular cluster then appear not only in the ground state - rather, there is evidence for excited states where apparently the finite total momentum of the state is carried by a soliton-like propagating domain wall - which is very much reminiscent of the ‘meandering domain wall’ scenario put forward by Zaanen et al.Zaanen . The data also show the presence of quasistatic columnar singlet orderVojtaSachdev ; Sushkov\_doped  in the system, which seems to be either a prerequisite for or an immediate consequence of the stripe formation.

Taken together, the above results suggest the following scenario for doped antiferromagnets: the spontaneous breaking of the point group symmetry of the latticeReadSachdevI  by formation of bond-singlet order produces ladder-like patterns in the spin background of the system, which then serve as ‘racetracks’ for hole-pair-like solitons. Condensation of bond-triplets with a condensation amplitude that changes sign across a soliton introduces strong antiferromagnetic correlations with opposite staggered magnetization on the two sides of the soliton. Under these circumstances, it becomes energetically favorable for the solitons on different ladders to form a line, because then the staggered magnetizations on the different ‘ladders’ can allign. Solitons which propagate away from the stripe create a track of magnetic frustration (see Figure 5), much as a single hole in an antiferromagnet, which creates an effective potential that alligns the pairs. In this way, one arrives at the picture of a fluctuating domain wallZaanen , made of loosely bound hole pairs in a background provided by the columnar singlets. An alternative point of view, which also fits the data very well (see especially Figure 2), would be the accumulation of hole pairs along the fault line separating two Néel states with oppposite staggered magnetization, as proposed early on by White and ScalapinoWhite\_Scalapino\_unpublished .


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# Pseudo-Newtonian potential for the relativistic accretion disk around rotating central objects having hard surface

## 1 Introduction

It is an established fact in astronomy and astrophysics that one of the method to study the accretion disk phenomenon is accomplished through the approach of pseudo-Newtonian method which the physicists prefer to avoid the complex and cumbersome general relativistic equations due to their effectiveness in the mimicry of the geometry of space-time. This model was first initiated by Shakura & Sunyaev (1973) when he proposed the simple Newtonian potential for non-rotating black holes. As the relativistic effects are extremely important near the black holes, this potential lacks the luster of describing the essential inner properties of the disk.

After that, Paczyński & Wiita (1980) modified this Newtonian potential in conformity with the Schwarzschild geometry, which can naturally reveal approximately all properties of the disk around non-rotating black holes, even that of the inner most part of the disk. The potential can reproduce the marginally stable orbit $`(r_s)`$, marginally bound orbit $`(r_b)`$ and efficiency per unit mass at the last stable circular orbit $`(E_s)`$. The last parameter agrees with most a $`10\%`$ error but the first two cases exactly match with that of the metric. Not only that the relativistic fluid dynamics of the accretion disk can be studied using this pseudo-potential, the other properties of the disk like the spectral studies can also be fulfilled around non-rotating black holes. After a gap of ten years, Nowak & Wagoner (1991) proposed another potential for accretion disk around non-rotating black holes. This potential also can mimic most of the properties of the disk governed by Schwarzschild geometry. However, epicyclic frequency of the disk can be best analyzed with the potential in concern.

Artemova et al. (1996) proposed a couple of pseudo-potentials, which can describe the accretion disk around rotating black holes. These potentials are well analyzed by a number of astrophysicists later. Very recently, Mukhopadhyay (2002a) and Mukhopadhyay & Misra (2003) prescribed some new potentials, using which properties of accretion disk can be very well described in Kerr geometry. The more interesting fact, however, lies in the methodology adopted by Mukhopadhyay (2002a) in describing the accretion disk around rotating black holes which can be used to derive the pseudo-potential for any metric according to the physics concern. The potentials proposed by Mukhopadhyay & Misra (2003) can be used for the time-dependent simulation of accretion disk around rotating black holes and neutron stars. Except the potential described by Mukhopadhyay (2002a), most of the potentials were proposed by hand.

All the above mentioned potentials are meant for accretion disk around black holes. However, herein, our course of study would lay in the derivation of a pseudo-potential meant for accretion disk around rotating central objects with a hard surface, which mainly consist of neutron stars, strange stars, white dwarfs and other highly gravitating stars. As the radius of White dwarf is very large, the general relativity is not of much importance in the accretion disk around it. The basic differences between the accretion disk having centrally hard surface and that of horizon are (Mukhopadhyay 2002b) its (1) inner boundary condition, (2) metric, (3) formation of shock and (4) luminosity of the disk. In case of hard surface, inflowing matter has to be stopped at the extreme inner edge of the disk as there is an extended object whose space-time metric is described by Hartle & Thorne (1968). However for non-rotating case the metric reduces to Schwarzschild geometry. Hence, it is quite obvious that the geometry of space time remains the same for central objects having hard surface and event horizon, when they are non-rotating. Hereinafter, we will call the class of central objects having hard surface as GOHS to distinguish it from black hole. Around the black hole, only one stable shock formation is possible. In the case of accretion disk around GOHS, the formation of the shock in a particular matter flow (upto stellar surface) may happen twice in certain situations (Mukhopadhyay 2002b). As far as the luminosity is concerned, it is greater in case of accretion disk around GOHS than that of a black hole, which mostly describes the difference in the nucleosynthesis between them.

Though various pseudo-potentials are known for describing the various accretion disk properties of the central objects with event horizon (rotating or non-rotating black holes), which can approximately mimic the general-relativistic space-times, till date no such potential that can describe relativistic fluid dynamical properties of the accretion disk around rotating GOHS is known to the author. Prasanna & Mukhopadhyay (2003) studied the general set of fluid equations with the inclusion of the effect of Coriolis force on accretion flows around rotating compact objects. Still works have been carried out in this field, sometimes using Paczyński & Wiita (1980) potential and often, by numerical simulation. Hence, it intended the author to study the relativistic hydrodynamics of the accretion disk around GOHS, with the inclusion of a proper pseudo-Newtonian-potential.

It was known from various observational works that cosmic objects in our nature are spinning. Still we must convince ourselves by the analysis of specific phenomena, which proved that rotation of the central objects should be taken into account to study the properties of the inner edge of its accretion disk. Iwasawa et al. (1996) showed in the context of their observation of variable iron K emission line in MCG-6-30-15 that, it is arising from the inner part of the accretion disk and is strongly related with the rotation of the black hole. As the inner region of the accretion disk is very much influenced by the rotation of the central object, it should be incorporated into the theoretical studies. From another observational point of view (Karas & Kraus 1996; Iwasawa et al. 1996), it was found that central black holes in galactic nuclei are rapidly rotating. Pulsars are well observed in our Universe which are nothing but rapidly rotating neutron stars. One more observational fact was established that the tidal excitations in coalescing binaries involves rapidly exciting neutron star. Gravity wave oscillations from neutron stars enstrength the fact that neutron stars are rapidly spinning (Fragile, Mathews & Wilson 2001). The occurrence of the nearly coherent brightness oscillations during thermonuclear X-ray bursts from neutron star low-mass X-ray binaries with the rotation period of these neutron stars, enhance the possibility that these are spinning fast enough to become unstable to gravity wave radiation.

All these and more, established the fact that compact objects and other cosmic objects in our nature are rotating. As it has been mentioned above that no proper pseudo-potential has yet been established to describe the accretion flows around rotating neutron stars or in general for any GOHS, we make deliberate attempt to describe a pseudo-potential that can mimic the geometry of space-time of rotating hard surfaces and can be further used to study the global solutions of their accretion disk. The author found it more convincing in the work of Mukhopadhyay (2002a) in which, the pseudo-potential was derived for the rotating black holes starting from the Kerr metric. Most of the other potentials for the rotating black holes are proposed by hand, there are no connection with the space-time metric. Here, we follow the same method as Mukhopadhyay (2002a) to derive the potential for the accretion disk around GOHS, starting from the Hartle-Thorne (HT) metric (Hartle & Thorne 1968). As the HT metric is restricted for slow rotations only, our result will be valid only for the cases of slow rotation. As the metric is involved directly to our calculation, it has been easy to reproduce most of the features of Hartle-Thorne geometry by our potential. The potential reduces to that of the Paczyński-Wiita for non rotating case.

As these methods (pseudo-Newtonian potential) are approximate in nature, it can be so that values of $`r_b`$, $`r_s`$ and $`E_s`$ for both HT and Kerr geometry may be quite near to each other at different values of $`j`$, which may motivate someone to use the pseudo-potential described by Mukhopadhyay (2002a), meant for Kerr geometry, to describe approximately the accretion disk around rotating hard surface. But it should be kept in mind that Kerr geometry can not describe the solution in the interior as it is meant for event horizon. On the other hand HT geometry can describe it. As, we are considering here the rotating hard surface (and not event horizon), for the continuity of the solution from disk to inside the star, pseudo-Newtonian potential that can mimic HT metric has only to be taken, since the potential corresponding to Kerr metric Mukhopadhyay (2002a) is valid only up to even horizon. In the next section we elucidate the derivation of our said potential. In §3, we will compare a few results of the HT geometry with that of our potential. In §4, we will make our conclusions.

## 2 Basic equations and pseudo-potential

The Lagrangian density for a particle in the Hartle Thorne space-time (neglecting the higher quadrapole terms) (Hartle & Thorne 1968), at the equatorial plane ($`\theta =\pi /2`$) can be written as

$$2=\left(1\frac{2M}{r}\frac{2j^2}{r^4}\right)\dot{t}^2+\left(1\frac{2M}{r}+\frac{2j^2}{r^4}\right)^1\dot{r}^2+r^2\dot{\varphi }^2\frac{4j}{r}\dot{\varphi }\dot{t}$$
(1)
where, over-dots denote the derivative with respect to the proper-time $`\tau `$ and $`j`$ denotes the angular momentum of the central object. As the metric is valid only for slowly rotating stars, the rotation parameter $`j`$ is restricted, may be at say, $`j0.5`$. The geodesic equations of motion are

$$E=\mathrm{constant}=\left(1\frac{2M}{r}\frac{2j^2}{r^4}\right)\dot{t}+\frac{2j}{r}\dot{\varphi },$$
(2)
$$L=\mathrm{constant}=r^2\dot{\varphi }\frac{2j}{r}\dot{t}.$$
(3)
For the particle with non-zero rest mass, $`g_{\mu \nu }p^\mu p^\nu =m^2`$ (where, $`p^\mu `$ is the momentum of the particles and $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ is the metric). Replacing the solution for $`\dot{t}`$ and $`\dot{\varphi }`$ from (2) and (3) into (1), we get a differential equation for $`r`$,

$$\left(\frac{dr}{d\tau }\right)^2=\left(\frac{4hj^2}{gr^6}+\frac{16j^4}{gr^{10}}\frac{g}{r^2}\right)L^2+\left(\frac{h}{g}+\frac{4j^2}{gr^4}\right)E^2+\left(\frac{4hj}{gr^3}\frac{16j^3}{gr^7}\right)ELgm^2=\mathrm{\Psi },$$
(4)
where, $`g=\left(1\frac{2m}{r}+\frac{2j^2}{r^4}\right)`$, $`h=\left(1\frac{2m}{r}\frac{2j^2}{r^4}\right)`$. Here $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ can be identified as an effective potential for the radial geodesic motion. The conditions for circular orbits are

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=0,\frac{d\mathrm{\Psi }}{dr}=0.$$
(5)
Solving for $`E`$ and $`L`$ from (5), we get

$`E`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{m^2r^3(4j^2+Mr^3)}}[(2j^3m^2+jm^2(4M3r)r^3\sqrt{m^4(5j^2+Mr^3)(2j^2+r^3(2M+r))^2})`$ (6)
$`\{(12j^4m^2r^2+2j^2m^2(9M7r)r^5+m^2M(3Mr)r^8+6jr^2\sqrt{m^4(5j^2+Mr^3)(2j^2+r^3(2M+r))^2})/`$
$`(36j^4r^6(3M+r)^2+12j^2r^3(3M+2r))\}^{1/2}],`$
$`L`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{m^2r^3(4j^2+Mr^3)}}[(2j^3m^2+jm^2(4M3r)r^3\sqrt{m^4(5j^2+Mr^3)(2j^2+r^3(2M+r))^2})`$ (7)
$`\{(12j^4m^2r^2+2j^2m^2(9M7r)r^5+m^2M(3Mr)r^8+6jr^2\sqrt{m^4(5j^2+Mr^3)(2j^2+r^3(2M+r))^2})/`$
$`(36j^4r^6(3M+r)^2+12j^2r^3(3M+2r))\}^{1/2}]`$
$`[\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{m^4r^7(4j^2+Mr^3)^2}{[(2j^3m^2+jm^2r^3(4m+3r)+\sqrt{m^4(5j^2+Mr^3)(2j^2+r^3(2M+r))^2}]^2}}}].`$
Now as standard practice, we can define the Keplerian angular momentum distribution $`\lambda _K=\frac{L}{E}`$. Therefore, corresponding centrifugal force in Hartle Thorne geometry can be written as

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _K^2}{r^3}}={\displaystyle \frac{m^4r^4(4j^2+Mr^3)^2}{[(2j^3m^2+jm^2r^3(4m+3r)+\sqrt{m^4(5j^2+Mr^3)(2j^2+r^3(2M+r))^2}]^2}}=F_r.`$
(8)
Thus from above, $`F_r`$ can be identified as the gravitational force of rotating central object having hard surface at the Keplerian orbit in an equatorial plane. The above expression reduces to Paczyński-Wiita form for $`j=0`$, $`m=1`$ and $`M=1`$. Thus, we propose, Eq. (8) is the most general form of the gravitational force corresponding to the pseudo-potential in accretion disk around rotating central object having hard surface in equatorial plane. It needs to be emphasized that though our theoretical result is valid for slowly rotating GOHS (HT metric is valid for slowly rotating stars), till date it is found observationally that even fast rotating neutron/strange stars has $`j`$ much less than $`0.5`$. Hence, our result will be able to explain the accretion disk properties for all observed rotating GOHS. Nevertheless, theoretically $`j`$ can be much high and for any theoretical calculation where $`j>0.5`$, our result will not be valid.

## 3 Comparison of the Results for Hartle-Thorne geometry and Pseudo-Potential

Following Mukhopadhyay (2002a), we will check how much correctly the potential ($`V_r=F_r𝑑r`$) reproduces the values of $`r_b`$, $`r_s`$ and $`E_s`$ for that of Hartle-Thorne geometry, which can be finally established as a good pseudo-potential in accretion disks around any GOHS. As the corresponding equations to calculate $`r_b`$, $`r_s`$ and $`E_s`$ are given in Mukhopadhyay (2002a), we are not repeating those here. Below we enlist corresponding $`r_b`$, $`r_s`$ and $`E_s`$ at various values of $`j`$.

Table-I

Values of $`r_b`$

| $`j`$ | $`0`$ | $`0.1`$ | $`0.2`$ | $`0.3`$ | $`0.4`$ | $`0.5`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`V_r`$ | $`4`$ | $`3.7862`$ | $`3.5619`$ | $`3.3255`$ | $`3.0762`$ | $`2.8135`$ |
| HT | $`4`$ | $`3.7954`$ | $`3.5810`$ | $`3.3557`$ | $`3.118`$ | $`2.8689`$ |
| $`j`$ | $`0`$ | $`0.1`$ | $`0.2`$ | $`0.3`$ | $`0.4`$ | $`0.5`$ |
| $`V_r`$ | $`4`$ | $`4.2042`$ | $`4.4`$ | $`4.5885`$ | $`4.77`$ | $`4.9462`$ |
| HT | $`4`$ | $`4.1957`$ | $`4.3838`$ | $`4.5684`$ | $`4.7397`$ | $`4.9089`$ |

Table-2

Values of $`r_s`$

| $`j`$ | $`0`$ | $`0.1`$ | $`0.2`$ | $`0.3`$ | $`0.4`$ | $`0.5`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`V_r`$ & HT | $`6.0`$ | $`5.6648`$ | $`5.3107`$ | $`4.9339`$ | $`4.5299`$ | $`4.0934`$ |
| $`j`$ | $`0`$ | $`0.1`$ | $`0.2`$ | $`0.3`$ | $`0.4`$ | $`0.5`$ |
| $`V_r`$ & HT | $`6.0`$ | $`6.3189`$ | $`6.6240`$ | $`6.9170`$ | $`7.1994`$ | $`7.4724`$ |

From Table-1, it is clear that for all values of $`j`$, $`V_r`$ can reproduce the value of $`r_b`$ in very good agreement with general relativistic (HT) results. The maximum error in $`r_b`$ is $`4\%`$. Table-2 indicates that $`V_r`$ reproduces $`r_s`$ with $`100\%`$ accuracy with Hartle-Thorne geometry. Table-3 shows a maximum possible error in $`E_s`$ is $`10\%`$. Thus, the potential $`V_r`$ will produce a slightly larger luminosity than the general relativistic one in the accretion disk for a particular value of $`j`$. It is to be noticed that for counter-rotating central objects, that is for retrograde solutions, the errors are less than those of co-rotating ones. Eventually we can tell that our potential can describe more or less all the phenomena quite exactly with that of Hartle-Thorne geometry and can claim it as a good pseudo-potential that can mimic the general relativistic result for the accretion disk around any GOHS, particularly close to the equatorial plane.

## 4 Conclusions

In this paper, we have prescribed a pseudo-potential for the modeling of accretion disk around rotating central objects with hard surface, which can be profoundly used to study the fluid dynamics of its disk. For the non-rotating case, that is for $`j=0`$, $`m=1`$ and for $`M=1`$ the potential reduces to well known Paczyński-Wiita potential. The author is not apprised of any pseudo-potential derived exclusively for rotating hard surfaces, which can mimic its corresponding general relativistic metric, as, the studies done using Newtonian potential, Paczynski-Wiita potential or other analytical potentials till now are generally meant for non-rotating or rotating black holes and not for rotating neutron stars. Following the similar procedure of that of Mukhopadhyay (2002a), here the potential has been described. As the potential is derived from the metric itself, its accuracy is much higher. Our potential is valid for both co-rotating and counter-rotating central objects having hard surface. In fact, the counter-rotating results agree better with the general relativistic ones, presumably because of the larger values of $`r_b`$ and $`r_s`$ with respect to that of co-rotating cases. Not only for neutron star, this potential can be used to study properties of the accretion disks around any rotating central objects having hard surface, where general relativistic effect is much profound. Though this potential is derived from the corresponding metric itself, yet this is more applicable to study the relativistic fluid dynamics of the accretion disk around rotating hard surfaces. Other properties of the accretion disk, namely spectral studies or epicyclic frequencies may not be analyzed efficiently. If the description of the disk fluid properties is acceptable within $`10\%`$ accuracy, our potential should be well recommended. It must however be noticed that as $`\theta =\pi /2`$ has been chosen at the very beginning of our calculation, the potential is mainly valid at the equatorial plane. These few hindrances notwithstanding, this potential is one of its 1st kind to the best of author’s knowledge, in turn describing the accretion disk properties around any rotating GOHS in equatorial plane.

Again it has been clearly illucidated in introduction about the reasons behind to consider the Hartle-Thorne metric over Kerr metric in the context of these approximate methods (pseudo-Newtonian potential) to describe the accretion disk properties around any rotating GOHS in equatorial plane. Generalisation of the potential, that is a global potential, describing all properties of the accretion disk around rotating central objects with hard surface may be worked out in future. Next, one should study: how does the rotation of central objects having hard surface affect the fluid dynamical properties in an accretion disk? How does it affect the parameter region of disk? In a word, we should study the complete set of global solution of viscous transonic flows around rotating hard surfaces.


text:
# Applying the Inverse Average Magnitude Squared Coherence Index for Determining Order-Chaos Transition in a System Governed by Hénon Mapping Dynamics

## I Introduction

Nonlinear dynamical methods for analyzing a discrete-time series and for determining order-chaos transition in a dynamical system have been widely used. But it is recognized by several authors that nonlinear dynamical methods used imply a high computational cost. In this sense, therefore, any method that allows to obtain some information about the behavior of a dynamical system and that can operate over a relatively shorter discrete-time series, acquires an important practical value. For complementing those methods of nonlinear dynamical analysis we shall now consider to demonstrate that introducing the concept of the inverse average magnitude-squared coherence index is possible to quantify the order-chaos transition in a system governed by the Hénon mapping dynamics. It is very important when dealing with a chaotic system keeping in mind that local sensitivity to a small error is the hallmark of such a system. A dynamical system such those that are described by the Hénon mapping dynamics produces a discrete-time non-chaotic series when the control parameter $`A`$ value satisfies the condition $`A<1.0532`$. For such a condition a discrete-time series generated by the recursive process does not almost change if the initial condition is modified and there exists phase consistency between the two discrete-time series at a given frequency. However, when the control parameter value is greater than 1.0532, a discrete-time series generated by the Hénon mapping does meaningfully change if the initial condition is slightly modified and phase consistency between the two discrete-time series at a given frequency, in general, must be lost. This effect may be quantified by applying an inverse average magnitude-squared coherence index. The magnitude-squared coherence has been used by several authors for measuring phase constancy between two or more signals at one frequency In former works the DFT representation for qualitatively describing the order-chaos transition in a dynamical system is used. By introducing an inverse average magnitude-squared coherence index (IAMSCI) the order-chaos transition in a dynamical system described by the logistic equation was quantitatively determined. Now we intended, following this idea, to make the description of order-chaos transition in a dynamical system governed by the Hénon mapping dynamics by applying the Welch average periodogram method for calculating the power spectral density and from this, to introduce the inverse average magnitude-squared coherence index for indicating quantitatively order-chaos transition in the dynamical system indicated. The fundamental advantage of this method upon the others is that it can operate on a relatively shorter discrete-time series. By estimating the largest Lyapounov exponent was able to evaluate those results obtained here applying an inverse average magnitude squared coherence index, defined by averaging $`MSC`$ estimate over all the frequency.

## II Methods and Materials

### A Obtaining the discrete-time series set

The Hénon mapping can be formulated as given by

$`x[n+1]=1.0Ax[n]^2+By[n],`$ (1)
$`y[n+1]=Bx[n]`$ (2)
where B=0.3, and A is an adjustable control parameter. With the initial condition (x,y) specified, a discrete-time series with a given length by a recursive action is obtained, each time. The nature of the behavior of a data sequence obtained can be modified by chosen conveniently a value of the control parameter A. The interval \[0.2,1.4\] was chosen, and a set of evenly spaced values of A with a step $`\delta `$=0.01 was considered to obtain a family consisting of 120 discrete-time series, each of them containing $`N=2^{10}`$ samples. The plot of the histogram for each discrete-time series allows to have immediately a simple statistical characterization of the discrete-time series. In order to make easier further computations, data points were organized into a rectangular matrix containing 120 columns, being each of them a discrete-time series with the length $`N=1024`$ data points.

### B Determining the largest Lyapounov exponent $`\lambda _1`$

A system containing one or more positive exponents is to be defined as chaotic. For calculating the Lyapounov exponents spectrum some algorithms have been developed. One of the most used algorithm is that reported by Wolf et al. From the exponents spectrum, the largest exponent, $`\lambda _1`$, decides the behavior of the dynamical system. For calculating the largest exponent, one can also refer the algorithm proposed by Rosenstein et al. Details of these algorithms can be found in refereed papers. The largest Lyapounov exponent,$`\lambda _1`$, for each time series in the set was determined using a professional software. The selection of the time delay, $`\tau `$, and the embedding dimension, $`D_e`$, required for reconstructing the phase space is part of the problem. The value $`\tau `$=1 was chosen considering the optimal filling of the phase space method. For embedding dimension the value $`D_e`$=3 was chosen.

### C Estimating the IAMSCI using the Welch average periodogram

It is highly meaningful when dealing with a chaotic system keeping in mind that local sensitivity to a small error is the hallmark of such a system. A dynamical system as the one described by the logistic equation produces a discrete-time non-chaotic series when the control parameter $`A`$ value satisfies the condition $`A<1.0532`$. For such a condition a discrete-time series generated by the recursive process does not almost change if the initial condition is modified and there exists phase consistency between the two discrete-time series at a given frequency. However, when the control parameter value is greater than 1.0532, a discrete-time series generated by the Hénon mapping does meaningfully change if the initial condition is slightly modified and phase consistency between the two discrete-time series at a given frequency, in general, must be lost. This effect may be quantified by applying an inverse average magnitude-squared coherence index. In order to apply the Welch average periodogram method for determining the power density spectrum $`S_x[k]`$ of a discrete-time series one follows the following steps: (a) Decompose the sequence of N ($`=1024`$) data points in M ($`=9`$) segments, each of one having the same length L ($`=256`$), and which may be overlapped P samples. The usual value $`P=0.625L`$ was chosen. (b) Calculate the DFT representation by fft algorithm for each segment as given by $`X_m[k]=fft(x_m[n])`$, where $`m=1,2,\mathrm{},M`$, and $`n=0,1,2,\mathrm{},L1`$. For each segment a L-fft was calculated. (c) Calculate the periodogram for each segment $`m`$ as given by

$`P_m[k]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{L}}|X_m[k]|^2,`$ (3)
where $`m=1,2,\mathrm{},M`$. (d) Finally, calculate the average periodogram as given by

$`S_x[k]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{M}}{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}P_m[k],`$ (4)
where $`k=0,1,2,\mathrm{},L1`$. For a short discrete-time series a rectangular window is recommended. For determining the magnitude-squared coherence sequence the procedure described above is applied to a second signal $`y[n]`$ obtaining the average periodogram $`S_y[k]`$. The average cross-periodogram $`S_{xy}[k]`$ is also calculated. The magnitude-squared coherence sequence was calculated as given by

$`MSC_{xy}[k]={\displaystyle \frac{S_{xy}[k]S_{xy}^{}[k]}{S_x[k]S_y[k]}}`$ (5)
The $`MSC_{xy}[k]`$ sequence describes the phase consistency between the two signals at a given frequency $`k`$. The mean value of the sequence, $`MSC_{xy}[k]`$, may be used as an index of global coherence between the two signals. When dealing with a chaotic discrete-time series this index must tend toward zero, and when dealing with a deterministic discrete-time series this index must tend toward one. However, it was found that a better index may be defined as given by

$`f=10log_{10}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{MSC_{xy}[k]}}.`$ (6)
where $`f`$ is given in decibel. It makes easier to compare results obtained here with those obtained by applying the largest Lyapounov exponent estimate method.

## III Results

Figures, from 1 to 4, show a sample of four representative time series and their corresponding magnitude-squared coherence espectra. In order to give a better view of each time series it was only considered 128 data points of each discrete-time series in its plotting, but it was completely considered when its corresponding magnitude-squared coherence was calculated. In either case, the particular values of $`A`$ parameter were indicated. Figure 5 depicts the results of plotting the inverse average magnitude-squared coherence (1/$`MSC_{xy}[k]`$), calculated for each time series in the set, as a function of the control parameter $`A`$. And figure 6 depicts the results of plotting the inverse average magnitude-squared coherence index, $`f`$, in decibels, calculated for each time series in the set, as a function of the control parameter $`A`$ too. Figure 7 shows the plotting of the largest Lyapounov exponent estimate, $`\lambda _1`$, calculated for each time series in the set, as a function of the control parameter $`A`$. This reference serves as a control plot for the discussion of the results obtained by applying the inverse average magnitude-squared coherence index method.

## IV Discussion of the results

The application of the DFT representation of a chaotic-type signal gives satisfactory results for determining the order-chaos transition in a system described by the Hénon mapping dynamics. A critical value for control parameter $`A`$ is reported in literature beyond which a sequence produced by the Hénon mapping exhibits a chaotic behavior. This threshold value approaches $`A1.0532`$. On the other hand, figures from 1 to 4 show the time domain representation of some of the time series and their corresponding magnitude-squared coherence spectrum. Comparing figures 1 ($`A=`$) with 2 ($`A=`$), 3 ($`A=`$), and 4 ($`A=`$), it can be deduced the bifurcation effect and the transition to chaos. Note that in figures 2, 3 and 4 the control parameter satisfies the condition $`A>1.0532`$, and it corresponds to a value for a positive largest Lyapounov exponent, as it can be estimated from figure 7. It may be observe in those cases that the magnitude-squared coherence spectrum exhibits values far away from one for several values of the frequency in the $`MSC`$ spectrum. It makes the average magnitude-squared coherence to be less than one, corresponding to a situation for which the discrete-time series becomes incoherent indicating in this case a chaotic behavior of the dynamical system. This situation can be observed in figures 5 and 6 where either the quantity (1/$`MSC_{xy}[k]`$) as the inverse average $`MSC`$ index, $`f`$, are greater than $`1`$ and $`0`$, respectively, for $`A>1.0532`$. Applying the inverse average magnitude-squared coherence index (IAMSCI) to a discrete-time series in a family derived from an observable in a dynamical system is recommended for quantitatively detecting the order-chaos transition, and this can be added to the metric tools of the nonlinear dynamical analysis for complementing the research of a discrete-time series.

## V Conclusions

The application of the inverse average magnitude-squared coherence index (IAMSCI), $`f`$, to a discrete-time series obtained from the Hénon mapping can be done on a chaotic discrete-time series. This discrete-time series has the property that exhibits a high level of coherence lost, and it can be detected by applying the IAMSCI method. This method does not exert a strong requirement on the length of the experimental data sequence. If one deals with a nonlinear dynamical system which can modify its behavior between order and chaos, a discrete-time series produced by that system reflects this change, and the IAMSCI method applying to the discrete-time series allow to determine this change. Any method that permits some quantitative evaluation about the behavior of a dynamical system and that can work over a relatively short time series acquires a particular importance.

## Acknowledgement

We acknowledge Pedro A. Sánchez Fernández from the Department of Foreign Languages for the revision of the English version, and Yoelsy Leiva for the edition. We also thank the Ministry of Higher Education of Cuba for partially financial support of the research.

## VI Figures


text:
# A Remark on Letzter-Makar-Limanov Invariants

## 1. Introduction

Let $`X`$ be an irreducible affine algebraic curve over $``$ with normalization $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$, and let $`D(X)`$ be the ring of (global) differential operators on $`X`$. Due to general results of Smith and Stafford (see \[SS\]), it is known that $`D(X)`$ is Morita equivalent to $`D(\stackrel{~}{X})`$ if (and only if) the normalization map $`\pi :\stackrel{~}{X}X`$ is injective. In the special case when $`X`$ is rational and $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$ is isomorphic to the affine line $`𝔸^1`$, there exist non-isomorphic curves with isomorphic rings of differential operators (the first examples of this kind were found in \[L\]). To distinguish non-isomorphic rings $`D(X)`$ in the Morita equivalence class of $`D(𝔸^1)`$ G. Letzter and L. Makar-Limanov \[LM\] introduced a certain ring-theoretic invariant which they called ‘$`\text{codim}D(X)`$’. Subsequently, a complete classification of rings of differential operators on affine curves was given (see \[K\], \[BW1\], and \[BW4\] for a detailed exposition). This showed that for the above class of curves the algebras $`D(X)`$ were determined (up to isomorphism) by a single non-negative integer $`n`$. The relation between this new invariant $`n`$ and the Letzter-Makar-Limanov one turned out to be very simple (cf. Remark in \[BW1\]): $`\text{codim}D(X)=2n`$. However, since the invariants in hand seemed to be of different nature, this relation looked somewhat mysterious: it did not follow a priori from the definitions, but rather was the result of comparing the theorems of \[K\] and \[BW1\] with some explicit calculations in \[LM\].

In this short note we will give a natural interpretation of the Letzter-Makar-Limanov (LM) invariants in the spirit of noncommutative projective geometry of M. Artin et al. (see \[A\], \[AZ\], and \[SV\] for a general overview of the subject). As a result, we will prove the above relation in a very simple, purely homological fashion. We will introduce and work with LM-invariants in a slightly more general setting (than that of \[LM\]) and will mostly use the notation of \[BW3\]. Apart from \[AZ\], the latter reference also contains a review of all the definitions and results from noncommutative geometry needed for the present paper.

In the end, I would like to thank G. Wilson for his suggestions and encouragement and the organizers of the ICRA X for their kind invitation and support.

## 2. Geometric Interpretation of LM-invariants

Let $`A:=A_1()`$ be the first complex Weyl algebra; $`Q:=\text{Frac}(A)`$, its field of fractions; $`M`$, a finitely generated rank $`1`$ torsion-free right module over $`A`$; $`D:=\text{End}_A(M)`$, the endomorphism ring of $`M`$. Since $`A`$ is a simple Noetherian hereditary algebra, $`M`$ is automatically a progenerator in the category $`\text{Mod}(A)`$ of right $`A`$-modules, and the ring $`D`$ is Morita equivalent to $`A`$.

As usual, we may (and will) identify $`M`$ with an ideal of $`A`$ (possibly fractional), and $`D`$ with the subring of $`Q`$:

(2.1)
$$D=\{qQ:qMM\}.$$

Let $`𝒘=(w_1,w_2)`$ be a nonzero non-negative vector in $`^2`$, and let $`\{Q_{}(𝒘)\}`$ denote the standard Dixmier filtration on $`Q`$ of weight $`𝒘`$ (see \[D\]). We will equip all the subspaces of $`Q`$ with induced filtrations. In particular, we set

(2.2)
$$A_k(𝒘):=AQ_k(𝒘)\text{and}D_k(𝒘):=DQ_k(𝒘),$$

and write $`𝑮𝑸(𝒘):=_kQ_k/Q_{k1}`$, $`𝑮𝑨(𝒘):=_kA_k/A_{k1}`$ and $`𝑮𝑫(𝒘):=_kD_k/D_{k1}`$ for the associated graded rings. The natural inclusions $`A_kQ_k`$, $`D_kQ_k`$ induce then the embeddings of graded algebras $`𝑮𝑨(𝒘)𝑮𝑸(𝒘)`$, $`𝑮𝑫(𝒘)𝑮𝑸(𝒘)`$. We will identify $`𝑮𝑨(𝒘)`$ and $`𝑮𝑫(𝒘)`$ with their images in $`𝑮𝑸(𝒘)`$ and note that $`𝑮𝑫(𝒘)`$ does not depend on the choice of representation of $`M`$ as an ideal in $`Q`$.

The following theorem is essentially a restatement (perhaps, in a slightly more general form) of one of the main results of \[LM\] (see loc. cit., Proposition 2.4, and \[SS\], Sections 3.11, 3.12).

###### Theorem 1.

For each nonzero $`𝐰_+^2`$, we have $`𝐆𝐃(𝐰)𝐆𝐀(𝐰)`$ in $`𝐆𝐐(𝐰)`$; the quotient space $`𝐋𝐌(𝐰):=𝐆𝐀(𝐰)/𝐆𝐃(𝐰)`$ is finite-dimensional, its dimension being independent of $`𝐰`$.

In what follows we will denote the number $`dim_{}𝑳𝑴`$ by $`p_D`$ and call it the LM-invariant of the ring $`D`$; since $`p_D`$ is independent of $`𝒘`$, we will also assume $`𝒘=(1,1)`$ for simplicity of further considerations.

Let $`𝑨:=_kA_k`$ and $`𝑫:=_kD_k`$ be the Rees algebras (homogenizations) of $`A`$ and $`D`$ with respect to the filtrations $`\{A_{}\}`$ and $`\{D_{}\}`$. Then $`𝑨`$ is isomorphic to the algebra of ‘noncommutative polynomials’ $`[x,y,z]`$ with generators $`x,y,z`$, all having degree $`1`$, $`z`$ commuting with $`x`$ and $`y`$, and $`xyyx=z^2`$. On the other hand, $`𝑮𝑫`$ and $`𝑫`$ are both graded connected Noetherian (and hence, locally finite) algebras. This can be shown easily first for $`𝑮𝑫`$ by adapting the techniques of \[SS\] (specifically, the proof of Theorem 3.12, loc. cit.), and then for $`𝑫`$ by a standard lifting argument (see, for example, \[B\], Appendix III, Proposition 1.29).

Now, following \[AZ\], we will think of $`𝑨`$ and $`𝑫`$ as the homogeneous coordinate rings of noncommutative projective schemes $`X_A:=\text{Proj}(𝑨)`$ and $`X_D:=\text{Proj}(𝑫)`$. By definition, these are the Serre quotients $`\text{Coh}(X_A):=\text{GrMod}(𝑨)/\text{Tors}(𝑨)`$ and $`\text{Coh}(X_D):=\text{GrMod}(𝑫)/\text{Tors}(𝑫)`$ of the categories of (finitely generated graded right) modules modulo the torsion subcategories (consisting of finite-dimensional modules) taken with distinguished objects $`𝒪_{X_A}:=\stackrel{~}{𝑨}\text{Coh}(X_A)`$ and $`𝒪_{X_D}:=\stackrel{~}{𝑫}\text{Coh}(X_D)`$. By analogy with the commutative case, the objects of $`\text{Coh}(X_A)`$ and $`\text{Coh}(X_D)`$ are referred to as coherent sheaves, with $`𝒪_{X_A}`$ and $`𝒪_{X_D}`$ playing the role of ‘structure sheaves’ on $`X_A`$ and $`X_D`$ respectively. Note that $`X_A`$ is the quantum projective plane $`_q^2`$ defined in \[LB\] and \[BW3\].

The following observation is a simple consequence of Theorem 1.

###### Lemma 1.

The Hilbert polynomial of the graded algebra $`𝐃`$ is given by the formula

(2.3)
$$P_𝑫(k)=\frac{1}{2}(k+1)(k+2)p_D,$$

so that $`p_D=1P_𝐃(0)`$. By analogy with the commutative case, we may thus interpret $`p_D`$ as (minus) the arithmetic genus of the ‘projective surface’ $`X_D`$.

###### Proof.

Being finite, the graded vector space $`𝑳𝑴`$ is bounded from above. Therefore, by Theorem 1, choosing $`k0`$ we can write the exact sequence of finite-dimensional graded vector spaces:

(2.4)
$$0𝑮𝑫_k𝑮𝑨_k𝑳𝑴0.$$

Whence we have

$`dim𝑳𝑴`$ $`=`$ $`dim𝑮𝑨_kdim𝑮𝑫_k`$
$`=`$ $`dim{\displaystyle \underset{i=\mathrm{}}{\overset{k}{}}}A_i/A_{i1}dim{\displaystyle \underset{i=\mathrm{}}{\overset{k}{}}}D_i/D_{i1}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=\mathrm{}}{\overset{k}{}}}(dimA_idimA_{i1}){\displaystyle \underset{i=\mathrm{}}{\overset{k}{}}}(dimD_idimD_{i1})`$
$`=`$ $`dimA_kdimD_k\text{ for all}k0.`$
By definition, $`P_𝑫(k)=dimD_k`$ for $`k0`$, and $`dimA_k=(k+1)(k+2)/2`$ for all $`k0`$. Combined together these give formula (2.3), and therefore finishes the proof of the lemma. ∎

Remark. The category of affine schemes is dual (that is, anti-equivalent) to the category of commutative rings and ring homomorphisms. In particular, two schemes are isomorphic if and only if their coordinate rings are isomorphic. Passing to noncommutative domain it seems more appropriate to associate ‘a noncommutative affine scheme’ not to an isomorphism class but to a Morita equivalence class of a given noncommutative ring (see, for example, \[S\] and \[SV\]). In other words, two Morita equivalent rings should be thought of as coordinate rings of isomorphic noncommutative spaces. From this perspective the result of Lemma 1 appears to be natural. Indeed, if we define the quantum plane $`𝔸_q^2`$ as an ‘affine space’ associated with the Morita class of $`A`$, the projective schemes $`X_D`$ and $`X_A`$ can be regarded as different ‘compactifications’ of $`𝔸_q^2`$. In that case any invariant that may distinguish $`A`$ and $`D`$ up to isomorphism should be an object of projective (rather than affine) geometry.

## 3. The Relation $`p_D=2n`$

First, we recall the definition of the number $`n`$. As shown in \[BW3\], Section 4, every ideal (class of) $`M`$ admits a unique extension to a coherent rank $`1`$ torsion-free sheaf $``$ on $`_q^2`$ trivial over the line at infinity. This extension is called the canonical extension of $`M`$ to $`_q^2`$. The invariant $`n`$ associated to $`M`$ can be defined cohomologically in terms of its canonical extension, namely

$$n:=dim_{}H^1(_q^2,(1)).$$

By analogy with the commutative case (see \[N\], Chapter 2), it is suggestive to think of (and refer to) $`n`$ as the ‘second Chern class’ $`c_2()`$ of the sheaf $``$; however, in general, it seems that Chern classes have yet to be defined in the realm of noncommutative projective geometry.

###### Lemma 2.

Let $`\underset{¯}{\text{Hom}}(,):=_k\text{Hom}(,(k))`$ be the (graded) endomorphism algebra of the canonical extension $``$ of $`M`$ to $`_q^2`$. Then, for $`k0`$, we have isomorphisms of graded vector spaces: $`𝐃_k\underset{¯}{\text{Hom}}(,)_k`$. In particular,

(3.1)
$$dimD_k=dim\text{Hom}(,(k))k0.$$

###### Proof.

Without loss of generality, we may identify $`M`$ with one of the distinguished (fractional) ideals of $`A`$ (see \[BW3\], Section 5), and define its canonical extension $``$ to $`_q^2`$ with the help of the induced filtration $`M_k=MQ_k`$. Then, by (2.1) and (2.2), we have $`D_k=\{qQ:qM_iM_{i+k}\text{for all}i\}`$, and hence

(3.2)
$$𝑫_k\text{Hom}_𝑨(𝑴,𝑴(k))\text{for all}kZ,$$

where $`\text{Hom}_𝑨`$ in taken in the category $`\text{GrMod}(𝑨)`$.

On the other hand,

(3.3)
$$\text{Hom}(,(k))=\underset{}{lim}\text{Hom}_𝑨(𝑴_p,𝑴(k)).$$

To calculate the inductive limit in (3.3) we fix some $`p0`$ and consider the short exact sequence in $`\text{GrMod}(𝑨)`$:

(3.4)
$$0𝑴_p𝑴𝑴/𝑴_p0.$$

Dualizing (3.4) with $`𝑴(k)`$ we have

$`0`$ $``$ $`\text{Hom}_𝑨(𝑴/𝑴_p,𝑴(k))\text{Hom}_𝑨(𝑴,𝑴(k))`$
$``$ $`\text{Hom}_𝑨(𝑴_p,𝑴(k))\text{Ext}_𝑨^1(𝑴/𝑴_p,𝑴(k))\mathrm{}`$
Now, since $`𝑴/𝑴_p`$ is torsion whereas $`𝑴(k)`$ is torsion-free, $`\text{Hom}_𝑨(𝑴/𝑴_p,𝑴(k))`$ must be zero for all $`k`$. On the other hand, $`\text{Ext}_𝑨^1(𝑴/𝑴_p,𝑴(k))=0`$ for $`kk_00`$ (where $`k_0`$ is independent of $`p`$) because the algebra $`𝑨`$ satisfies the $`\chi `$-condition of Artin-Zhang (see \[AZ\], Proposition 3.5(1)). It follows that

(3.5)
$$\text{Hom}_𝑨(𝑴_p,𝑴(k))\text{Hom}_𝑨(𝑴,𝑴(k))k0.$$

Combining (3.2) with (3.3) and (3.5) we get the result. ∎

Remark. It seems quite plausible that the entire vector spaces $`𝑫`$ and $`\underset{¯}{\text{Hom}}(,)`$ are isomorphic. But for our purposes the result of Lemma 2 will suffice.

To finish our calculation it remains to evaluate $`dim\text{Hom}(,(k))`$ for $`k0`$ and compare the result with formula (2.3). This can be done in many different ways of which we will choose (hopefully) the most elementary one.

First, following \[KKO\] (see loc. cit., Section 5.3), we introduce the dual sheaf $`^{}:=\underset{¯}{om}(,𝒪)`$ of $``$ as an object of the quotient category of left graded modules111For simplicity, we will use the same notation $`_q^2=\text{Proj}(𝑨)`$, $`𝒪=\stackrel{~}{𝑨}`$, etc. for left and right objects. over $`𝑨`$.

###### Lemma 3.

If $`\text{Coh}(_q^2)`$ is trivial over the line at infinity in $`_q^2`$ so is $`^{}`$. In that case the twisted sheaves $`(k)`$ and $`^{}(k)`$ have the same Euler characteristics for all $`k`$:

(3.6)
$$\chi (_q^2,^{}(k))=\chi (_q^2,(k))=\frac{1}{2}(k+1)(k+2)n.$$

###### Proof.

Since $`^{}`$ is a torsion-free sheaf of rank $`1`$, the first statement of the lemma follows from the second. On the other hand, in (3.6) we need only to prove the first equality (the second follows immediately from \[BW3\], Theorem 4.5). Furthermore, since $`\chi (_q^2,^{}(k))`$ depends polynomially on $`k`$, we may assume $`k0`$ in which case we have

(3.7)
$$\chi (_q^2,^{}(k))=dim\text{Hom}(,𝒪(k))=dimH^2(_q^2,(k3)).$$

The first equality in (3.7) follows from the definition of $`^{}`$ and Serre’s Vanishing theorem; the second is a consequence of Serre’s Duality (cf. \[BW3\], Theorem 2.4). Both theorems of Serre can be applied in our situation because, as shown in \[KKO\], $`\text{Coh}(_q^2)`$ if and only if $`^{}\text{Coh}(_q^2)`$. Since we know that both $`H^0(_q^2,(d))`$ and $`H^1(_q^2,(d))`$ vanish for $`d0`$ (see \[BW3\], Lemma 10.2), the last term in (3.7) coincides with the Euler characteristic $`\chi (_q^2,(k3))`$. The result of the lemma follows now immediately from the obvious invariance of $`\chi (_q^2,(k))`$ under the change of twisting $`kk3`$. ∎

Remark. The result of Lemma 3 is specific for our noncommutative situation. Indeed, the vanishing of $`H^1(_q^2,(d))`$ for all $`d0`$ is equivalent to the fact that $``$ is a bundle (in the sense of \[KKO\]) which is not true for extensions of ideals to $`^2`$ in the commutative case.

We proceed now to the final step of our calculation.

###### Lemma 4.

Let $`_1`$ and $`_2`$ be two rank $`1`$ bundles on $`_q^2`$ trivial over the line at infinity. Then, for all $`k0`$ we have

$$dim\text{Hom}(_1,_2(k))=\frac{1}{2}(k+1)(k+2)n_1n_2,$$

where $`n_1=c_2(_1)`$ and $`n_2=c_2(_2)`$.

###### Proof.

We start with a locally free resolution of $`_2`$ in $`\text{Coh}(_q^2)`$ (see, for example, \[LB\], Corollary 1):

(3.8)
$$0\underset{i=1}{\overset{m1}{}}𝒪(k_i)\underset{j=1}{\overset{m}{}}𝒪(l_j)_20,k_i,l_j_+.$$

Shifting (3.8) by $`k`$ and applying the functor $`\text{Hom}(_1,\text{})`$ yields

$`0`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{m1}{}}}\text{Hom}(_1,𝒪(kk_i)){\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{m}{}}}\text{Hom}(_1,𝒪(kl_j))`$
$``$ $`\text{Hom}(_1,_2(k)){\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{m1}{}}}\text{Ext}^1(_1,𝒪(kk_i))\mathrm{}.`$
If $`k0`$ the Ext term in (3) is zero because $`_1`$ is a bundle. Therefore, in that case we have

$`dim\text{Hom}(_1,_2(k))=`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{m}{}}}dim\text{Hom}(_1,𝒪(kl_j)){\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{m1}{}}}dim\text{Hom}(_1,𝒪(kk_i)).`$
By Serre’s Vanishing theorem we may replace dimensions of each Hom term in the right-hand side of (3) by the Euler characteristics of the corresponding twists of the dual sheaf $`_1^{}`$ and then use repeatedly Lemma 3. Thus, if $`k0`$, we have

$`dim\text{Hom}(_1,_2(k))`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{m}{}}}\chi (_q^2,_1^{}(kl_j)){\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{m1}{}}}\chi (_q^2,_1^{}(kk_i))`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{m}{}}}\chi (_q^2,_1(kl_j)){\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{m1}{}}}\chi (_q^2,_1(kk_i))`$
$`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{m}{}}}\chi (_q^2,𝒪(kl_j))mn_1\right)`$
$``$ $`\left({\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{m1}{}}}\chi (_q^2,𝒪(kk_i))(m1)n_1\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{m}{}}}\chi (_q^2,𝒪(kl_j)){\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{m1}{}}}\chi (_q^2,𝒪(kk_i))\right)n_1`$
$`=`$ $`\chi (_q^2,_2(k))n_1={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(k+1)(k+2)n_1n_2.`$
Note the expression in last parentheses being equal to $`\chi (_q^2,_2(k))`$ follows immediately from the exact sequence (3.8). ∎

Finally, taking $`_1=_2=`$ and comparing Lemma 4 with formulas (2.3) and (3.1) of Lemmas 1 and 2 we arrive at our main

###### Theorem 2.

Let $`M`$ be a finitely generated rank $`1`$ torsion-free $`A`$-module whose canonical extension to $`_q^2`$ has the ‘second Chern class’ $`n`$. Let $`D:=\text{End}_A(M)`$. Then the LM-invariant of the algebra $`D`$ is given by the formula $`p_D=2n`$.

## 4. Generalizations

We would like to mention two natural generalizations suggested by the results of this paper. First, Lemma 4 hints at the possibility of defining a relative version of LM-invariants: given two ideal classes in $`A`$ with distinguished representatives $`M_1`$ and $`M_2`$ (say), we may identify $`\text{Hom}_A(M_1,M_2)`$ with a subspace in $`Q`$ (as in (2.1)), and then define the number $`p_{12}`$ as the codimension of the associated graded space $`𝑮\text{Hom}_A(M_1,M_2)`$ in $`𝑮𝑨`$. The argument similar to that of \[LM\], Proposition 2.4, shows $`p_{12}<\mathrm{}`$, and Lemma 4 then immediately implies the relation $`p_{12}=n_1+n_2`$, where $`n_1=c_2(_1)`$ and $`n_2=c_2(_2)`$.

Second, the interpretation of LM-invariants as arithmetic genera of noncommutative projective surfaces (Lemma 1) suggests an obvious generalization to higher dimensions. As in the original situation of \[LM\], one would expect these generalized LM-invariants to be useful in the study of rings of differential operators on singular rational algebraic varieties. An interesting problem in this direction would be to compute the LM-type invariants for the algebras of differential operators on varieties of quasi-invariants of finite reflection groups (see \[BEG\]).