text:
# 0 Introduction

### 0 Introduction

Let $`G`$ be a finite group and $`\sigma =(\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r)`$ a tuple of elements of $`G`$ with $`\sigma _1\mathrm{}\sigma _r=1`$. The braid orbit of $`\sigma `$ is the smallest set of tuples from $`G`$ that contains $`\sigma `$ and is closed under the braid operations

$$(g_1,\mathrm{},g_r)^{Q_i}=(g_1,\mathrm{},g_{i+1},g_{i+1}^1g_ig_{i+1},\mathrm{},g_r)$$
$`(1)`$
for $`i=1,\mathrm{},r1`$. Clearly, the unordered collection of conjugacy classes $`C_1,\mathrm{},C_r`$ represented by the elements of the tuple is an invariant of the braid orbit. This paper describes a package of programs written in \[GAP4\] for the computation of all braid orbits associated with given classes $`C_1,\mathrm{},C_r`$. We call it the BRAID program. It is available at http://www.math.ufl.edu/ helmut. An alternative approach has recently been worked out by Klüners (Kassel), using MAGMA. A precursor was the HO-program of Przywara \[Prz\] which is now outdated.

Our interest in computing braid orbits comes from the fact that they correspond to irreducible families of covers of the Riemann sphere. This is a classical fact, used by Hurwitz (who found formula (1)) and many algebraic geometers since then. This connection to geometry is briefly explained in section 5. The version required for the application to the Inverse Galois Problem was worked out by Fried and Völklein \[FV\].

However, there are also purely group-theoretic applications of our braid program, e.g., to find generators of a given group with prescribed element orders. Most applications have been in geometry and number theory, though, via the connection to covers. Covers of $`^1`$ defined over $``$ yield Galois realizations of $`G`$ over $``$ via Hilbert’s irreducibility theorem — the braid program is needed to find suitable covers for which the criteria of Inverse Galois Theory apply. A good example of that is Malle’s construction \[Ma\] of multi-parameter polynomials with various small Galois groups. His $`L_3(2)`$-polynomial is used as an example in section 8 below to obtain a generic rational function of degree 7 with monodromy group $`L_3(2)`$. Another example is Matzat’s realization \[MM\],III, 7.5, of $`M_{24}`$, for which Granboulan \[Gra\] computed an explicit polynomial. A further example is the realization of symplectic groups $`Sp(n,q)`$ by Thompson and Völklein \[ThV\] which depends on the fact that the pure braid operations (2) generate an abelian group of permutations of the corresponding braid orbit (mod conjugation). There are numerous other applications to the Inverse Galois Problem, see \[MM\] and \[V1\].

There are also applications to problems about the geometry of algebraic curves and their moduli spaces $`_g`$. E.g., in \[MSSV\] the authors study the locus in $`_g`$ of curves with given ‘large’ automorphism group $`G`$. The irreducible components of that locus correspond to certain braid orbits in $`G`$. The BRAID program enabled us to completely classify these components for $`g10`$ and compute the genus of those that are 1-dimensional.

In this paper we describe the application to classifying the irreducible families of indecomposable rational functions with monodromy group other than $`S_n`$ or $`A_n`$. A generating system $`\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r`$ of a transitive permutation group $`G`$ with $`\sigma _1\mathrm{}\sigma _r=1`$ is called a genus zero system if the corresponding covers of $`^1`$ have genus $`0`$, i.e., are given by a rational function $`f(x)(x)`$. The function $`f`$ is indecomposable (with respect to composition) if and only if $`G`$ is primitive. In this case we say $`\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r`$ is a primitive genus zero system. There is a huge variety of such systems that generate $`S_n`$ or $`A_n`$, too many to be classified. Those functions with smaller monodromy group satisfy interesting identities and therefore it seems desirable to have a complete classification of their irreducible families.

Thus we need to compute all braid orbits of genus zero systems in primitive permutation groups $`G`$ other than $`A_n`$ or $`S_n`$. It follows from the proof of the Guralnick-Thompson Conjecture (see \[FM\]) that only finitely many groups $`G`$ occur. The complete list is being worked out by Frohardt, Guralnick, Magaard and Shareshian \[FGM2\], \[GS\] (project nearly completed). The smallest group that occurs is $`G=L_3(2)`$ (acting on 7 points). We study this example in section 8. In section 9 we present all braid orbits of genus zero systems of length $`5`$ in almost simple groups other than $`A_n`$ or $`S_n`$. The remaining cases (length $`3`$ and $`4`$) will be collected in a data base, there is too many of them to be displayed here.

Another application of the BRAID program was given in \[MV\]. We say a tuple $`\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r`$ in $`S_n`$ has full moduli dimension if the corresponding family of covers contains the general curve of that genus. If that holds and the genus is at least 4 then $`\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r`$ generate $`S_n`$ or $`A_n`$ by work of Guralnick and others \[GM\], \[GS\]. In genus 2 and 3 there are several other possible cases. In \[MV\] it was shown that the general curve of genus 3 has a cover to $`^1`$ of degree 7 with monodromy group $`L_3(2)`$. The associated tuple consists of 9 involutions (with product 1) generating $`L_3(2)`$. There is only one braid orbit of such tuples by \[MV\], Remark 5.1. This requires an iterative application of the BRAID program because the orbit is too large for a direct computation. This iterative procedure for computing braid-orbits of long tuples in small groups requires computing braid-orbits of (shorter) tuples of product $`1`$ (see Remark 1.1).

## Part I Description of the BRAID program

### 1 Exact formulation of the problem

Fix an integer $`r3`$.

The Artin braid group $`_r`$ is defined by a presentation on generators $`Q_1,\mathrm{},Q_{r1}`$ and relations

$$Q_iQ_{i+1}Q_i=Q_{i+1}Q_iQ_{i+1}\text{and}Q_iQ_j=Q_jQ_i\text{for}|ij|>1$$

Mapping $`Q_i`$ to the transposition $`(i,i+1)`$ extends to a homomorphism $`\kappa :_rS_r`$ with kernel $`^{(r)}`$, the pure Artin braid group. It is generated by the

$$Q_{ij}=Q_{j1}\mathrm{}Q_{i+1}Q_i^2Q_{i+1}^1\mathrm{}Q_{j1}^1=Q_i^1\mathrm{}Q_{j2}^1Q_{j1}^2Q_{j2}\mathrm{}Q_i,0i<jr$$
$`(2)`$
More generally, if $`P`$ is a partition of $`\{1,\mathrm{},r\}`$, let $`S_P`$ be the stabilizer of $`P`$ in $`S_r`$ and set $`_P=\kappa ^1(S_P)`$. We always choose $`P`$ such that each block consists of all integers between the smallest and largest element of the block. Thus we can identify $`P`$ with the list of the lengths of its parts. $`_P`$ is generated by the $`Q_{ij}`$ with $`i,j`$ not in the same block of $`P`$, and the $`Q_i`$ with $`i,i+1`$ in the same block.

Now let $`G`$ be a finite group. Then $`_r`$ acts on $`r`$-tuples of elements of $`G`$ with product 1 via formula (1) above. The orbits of this $`_r`$-action are called braid orbits. This $`_r`$-action commutes with the action of $`\text{Aut}(G)`$ on tuples defined by

$$\alpha (\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r)=(\alpha (\sigma _1),\mathrm{},\alpha (\sigma _r))$$

for $`\alpha \text{Aut}(G)`$. Thus $`_r`$ permutes $`\text{Aut}(G)`$-orbits (as well as Inn$`(G)`$-orbits) of tuples.

Note that in the $`_r`$-action on tuples $`(\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r)`$, the conjugacy classes $`\sigma _1^G,\mathrm{},\sigma _r^G`$ are being permuted via the map $`\kappa :_rS_r`$. This yields an obvious simplification in computing the braid orbit of a tuple $`(\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r)`$: We only need to compute those tuples in the braid orbit where the classes $`\sigma _1^G,\mathrm{},\sigma _r^G`$ occur in that given order. In other words, we only compute the orbit of $`(\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r)`$ under the subgroup of $`_r`$ that stabilizes this order of the conjugacy classes. This subgroup equals $`_P`$, where $`P`$ is the partition of $`\{1,\mathrm{},r\}`$ such that $`i`$ and $`j`$ lie in the same block iff $`\sigma _i`$ is conjugate $`\sigma _j`$.

The classes $`\sigma _1^G,\mathrm{},\sigma _r^G`$ have an important interpretation in terms of the associated covers (”distinguished inertia group generators”, see \[V1\]). Thus we consider the following basic problem.

Problem 1: Let $`C_1,\mathrm{},C_r`$ be non-trivial conjugacy classes of the finite group $`G`$. Let $`P`$ be the partition of $`\{1,\mathrm{},r\}`$ such that $`i`$ and $`j`$ lie in the same block iff $`C_i=C_j`$. We want to compute the orbits of $`_P`$ on the set of Inn$`(G)`$-orbits on

$$𝔈(C_1,\mathrm{},C_r)=\{(\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r):\sigma _iC_i,\sigma _1\mathrm{}\sigma _r=1\}$$

Further geometric information is furnished by the permutations induced by certain of the generators of $`_P`$ on the braid orbit. So we record these permutations as we construct the braid orbit. In the case $`r=4`$, for example, this information can be used to compute the genus of the corresponding Hurwitz curve (see section 6 below).

###### Remark 1.1

Modified versions of Problem 1 arise where $`_P`$ is replaced by a subgroup $`^{}`$. For example, $`^{}`$ could be $`_P^{}`$ for a partition $`P^{}`$ finer than $`P`$, or it could be an analogous subgroup of $`_{r1}`$. The latter is equivalent to acting on tuples of length $`r1`$ with product $`1`$. (Note that the braid group acts on tuples with any fixed product by formula (1)). Further choices for $`^{}`$ are the subgroups of the braid group induced by the fundamental groups of certain curves on the configuration space, see \[De\]; generators for some of these groups can be found at
http://www.iwr.uni-heidelberg.de/groups/compalg/dettweil/papers.html. (They have applications to the Inverse Galois Problem). The BRAID program can easily be adapted to these modified versions of Problem 1.

### 2 Program input and output

Problem 1 is solved by our main routine AllBraidOrbits. To call this routine, choose a tuple $`\tau `$ representing the classes $`C_1,\mathrm{},C_r`$. (The tuple $`\tau `$ need not have product 1). The classes $`C_1,\mathrm{},C_r`$ must be ordered such that if $`C_i=C_j`$ with $`i<j`$ then $`C_i=C_k`$ for all $`ikj`$. The cardinality $`c`$ of $`𝔈(C_1,\mathrm{},C_r)`$ is given by a well-known formula (see \[MM\], Ch.I, Th. 5.8) involving the values on $`C_1,\mathrm{},C_r`$ of the irreducible characters of $`G`$. This number $`c`$ is called the structure constant associated with $`C_1,\mathrm{},C_r`$. It can be computed with the GAP command ClassStructureCharTable, once the character table of $`G`$ is available. Once $`c`$ has been computed, we call our main routine in the form

AllBraidOrbits("ProjectName",$`G,\tau ,P,c`$)

where ProjectName is any string that is used to label the output files. Here $`G`$ has to be a permutation group because many standard algorithms of GAP4 work only in that case. The routine computes the $`_P`$-orbits on $`𝔈(C_1,\mathrm{},C_r)`$ mod Inn$`(G)`$. For each orbit it creates a file containing a list of representatives of Inn$`(G)`$-orbits of the tuples in the orbit, plus the permutations induced on the orbit by the generators of $`_P`$ and by the generators of the pure braid group.

User-friendly version: $`G`$ and $`\tau `$ are as above. The routine

Braid($`G`$,$`\tau `$)

firstly computes the character table of $`G`$ and uses it to compute the structure constant $`c`$. For large $`G`$ this may be time-consuming or not feasible at all (then the character table must be taken from some library). Furthermore, the program computes the partition $`P`$. Then it calls AllBraidOrbits, using always the same ProjectName ”TEMP”. The previous contents of that directory is removed each time the routine is called. In the end, it summarizes the output by listing all braid orbits found that consist of tuples $`\sigma `$ generating $`G`$. If $`r=4`$, the genus of the inner Hurwitz curve $`_{\text{in}}^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$ and straight inner Hurwitz curve $`\stackrel{~}{}_{\text{in}}^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$ are given for each of those orbits (see section 5, 6). A variation is the command

Braid($`G`$,$`\tau `$,$`U`$)

where $`U`$ is a core-free subgroup of $`G`$ of index $`n`$. Now the routine calls AllBraidOrbits with $`G`$ replaced by its normalizer in $`S_n`$, where $`G`$ is embedded in $`S_n`$ via its permutation representation on the cosets of $`U`$. If $`r=4`$, the genus of the Hurwitz curve $`^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$ (relative to this permutation representation) is given for each orbit of tuples generating $`G`$.

### 3 Description of the algorithm

At the beginning of its main loop, the AllBraidOrbits routine collects a batch of random tuples from $`𝔈(C_1,\mathrm{},C_r)`$. If one of these tuples does not belong to a known (braid) orbit, a routine BraidOrbit is called to generate the new orbit and add it to the list of known orbits. Furthermore, the variable $`c`$ is adjusted to be the number of tuples in $`𝔈(C_1,\mathrm{},C_r)`$ which do not belong to any one of the currently known orbits. When $`c=0`$, we are done.

One is mainly interested in those tuples from $`𝔈(C_1,\mathrm{},C_r)`$ that generate $`G`$. However, we don’t know how to determine their number beforehand (in any efficient way). That’s why we are working with the larger set $`𝔈(C_1,\mathrm{},C_r)`$ (whose cardinality $`c`$ is given by the structure constant formula). Here are some variations on choosing the input value of $`c`$: Setting $`c`$ to a very large number, AllBraidOrbits is turned into an infinite loop. The user breaks the loop when he is convinced that all relevant orbits have been found. This avoids the actual computation of the structure constant. On the other hand, by setting $`c`$ below the actual size of $`𝔈(C_1,\mathrm{},C_r;1)`$ one can skip the last few small orbits that are usually irrelevant. For example, if only the orbits of generating tuples are of interest then one can quit once the number of tuples unaccounted for is below $`|G/Z(G)|`$.

Hitting a particular small orbit with a random tuple is not likely to happen quickly. Therefore, we implemented a particular way of creating random tuples. It involves maintaining a list of small subgroups generated by known tuples, and trying to find more tuples in those subgroups. For example, the case of $`6`$-tuples of double transpositions in $`A_7`$ took about 2 hours using a purely random tuple selection. Our current method cut this time to 30 minutes. In both cases the program took 20 minutes to account for about $`90\%`$ of the tuples. So the time for finding the last $`10\%`$ was cut from 100 minutes to 10 minutes.

The routine BraidOrbit($`\sigma `$) constructs the braid orbit of a tuple $`\sigma `$. We use a Dixon-Schreier algorithm: Beginning with $`\sigma `$, apply the generators of $`_P`$ one by one to the known tuples and check wether or not the image is $`G`$-conjugate to one them. If not we append the new tuple to the list. The routine terminates when no further tuples can be produced.

The only difficulty is how to check efficiently whether two given tuples are $`G`$-conjugate. To speed this up we use a fingerprinting technique. Fingerprints are sequences of numbers that can be quickly computed for a tuple. Tuples with distinct fingerprints cannot be conjugate. Currently, fingerprints are realized as the orders (as group elements) of certain random words in $`\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r`$. The fingerprints are stored along with the tuples. Access to a tuple is via its fingerprint. Access to a fingerprint is via a hash table, the address for which is formed from the entries of the fingerprint. We remark that this method works well for a large variety of groups $`G`$. Exceptions are Frobenius groups and some $`p`$-groups.

### 4 A sample session: Tuples of 4 involutions in $`S_3`$

gap$`>`$ g:=SymmetricGroup(3);;
gap$`>`$ t:=$`[(1,2),(1,2),(1,2),(1,2)]`$;

gap$`>`$ Braid(g,t);

Collecting 20 random tuples… done
Cleaning done; 20 random tuples remaining

Orbit 1:
Length=4
Generated subgroup size=6
Centralizer size=1
Remaining portion of structure constant=3
Cleaning current orbit… done; 1 random tuples remaining

Orbit 2:
Length=1
Generated subgroup size=2
Centralizer size=2
Remaining portion of structure constant=0
Cleaning current orbit… done; 0 random tuples remaining

Summary: orbits of generating tuples

Orbit of Length 4
Inner Hurwitz curve genus = 0
Straight inner Hurwitz curve genus = 0

## Part II Applications of the BRAID program

### 5 Brief explanation of the background on covers

Let $`^1=\{\mathrm{}\}`$ the Riemann sphere. A cover of $`^1`$ (in the classical sense) is a compact Riemann surface $`X`$ together with a non-constant analytic map $`f:X^1`$ of finite degree. By Riemann’s Existence Theorem, $`f`$ can also be viewed as a morphism of complex algebraic curves.

Consider such a cover $`f:X^1`$ of degree $`n`$. It has finitely many branch points $`p_1,\mathrm{},p_r^1`$ (points whose preimage has cardinality less than $`n`$). Pick $`p^1\{p_1,\mathrm{},p_r\}`$, and choose loops $`\gamma _i`$ around $`p_i`$ such that $`\gamma _1,\mathrm{},\gamma _r`$ is a standard generating system of the fundamental group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }:=\pi _1(^1\{p_1,\mathrm{},p_r\},p)`$ (see \[V1\], Thm. 4.27); in particular, we have $`\gamma _1\mathrm{}\gamma _r=1`$. Such a system $`\gamma _1,\mathrm{},\gamma _r`$ is called a homotopy basis of $`^1\{p_1,\mathrm{},p_r\}`$. The group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ acts on the fiber $`f^1(p)`$ by path lifting, inducing a transitive subgroup $`G`$ of the symmetric group $`S_n`$ (determined by $`f`$ up to conjugacy in $`S_n`$). It is called the monodromy group of $`f`$. The images of $`\gamma _1,\mathrm{},\gamma _r`$ in $`S_n`$ form a tuple $`\sigma =(\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r)`$ generating $`G`$. We say the cover $`f:X^1`$ is of type $`\sigma `$. The genus $`g`$ of $`X`$ depends only on $`\sigma `$, and is given by the Riemann-Hurwitz formula

$$2(n+g1)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}\mathrm{Ind}(\sigma _\mathrm{i})$$
$`(3)`$
where the index $`\mathrm{Ind}(\sigma _\mathrm{i})`$ of a permutation in $`S_n`$ is $`n`$ minus the number of orbits.

A tuple $`\sigma =(\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r)`$ of elements of $`S_n`$ arises in the above way from a cover of degree $`n`$ if and only if $`\sigma `$ generates a transitive subgroup $`G`$ and $`\sigma _1\mathrm{}\sigma _r=1`$ and $`\sigma _i1`$ for all $`i`$. Call such a tuple admissible. The significance of braid orbits comes from the following fact (which follows from Nielsen’s theorem).

Theorem: Let $`\sigma `$ and $`\sigma ^{}`$ be admissible tuples generating the same subgroup $`G`$ of $`S_n`$. Suppose $`f:X^1`$ is a cover of type $`\sigma `$. Then $`f`$ is of type $`\sigma ^{}`$ if and only if the braid orbits of $`\sigma `$ and $`\sigma ^{}`$ are conjugate under $`N_{S_n}(G)/G`$.

Here $`N_{S_n}(G)`$ is the normalizer of $`G`$ in $`S_n`$. The action of $`N_{S_n}(G)/G`$ on braid orbits comes from the fact that if $`\sigma `$ generates $`G`$ then Inn$`(G)`$ fixes the braid orbit of $`\sigma `$ (see \[V1\], Lemma 9.4).

The next important fact is that the covers of type $`\sigma `$ form an irreducible family. Here we use the term ”family” in the non-technical sense: Two covers are in the same irreducible family if they can be continously deformed into each other (keeping the branch points distinct). It turns out that the covers of type $`\sigma `$ are parametrized (up to equivalence) by an irreducible variety, the Hurwitz space $`(\sigma )`$. This is made precise in the theory of Hurwitz spaces (= moduli spaces for covers of $`^1`$), see \[FV\], \[V1\],\[V2\].

Two covers $`f:X^1`$ and $`f^{}:X^{}^1`$ are called equivalent (resp., weakly equivalent) if there is a homeomorphism $`h:XX^{}`$ (resp., a homeomorphism $`h:XX^{}`$ and an analytic automorphism $`g`$ of $`^1`$) such that $`f=f^{}h`$ (resp., $`gf=f^{}h`$). The automorphism group of $`^1`$ is PGL$`{}_{2}{}^{}()`$ (group of fractional linear transformations). It has a natural action on the Hurwitz space $`(\sigma )`$. The quotient by this action is the reduced Hurwitz space $`^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$. It parametrizes the covers of type $`\sigma `$ up to weak equivalence. Summarizing:

Basic Fact: The covers of type $`\sigma `$ are parametrized up to equivalence (resp., up to weak equivalence) by an irreducible variety, the Hurwitz space $`(\sigma )`$ (resp., $`^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$). These varieties depend only on the braid orbit of $`\sigma `$.

A cover $`f:X^1`$ of type $`\sigma `$ is a Galois cover if and only if $`\sigma `$ generates a regular subgroup $`G`$ of $`S_n`$. Pairs $`(f,\mu )`$, where $`f`$ is a Galois cover of type $`\sigma `$ and $`\mu :\text{Deck}(f)G`$ an isomorphism, are parametrized by the inner Hurwitz space $`_{\text{in}}(\sigma )`$ (up to suitable equivalence). This also is an irreducible variety. Its quotient by PGL$`{}_{2}{}^{}()`$ is the inner reduced Hurwitz space $`_{\text{in}}^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$. It is the inner Hurwitz space that is of foremost importance for the Inverse Galois Problem (see \[FV\]). There is another version of it, the straight inner Hurwitz space $`\stackrel{~}{}_{\text{in}}(\sigma )`$ that parametrizes pairs $`(f,\mu )`$ together with an ordering of the branch points of $`f`$. It also has a reduced version $`\stackrel{~}{}_{\text{in}}^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$.

If $`\sigma `$ has length $`r3`$ then $`^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$ and $`_{\text{in}}^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$ consist just of a single point. If $`r=4`$ then these reduced Hurwitz spaces are curves. In the next section we show how to compute their genus.

### 6 The genus of the reduced Hurwitz curve in the case $`r=4`$

In this section we look at the case $`r=4`$. The braid group $`_4=<Q_1,Q_2,Q_3>`$ acts on Inn$`(G)`$-orbits of admissible 4-tuples from $`G`$ via its quotient $`\overline{}_4`$ defined by the extra relations

$$Q_1Q_2Q_3^2Q_2Q_1=1=Q_1^2Q_3^2$$

The structure of $`\overline{}_4`$ has been determined by Thompson \[Th\]. We denote the image of $`Q_i`$ in $`\overline{}_4`$ by the same symbol, for simplicity. The elements $`\gamma _0=Q_1Q_2`$ and $`\gamma _1=Q_1Q_2Q_1`$ of $`\overline{}_4`$ have order 3 and 2, respectively. The elements $`Q_1Q_3^1`$ and $`(Q_1Q_2Q_3)^2`$ generate a normal Klein 4-group $`𝒱`$ in $`\overline{}_4`$, and $`\overline{}_4/𝒱`$ is the free product of the images of $`<\gamma _0>`$ and $`<\gamma _1>`$.

Fix an admissible 4-tuple $`\sigma =(\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _4)`$, and let $`GS_n`$ be the group generated by $`\sigma `$. Two 4-sets (unordered 4-tuples) of points of $`^1`$ are PGL$`{}_{2}{}^{}()`$-conjugate if and only if they have the same $`j`$-invariant (which can be any complex number). The covers $`f`$ of type $`\sigma `$ whose branch points have fixed $`j`$-invariant $`0,1`$ are parametrized, up to weak equivalence, by the set $`F`$ of $`𝒱`$-orbits of $`N_{S_n}(G)`$-orbits of 4-tuples in the braid orbit of $`\sigma `$. (Follows from the theory outlined in section 5, plus the fact that the stabilizer in PGL$`{}_{2}{}^{}()`$ of any 4-set with $`j`$-invariant $`0,1`$ is a Klein 4-group). From this one obtains an explicit description of the Hurwitz curve $`^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$ parametrizing the covers of type $`\sigma `$ (up to weak equivalence). It arises as covering of $`^1`$ with branch points at $`0,1,\mathrm{}`$ whose general fiber is in 1-1 correspondence with $`F`$. The triple of permutations associated with this covering (by section 5) is given by the action on $`F`$ of $`\gamma _0,\gamma _1`$ and $`\gamma _{\mathrm{}}:=Q_2`$ (see \[BF\], Prop. 4.4 and \[DF\], Prop. 6.5). From this we can compute the genus of $`^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$ by the Riemann-Hurwitz formula (2). The case of the inner reduced Hurwitz curve $`_{\text{in}}^{\text{red}}(\sigma )`$ is analogous, with $`F`$ replaced by the set of $`𝒱`$-orbits of Inn$`(G)`$-orbits of 4-tuples in the braid orbit of $`\sigma `$.

### 7 Indecomposable rational functions and primitive genus zero systems

Here we are concerned with covers $`f:X^1`$ where $`X`$ has genus $`0`$. Then we can identify $`X`$ with $`^1`$, so we consider covers $`f:^1^1`$. If such a cover has degree $`n`$ then it is given by a rational function of degree $`n`$, i.e., $`f(x)=P(x)/Q(x)`$ where $`P`$ and $`Q`$ are complex polynomials with $`n=\mathrm{max}(\mathrm{deg}(P),\mathrm{deg}(Q))`$. Then the monodromy group $`G`$ of $`f`$ is isomorphic (as a permutation group) to the Galois group of the polynomial $`P(x)tQ(x)`$ over $`(t)`$. By the Riemann-Hurwitz formula (2), genus $`0`$ covers correspond to the following kind of tuples:

###### Definition 7.1

A genus zero system in $`S_n`$ is a tuple $`(\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _r)`$ generating a transitive subgroup $`G`$ of $`S_n`$ such that $`\sigma _1\mathrm{}\sigma _r=1`$ and $`\sigma _i1`$ (for all $`i`$) and

$$2(n1)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}\mathrm{Ind}(\sigma _\mathrm{i})$$

It is called a primitive genus zero system if $`G`$ is primitive.

Thus by section 5, irreducible families of rational functions in $`(x)`$ of degree $`n`$ with monodromy group $`GS_n`$ correspond to $`N_{S_n}(G)/G`$-orbits of braid orbits of genus zero systems generating $`G`$. The family consists of indecomposable functions if and only if $`G`$ is primitive. Here ”indecomposable” means that the function is not the composition $`f_1(f_2(x))`$ of two functions of degree $`>1`$.

There is a huge number of genus zero systems that generate $`S_n`$ or $`A_n`$, too many to be classified. The ‘general’ rational function has monodromy group $`S_n`$. Those functions with smaller monodromy group satisfy interesting identities and therefore it seems desirable to have a complete classification of their irreducible families. They correspond to the primitive genus zero systems that generate a permutation group $`G`$ other than $`S_n`$ or $`A_n`$. The smallest case is $`G=L_3(2)`$ (acting on 7 points). It has the most braid orbits of genus zero systems. We discuss this example in the following section.

### 8 Example: Genus zero systems for the action of $`G=L_3(2)`$ on 7 points

The braid orbits of such tuples are listed in Table 1. We note there is exactly one braid orbit $`B_6`$ of tuples of length 6, all the others consist of shorter tuples.

Replacing the last two entries of a tuple $`\sigma `$ by their product is called ”Coalescing the tuple”. Geometrically, this means that we merge (or ”coalesce”) the last two branch points of the associated cover. The family corresponding to the coalesced tuple $`\sigma ^{}`$ lies in the boundary of the original family; in other words, the generic cover of type $`\sigma ^{}`$ arises by specialization of the generic cover of type $`\sigma `$.

One checks that each of the orbits $`B_6`$ in Table 1 contains a tuple that arises by a sequence of such coalescing operations from a tuple of length 6. This means that there is essentially only one family of rational functions of degree 7 with monodromy group $`G=L_3(2)`$. The generic function in this family has 6 branch points, and on the boundary we have functions with 3, 4 or 5 branch points. We can extract an explicit form of such a generic function from \[Ma\], Thm. 4.3:

Generic function of degree 7 with monodromy group $`L_3(2)`$:

$$f(x)=\frac{P(x)}{x^2(xc)(x^2bx+b)}$$

where

$$P(x)=x^7(a(c2)+2b+c)x^6+((b4)(c1)a^2+((c2)b^2+(2c^25c+4)b2c^2)a+b(2bc+2c^2+b^2))x^4+$$

$$((2c^21)(b4)a^2+((2c^2+c+2)b^2+(5c^2+2c4)b4c^2)a(c+1)b^3c(2c+3)b^2+c^2b)x^3$$

$$+((c^2+3c1)(4b)a^2+((3c2)b^22(c^2+4c2)b+4c^2)a+b(b^2+3bcc^2))cx^2$$

$$+(2abc8ac+ab4ab^2+2bc)ac^2xa^2(b4)c^3$$

Replacing a function $`g(x)`$ by $`\alpha (g(\beta (x))`$ with $`\alpha ,\beta `$ PGL$`{}_{2}{}^{}()`$ doesn’t change the monodromy group. So the functions we are interested in are only determined up to coordinate change. (Weak equivalence of covers, see above).

To illustrate the interplay between these functions and the group-theoretic data in Table 1, we consider the specialization $`b=0`$. The resulting function $`y=h(x)`$ still has degree 7. It has poles of order 4,2,1 at $`x=0,\mathrm{},c`$, respectively. Thus the corresponding tuple $`\sigma `$ contains an element of cycle type $`(4)(2)`$ (corresponding to the branch point $`y=\mathrm{}`$). Thus the monodromy group of $`h(x)`$ is still $`L_3(2)`$ (since it is a transitive subgroup of $`L_3(2)`$ containing an element of order 4). The ramification index at a point $`x=x_0`$ not over $`y=\mathrm{}`$ equals one plus the multiplicity of the zero $`x=x_0`$ of the derivative $`h^{}(x)`$. Here we can replace $`h^{}(x)`$ by its numerator (when it is written as a rational function in reduced form). This numerator is a lengthy expression of degree 8 in $`x`$. But its discriminant with respect to $`x`$ factors nicely as $`16777216c^{16}a^9`$ times the cube of the following expression (4) times the square of another (slightly longer) expression (5) that we don’t display here.

$$4a^2c^4+8ac^4+4c^44a^2c^336c^3a+a^3c^2+6a^2c^2+16c^2a2a^3c8ca^2+2a^3+16a^2$$
$`(4)`$
The discriminant is non-zero, hence the above ramification indices are all $`2`$. It follows that $`\sigma `$ consists of an element of order 4 and four involutions (by Riemann-Hurwitz). Thus $`h(x)`$ is the generic function in the $`(2A,2A,2A,2A,4A)`$-family from Table 1.

Let’s see how we can further specialize $`h(x)`$ by coalescing two of the finite branch points. By Table 1, this leads to the $`(2A,2A,3A,4A)`$\- and the $`(2A,2A,4A,4A)`$-family. Both of those have ramification indices $`>1`$ at certain points not over $`y=\mathrm{}`$. Hence these specializations annihilate the above discriminant. The two factors (4) and (5) define genus zero curves in the $`a,c`$-plane (checked by \[Maple\]). This corresponds nicely to the fact that the $`(2A,2A,3A,4A)`$\- and the $`(2A,2A,4A,4A)`$-family are parametrized by Hurwitz curves of genus zero (see Table 1).

Incidentally, \[Ma\], Thm. 4.2 gives another version of the generic function in the $`(2A,2A,2A,2A,4A)`$-family. (He doesn’t consider our version). One can similarly specialize it to obtain two genus zero curves parametrizing the $`(2A,2A,3A,4A)`$\- and the $`(2A,2A,4A,4A)`$-family.

### 9 Primitive genus zero covers branched at $`5`$ points

Each primitive permutation group has a characteristic subgroup $`F^{}(G)`$ (called the generalized Fitting subgroup) which is the direct product of isomorphic simple groups. Frohardt, Guralnick and Magaard \[FGM2\] determine all primitive genus zero systems generating a group $`GS_n`$ with $`F^{}(G)`$ not abelian and not a direct product of alternating groups. The resulting list is finite, but too long to be shown in tabular form. However, there are only a few cases with $`r5`$ (i.e., where the corresponding covers are branched at $`5`$ or more points). We list these in Table 2 and note that for each choice of $`C_1,\mathrm{},C_r`$ there is exactly one associated braid orbit (i.e., exactly one irreducible family of genus zero covers).

The table was produced as follows. A series of reductions shows that the permutation degree of such a system is at most $`1000`$. It remains to search the GAP library of primitive permutation groups of degree $`1000`$. For each such group $`G`$ that satisfies our hypothesis, we find all collections of conjugacy classes $`C_1,\mathrm{},C_r`$ that satisfy the Riemann-Hurwitz formula (for $`g=0`$). For each such collection, we apply the BRAID program to find all braid orbits of associated tuples.


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# Long-range attraction between particles in dusty plasma and partial surface tension of dusty phase boundary

## I Introduction

A gas–solid phase transition observed in different dusty laboratory plasmas 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 6 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 . It counts in favor of presence of strong long-range attraction between similarly charged dusty particles. By now some physical mechanisms are proposed to explain formation of a regular arrangement of micron-sized particles embedded in a gas discharged plasma. A part of them is based on the account for electrostatic fields of strata and walls of discharge tubes17 . In doing, so a generality of solution of the problem of the effective attractive potential is lost and, in particular, the situation of dusty plasma crystal in a thermal dusty plasma of gas burner 6  where there are no walls and external fields drops out of such interpretations.

The most promising approach holds that the ion streaming motion causes an attractive wake potential behind the dust particles. Originally it was developed 20 ; 21  for particular case of supersonic flows which is realized in the sheath of radiofrequency discharges. Later, it was extended with participation of one of the authors of Ref. 20  to the case of subsonic ion flows vlad , but physics of shielding of dust charged particles was supposed to be strongly modified with mandatory regard to anisotropy and asymmetry of the ion temperature in the sheath.

Below is shown that the attraction between similarly charged particles can be resulted from a dynamical screening of the Coulomb potential remaining in the frame of a single physical mechanism for both supersonic and subsonic regimes. The distinction of the dynamical screening from the static Debye screening is due to a motion of particles relative to screening charges (counter-ions or electrons). From the physical point of view, this effect can be interpreted as a consequence of loss of spherical symmetry of the Debye screening cloud around the moving charged particle resulted in a space charge with the opposite sign forming in its wake. Not only do this space charge compensates the particle’s potential but may also give rise to a local wake potential of the opposite sign. In the supersonic regime the wake potential oscillates inasmach of Cherenkov wave generation.

This effect is well known in the usual electron-ion plasma 11 ; 12 ; 16 . When the charge is moving, the static Debye screening modifies so that the potential in the oncoming flow of electrons grows approaching to the Coulomb potential with an increasing of velocity while the potential in the outward flow decreases up to alternating of its sign.

Similar effect was found 16 ; 14  in a system of gravitating masses where the static screening is absent and accounting for the dynamical screening gives rise to an alternating potential of gravitational interaction.

The aim of the present paper is to propose the most general model of dynamical screening of field of dusty particle charge to explain the observable interparticle attraction. It may be supposed that the distance from the particle to the attractive minimum of the wake potential determines a period of the resulted lattice of dusty particles.

Besides, the interparticle attraction is to give rise to a surface tension of a dusty phase interface. Really, this explains a sharp non-diffusion character of a particle density variation observed at the interfaces in the experiments on dusty plasma crystals. The most characteristic phenomenon of such kind are voids in a homogeneous dusty plasma. The characteristic lenticular form of the voids may be explained by strong peculiar dependence of the surface tension on the surface orientation relative to the ion flow.

The notion of the surface tension of a dusty phase was mentioned briefly by Tsitovich tsit1  but his estimation of its value was erroneous. Conceivably that might be the reason why the surface tension was not mentioned in the subsequent papers by Tsitovich (as a co-author) on the theory tsit2 ; tsit3  of spherical voids.

The outline of the paper is the following. In Sec. II, the model for effective non-potential attractive forces of interactions between dust particles will be developed. This model can explain an appearance of the lattice structure both in gas discharge dusty plasma and in thermal dusty plasma of gas burner. In Sec. III, a surface tension of a boundary of dusty phase is estimated and conditions of stability of a lenticular void in the dusty plasma are examined.

## II Effective interparticle interaction

The system under consideration consists of negatively charged dusty particles of the charge $`Q=Z_pe`$ and concentration $`n_p`$, and positively charged counter-ions of the charge $`e`$ (for definiteness sake we will consider singly charged ions) and mass $`m`$. For simplicity, neutral molecules of a buffer gas are neglected here and dusty particles are considered as point charges.

While forming of the negative charges of dusty particles the electrons are condensed on particles’ surfaces and their concentration in plasma decreases sufficiently. As a result, in the case of great $`Z_pn_p`$ their density becomes so little that the electron Debye radius of screening of the ion charge appears to be much greater the ion Debye radius of screening. Thus, we can restrict our consideration to the simplified model of one-component ion plasma in which the negatively charged dusty particles are immersed.

If the negative test point charge $`Q`$ is moving in the system of ions and dusty particles with the velocity $`𝐮`$ it gives rise to some perturbations of the system state. Due to great difference in masses and concentrations of ions and dusty particles we can restrict our consideration to a perturbation of the ion component only (just as a perturbation of an electron component is taken into account only, as a rule, in the problem of screening of an ion charge in the electron-ion plasma). Such perturbation of ionic subsystem is described by the set of the Vlasov equation for a distribution function over coordinates and velocities of ions and Poisson equation for an effective potential induced by the perturbation of ion density and moving test charge. Interactions between ions and neutral molecules of the buffer gas are neglected here ther .

Such simplified model is well studied in the test-particle approach to the electron-ion plasma theory 11 ; 12 ; 16  so we can omit intermediate calculations and write down at once the resulted form of the effective potential of the moving test charge

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(𝐫,t)=\frac{Q}{2\pi ^2}d^3k\frac{\mathrm{exp}\{𝐤(𝐫𝐮t)\}}{k^2\epsilon (k,𝐤𝐮)}$$
(1)
where

$$\epsilon (k,𝐤𝐮)=1+\frac{\kappa ^2}{k^2}W\left(\frac{𝐤𝐮}{k\stackrel{~}{v}}\right)$$
(2)
is the dynamical permittivity of the ion subsystem. Here $`\kappa =\left(4\pi e^2n_i/(k_BT_i)\right)^{1/2}`$ is the ionic Debye wave number, $`\stackrel{~}{v}=(2k_BT_i/m)^{1/2}`$ is the mean heat velocity of the ions and

$$W(t)=1\sqrt{\pi }te^{t^2}\mathrm{erfi}(t)+i\sqrt{\pi }te^{t^2}.$$
(3)
Let us choose an axis $`z`$ along $`𝐮`$ and introduce dimensionless variables $`Z=(zut)\kappa ,X=x\kappa ,𝐊=𝐤/\kappa `$ and the Mach number $`M=u/\stackrel{~}{v}`$ relative to the ion heat velocity. Then, in the test particle’s frame accounting for the cylindrical symmetry, we get

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(𝐫)=\frac{Q\kappa }{2\pi ^2}_\pi ^\pi 𝑑\varphi _0^\pi 𝑑\theta 𝑑KK^2\mathrm{sin}\theta \frac{\mathrm{exp}\{iK\mathrm{\Delta }\}}{K^2+W(M\mathrm{cos}\theta )}=Q\kappa \phi (X,Z;M),$$
(4)
$$\phi (X,Z;M)=\frac{1}{(X^2+Z^2)^{\frac{1}{2}}}I(X,Z;M),$$

where

$$I(X,Z;M)=\frac{1}{2\pi ^2}_\pi ^\pi 𝑑\varphi _0^\pi 𝑑\theta 𝑑KW(M\mathrm{cos}\theta )\mathrm{sin}\theta \frac{\mathrm{exp}\{iK\mathrm{\Delta }\}}{K^2+W(M\mathrm{cos}\theta )},$$
(5)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }=X\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\varphi +Z\mathrm{cos}\theta .$$

This integral determines the departure of the effective potential from the Coulomb potential to which the first member of $`\phi (X,Z;M)`$ corresponds. When the Cauchy integral over $`K`$ is taken, we find

$`I(X,Z;M)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _\pi ^\pi }d\varphi {\displaystyle _0^\pi }d\theta \mathrm{sin}\theta \sqrt{W}[2i\mathrm{sinh}(\mathrm{\Delta }\sqrt{W})\mathrm{Ci}(i\mathrm{\Delta }\sqrt{W})+.`$ (6)
$`+.\mathrm{cosh}(\mathrm{\Delta }\sqrt{W})(\pi +2i\mathrm{Shi}(\mathrm{\Delta }\sqrt{W}))].`$
It is not difficult to calculate numerically the value of this integral in an arbitrary range of the parameter $`M`$ variations at any point $`X,Z`$.

Corresponding results of numerical calculations for $`M=3`$ are illustrated in Fig.1. It is seen here that there is well defined negative minimum of the potential along the axis $`Z`$ at a distance of order of five Debye radius, which has been formed as a result of deformation of screening Debye cloud in the vicinity of the moving particle.

In gas discharges, where forming of crystal structure of dusty particles was observed, a diffusion ion velocity $`𝐮`$ is determined by their mobility and an electric field strength. To define the mobility, we are to take into account a tendency of ions to unite with molecules and atoms into complexes of the types $`N_4^+,O_4^+,Ne_2^+,He_2^+,`$, and recharge effect also. According to 19 , the diffusion velocity of the complex $`Ne_2^+`$ is of order of $`50\mathrm{m}\mathrm{c}^1`$ in a characteristic for glow-discharge field $`E/p=1\mathrm{V}\mathrm{cm}^1\mathrm{torr}^1`$ and the heat velocity $`\stackrel{~}{v}=400\mathrm{m}\mathrm{c}^1`$ (at $`T=300K`$). Then $`M=0.125`$. For the ion $`Ne^+`$, the diffusion velocity decreases near-threefold as a consequence of the resonant recharge, then $`M0.05`$. In the case of strong field, the ion drift velocity may not only approach to the heat velocity but surpass it 19 . Because of this, a wide range of values of the parameter $`M=u/\stackrel{~}{v}`$ will be considered below (asymptotic case $`M1`$ was discussed in 20 ; 21 ).

Observed quasi-crystal structure in a thermal plasma, that is, in the dusty flame of gas burner 6 ; 10 ; 22 , can be treated also as a consequence of movement of charged particles relative to ions of the flame. To obtain quantitative estimations of the effect, the additional data on a gap of velocities of particle and ion flows are necessary. This gap is determined by conditions of injection of the dusty particles into the flame, and in the steady state limit it is likely to go to a sedimentation velocity of charged particles in the rising flow.

The graphs of $`\phi (X=0,Z<0;M)`$ for different $`M`$ in the wake of charged particle are illustrated in Figs. 2,3. As can be seen, the depth of the negative minimum $`|\phi _{min}|`$ increases with an increasing of $`M`$ from 0.01 to 1 (see Fig.4), and its location $`Z_{min}`$ shifts to the particle. At low $`M`$ $`|Z_{min}|`$ depends on $`M`$ as $`|Z_{min}|=1.61.7\mathrm{ln}M`$ (see Fig.5). When further increasing of $`M`$, the potential becomes oscillating and its first minimum moves away from the particle. For $`M>2`$ the graph in Fig. 5 can be well approximated by the expression $`|Z_{min}|=1.8\sqrt{M^21}`$, which is close to the experimental data 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4  on the period $`L`$ of a crystal lattice in a dusty plasma if it is identified as $`L|Z_{min}|`$. It should be noted here that experimental detection of the minimum of $`L(M)`$ corresponding to the minimum of the graph in Fig. 5 would be a good evidence in favor of the approach under discussion.

The values $`M>1`$ correspond to a supersonic movement when Cherenkov radiation of ion-acoustic waves takes a place that explains an appearance of space oscillations of the wake potential. It should be noted that in the range of values of $`M`$ from 1 to $`3.3`$ an increasing of the depth of the first minimum takes a place but at further gain of $`M`$ the depth of the first minimum decreases (see Fig.4).

In the incoming flow ($`Z>0`$) the effective potential varies continuously with a gain of $`M`$ from the Debye potential $`\mathrm{exp}\{Z\}/z`$ to Coulomb one $`1/z`$. This indicates that the forward part of the Debye screening cloud is not pressed by the incoming flow to the particle but blew away from it.

The negative minimum of the wake potential points to presence of a space charge of the opposite sign. Thus, the large charged particles moving relative ion subsystem together attendant space charges constitute a system of dipoles oriented along the direction of the relative motion. This gives rise to formation of hierarchies of particles-dipoles along lines of the ion flow.

Moreover, this interaction between dust particles is asymmetric in such a way that attractive force is communicated only downstream the ion flow. This situation was clearly demonstrated in the experiments tak ; melt2  where upper or lower particle was pushed by the laser beam and it was just lower dust particle that fitted its position when the upper particle was shifted and not vice versa. So heavily non-conservative character of the interparticle interactions excludes any possibility to introduce an effective potential of the interaction.

Besides, as it is seen in Fig.1, the resulted negative potential is long-range in the transverse direction $`X`$, also, that provides an attraction between particles from neighbor hierarchies and, in its turn, causes the particles from neighbor hierarchies to shift relative one another along the ion flow for a distance of order of a half dipole length. Because of this interaction is much weaker then along the flow, the situations can take place when the lengthwise attraction appears quite strong for the hierarchies formation but too weak for transverse ordering 10 .

Thus, the movement of the charged particle relative ion flow gives rise to anisotropic potential field in which an energy of another similar particle of the charge $`Q`$ is $`U(𝐫)=Q\mathrm{\Phi }(𝐫)=Q^2\kappa \phi (𝐫)`$. Then, the effective force of interaction between the particles is

$$𝐅(𝐫)=\frac{U(𝐫)}{𝐫}=Q^2\kappa \frac{\phi (𝐫)}{𝐫}$$
(7)
For the formation of the crystal structure, it is necessary that the maximum deep of the attraction energy $`|U_{min}|=|Q\mathrm{\Phi }_{min}|=Q^2\kappa |\phi _{min}|`$ surpass the heat motion energy, that is,

$$\frac{|U_{min}|}{k_BT_p}>1,\mathrm{or}|\phi _{min}|>\frac{k_BT_p}{Q^2\kappa }$$
(8)
where $`T_p`$ is the kinetic temperature of the particle. According both experimental data 23  and theoretical estimations 24  $`T_p`$ may sufficiently surpass the ion temperature. For definiteness sake, we take $`T_p=1000`$, $`Z_p=10^4,\kappa =400cm^1`$, then the condition of the hierarchy stability becomes $`|\phi _{min}|>10^5`$. According to the approach under discussion (see the graph in Fig. 4), this condition is fulfilled when $`M>0.01`$.

The long-range attraction between likely charged dusty particles resting in an equilibrium plasma ($`M=0`$) was found in 25 . It is possible that this kind of attraction can give rise to forming of crystal structure but it is irrelevant to the observed 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4  dependence of the lattice period on the ion flow velocity and forming (at small $`M`$) of hierarchies along the flow non-interacting with which other.

## III Surface tension of dusty phase

One of characteristic feature of a dispersed phase in dusty plasma is presence of sharp (non-diffusion) boundary surface of a dusty cloud (”dusty drop”). Considerable recent attention has been focused on the problem of formation of voids (”dusty bubbles”) of the dispersed phase. It is reasonable to suppose that both phenomena are of the same nature related with presence of a surface tension resulted from the attractive interaction between charged particles.

In general, the surface tension coefficient of an interphase boundary is defined as the integral of a difference between transverse $`p_{}`$ and longwise $`p_{}`$ pressures over an interphase layer of thickness $`l`$

$$\gamma =_{l/2}^{l/2}(p_{}(z_1)p_{}(z_1))𝑑z_1$$
(9)
where the axis $`z_1`$ directed along the normal to the layer.

On the molecular level, a pressure can be written in the form of a virial equation of state and expressed via a number density $`n(z_1)`$, virial of a force of intermolecular interaction $`𝐅(𝐫)`$ and radial correlation function $`g(𝐫)`$, where $`𝐫=𝐫_2𝐫_1`$ is the distance between particles. For a bulk equilibrium fluid the function $`g(𝐫)`$ is calculated as a rule with the use of the Born–Green equation. At an interphase surface the situation is much more complex; this being so, notably rough approximations are used here. One of them is Fowler’s step approximation, when the number density $`n(z_1)`$ is regarded as constant $`n_0`$ within the liquid phase and zero outside the liquid, and radial function $`g(𝐫)`$ within the surface layer is assumed to be the same as in the bulk liquid. Then the surface tension coefficient is determined by the Fowler formula 26 ; 27

$$\gamma =\frac{\pi n_0^2}{8}_0^{\mathrm{}}r^4F_r(r)g(r)𝑑r,z>0.$$
(10)
It is implied here that the $`z`$-component of the vector $`𝐫`$ is normal to the surface. Kirkwood and Buff 28  estimated the surface tension of liquid argon on the base of this formula and obtained quite satisfactory value (error $`25\%`$).

It is supposed in the Fowler’ formula that the intermolecular interaction is spherically symmetric that does not allow to apply this formula as such to the boundary of dusty phase.

Rederiving the Fowler formula with due regard for the anisotropy of interparticle interaction we obtain

$$\gamma =\frac{n_0^2}{2}\left[z^2F_z(𝐫)xzF_x(𝐫)\right]g(𝐫)𝑑𝐫,z>0.$$
(11)
where $`F_z`$ and $`F_x`$ are $`z`$ and $`x`$ components of the force (7).

When applying to the boundary of dusty phase, the pressures $`p_{}`$ and $`p_{}`$ are to be considered as partial pressures of dusty component. Then, the surface tension of dusty phase should be interpreted as partial property too.

To estimate its value some simplification will be introduced. Firstly, the radial distribution will be used in the form of the Boltzmann factor

$$g(𝐫)=\mathrm{exp}\{\frac{U(𝐫)}{k_BT}\},$$

that is typical for dilute systems. Secondly, when estimating the surface tension, the interactions within hierarchies will be regarded only as it is much stronger interactions between particles from different hierarchies. Then, for surfaces oriented across and along the ion flow we get

$$\gamma _{}=\frac{n_p^2}{2}z^2F_z(𝐫)g(𝐫)𝑑𝐫,z>0.$$
(12)
$$\gamma _{}=\frac{n_p^2}{2}xzF_x(𝐫)g(𝐫)𝑑𝐫,z>0.$$
(13)
The axis $`z`$ in both equations directed along the normal to the surface and the forces $`F_z(𝐫)`$ in the equation for $`\gamma _{}`$ and $`F_x(𝐫)`$ in the equation for $`\gamma _{}`$ are determined by interactions along hierarchies.

A numerical estimation of these expressions for $`n_p10^6\mathrm{cm}^3`$ and $`M=0.01`$ leads to $`\gamma _{}10^5\mathrm{din}\mathrm{cm}^1`$ and $`\gamma _{}10^4\mathrm{din}\mathrm{cm}^1`$. Both of these coefficients in absolute magnitude surpass sufficiently the typical surface tension coefficient of a liquid at normal conditions $`\gamma _{liq}10^2\mathrm{din}\mathrm{cm}^1`$ (as an example, for water $`\gamma _{liq}=70\mathrm{din}\mathrm{cm}^1`$). Such great difference is quite natural. Really, the negative minimum $`U_m`$of the potential $`U`$ at given conditions is of order of $`10^{12}\mathrm{erg}`$ while the depth of the potential well of, for example, the Lennard-Jones potential for noble gases is of order of $`10^{14}\mathrm{erg}`$. Inasmuch as the potential $`U`$ enters (with sign minus) into the exponent of the radial distribution function, the surface tension coefficient appears to be very sensitive to its value. As a result, we have $`|\gamma _,|\gamma _{liq}`$ in spite of $`\gamma n^2`$ and $`n_pn_{liq}`$.

Hydrodynamic stability of a spherical gas bubble or liquid drop is determined by value of a Weber number $`We=\rho v^2a/\gamma `$, which is the ratio of a dynamic head $`\rho v^2`$ to a surface tension pressure $`\gamma /a`$, where $`a`$ is the radius of the bubble or drop. For the case of the void in dusty plasma, the dynamic head $`\rho v^2`$ is determined by the flow of ions and neutral gases with the velocity $`v=u=\stackrel{~}{v}M510^4M\mathrm{cm}\mathrm{c}^1`$. We can put $`\gamma \gamma _{}`$ for the slightly curved surface of a lenticular void with the radius of curvature $`a2\mathrm{cm}`$ sufficiently greater its size. Then at characteristic pressure of order of $`0.5\mathrm{torr}`$ we have $`We10^4M^2/\gamma _{}`$. The coefficient $`\gamma _{}`$ increases with increasing of $`M`$, so that the Weber number $`We`$ attains its the most great value at the minimal from considered here values of $`M`$, i.e. at $`M=0.01`$ when $`\gamma _{}10^5`$. Then $`We_{max}10^4`$. When the Weber number is so small the surfaces of the lenticular void are stable, certainly. Their deviations from a spherical form can be due to variations of $`\gamma `$ relative to $`\gamma _{}`$ as a consequence of inevitable (although small) distortions of the condition of orthogonality to the flow on the curved surface.

Stability of the lenticular void ensures possibility of its existence. The problem of its appearance remains to be solved. It may be suggested that a phase transition of the first kind takes a place in a homogeneous dusty plasma, and strong anisotropic surface tension can give rise to a peculiar nucleation process.

## IV Conclusions and discussions

Attractive interactions between likely charged colloidal or dust particles in plasma have been discussed in this effort in a view to explain the observed crystal structure formed from these particles. The crucial point of the model under discussion is the presence of the counter-ion flow. Its velocity $`u`$ relative the dust particles is not necessary to exceed the heat velocity $`\stackrel{~}{v}`$ of counter-ions (or ion–acoustic velocity) as it was supposed in ref. 20 . Even at small $`u`$ when $`u/\stackrel{~}{v}10^2`$, the effective attractive interaction appears to be sufficiently strong to ensure stability of regular hierarchies of particles oriented along the ion flow.

Another consequence of strong attractive interparticle interactions is the partial surface tension $`\gamma `$ of the dusty phase boundary.

This concept was briefly discussed by Tsytovich tsit1  who estimated $`\gamma `$ as a work necessary for construction of a bulk liquid of the unit surface and height $`h`$. As a result, he obtained $`\gamma =U_mn_ph`$, then he took $`|U_m|=100\mathrm{eV}`$ that correspond to our result at $`M=1`$ and found $`\gamma 10^2\mathrm{din}\mathrm{cm}^1`$ neglecting the negative sign of $`U_m`$. If he accounted for $`U_m<0`$ he would get $`\gamma <0`$, that is natural as the work for construction of the coupled state is to be negative.

Here, the surface tension is estimated on the base of a generalization of the Fowler’s formulae taking into account the anisotropy of interparticle interactions. As a result, the strong dependence of $`\gamma `$ on orientation of the dusty interface is found. In particular, when $`u/\stackrel{~}{v}10^2`$ we get $`\gamma _{}10^5\mathrm{din}\mathrm{cm}^1`$ and $`\gamma _{}10^4\mathrm{din}\mathrm{cm}^1`$ for surfaces oriented across and along the ion flow, correspondingly. So great positive and negative value results in the characteristic lenticular form of the voids in dusty plasma having no surfaces along the ion flow. Such a form was observed both under micro-gravity condition (see Fig. 6) and in terrestrial experiments by Samsonov and Goree (see Fig. 5d in Ref.sam ). They observed also an appearance of a void mode as a penetration of a finger-shaped (in a vertical section) dusty free region through the side boundary of the gas discharge (see Fig. 5c in Ref.sam ). A sharp end of the finger and its fast travel across the gas discharge volume count in favor of negative surface tension of the interface at its end. It means that an account for non-spherical form of the void is necessary for any theoretical model of the void.

### Acknowledgements

I acknowledge useful discussions with A.V. Vityazev and a discussion of the void problem with S.I. Popel.