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# Formal power series arising from multiplication of quantum integers11footnote 12000 Mathematics Subject Classification: Primary 30B12, 81R50. Secondary 11B13. Key words and phrases. Quantum integers, quantum polynomial, polynomial functional equation, 𝑞-series, formal power series.

## 1 Quantum multiplication

Nathanson  introduced the functional equation for multiplication of quantum integers as follows.

Let $`𝐍`$$`=\{1,2,3,\mathrm{}\}`$ denote the set of positive integers and $`𝐍_0=𝐍\{0\}`$ the set of nonnegative integers. For $`n𝐍`$, the polynomial

$$[n]_q=1+q+q^2+\mathrm{}+q^{n1}$$

is called the quantum integer $`n.`$ With the usual multiplication of polynomials, however, we observe that $`[m]_q[n]_q[mn]_q`$ for all $`m2`$ and $`n2`$. We would like to define a polynomial multiplication such that the product of the quantum integers $`[m]_q`$ and $`[n]_q`$ is $`[mn]_q`$.

Let $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of polynomials with coefficients in a field. We define a multiplication operation on the polynomials in $``$ by

$$f_m(q)_qf_n(q)=f_m(q)f_n(q^m).$$

If $`f_n(q)=[n]_q`$ is the $`n`$-th quantum integer, then

$`[m]_q_q[n]_q`$ $`=[m]_q[n]_{q^m}`$
$`=\left(1+q+q^2+\mathrm{}+q^{m1}\right)\left(1+q^m+q^{2m}+\mathrm{}+q^{m(n1)}\right)`$
$`=1+q+q^2+\mathrm{}+q^{mn1}`$
$`=[mn]_q`$
for all positive integers $`m`$ and $`n`$, and so the sequence $`=\{[n]_q\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ satisfies the functional equation

$$f_{mn}(q)=f_m(q)_qf_n(q).$$
(1)
This is called the functional equation for quantum multiplication.

Many other sequences of polynomials also satisfy this functional equation. For example, for every positive integer $`t`$, the sequence of polynomials $`\{q^{t(n1)}\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ satisfies (1).

###### Problem 1

Determine all sequences of polynomials $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ that satisfy the functional equation

$$f_{mn}(q)=f_m(q)_qf_n(q).$$

The sequence of $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is called nonzero if $`f_n(q)0`$ for some integer $`n`$. The functional equation implies that

$$f_1(q)=f_1(q)^2,$$

and so $`f_1(q)=0`$ or 1. If $`f_1(q)=0,`$ then

$$f_n(q)=f_{1n}(q)=f_1(q)f_n(q)=0$$

for all $`n𝐍.`$ Therefore, a solution $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ of (1) is nonzero if and only if $`f_1(q)=1.`$

The support of $``$ is the set

$$\text{supp}()=\{n𝐍:f_n(q)0\}.$$

If a nonzero sequence of polynomials $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is a solution of the functional equation (1), then $`\text{supp}()`$ is a multiplicative subsemigroup of the positive integers. Nathanson  proved that $`\text{supp}()`$ is a semigroup of the form $`S(P)`$, where $`P`$ is a set of prime numbers and $`S(P)`$ is the semigroup of positive integers generated by $`P`$.

Every nonzero polynomial $`f(q)`$ with coefficients in a field can be written uniquely in the form

$$f(q)=aq^{v(f)}g(q),$$
(2)
where $`a0`$, $`v(f)𝐍_0`$, and $`g(q)`$ is a polynomial with constant term $`g(0)=1`$. Let $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a nonzero sequence of polynomials that is a solution of the functional equation (1). We represent each nonzero polynomial $`f_n(q)`$ in the form

$$f_n(q)=a(n)q^{v(f_n)}g_n(q),$$

where $`a(n)0,`$ $`v(f_n)𝐍_0,`$ and $`g_n(0)=1`$. We define $`g_n(q)=0`$ and $`a(n)=0`$ for all $`n𝐍_0\text{supp}().`$

For all $`m,n\text{supp}(),`$ we have

$`a(mn)q^{v(f_{mn})}g_{mn}(q)`$ $`=f_{mn}(q)`$
$`=f_m(q)f_n(q^m)`$
$`=a(m)q^{v(f_m)}g_m(q)a(n)q^{mv(f_n)}g_n(q^m)`$
$`=a(m)a(n)q^{v(f_m)+mv(f_n)}g_m(q)g_n(q^m).`$
Since

$$g_{mn}(0)=g_m(0)g_n(0)=1,$$

it follows that

$$a(mn)=a(m)a(n)$$

for all $`m,n\text{supp}()`$, and so $`a`$ is a completely multiplicative arithmetic function on the semigroup $`\text{supp}()`$ with $`a(n)0`$ for all $`n\text{supp}().`$ Similarly,

$$q^{v(f_{mn})}=q^{v(f_m)+mv(f_n)},$$

and so

$$v(f_m)+mv(f_n)=v(f_{mn})=v(f_{nm})=v(f_n)+nv(f_m)$$

for all integers $`m`$ and $`n`$ in $`\text{supp}()`$. This implies that there exists a nonnegative rational number $`t`$ such that

$$\frac{v(f_m)}{m1}=\frac{v(f_n)}{n1}=t$$

for all $`m,n\text{supp}()\{1\}`$. Moreover,

$$t(n1)𝐍_0$$

and

$$q^{v(f_n)}=q^{t(n1)}$$

for all $`n\text{supp}()`$.

Finally, we see that $`𝒢=\{g_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is also a solution of the functional equation for quantum multiplication with $`\text{supp}(𝒢)=\text{supp}()`$, and $`g_n(0)=1`$ for all $`n\text{supp}(𝒢)`$. It follows that to solve Problem 1 it suffices to classify solutions $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ of (1) such that $`f_n(0)=1`$ for all $`n\text{supp}().`$

Let $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a solution of (1). The operation $`_q`$ is commutative on $``$ since

$$f_m(q)_qf_n(q)=f_{mn}(q)=f_{nm}(q)=f_n(q)_qf_m(q).$$

Equivalently,

$$f_m(q)f_n(q^m)=f_n(q)f_m(q^n)$$
(3)
for all positive integers $`m`$ and $`n`$. Moreover,

$$\mathrm{deg}(f_m)+m\mathrm{deg}(f_n)=\mathrm{deg}(f_n)+n\mathrm{deg}(f_m),$$

and so $`\mathrm{deg}(f_m)=t(m1)`$ and $`\mathrm{deg}(f_n)=t(n1)`$ for some nonnegative rational number $`t`$. This suggests the following problem.

###### Problem 2

Let $`m`$ and $`n`$ be positive integers. For a fixed polynomial $`f_m(q)`$, determine all polynomials $`f_n(q)`$ that satisfy the functional equation

$$f_m(q)f_n(q^m)=f_n(q)f_m(q^n).$$

Let $`f_m(q)=_{i=0}^{t(m1)}a_iq^i`$ and $`f_n(x)=_{j=0}^{t(n1)}b_jq^j`$ be polynomials of degrees $`t(m1)`$ and $`t(n1)`$, respectively, with constant terms $`a_0=b_0=1`$. If $`f_m(q)`$ and $`f_n(q)`$ satisfy equation (3), then

$$f_m(q)\underset{j=0}{\overset{t(n1)}{}}b_jq^{mj}=\left(\underset{j=0}{\overset{t(n1)}{}}b_jq^j\right)\left(1+a_1q^n+\mathrm{}+a_{t(m1)}q^{nt(m1)}\right).$$

Letting $`n`$ tend to infinity, we obtain the functional equation

$$f_m(q)\underset{j=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_jq^{mj}=\underset{j=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_jq^j,$$

or, equivalently,

$$f_m(q)F(q^m)=F(q),$$

where

$$F(q)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_kq^k$$

is a formal power series with constant term $`b_0=1.`$

###### Problem 3

Let $`m`$ be positive integer and $`f(q)`$ a polynomial or formal power series with constant term $`f(0)=1.`$ Determine all formal power series $`F(q)`$ that satisfy the functional equation

$$f(q)F(q^m)=F(q).$$
(4)
Problems 1 and 2 are unsolved. Problem 3, however, will be solved in Section 4, where we prove that for every polynomial $`f(q)`$, and, more generally, for every formal power series $`f(q)`$ with constant term $`f(0)=1`$, there is a unique formal power series $`F(q)`$ that is a solution of the functional equation

$$f(q)F(q^m)=F(q).$$

Moreover, we shall explicitly construct the coefficients of the formal power series $`F(q)`$ when $`f(q)`$ is a polynomial of degree at most $`m1.`$

## 2 Convergence of formal power series

We review here some elementary convergence properties of formal power series with coefficients in a ring.

### 2.1 The ring of formal powers series

A formal power series in the variable $`q`$ with coefficients in a ring $`R`$ is an expression of the form

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_nq^n=a_0+a_1q=a_2q^2+\mathrm{},$$

where the coefficients $`a_n`$ are elements of $`R`$. The coefficient $`a_0`$ is called the constant term of the power series. We denote by $`R[[q]]`$ the set of all formal power series with coefficients in $`R`$. The sum and product of formal power series are defined, as usual, by

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_nq^n+\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_nq^n=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(a_n+b_n)q^n$$

and

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_nq^n\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_nq^n=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}c_nq^n,$$

where

$$c_n=\underset{i=0}{\overset{n}{}}a_ib_{ni}.$$

With these operations of addition and multiplication, $`R[[q]]`$ is a ring.

In this paper we shall always assume that $`R`$ is an integral domain. Then the ring of formal power series $`R[[q]]`$ is also an integral domain.

A formal power series $`f(q)`$ is invertible if there exists a formal power series $`g(q)`$ such that $`f(q)g(q)=1`$. If $`f(q)R[[q]]`$ is invertible, then there is a unique formal power series $`g(q)`$ such that $`f(q)g(q)=1`$. The inverse $`g(q)`$ is denoted $`f(q)^1`$. For example, $`(1q)^1=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}q^n`$.

###### Theorem 1

The formal power series $`f(q)=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}a_nq^n`$ is invertible in $`R[[q]]`$ if and only if the coefficient $`a_0`$ is invertible in the ring $`R`$.

Proof. If the power series $`_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}b_nq^n`$ is the multiplicative inverse of $`f(q)`$, then $`a_0b_0=1`$ and so $`a_0`$ is invertible in $`R`$.

Conversely, suppose that $`a_0`$ is invertible in $`R`$. The formal power series $`g(q)=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}b_nq^n`$ is a solution of the equation $`f(q)g(q)=1`$ if and only if the coefficients $`b_n`$ satisfy the identities

$$a_0b_0=1$$

and

$$\underset{i=0}{\overset{n}{}}a_ib_{ni}=a_0b_n+a_1b_{n1}+\mathrm{}+a_nb_0=0\text{for all }n1\text{.}$$

These conditions are equivalent to

$$b_0=a_0^1$$

and

$$b_n=a_0^1\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}a_ib_{ni}\text{for all }n1\text{.}$$

We can now construct inductively the unique sequence $`\{b_n\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ of elements of the ring $`R`$ such that $`g(q)=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}b_nq^n=f(q)^1`$. This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

Let $`f(q)=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}a_nq^n`$ be a formal power series. We define the valuation

$$v:R[[q]]𝐍_0\{\mathrm{}\}$$

as follows: If $`f(q)0`$, then $`v(f)`$ is the smallest integer $`n`$ such that $`a_n0`$. If $`f(q)=0`$, then we set $`v(f)=\mathrm{}`$.

Let $`f(q)=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}a_nq^n`$ and $`g(q)=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}b_nq^n`$ be formal power series. We write

$$f(q)g(q)(modq^N)$$

if $`a_n=b_n`$ for $`n=0,1,\mathrm{},N1`$. This is equivalent to the inequality $`v(fg)N`$.

###### Theorem 2

Let $`R`$ be an integral domain, and let $`f,gR[[q]]`$. The valuation $`v:R[[q]]𝐍_0\{\mathrm{}\}`$ satisfies the following properties:

1. $$v(f)=v(f)$$
2. $$v(fg)=v(f)+v(g)$$
3. $$v(f\pm g)\mathrm{min}(v(f),v(g))$$
4. $$v(f\pm g)=\mathrm{min}(v(f),v(g))\text{if }v(f)v(g)\text{.}$$
5. $$v(f(q^k)f(0))k.$$

Proof. Let $`v(f)=s`$ and $`v(g)=t`$. Then $`f(q)=_{n=s}^{\mathrm{}}a_nq^n`$ and $`g(q)=_{n=t}^{\mathrm{}}b_nq^n`$, where $`a_s`$ and $`b_t`$ are nonzero elements of the ring $`R`$. Then $`a_s0`$, and so $`v(f)=s`$. This proves (i).

Statement (ii) is a consequence of the identity

$$f(q)g(q)=a_sb_tq^{s+t}+\underset{n=s+t+1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}c_nq^n,$$

where $`c_nR`$ for $`ns+t+1`$. Since $`R`$ is an integral domain, it follows that $`a_sb_t0`$, and so $`v(fg)=s+t=v(f)+v(g)`$.

To prove (iii) and (iv), we observe that if $`s=t`$, then

$$f(q)\pm g(q)=\underset{n=s}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(a_n\pm b_n)q^n$$

and $`v(f\pm g)s=\mathrm{min}(v(f),v(g))`$. If $`s<t`$, then

$$f(q)\pm g(q)=\underset{n=s}{\overset{t1}{}}a_nq^n+\underset{n=t}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(a_n\pm b_n)q^n$$

and so $`v(f\pm g)=s=\mathrm{min}(v(f),v(g))`$.

Finally, if $`s=0,`$ then $`f(q)f(0)=_{n=r}^{\mathrm{}}a_nq^n`$, where $`v(ff(0))=r1`$ and $`a_r0.`$ Then

$$f(q^k)f(0)=a_rq^{kr}+\underset{n=r+1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_nq^{kn},$$

and

$$v(f(q^k)f(0)=krk.$$

If $`s1,`$ then $`f(0)=0`$ and

$$f(q^k)f(0)=f(q^k)=a_sq^{ks}+\underset{n=s+1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_nq^{kn},$$

and

$$v(f(q^k)f(0)=ksk.$$

This proves (v). $`\mathrm{}`$

We introduce a topology on the ring of formal power series as follows. Let $`\{f_k(q)\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of formal power series in $`R[[q]]`$, where

$$f_k(q)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_{k,n}q^n.$$

Let

$$f(q)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_nq^nR[[q]].$$

The sequence $`\{f_k(q)\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges to $`f(q)`$, that is,

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_k(q)=f(q),$$

if for every $`n0`$ there exists an integer $`k_0(n)`$ such that $`a_{k,n}=a_n`$ for all $`kk_0(n)`$. For example, the sequence $`\{[k]_q\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ of quantum integers converges to $`(1q)^1`$.

Similarly, if

$$f_𝐤(q)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_{𝐤,n}q^n.$$

is a formal power series for all

$$𝐤=(k_1,\mathrm{},k_d)𝐍_0^d,$$

where $`𝐍_0^d`$ is the set of all $`d`$-tuples of nonnegative integers, then

$$\underset{𝐤\mathrm{}}{lim}f_𝐤(q)\underset{k_1,\mathrm{},k_d\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{k_1,\mathrm{},k_d}(q)=f(q),$$

if for every $`n0`$ there exists an integer $`k_0(n)`$ such that $`a_{𝐤,n}=a_n`$ for all $`𝐤𝐍_0^d`$ with $`k_ik_0(n)`$ for $`i=1,\mathrm{},d.`$

We consider convergence in the case $`d=2`$ in Theorem 9.

###### Theorem 3

Let $`\{f_k(q)\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of formal power series in $`R[[q]]`$. The sequence $`\{f_k(q)\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges if and only if

$$\underset{k,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}{lim}v(f_kf_{\mathrm{}})=\mathrm{}.$$

Moreover, if $`f(q)R[[q]]`$, then

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_k(q)=f(q)$$

if and only if

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}v(ff_k)=\mathrm{}.$$

Proof. This follows immediately from the definitions of the valuation $`v`$ and convergence in the ring of formal power series. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Theorem 4

If

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_k(q)=f(q)\text{and}\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}g_k(q)=g(q),$$

then

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}\left(f_k(q)+g_k(q)\right)=f(q)+g(q)$$
(5)
and

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_k(q)g_k(q)=f(q)g(q).$$
(6)
If $`f_k(q)`$ is invertible for all $`k1`$, then $`f(q)`$ is invertible and

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_k(q)^1=f(q)^1.$$
(7)
Proof. Statements (5) and (6) are straightforward verifications.

To prove (7), let $`a_{k,0}`$ and $`a_0`$ be the constant terms of the formal power series $`f_k(q)`$ and $`f(q)`$, respectively, for all $`k1.`$ Since $`f_k(q)`$ is invertible, it follows that $`a_{k,0}`$ is a unit in $`R`$. Since $`a_0=a_{k,0}`$ for all sufficiently large $`k`$, it follows that $`a_0`$ is a unit, and so $`f(q)`$ is invertible by Theorem 1. Applying Theorem 2 to the identity

$$f(q)^1f_k(q)^1=(f_k(q)f(q))f(q)^1f_k(q)^1,$$

we obtain

$$v(f^1f_k^1)=v(f_kf)+v(f^1)+v(f_k^1)v(f_kf).$$

Since $`f_k(q)`$ converges to $`f(q)`$, it follows that $`v(f_kf)`$ tends to infinity, hence $`v(f^1f_k^1)`$ also tends to infinity and $`f_k(q)^1`$ converges to $`f(q)^1`$. This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

### 2.2 Infinite series and infinite products

We define convergence of the infinite series

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_k(q)$$

of formal power series as follows. The $`m`$–th partial sum

$$s_m(q)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{m1}{}}f_k(q)$$

is simply a finite sum of formal power series. If the sequence $`\{s_m(q)\}_{m=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges to $`f(q)R[[q]]`$, then we write that the infinite series converges to $`f(q)`$, that is,

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_k(q)=\underset{m\mathrm{}}{lim}s_m(q)=f(q).$$

For example, if $`f_k(q)=_{n=k}^{\mathrm{}}q^n`$ for $`k=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$, then

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_k(q)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(n+1)q^n.$$

###### Theorem 5

Let $`\{f_k(q)\}_{k=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of formal power series. The infinite series $`_{k=0}^{\mathrm{}}f_k(q)`$ converges if and only if $`lim_k\mathrm{}v(f_k)=\mathrm{}`$.

Proof. Let $`f_k(q)=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}a_{k,n}q^n`$. If $`lim_k\mathrm{}v(f_k)=\mathrm{}`$, then for every nonnegative integer $`n`$ we have $`a_{k,n}=0`$ for all sufficiently large $`k`$. The coefficient of $`q^n`$ in the partial sum $`s_m(q)`$ is

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{m}{}}a_{k,n}.$$
(8)
Since this sum is constant for all sufficiently large $`m`$, it follows that the sequence $`\{s_m(q)\}_{m=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges.

Conversely, if $`lim_k\mathrm{}v(f_k)\mathrm{}`$, then there exists a nonnegative integer $`n`$ such that $`a_{k,n}0`$ for infinitely many integers $`k`$. It follows that the sum (8) is not constant for sufficiently large $`m`$, and so the sequence $`\{s_m(q)\}_{m=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ does not converge. This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 5 allows us to substitute one formal power series into another. Let $`f(q)`$ and $`h(q)`$ be formal power series with $`v(h)1.`$ If

$$f(q)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_nq^n,$$

then we define the composite function

$$(fh)(q)=f(h(q))=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_nh(q)^n.$$
(9)
Since

$$v(a_nh(q)^n)=v(a_n)+nv(h)n,$$

it follows that the infinite series (9) converges. Moreover,

$$v(fh)=v(f)v(h).$$
(10)
###### Theorem 6

Let $`a_0R.`$ If $`\{f_k(q)\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is a sequence of formal power series such that $`f_k(q)`$ has constant term $`a_0`$ for all $`k1`$, and if $`\{m_k\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is a sequence of nonnegative integers such that

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}m_k=\mathrm{},$$

then

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_k(q^{m_k})=a_0.$$
(11)
In particular, for any formal power series $`f(q)`$,

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f(q^{m_k})=f(0).$$
(12)
Proof. We have $`v(f_ka_0)1`$ for all $`k1.`$ The convergence of (11) follows from (10) and the observation that

$$v\left(f_k(q^{m^k})a_0\right)=v\left((f_ka_0)(q^{m_k})\right)=v\left(f_ka_0\right)m_km_k,$$

hence

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}v\left(f_k(q^{m^k})a_0\right)=\mathrm{}.$$

The convergence of (12) follows from Theorem 3. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Theorem 7

Let $`(k_i,\mathrm{}_i)_{i=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of ordered pairs of nonnegative integers such that every ordered pair $`(k,\mathrm{})`$ occurs exactly once in the sequence. If the infinite series

$$f(q)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_k(q)$$

and

$$g(q)=\underset{\mathrm{}=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}g_{\mathrm{}}(q)$$

converge in $`R[[q]]`$, then the infinite series

$$\underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_{k_i}(q)g_\mathrm{}_i(q)$$
(13)
converges, and

$$f(q)g(q)=\underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_{k_i}(q)g_\mathrm{}_i(q).$$

In particular,

$$f(q)g(q)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{k+\mathrm{}=n}{}f_k(q)g_{\mathrm{}}(q)$$
(14)
Proof. By Theorem 5,

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}v(f_k)=\underset{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}{lim}v(g_{\mathrm{}})=\mathrm{},$$

and so, for every $`N`$, there exists an integer $`j_0=j_0(N)`$ such that $`v(f_k)N`$ and $`v(g_{\mathrm{}})N`$ for all $`k>j_0`$ and $`\mathrm{}>j_0`$. There are only finitely many ordered pairs $`(k_i,\mathrm{}_i)`$ with both $`k_ij_0`$ and $`\mathrm{}_ij_0`$, and so there is an integer $`i_0=i_0(N)`$ such that, for all $`i>i_0`$, we have $`k_i>j_0`$ or $`\mathrm{}_i>j_0`$, hence

$$v(f_{k_i}g_\mathrm{}_i)=v(f_{k_i})+v(g_\mathrm{}_i)N$$

and

$$\underset{i\mathrm{}}{lim}v(f_{k_i}g_\mathrm{}_i)=\mathrm{}.$$

By Theorem 5, the series (13) converges. Moreover, for $`mi_0`$,

$`s_m(q)`$ $`={\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{m}{}}}f_{k_i}(q)g_\mathrm{}_i(q)`$
$`{\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{i_0}{}}}f_{k_i}(q)g_\mathrm{}_i(q)(modq^N)`$
$`{\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{j_0}{}}}f_k(q){\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{}=0}{\overset{j_0}{}}}g_{\mathrm{}}(q)(modq^N)`$
$`f(q)g(q)(modq^N),`$
and so

$$v(fgs_m)N$$

and

$$\underset{m\mathrm{}}{lim}v(fgs_m)=\mathrm{}.$$

By Theorem 3,

$$\underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_{k_i}(q)g_\mathrm{}_i(q)=\underset{m\mathrm{}}{lim}s_m(q)=f(q)g(q).$$

Identity (14) is a special case of this result. $`\mathrm{}`$

We define convergence of the infinite product

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_k(q)$$

of formal power series as follows. The $`m`$–th partial product

$$p_m(q)=\underset{k=1}{\overset{m}{}}f_k(q)$$

is simply a finite product of formal power series. If the sequence $`\{p_m(q)\}_{m=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ converges to $`f(q)R[[q]]`$, then we write that the infinite product converges to $`f(q)`$, that is,

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_k(q)=\underset{m\mathrm{}}{lim}p_m(q)=f(q).$$

For example, from the unique representation of an integer as the sum of distinct powers of 2, we have

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{m}{}}(1+q^{2^{k1}})=(1+q)(1+q^2)(1+q^4)\mathrm{}(1+q^{2^{m1}})=\underset{n=0}{\overset{2^m1}{}}q^n,$$

and so

$$\underset{m=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(1+q^{2^{m1}})=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}q^n=(1q)^1.$$

###### Theorem 8

Let $`\{f_k(q)\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of formal power series such that $`f_k(q)`$ has constant term $`f_k(q)`$ 1 for all $`k1.`$ The infinite product $`_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}f_k(q)`$ converges if and only if $`lim_k\mathrm{}v(f_k(q)1)=\mathrm{}`$ if and only if the infinite series $`_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}(f_k(q)1)`$ converges.

Proof. This follows immediately from the definition of convergence. $`\mathrm{}`$

### 2.3 Change of variables in formal power series

The next result allows us to substitute variables in identities of formal power series.

###### Theorem 9

Let $`\{g_k(q)\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of formal power series in $`R[[q]]`$ that converges to $`g(q)`$ and let $`\{h_{\mathrm{}}(q)\}_{\mathrm{}=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of formal power series that converges to $`h(q)`$. If

$$v(h_{\mathrm{}})1\text{for all }\mathrm{}1,$$

then

$$\underset{k,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}{lim}g_k(h_{\mathrm{}}(q))=g(h(q)).$$

Proof. For every nonnegative integer $`N`$ and formal power series

$$f(q)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_nq^n,$$

let

$$f^{(N)}(q)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{N1}{}}a_nq^n.$$

Then

$$f(q)f^{(N)}(q)(modq^N).$$

Since $`v(h_{\mathrm{}})1`$ for all $`\mathrm{}`$, it follows that $`v(h)1`$, and so the formal power series $`g(h(q))`$ and $`g_k(h_{\mathrm{}}(q))`$ are well-defined for all nonnegative integers $`k`$ and $`\mathrm{}.`$ Since $`lim_k\mathrm{}g_k(q)=g(q)`$, there exists an integer $`k_0(N)`$ such that

$$g_k^{(N)}(q)=g^{(N)}(q)\text{for all }kk_0(N)\text{.}$$

Similarly, since $`lim_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}h_{\mathrm{}}(q)=h(q)`$, there exists an integer $`\mathrm{}_0(N)`$ such that

$$h_{\mathrm{}}^{(N)}(q)=h^{(N)}(q)\text{for all }\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_0(N)\text{.}$$

Therefore, for $`kk_0(N)`$ and $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_0(N)`$ we have

$$g_k\left(h_{\mathrm{}}(q)\right)g_k^{(N)}\left(h_{\mathrm{}}^{(N)}(q)\right)=g^{(N)}\left(h^{(N)}(q)\right)g(h(q))(modq^N).$$

This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Theorem 10

Let $`\{g_k(q)\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of formal power series in $`R[[q]]`$ that converges to $`g(q)R[[q]]`$, and let $`h(q)`$ be a formal power series with $`v(h)1`$. Then

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}g_k(h(q))=g(h(q)).$$

Proof. This follows from Theorem 9 with $`h_{\mathrm{}}(q)=h(q)`$ for all $`\mathrm{}1`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 10 is often applied in the following form.

###### Theorem 11

Let $`\{f_k(q)\}_{k=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\{g_k(q)\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be sequences of formal power series such that the infinite series $`_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}f_k(q)`$ converges and the infinite product $`_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}g_k(q)`$ converges. Let $`h(q)`$ be a formal power series with $`v(h)1`$. If

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_k(q)=\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}g_k(q),$$

then

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_k(h(q))=\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}g_k(h(q)).$$

Proof. Let

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_k(q)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{m1}{}}f_k(q)=F(q).$$

Theorem 10 implies that

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_k(h(q))=\underset{m\mathrm{}}{lim}\underset{k=0}{\overset{m1}{}}f_k((h(q))=F(h(q)).$$

Similary,

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}g_k(q)=\underset{m\mathrm{}}{lim}\underset{k=1}{\overset{m}{}}g_k(q)=F(q)$$

implies that

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}g_k(h(q))=\underset{m\mathrm{}}{lim}\underset{k=1}{\overset{m}{}}g_k(h(q))=F(h(q)).$$

It follows that

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_k(h(q))=\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}g_k(h(q)).$$

This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Theorem 12

Let $`\{g_k(q)\}_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of formal power series in $`R[[q]]`$, and let $`h(q)`$ be a formal power series with $`v(h)1`$. If

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}g_k(h(q))=g(h(q)),$$

then

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}g_k(q)=g(q).$$

Proof. Let

$$g_k(q)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_{k,n}q^n$$

and

$$g(q)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_nq^n.$$

We must show that for every nonnegative integer $`n`$ we have $`b_{k,n}=b_n`$ for all sufficiently large $`k`$. The proof will be by induction on $`n`$. Let

$$h(q)=\underset{m=M}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}c_mq^m,\text{where }v(h)=M1\text{ and }c_M0\text{.}$$

Then

$$h(q)c_Mq^M(modq^{M+1}).$$

The congruences

$$g_k(h(q))b_{k,0}(modq)$$

and

$$g(h(q))b_0(modq)$$

imply that $`b_{k,0}=b_0`$ for all sufficiently large $`k`$. Let $`N1`$. Suppose there exists an integer $`k_0(N)`$ such that, for $`kk_0(N)`$ and $`0nN1`$, we have $`b_{k,n}=b_n`$. Then

$$\underset{n=N}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_{k,n}(h(q))^nb_{k,N}\left(c_Mq^M\right)^Nb_{k,N}c_M^Nq^{MN}(modq^{MN+1})$$

and

$$\underset{n=N}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_n(h(q))^nb_N\left(c_Mq^M\right)^Nb_Nc_M^Nq^{MN}(modq^{MN+1}).$$

Since

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}\underset{n=N}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_{k,n}(h(q))^n=\underset{n=N}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_n(h(q))^n,$$

it follows that for suffficiently large $`k`$ we have

$$b_{k,N}c_M^{MN}=b_Nc_M^{MN},$$

and so

$$b_{k,N}=b_N.$$

This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Theorem 13

Let $`R`$ and $`S`$ be rings, and let $`\phi :RS[[q]]`$ be a ring homomorphism. Let $`v`$ be the valuation in the formal power series ring $`S[[q]]`$. Let $`h(q)S[[q]]`$ with $`v(h)1`$. The map $`\mathrm{\Phi }:R[[q]]S[[q]]`$ defined by

$$\mathrm{\Phi }\left(\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_nq^n\right)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\phi (a_n)h(q)^n$$
(15)
is a ring homomorphism.

Proof. Since

$$v\left(\phi (a_n)h(q)^n\right)=v\left(\phi (a_n)\right)+nv\left(h\right)nv(h)n,$$

it follows from Theorem 5 that the infinite series on the right side of (15) converges in the formal power series ring $`S[[q]]`$. Let $`f(q)=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}a_nq^n`$ and $`g(q)=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}b_nq^n`$. Then

$`\mathrm{\Phi }(f(q))+\mathrm{\Phi }(g(q))`$ $`={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\phi (a_n)h(q)^n+{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\phi (b_n)h(q)^n`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left(\phi (a_n)+\phi (b_n)\right)h(q)^n`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\phi \left(a_n+b_n\right)h(q)^n`$
$`=\mathrm{\Phi }\left({\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left(a_n+b_n\right)q^n\right)`$
$`=\mathrm{\Phi }\left(f(q)+g(q)\right).`$
Similarly,

$`\mathrm{\Phi }(f(q))\mathrm{\Phi }(g(q))`$ $`=\left({\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\phi (a_n)h(q)^n\right)\left({\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\phi (b_n)h(q)^n\right)`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \underset{k+\mathrm{}=n}{}}\phi (a_k)\phi (b_{\mathrm{}})\right)h(q)^n`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\phi \left({\displaystyle \underset{k+\mathrm{}=n}{}}a_kb_{\mathrm{}}\right)h(q)^n`$
$`=\mathrm{\Phi }\left({\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \underset{k+\mathrm{}=n}{}}a_kb_{\mathrm{}}\right)q^n\right)`$
$`=\mathrm{\Phi }\left(\left({\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}a_nq^n\right)\left({\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}b_nq^n\right)\right)`$
$`=\mathrm{\Phi }\left(f(q)g(q)\right).`$
This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

## 3 Limits of solutions of the functional equation for quantum multiplication

The main result (Theorem 18) in this section states that if $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is a solution of the functional equation (1) with $`\text{supp}()=S(P)`$ for a nonempty set $`P`$ of prime numbers, and if $`f_p(0)=1`$ for all $`pP,`$ then there exists a formal power series $`F(q)`$ such that

$$F(q)=\underset{\begin{array}{c}n\mathrm{}\\ nS(P)\end{array}}{lim}f_n(q).$$

For example, the sequence $`=\{[n]_q\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ has support $`\text{supp}()=𝐍=S(P),`$ where $`P`$ is the set of all primes, and $`lim_n\mathrm{}[n]_q=(1q)^1.`$

###### Theorem 14

Let $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of polynomials that satisfies the functional equation

$$f_{mn}(q)=f_m(q)f_n(q^m).$$

Let $`\{a_i\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of positive integers such that $`a_i2`$ for infinitely many $`i.`$ Let $`n_0=1`$ and

$$n_k=a_1a_2\mathrm{}a_k$$

for $`k1.`$ If $`f_{a_i}(0)=1`$ for all $`i1,`$ then the infinite product

$$\underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_{a_i}(q^{n_{i1}})$$

converges, and

$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{n_k}(q)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_{a_i}(q^{n_{i1}}).$$
(16)
In particular, if $`a_i=a2`$ for all $`i`$, then there exists a formal power series $`F_a^{\mathrm{}}(q)`$ such that

$$F_a^{\mathrm{}}(q)=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{a^k}(q).$$
(17)
Proof. We shall show by induction that

$$f_{n_k}(q)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}f_{a_i}\left(q^{n_{i1}}\right)$$
(18)
for all $`k1.`$ The functional equation implies that

$`f_{n_1}(q)`$ $`=f_{a_1}(q)=f_{a_1}(q^{n_0})`$
$`f_{n_2}(q)`$ $`=f_{a_1a_2}(q)=f_{a_1}(q)f_{a_2}(q^{a_1})=f_{a_1}(q^{n_0})f_{a_2}(q^{n_1})`$
$`f_{n_3}(q)`$ $`=f_{a_1a_2a_3}(q)=f_{a_1a_2}(q)f_{a_3}(q^{a_1a_2})`$
$`=f_{a_1}(q^{n_0})f_{a_2}(q^{n_1})f_{a_3}(q^{n_3}),`$
and so formula (18) holds for $`k=1,2,3`$. If (18) holds for $`k`$, then

$`f_{n_{k+1}}(q)`$ $`=f_{n_ka_{k+1}}(q)`$
$`=f_{n_k}(q)f_{a_{k+1}}(q^{n_k})`$
$`=\left({\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}}f_{a_i}\left(q^{n_{i1}}\right)\right)f_{a_{k+1}}(q^{n_k})`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{k+1}{}}}f_{a_i}\left(q^{n_{i1}}\right).`$
This completes the induction.

Since $`f_{a_i}(0)=1`$ for all $`i1,`$ it follows that $`f_{n_k}(0)=1`$ and $`v(f_{n_k}(q)1)1`$ for all $`k1.`$ By Theorem 6,

$$v\left(f_{n_k}\left(q^{n_{k1}}\right)1\right)n_{k1}.$$

Since $`lim_k\mathrm{}n_k=\mathrm{},`$ Theorem 8 implies the convergence of the infinite product (16). This immediately implies (17). $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Theorem 15

Let $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of polynomials that satisfies the functional equation

$$f_{mn}(q)=f_m(q)f_n(q^m).$$

If $`a2`$, $`b2`$, and $`f_a(0)=f_b(0)=1,`$ then

$$F_a^{\mathrm{}}(q)=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{a^k}(q)=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{b^k}(q)=F_b^{\mathrm{}}(q).$$

Proof. The functional equation implies that $`f_{a^k}(0)=f_{b^k}(0)=f_{(ab)^k}(0)=1`$ for all $`k1.`$ By Theorem 6,

$$F_b^{\mathrm{}}(0)=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{b^k}(q^{a^k})=1.$$

It follows from Theorem 14 that

$`F_{(ab)^{\mathrm{}}}(q)`$ $`=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{(ab)^k}(q)`$
$`=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{a^k}(q)f_{b^k}(q^{a^k})`$
$`=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{a^k}(q)\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{b^k}(q^{a^k})`$
$`=F_a^{\mathrm{}}(q).`$
Similarly, $`F_{(ab)^{\mathrm{}}}(q)=F_b^{\mathrm{}}(q)`$ and so $`F_a^{\mathrm{}}(q)=F_b^{\mathrm{}}(q)`$. This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Theorem 16

Let $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of polynomials that satisfies the functional equation

$$f_{mn}(q)=f_m(q)f_n(q^m).$$

If $`\text{supp}()=S(P)`$ for some nonempty finite set $`P`$ of prime numbers, and if $`f_p(0)=1`$ for all $`pP,`$ then there exists a formal power series $`F(q)`$ such that

$$F(q)=\underset{\begin{array}{c}n\mathrm{}\\ nS(P)\end{array}}{lim}f_n(q).$$
(19)
Proof. Since $`f_p(0)=1`$ for all $`pP,`$ it follows that $`f_m(0)=1`$, $`v(f_m)=0`$, and $`v(f_m1)1`$ for all $`mS(P).`$

By Theorem 15, there exists a formal power series $`F(q)`$ such that

$$F(q)=F_p^{\mathrm{}}(q)=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{p^k}(q)\text{for all }pP\text{.}$$

Since the set $`P`$ is finite, for every integer $`N`$ there exists an integer

$$k_0=k_0(N)N$$

such that

$$v(Ff_{p^k})N\text{for all }pP\text{ and }kk_0.$$

Let $`n_0=n_0(N)=_{pP}p^{k_01}`$. If $`n>n_0`$ and $`nS(P)`$, then $`n=p^{k_0}m`$ for some $`pP`$ and $`mS(P)`$. Moreover,

$`F(q)f_n(q)`$ $`=F(q)f_{p^{k_0}}(q)f_m(q^{p^{k_0}})`$
$`=F(q)f_{p^{k_0}}(q)f_{p^{k_0}}(q)\left(f_m(q^{p^{k_0}})1\right).`$
We have

$$v(Ff_{p^{k_0}})N$$

and

$`v\left(f_{p^{k_0}}(q)\left(f_m(q^{p^{k_0}})1\right)\right)`$ $`=v\left(f_{p^{k_0}}\right)+v\left(f_m(q^{p^{k_0}})1\right)`$
$`=v\left(f_m(q^{p^{k_0}})1\right)`$
$`=v(f_m1)p^{k_0}`$
$`p^{k_0}`$
$`N.`$
It follows that

$$v(Ff_n)\mathrm{min}(v(Ff_{p^{k_0}}),v\left(f_{p^{k_0}}(q)\left(f_m(q^{p^{k_0}})1\right)\right))N$$

for all $`nn_0.`$ This completes the proof of (19). $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Theorem 17

Let $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of polynomials that satisfies the functional equation

$$f_{mn}(q)=f_m(q)f_n(q^m).$$

If $`\text{supp}()=S(P)`$, where $`P`$ is an infinite set of prime numbers, and if $`f_p(0)=1`$ for all $`pP,`$ then there exists a formal power series $`F_P(q)`$ such that

$$F_P(q)=\underset{\begin{array}{c}p\mathrm{}\\ pP\end{array}}{lim}f_p(q).$$
(20)
Proof. If $`p_1`$ and $`p_2`$ are prime numbers in $`P`$ such that $`p_1N`$ and $`p_2N,`$ then

$`f_{p_1}(q)f_{p_2}(q)`$ $`=f_{p_1}(q)f_{p_1p_2}(q)+f_{p_1p_2}(q)f_{p_2}(q)`$
$`=f_{p_1}(q)f_{p_1}(q)f_{p_2}(q^{p_1})+f_{p_2}(q)f_{p_1}(q^{p_2})f_{p_2}(q)`$
$`=f_{p_1}(q)\left(1f_{p_2}(q^{p_1})\right)+f_{p_2}(q)\left(f_{p_1}(q^{p_2})1\right).`$
Since

$$v(f_{p_1})=v(f_{p_2})=0$$

and, by Theorem 2,

$$v\left(1f_{p_2}(q^{p_1})\right)p_1N,$$

and

$$v\left(f_{p_1}(q^{p_2})1\right)p_2N,$$

it follows that

$$v(f_{p_1}f_{p_2})N.$$

Therefore,

$$\underset{p_1,p_2\mathrm{}}{lim}v(f_{p_1}f_{p_2})=\mathrm{},$$

and Theorem 3 implies the existence of the limit (20). This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Theorem 18

Let $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of polynomials that satisfies the functional equation

$$f_{mn}(q)=f_m(q)f_n(q^m).$$

Let $`\text{supp}()=S(P),`$ where $`P`$ is a nonempty set of prime numbers. If $`f_p(0)=1`$ for all $`pP,`$ then there exists a formal power series $`F(q)`$ such that

$$F(q)=\underset{\begin{array}{c}n\mathrm{}\\ nS(P)\end{array}}{lim}f_n(q).$$
(21)
Proof. If $`P`$ is finite, then the result is Theorem 16.

Suppose that $`P`$ is an infinite set of prime numbers. Let $`N`$ be a positive integer. By Theorem 17, there is a formal power series $`F_P(q)`$ such that

$$F_P(q)=\underset{\begin{array}{c}p\mathrm{}\\ pP\end{array}}{lim}f_p(q),$$

and so there exists a prime number

$$p_0=p_0(N)N$$

such that

$$v(F_Pf_p)N\text{for all }pP\text{ with }pp_0\text{.}$$

If $`n=pmS(P),`$ where $`pP`$ and $`pp_0`$, then

$`F_P(q)f_n(q)`$ $`=F_P(q)f_p(q)f_m(q^p)`$
$`=\left(F_P(q)f_p(q)\right)+f_p(q)\left(1f_m(q^p)\right).`$
Since $`v\left(1f_m(q^p)\right)p>p_0N,`$ it follows that $`v(F_Pf_n)N.`$

By Theorem 15, there is a formal power series $`F(q)`$ such that

$$F(q)=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}f_{p^k}(q)$$

for all $`pP.`$ There exists an integer

$$k_0=k_0(N)N$$

such that

$$v\left(Ff_{p^k}\right)N\text{for all }kk_0\text{ and }pP\text{ with }p<p_0\text{.}$$

If $`n=p^kmS(P),`$ where $`kk_0`$ and $`pP`$ with $`p<p_0`$, then

$`F(q)f_n(q)`$ $`=F(q)f_{p^k}(q)f_m(q^{p^k})`$
$`=\left(F(q)f_{p^k}(q)\right)+f_{p^k}(q)\left(1f_m(q^{p^k})\right).`$
Since $`v\left(1f_m(q^{p^k})\right)p^kkk_0N,`$ it follows that $`v(Ff_n)N.`$

Let $`p_1`$ and $`p_2`$ be prime numbers in $`P`$ such that $`p_1<p_0p_2,`$ and let $`kk_0.`$ Let $`n=p_1^kp_2.`$ Then

$$v(F_Pf_n)N,$$

$$v(Ff_n)N,$$

and so

$$v(FF_P)=v\left((Ff_n)(f_nF_P)\right)N.$$

This holds for all $`N`$, and so

$$F(q)=F_P(q).$$

Let $`n_0=_{\begin{array}{c}p<p_0\\ pP\end{array}}p^{k_01}=n_0(N)`$ and let $`nS(P)`$ with $`nn_0.`$ If $`p`$ divides $`n`$ for some prime $`pP`$, $`pp_0,`$ then $`v(Ff_n)=v(F_Pf_n)N.`$ If every prime factor of $`n`$ is less than $`p_0`$, then $`n`$ is an integer of the form $`n=_{\begin{array}{c}p<p_0\\ pP\end{array}}p^{a_p}`$, where $`a_p𝐍_0`$ for all $`pP`$. Since $`nn_0,`$ it follows that $`a_pk_0`$ for some $`p`$, and so $`v(Ff_n)N.`$ Therefore,

$$\underset{\begin{array}{c}n\mathrm{}\\ nS(P)\end{array}}{lim}v(Ff_n)=\mathrm{}.$$

This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

Let $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence of polynomials satisfying the functional equation (1). We assume that $`\text{supp}()=S(P),`$ where $`P`$ is a nonempty set of prime numbers, and $`f_p(0)=1`$ for all $`pP.`$ By Theorem 18, there exists a formal power series $`F(q)`$ such that

$$F(q)=\underset{\begin{array}{c}n\mathrm{}\\ nS(P)\end{array}}{lim}f_n(q).$$

###### Problem 4

Which formal power series are limits of solutions of the functional equation (1)?

###### Problem 5

To what extent is it possible to reconstruct the sequence $``$ from the formal power series $`F(q)`$? If $`F(q)`$ is the limit of a solution of the functional equation (1), determine all solutions $``$ of (1) whose limit is $`F(q).`$

Let $`𝒢=\{g_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a solution of the functional equation (1) with support $`S(P_G)`$ and with limit

$$F(q)=\underset{\begin{array}{c}n\mathrm{}\\ nS(P_G)\end{array}}{lim}g_n(q).$$

We observe that if $`P`$ is a nonempty subset of $`P_G`$, then we can construct another solution $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ of (1) by restriction of $`𝒢`$ to the subsemigroup $`S(P)`$ of $`S(P_G)`$ as follows:

$$f_n(q)=\{\begin{array}{cc}g_n(q)\hfill & \text{if }nS(P)\text{,}\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{if }nS(P).\hfill \end{array}$$

Since

$$F(q)=\underset{\begin{array}{c}n\mathrm{}\\ nS(P)\end{array}}{lim}f_n(q),$$

it follows that $`F(q)`$ does not uniquely determine $``$.

The suggests the following definition. A solution $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ of the functional equation (1) will be called maximal if $``$ cannot be constructed from another solution $`𝒢`$ of the functional equation by restriction to a subsemigroup of $`\text{supp}(𝒢).`$

###### Theorem 19

Every solution of the functional equation (1) is contained in at least one maximal solution.

Proof. Let $`=\{f_n(q)\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a solution of (1) with $`\text{supp}()=S(P).`$ Let $`X`$ be the set of all pairs $`(𝒢,P_G)`$ such that

1. $`P_G`$ is a set of prime numbers and $`PP_G`$,
2. $`𝒢`$ is a solution of the functional equation (1) with support $`S(P_G)`$,
3. The restriction of $`𝒢`$ to $`S(P)`$ is $``$.

The set $`X`$ is partially ordered as follows: $`(𝒢,P_G)(,P_H)`$ if $`P_GP_H`$ and the restriction of $``$ to $`S(P_G)`$ is $`𝒢`$. Every chain in $`X`$ has an upper bound, and so, by Zorn’s Lemma, the set $`X`$ contains a maximal element $`(,P_H)`$. Then $``$ is a maximal solution of the functional equation (1) that restricts to $``$. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Problem 6

Describe the maximal solutions of the functional equation (1). For which sets $`P`$ of prime numbers does there exist a maximal solution $``$ of (1) with $`\text{supp}()=S(P)`$?

## 4 A functional equation for formal power series

We shall prove that the functional equation $`f(q)F(q^m)=F(q)`$ has a unique solution not only for polynomials $`f(q)`$ but also for formal power series $`f(q)`$ with constant term 1.

###### Theorem 20

Let $`m`$ be a positive integer. For every formal power series $`f(q)`$ with constant term $`f(0)=1,`$ there exists a unique formal power series

$$F(q)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f\left(q^{m^i}\right)=f(q)f(q^m)f\left(q^{m^2}\right)\mathrm{}$$
(22)
that satisfies the functional equation

$$f(q)F(q^m)=F(q).$$
(23)
Proof. The infinite product (22) converges in the ring of formal power series, since

$$v\left(f\left(q^{m^i}\right)1\right)=v(f(q)1)m^i$$

and

$$\underset{i\mathrm{}}{lim}v\left(f\left(q^{m^i}\right)1\right)=\mathrm{}.$$

Then

$`f(q)F(q^m)`$ $`=f(q){\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}f\left(\left(q^m\right)^{m^i}\right)`$
$`=f(q){\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}f\left(q^{m^{i+1}}\right)`$
$`=f(q){\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}f\left(q^{m^i}\right)`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}f\left(q^{m^i}\right)`$
$`=F(q).`$
This proves that the formal power series (22) is a solution of (23).

Conversely, let $`F(q)`$ be a formal power series that is a solution of (23). We shall prove that

$$F(q)=\underset{i=0}{\overset{k1}{}}f\left(q^{m^i}\right)F\left(q^{m^k}\right)$$
(24)
for every positive integer $`k`$. From the functional equation (23), we obtain

$$F(q)=f(q)F(q^m)=f(q)\left(f(q^m)F((q^m)^m)\right)=f(q)f(q^m)F(q^{m^2}).$$

This proves (24) for $`k=1`$ and 2. If (24) holds for some integer $`k2`$, then

$`F(q)`$ $`=f(q){\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{k1}{}}}f\left(q^{m^{i+1}}\right)F\left(q^{m^{k+1}}\right)`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{k}{}}}f\left(q^{m^i}\right)F\left(q^{m^{k+1}}\right),`$
and so (24) holds for $`k+1`$. This completes the induction. Since $`F(0)=1,`$ it follows from Theorem 6 that

$`F(q)`$ $`=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}{\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{k1}{}}}f\left(q^{m^i}\right)\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}F\left(q^{m^k}\right)`$
$`=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}{\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{k1}{}}}f\left(q^{m^i}\right)`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}f\left(q^{m^i}\right).`$
This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

If $`m`$ is a positive integer and $`f_m(q)`$ a polynomial of degree less than $`m`$, then we can explicitly construct the coefficients of the unique formal power series that satisfies the equation $`f_m(q)F(q^m)=m(q).`$ We need the following notation. Let $`m`$ be an integer, $`m2.`$ Every integer $`k`$ has a unique $`m`$–adic representation

$$k=\underset{t=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e_{t,k}m^t,$$

where

$$e_{t,k}\{0,1,2,\mathrm{},m1\}$$

for all $`t,`$ and $`e_{t,k}=0`$ for all but finitely many $`t.`$ For $`i=1,2,\mathrm{},m1,`$ let

$$d_i(k)=\underset{e_{t,k}=i}{}1.$$

Then $`d_i(k)`$ is the arithmetic function that counts the number of digits equal to $`i`$ in the $`m`$–adic representation of $`k`$. For example, if $`m=3,`$ then $`71=23^0+23^1+13^2+23^3,`$ and so $`d_1(71)=1`$ and $`d_2(71)=3.`$

###### Theorem 21

Let $`f_m(q)=1+_{i=1}^{m1}a_iq^i`$ be a polynomial of degree $`m1`$. Let $`F(q)=1+_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}b_kq^k`$ be the formal power series with coefficients

$$b_k=\underset{i=1}{\overset{m1}{}}a_i^{d_i(k)}\text{for all }k=1,2,3,\mathrm{}.$$
(25)
Then

$$f_m(q)F(q^m)=F(q).$$
(26)
Conversely, if $`F(q)=1+_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}b_kq^k`$ is a formal power series that satisfies the functional equation (26), then the coefficients of $`F(q)`$ are given by (25).

Proof. Let $`a_0=b_0=1.`$ From the functional equation (26) we have

$$\left(\underset{i=0}{\overset{m1}{}}a_iq^i\right)\left(\underset{j=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_jq^{mj}\right)=\underset{i=0}{\overset{m1}{}}\underset{j=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_ib_jq^{i+mj}=\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}b_kq^k,$$

if and only if

$$a_ib_j=b_{i+mj}$$

for all $`i=0,1,\mathrm{},m1`$ and $`j𝐍_0.`$ We shall prove that the the unique solution of (4) is (25).

For $`j=0`$, we have

$$b_k=a_k=\underset{i=0}{\overset{m1}{}}a_i^{d_i(k)}$$

for $`k=0,1,\mathrm{},m1.`$ This proves (25) for $`0k<m.`$

Suppose that (25) holds for all nonnegative integers $`k<m^r.`$ Let $`k`$ be an integer in the interval $`m^rk<m^{r+1}.`$ We can write

$$k=i+mj,\text{where }0im1\text{ and }m^{r1}j<m^r.$$

If

$$j=\underset{t=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e_{t,j}m^t,$$

then

$$mj=\underset{t=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e_{t,j}m^{t+1}=\underset{t=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e_{t,mj}m^t,$$

and

$$e_{t,mj}=e_{t1,j}\text{for all }t𝐍.$$

Then

$$k=i+mj=i+\underset{t=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e_{t,mj}m^t,$$

and so

$$d_t(k)=\{\begin{array}{cc}d_t(j)\hfill & \text{for }ti\hfill \\ d_t(j)+1\hfill & \text{for }t=i\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

Therefore,

$`{\displaystyle \underset{t=0}{\overset{m1}{}}}a_t^{d_t(k)}`$ $`=a_i^{d_i(k)}{\displaystyle \underset{\begin{array}{c}t=0\\ ti\end{array}}{\overset{m1}{}}}a_t^{d_t(k)}`$
$`=a_i^{d_i(j)+1}{\displaystyle \underset{\begin{array}{c}t=0\\ ti\end{array}}{\overset{m1}{}}}a_t^{d_t(j)}`$
$`=a_i{\displaystyle \underset{t=0}{\overset{m1}{}}}a_t^{d_t(j)}`$
$`=a_ib_j`$
$`=b_k.`$
This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

Acknowledgement. I wish to thank Yang Wang for a helpful discussion about self-similar sets.