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# Non-existence of a dilaton gravity action for the exact string black hole

## 1 Introduction

At the beginning of the last decade intense activity has been devoted to the construction of conformal field theories representing strings propagating in black hole backgrounds. One particularly successful example is the two-dimensional Witten black hole  resulting from a $`SL(2,)/U(1)`$ gauged Wess-Zumino-Witten model. Detached from its stringy origin it has inspired the influential paper of Callan, Giddings, Harvey and Strominger (CGHS)  which rekindled the interest in two-dimensional (dilaton) gravity in the early 1990’s (for a recent review cf. 111 Several relevant papers on string gravity in two dimensions  were omitted in the printed version of .).

However, in Witten’s original work the metric and dilaton satisfy the corresponding $`\sigma `$-model conformal invariance conditions only to lowest order. By conformal field theory methods (which are somewhat indirect in this context) Dijkgraaf, Verlinde and Verlinde presented a solution for the metric and the dilaton, the exact string black hole (ESBH) , which supposedly solves the problem non-perturbatively. Indeed, it has been shown that the ESBH is consistent with $`\sigma `$-model conformal invariance up to three loops in the bosonic case  and up to four loops in the supersymmetric one . For further historical and technical details cf. e.g.  and references therein.

What is still lacking is a non-perturbative effective action. In this paper we address this issue and try to construct a dilaton model reproducing the ESBH solution. We fail, but take revenge and show in turn that, indeed, such a construction is impossible with the given assumptions (local Lorentz-invariance, locality, local diffeomorphism invariance, absence of propagating degrees of freedom and $`D=2`$). Since the dimensionality, local Lorentz invariance and local diffeomorphism invariance should be kept by all means (after all, a description in terms of a two-dimensional metric is desired) this seems to imply that either locality must be violated or higher derivative interactions must appear in the action thus leading to propagating modes in this model. We should stress that in our approach we do not exploit the fact that the ESBH follows from an exact conformal field theory (CFT). A more extensive discussion on these points can be found in section 5.

As by-products we present two models which are close to the ESBH solution and justify a study on their own.

This work is organized as follows:

In section 2 we review briefly the ESBH solution and fix most of our notations. Section 3 summarizes generalized dilaton gravity in the first order formalism and introduces the important concept of dilaton-shift invariance, a property which must be shared by any model describing the ESBH solution. All classical solutions are obtained. In section 4 we prove that no such action compatible with the ESBH exists. Section 5 concludes this work.

Supplementary material can be found in the two appendices: Appendix A investigates the most general form of a dilaton-shift invariant model. In appendix B two promising toy-models are discussed, resembling the ESBH in many relevant aspects.

## 2 Exact string black hole

In the notation of  the line element of the ESBH discovered by Dijkgraaf, Verlinde and Verlinde  is given by

$$(ds)^2=(dx)^2+f^2(x)(d\tau )^2,$$
(1)
with

$$f(x)=\frac{\mathrm{tanh}(bx)}{\sqrt{1p\mathrm{tanh}^2(bx)}}.$$
(2)
Physical scales are adjusted by the parameter $`b0`$ which has dimension of inverse length. The corresponding expression for the dilaton,

$$\varphi =\varphi _0\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{cosh}(bx)\frac{1}{4}\mathrm{ln}(1p\mathrm{tanh}^2(bx)),$$
(3)
contains an integration constant $`\varphi _0`$. Additionally, there are the following relations between constants, string-coupling $`\alpha `$, level $`k`$ and dimension $`D`$ of string target space:

$$\alpha b^2=\frac{1}{k2},p:=\frac{2}{k}=\frac{2\alpha b^2}{1+2\alpha b^2},D26+6\alpha b^2=0.$$
(4)
For $`D=2`$ one obtains $`p=8/9`$, but like in the original work  we will treat general values of $`p(0;1)`$.

In the present work exclusively the Minkowskian version of (1)

$$(ds)^2=f^2(x)(d\tau )^2(dx)^2,$$
(5)
will be needed. With the definitions

$$\sqrt{1p}f(x)dx=:dr,(1p)f^2(x(r))=:\xi (r),\frac{d\tau }{\sqrt{1p}}=:dt,$$
(6)
the line element can be presented, for instance, in Schwarzschild gauge $`(ds)^2=\xi (r)(dt)^2\xi ^1(r)(dr)^2`$ or with $`du:=dt\xi ^1(r)dr`$ in Eddington-Finkelstein gauge

$$(ds)^2=2dudr+\xi (r)(du)^2,$$
(7)
identifying $`\xi (r)`$ as the Killing-norm. Since we are going to suppress the wedge symbol $``$ subsequently we keep the symmetrized direct product symbol $``$ to avoid confusion222The notation $`(du)^2`$ means $`dudu`$, but this is rather obvious.. The curvature scalar for the metric (5) reads

$$R=2f(x)^1_x^2f(x)=\frac{2b^2(3p2p\mathrm{tanh}^2(bx))}{\mathrm{cosh}^2(bx)(1p\mathrm{tanh}^2(bx))^2}.$$
(8)
The maximally extended space-time of this geometry has been studied by Perry and Teo  and by Yi .

For the rest of this work we will assume $`p(0;1)`$ and consider the limits $`p0`$ and $`p1`$ separately: for $`p=0`$ one recovers the CGHS model; for $`p=1`$ the Jackiw-Teitelboim (JT) model  is obtained. Both limits exhibit singular features: for all $`p(0;1)`$ the solution is regular globally, asymptotically flat and exactly one Killing-horizon exists. However, for $`p=0`$ a singularity (screened by a horizon) appears and for $`p=1`$ space-time fails to be asymptotically flat.

Winding/momentum mode duality implies the existence of a dual solution which can be acquired most easily by replacing $`bxbx+i\pi /2`$, entailing in all formulae the substitutions

$$\mathrm{sinh}i\mathrm{cosh},\mathrm{cosh}i\mathrm{sinh}.$$
(9)
Note that the integration constant $`\varphi _0`$ enters only the dilaton field, but not the metric. Therefore, a symmetry property exists which proves very important: constant shift of the dilaton $`\varphi `$ maps a solution to another one of the same model.

## 3 Generalized dilaton theories

### 3.1 First and second order actions

We start with the first order action for dilaton gravity in two dimensions ,

$$L^{(1)}=__2\left[X_a(De)^a+Xd\omega +ϵ𝒱(X_aX^a,X)\right],$$
(10)
where $`X`$ is the dilaton field, $`e^a`$ is the zweibein one-form, $`ϵ`$ is the volume two-form. The one-form $`\omega `$ represents the spin-connection $`\omega ^a{}_{b}{}^{}=\epsilon ^a{}_{b}{}^{}\omega `$ with $`\epsilon _{ab}`$ being the totally antisymmetric Levi-Civitá symbol. The action (10) depends on two auxiliary fields $`X^a`$. It is a special case of a Poisson-$`\sigma `$ model  with a three dimensional target space333When referring to “target-space” from now on we mean the Poisson manifold, not the target-space of string theory. the coordinates of which are $`X,X^a`$. In light-cone coordinates ($`\eta _+=1=\eta _+`$, $`\eta _{++}=0=\eta _{}`$) the first (“torsion”) term of (10) is given by

$$X_a(De)^a=\eta _{ab}X^b(De)^a=X^+(d\omega )e^{}+X^{}(d+\omega )e^+.$$
(11)
The function $`𝒱`$ is an arbitrary potential depending solely on Lorentz invariant combinations of the target space coordinates, namely $`X`$ and $`X^+X^{}`$.

In string physics the CGHS  and JT  models play a special role. They correspond to specific choices of the potential $`𝒱`$ ($`b0`$ is a constant):

$`𝒱_{CGHS}={\displaystyle \frac{X^+X^{}}{X}}2b^2X,`$ (12)
$`𝒱_{JT}=b^2X.`$ (13)
The auxiliary fields can be eliminated by means of their (algebraic) equations of motion (EOMs). The action (10) is equivalent to the following second order action

$$L^{(2)}=__2\left[\frac{XR}{2}+𝒱((X)^2,X)\right]\sqrt{g}d^2x.$$
(14)
For supplementary information on dilaton gravity in two dimensions the recent review  may be consulted.

In principle, $`X`$ may be an arbitrary local function of the dilaton $`\varphi `$ appearing in the ESBH solution (3). Also, $`𝒱`$ is an arbitrary function of two variables. The model looks too general to be handled effectively. Therefore, our next step is to find restrictions on $`X`$ and $`𝒱`$ which follow from the dilaton-shift invariance $`\varphi \varphi +\varphi _0`$, $`\varphi _0`$ discussed at the end of the previous section. There are two types of dilaton actions which respect this symmetry.

The first one

$$X=\varphi ,𝒱(X_aX^a,X)=\stackrel{~}{U}(X^+X^{}),$$
(15)
contains an arbitrary function $`\stackrel{~}{U}`$. However, the EOM for the field $`X`$ requires $`R=0`$ identically which contradicts (8) and rules out this (rather trivial) variant.

The second possibility is

$$X=\mathrm{exp}(2\alpha \varphi ),𝒱(X_aX^a,X)=XU\left(\frac{X^+X^{}}{X^2}\right),$$
(16)
where $`U`$ is an arbitrary function of one variable and $`\alpha `$ an arbitrary constant. Under the transformation $`\varphi \varphi +\mathrm{const}.`$ the action (14) with (16) changes by a multiplicative constant leaving the EOMs invariant. Note, that the CGHS model (12) and the JT model (13) belong to this category.

We remark that the condition of dilaton-shift invariance of the action requires homogeneity of the potential $`𝒱`$ under rescalings of the dilaton field. This naturally reduces the initial freedom in the problem (arbitrary function of two variables) to an arbitrary function of a single scale-invariant variable.

In appendix A we prove that no further dilaton-shift invariant actions of type (10) resp. (14) exist. Thus, it must be possible to reconstruct the ESBH solution from (10) with (16) or no action of type (10) exists which produces it.

### 3.2 All classical solutions of the dilaton-shift invariant models

All non-trivial dilaton-shift invariant first order actions follow from (10) and (16):

$$L=__2\left[X_a(De)^a+Xd\omega +ϵXU\left(Z\right)\right],$$
(17)
where

$$Z:=\frac{X^+X^{}}{X^2}.$$
(18)
The EOMs derived from such an action read

$`dX+X^{}e^+X^+e^{}=0,`$ (19)
$`(d\pm \omega )X^\pm e^\pm XU(Z)=0,`$ (20)
$`d\omega +ϵ\left(U(Z)2ZU^{}(Z)\right)=0,`$ (21)
$`(d\pm \omega )e^\pm +ϵ{\displaystyle \frac{X^\pm }{X}}U^{}(Z)=0.`$ (22)
Integrability of this model can be deduced from general Poisson-$`\sigma `$ model arguments444The local and global solutions of generic dilaton gravity in $`D=2`$ have been discussed in refs. . and is closely related to the existence of a (Casimir) function $`𝒞`$ depending on the target-space coordinates which is absolutely conserved:

$$d𝒞(X,X^+X^{})=0.$$
(23)
To find this quantity we multiply the first of the equations (20) by $`X^{}`$ and add it to the second one multiplied by $`X^+`$. Then we employ (19) to obtain

$$d(X^+X^{})+U(Z)XdX=0.$$
(24)
This equation is equivalent to the conservation law (23) with $`𝒞`$ given by

$$𝒞=X\mathrm{exp}(W(Z)),W(Z):=^Z\frac{dY}{U(Y)+2Y}.$$
(25)
On each solution $`𝒞`$ is a constant, $`𝒞=𝒞_0`$. Therefore, eq. (25) permits to express $`Z`$ in terms of $`X`$,

$$Z=W^1\left(\mathrm{ln}\frac{𝒞_0}{X}\right).$$
(26)
Next we assume $`X^+0`$ in a given patch555 If $`X^+=0`$, we can repeat the subsequent calculations with the index $`+`$ replaced by $``$ everywhere. If both $`X^+`$ and $`X^{}`$ are zero in a patch, eq. (19) yields $`X=\mathrm{const}.`$ in this patch, which is not the case (cf. (3)). and define a new one-form $`f`$,

$$f=e^+/X^+.$$
(27)
Eq. (19) establishes

$$e^{}=\frac{dX}{X^+}+X^{}f,ϵ=e^+e^{}=dXf.$$
(28)
Eqs. (20) and (22) yield

$`\omega =XU(Z)fdX^+/X^+,`$ (29)
$`df={\displaystyle \frac{U^{}(Z)}{X}}dXf.`$ (30)
Thus eq. (30) can be integrated,

$$f=\stackrel{~}{f}\mathrm{exp}^XV(X^{})dX^{}=:\stackrel{~}{f}I(X),$$
(31)
where

$$V(X):=\frac{U^{}\left(W^1(\mathrm{ln}(𝒞_0/X))\right)}{X}$$
(32)
is a given function of $`X`$ for each particular model. The “integration constant” $`\stackrel{~}{f}`$ is now a one-form which should satisfy $`d\stackrel{~}{f}=0`$. Therefore, the equality $`\stackrel{~}{f}=d\stackrel{~}{u}`$ is valid at least locally. $`\stackrel{~}{u}`$ can be used as one of the coordinates. It is convenient to choose $`X`$ as the second one. The line-element $`(ds)^2=2e^{}e^+`$ emerges as

$$(ds)^2=I(X)\left[2dXd\stackrel{~}{u}+2(d\stackrel{~}{u})^2X^2W^1\left(\mathrm{ln}\frac{𝒞_0}{X}\right)I(X)\right].$$
(33)
Lower limits of the integrals in (25) and (31) are arbitrary. Shifts of them may be absorbed into a re-definition of $`𝒞`$ and into a rescaling of the coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{u}`$, respectively. We shall exploit this freedom in the next section.

## 4 (An attempt of) construction of the potential $`𝑼\mathbf{(}𝒁\mathbf{)}`$

As a preamble why this construction could be possible we consider the limits $`p0`$ and $`p1`$. In the former case the CGHS model is recovered with a linear potential $`U_{CGHS}(Z)=2b^2Z`$ (cf. eq. (12)). The latter limit induces the JT model with a constant potential $`U_{JT}(Z)=b^2`$ (cf. eq. (13)).

Because of our ability to describe both limits with the desired class of models it seems plausible that an interpolating theory of the same structure describing the ESBH for all values of $`p`$ could exist. However, as plausible as it may be, it is not true unfortunately, as will be proved in this section.

### 4.1 Restrictions on $`U(Z)`$ following from the line element

To construct a potential $`U(Z)`$ which reproduces the ESBH solutions one has first to convert the metric (7) to a form admitting a comparison with (33). To this end we change the independent variable $`r`$ to $`X`$, where $`X`$ is the exponentiated dilaton defined by (16), (3),

$$(ds)^2=2g_{uX}dudX+g_{uu}(du)^2.$$
(34)
Obviously, the simple relations

$$g_{uX}=\frac{dr}{dX}=\frac{dr/dx}{dX/dx}$$
(35)
must hold. One readily obtains

$$g_{uX}=X^{(1\alpha )/\alpha }\sqrt{1p}\left[\alpha be^{2\varphi _0}\left(2(1p)\mathrm{cosh}^2(bx)+p\right)\right]^1.$$
(36)
By using the identity666Since $`X_0^+`$, $`\varphi _0`$, $`p(0;1)`$ and $`\mathrm{cosh}(x)^+`$ for $`x`$ there are no ambiguities involved.

$$\mathrm{cosh}^2(bx)=\frac{p+\sqrt{4(1p)X^{2/\alpha }e^{4\varphi _0}+p^2}}{2(1p)},$$
(37)
eq. (36) can be rewritten in terms of $`X`$ only,

$$g_{uX}=X^{(1\alpha )/\alpha }\sqrt{1p}\left[\alpha be^{2\varphi _0}\sqrt{4(1p)X^{2/\alpha }e^{4\varphi _0}+p^2}\right]^1.$$
(38)
Constant rescaling of $`u`$ is the only residual gauge freedom left in the line element (34) as discussed at the end of the previous section. Consequently, $`du`$ and $`d\stackrel{~}{u}`$ must be equal up to a constant $`du=\mu d\stackrel{~}{u}`$. From (33) it can be extracted promptly that this ambiguity can be put into $`I(X)`$,

$$I(X)=\mu g_{uX}.$$
(39)
Clearly, $`V(X)`$ does not depend on the scale factor $`\mu `$:

$$V(X)=\frac{}{X}\mathrm{ln}I(X)=\frac{1}{\alpha X}\left[1\alpha \left(1+\frac{p^2X^{2/\alpha }}{4(1p)e^{4\varphi _0}}\right)^1\right]$$
(40)
Now we have to re-express $`g_{uu}=\xi `$ in terms of $`X`$:

$$g_{uu}=1\frac{2}{p(1+w)},$$
(41)
where

$$w:=\sqrt{\frac{4(1p)X^{2/\alpha }e^{4\varphi _0}}{p^2}+1}.$$
(42)
Because $`w`$ ranges from $`1`$ to $`+\mathrm{}`$ the Killing-norm (41) has no poles, but one zero for each $`p(0;1)`$. In complete analogy to the previous calculations the substitutions (9) imply for the dual Killing-norm

$$g_{uu}^{\mathrm{dual}}=\xi ^{\mathrm{dual}}=1\frac{2}{p(1w)}.$$
(43)
It exhibits no zeros, but one pole for all $`p(0;1)`$. Formally, duality in this scenario can be interpreted as a branch cut ambiguity: if $`w`$ as defined in (42) is replaced by $`w`$ (i.e. if we go the the second branch of the square-root) we perform a duality transformation. This observation will be exploited further in appendix B.

From the line element (33) $`Z(X)=W^1(\mathrm{ln}(𝒞_0/X))`$ can be identified:

$$Z(X)=\frac{2\alpha ^2b^2w^2((w+1)p2)}{p(w^21)(1+w)}.$$
(44)
Note, that there is no dependence on the rescaling $`\mu `$. $`U^{}(X)`$ is immediately read off from (32) and (40):

$$U^{}(X)=\frac{1}{\alpha }\left(\frac{1}{w^2}\alpha \right),$$
(45)
where $`U^{}(X)`$ is just a short-hand notation for $`U^{}(W^1(\mathrm{ln}(𝒞_0/X)))`$.

That is already enough to define $`U(Z)`$. From (44) $`w`$ can be expressed as a function of $`Z`$ by solving a cubic equation. Together with eq. (45) this gives $`U^{}`$ as a function of $`Z`$, an ordinary differential equation which can be integrated thus determining $`U(Z)`$ up to several free parameters (the detailed construction is pursued in appendix B.3). Then one may apply the results of sec. 3.2 to construct classical solutions for all potentials $`U^{}`$ obtained in this way and compare with the ESBH solution. In principle, this procedure allows either to fix the undetermined parameters in $`U`$ or, if suitable parameters do not exist, to demonstrate that there is no dilaton gravity model describing the ESBH. However, it leads to considerable technical difficulties already at the first steps. We shall choose another way.

### 4.2 Restrictions on $`U(Z)`$ following from the conserved quantity

So far we have not taken into account the fact that the potential $`U(Z)`$ defines the functional form of the conserved quantity $`𝒞`$ and, through the eqs. (25) and (26), dependence of $`Z`$ on $`X`$ for each solution of the EOMs. To simplify the analysis let us introduce two new functions depending on $`U`$:

$$U(Z)=:2Z+y(Z),$$
(46)
and

$$y(Z)=:\frac{k(Z)}{k^{}(Z)}.$$
(47)
Eqs. (25), (47) yield the simple result

$$k(Z)=\frac{𝒞_0}{X},$$
(48)
having absorbed a multiplicative constant of $`k(Z)`$ into $`𝒞_0`$. We still possess this freedom since the lower limit in the integral in (25) has not been fixed. Note that from now on we are working with a selected solution. Therefore, $`U`$, $`k`$, $`y`$, $`Z`$, and $`X`$ are functions of a single coordinate. This makes all derivatives of these functions with respect to each other well defined. In particular, we need

$$\frac{dy}{dk}=\frac{dy/dZ}{dk/dZ}=\frac{y}{k}\left[\frac{1}{\alpha w^2}+1\right],$$
(49)
having inserted the definitions (46) and (47) together with (45). Because of eq. (48) $`w`$ can be considered as a function of $`k`$. Therefore, (49) is an ordinary differential equation which can be solved straightforwardly,

$$y=y_0k\left(k^{2/\alpha }+B\right)^{\alpha /2},B:=\frac{4(1p)𝒞_0^{2/\alpha }e^{4\varphi _0}}{p^2},$$
(50)
with $`y_0`$ as integration constant. Furthermore, eq. (47) provides

$$\frac{dk}{dZ}=y_0^1\left(k^{2/\alpha }+B\right)^{\alpha /2},$$
(51)
or, equivalently,

$$\frac{dZ}{dX}=y_0𝒞_0^2X^3w^\alpha .$$
(52)
### 4.3 The inconsistency

By comparing (44) and (52) one sees that it is unlikely that the model can be made consistent by a suitable choice of the integration constants. The simplest way to demonstrate the incompatibility of these equations is to consider $`p0`$:

$$(pw)=2e^{2\varphi _0}X^{1/\alpha }+𝒪(p^2)$$
(53)
Plugging this limit into eq. (44) yields

$$Z(X)=2\alpha ^2b^2\left[1X^{1/\alpha }e^{2\varphi _0}+\frac{p}{2}X^{2/\alpha }e^{4\varphi _0}\right]+𝒪(p^2),$$
(54)
and consequently

$$\frac{dZ}{dX}=2\alpha b^2\left[X^{1\frac{1}{\alpha }}e^{2\varphi _0}pX^{1\frac{2}{\alpha }}e^{4\varphi _0}\right]+𝒪(p^2).$$
(55)
On the other hand, (52) demands

$$\frac{dZ}{dX}=\stackrel{~}{y}_0𝒞_0^2\left(2e^{2\varphi _0}\right)^\alpha X^2+𝒪(p^2),$$
(56)
where $`\stackrel{~}{y}_0=y_0p^\alpha `$. For any finite $`\alpha `$ eq. (56) contains a single power of $`X`$, while (55) depends on two different powers. We conclude, that (55) and (56) are mutually incompatible777The limit $`p0`$ is not necessary. One can reach the same conclusion for arbitrary $`p`$ at the expense of somewhat more involved calculations (cf. appendix B). If $`p=0`$ exactly (CGHS model), there is no contradiction. One obtains $`\alpha =1`$. Expanding around $`p=1`$ yields essentially the same result: if $`p=1`$ exactly (JT model) no inconsistency arises for $`\alpha =1`$ (and proper adjustment of other constants); however, for slightly smaller values of $`p`$ eq. (44) yields $`Z=Z_0+Z_1X^{2/\alpha }`$ for any value of $`\alpha 0`$ while (52) provides $`Z=Z_0+Z_1X^2+Z_2X^{2+2/\alpha }`$ (with $`Z_i0`$) for $`\alpha 0,1`$ and gives rise to a logarithmic contribution for $`\alpha =1`$ showing again the incompatibility. .

Therefore, no dilaton gravity model (14) can generate the ESBH solution.

## 5 Conclusions and outlook

We start our conclusions with some generally accepted statements underpinning our line of reasoning: Each local diffeomorphism invariant two-dimensional theory of the metric and the dilaton without propagating degrees of freedom is generalized dilaton gravity (14). Locality and absence of propagating degrees of freedom excludes higher derivative terms888 The action (14) contains arbitrary powers of first derivatives of $`X`$ (velocities) and is, therefore, local. as well as higher powers of the curvature999Powers of $`R`$ can appear after the dilaton $`X`$ has been eliminated by means of its EOMs. Presence of higher curvature terms in the perturbative string $`\beta `$-functions  does not necessarily imply that higher powers of $`R`$ should also appear in the action. The $`\beta `$-functions are some (unknown) combinations of the EOMs rather than the EOMs themselves.. Equivalence to the first order formulation (10) allows to apply the powerful tools available for Poisson-$`\sigma `$ models.

In this paper we have demonstrated that no such theory describes the exact string black hole solution found by Dijkgraaf, Verlinde and Verlinde . In the proof the property which we have called “dilaton-shift invariance” played a pivotal role. We discussed all such non-trivial models and found that none of them generates the correct solution. This confirms the observation  that string gravities occupy a special place among $`2D`$ gravity models.

As by-products we presented two dilaton-shift invariant toy-models which mimic most of the desired features of the exact string black hole (and which could be improved further by tinkering with certain fixing conditions for the two essential constants involved).

What can be learned from these results?

First of all, the dilaton-shift invariant models are interesting on their own and deserve separate studies. While the CGHS model approximates the ESBH in the weak coupling limit, and the JT model works in the strong coupling regime, other dilaton-shift invariant models can be regarded as approximate models which are uniformly good (or bad) for the whole range of $`p`$. Some candidate models are presented in Appendix B. We expect that by modifying the requirements listed at the beginning of Appendix B.1 one can achieve a better agreement with ESBH. The gain from having such approximate models is rather obvious: they are classically integrable and presumably even the path integral quantization can be performed exactly, as for other dilaton models in $`2D`$ . Another interesting problem is to trace the action of string dualities on the potential $`U(Z)`$.

Finally, the main result of this work has to be elucidated. The most probable explanation of the non-existence of an effective action of type (14) reproducing the exact string black hole solution is that there are indeed some higher order curvature or higher derivative terms as suggested by perturbative results . If higher derivatives appear polynomially, this means that there are some new degrees of freedom of the low energy string in the dilaton-graviton sector. If higher derivatives enter non-polynomially, e.g. in a form of the inverse Laplacian, the action becomes non-local. However, in many cases non-localities may be removed at the expense of introducing new fields. Therefore, the whole effect may be similar to the case of polynomial higher derivative terms. The presence of such terms would require a modification of the standard boundary term invalidating previous calculations of the ADM mass for the ESBH, but also explaining why the approaches of refs.  yield different values of the ADM mass101010For a recent discussion on the ADM calculations for the ESBH cf. sec. 3 of ref. .. Moreover, we have so far ignored the CFT aspects: the fact that the ESBH follows from an exact CFT and the corresponding $`SL(2,)/U(1)`$ coset structure could help in determining these additional terms in the action. Of course, also the pessimistic variant, the failure of the ESBH being the result of an effective $`\sigma `$-model action, cannot be ruled out. A more exciting explanation could be that the Poincaré algebra is being deformed thus requiring a different form of the dilaton action111111Deformations of dilaton gravities in $`2D`$ were recently considered in ref. ..

###### Acknowledgments.

We are grateful to W. Kummer for a long-time collaboration on $`2D`$ dilaton gravity, to V. Frolov, M. Kreuzer, E. Scheidegger, T. Strobl and H. Verlinde for helpful comments, to the anonymous referee for his excellent constructive criticism, and to S. Alexandrov for bringing this problem to our attention. This work has been supported by project P-14650-TPH of the Austrian Science Foundation (FWF) and the MPI MIS (Leipzig).

## Appendix A All dilaton-shift invariant models

Our goal is to find the most general action (10) with $`X=f(\varphi )`$, where $`f`$ is an arbitrary smooth and invertible function, which is invariant under arbitrary shifts

$$\varphi (x)\varphi (x)+\varphi _0,\varphi _0.$$
(57)
By “invariant” we mean that the solutions change by a gauge transformation so that curvature and torsion do not change.

So we try to answer two questions: what is the most general potential $`𝒱(X,X^aX_a)`$ compatible with dilaton-shift invariance (57) and what does the corresponding function $`f(\varphi )`$ look like?

The EOMs from (10) read

$`dX+X^{}e^+X^+e^{}=0,`$ (58)
$`(d\pm \omega )X^\pm 𝒱e^\pm =0,`$ (59)
$`d\omega +ϵ{\displaystyle \frac{𝒱}{X}}=0,`$ (60)
$`(d\pm \omega )e^\pm +ϵ{\displaystyle \frac{𝒱}{X^{}}}=0.`$ (61)
Under the transformation (57) $`X`$ transforms as

$$X=f(\varphi )f(\varphi +\varphi _0).$$
(62)
It is useful to impose Eddington-Finkelstein gauge $`e_0^+=0`$, $`e_0^{}=1`$, $`e_1^+=1`$. The components of eq. (58) together with invariance of the Killing norm (which is now the only non-trivial vielbein component) imply immediately

$$X^\pm X^\pm \frac{f^{}(\varphi +\varphi _0)}{f^{}(\varphi )}.$$
(63)
The invariance of curvature resp. torsion together with (60) resp. (61) yields

$$\frac{𝒱}{X}\frac{𝒱}{X},\frac{𝒱}{X^\pm }\frac{𝒱}{X^\pm }.$$
(64)
This implies, that first partial derivatives of $`𝒱`$ have to depend only on a dilaton-shift invariant combination of $`X^+X^{}`$ and $`X`$, i.e. on $`X^+X^{}\stackrel{~}{g}(X)=X^+X^{}g(\varphi )`$ with a new function $`g(\varphi )=\stackrel{~}{g}(f(\varphi ))`$ which has to be determined yet. It is clear that only one such independent combination can exist121212There are three target space coordinates, so at most three independent combinations could exist. However, Lorentz-invariance restricts us to two independent combinations (normally $`X^+X^{}`$ and $`X`$) and dilaton-shift invariance restricts us further to a single combination.. The condition fulfilled by $`g(\varphi )`$ reads

$$g(f(\varphi ))=\left(\frac{f^{}(\varphi +\varphi _0)}{f^{}(\varphi )}\right)^2g(\varphi +\varphi _0).$$
(65)
When looking at infinitesimal shifts $`\varphi _0`$ one obtains a differential equation for $`g`$, the solution of which is

$$g(\varphi )=\frac{c}{f^{}(\varphi )^2},c.$$
(66)
Thus we know (up to a constant which we fix to 1) the dilaton-shift invariant combination of the target space coordinates. Therefore, the most general consistent $`𝒱`$ must be of the form

$$𝒱=l(X)U(Z),Z:=\frac{X^+X^{}}{f^{}(\varphi )^2}.$$
(67)
The conditions (64) determine the new function $`l`$ up to a multiplicative constant, which can be absorbed into a redefinition of $`U`$. The result is:

$$l(X(\varphi ))f^{}(\varphi ).$$
(68)
Obviously, knowledge of $`f(\varphi )`$ determines also $`𝒱`$ uniquely. Up to now we have not used eq. (59). Its invariance provides the last restriction, which is sufficient to calculate the most general $`f(\varphi )`$ compatible with dilaton-shift invariance. It is more convenient to use the conservation law (which is a certain linear combination of (59) and (58)) instead of (59):

$$d(X^+X^{})+f^{}(\varphi )U(Z)f^{}(\varphi )d\varphi =0,$$
(69)
which can be brought into the form

$$dZ+\left[U(Z)+2Z\frac{f^{\prime \prime }(\varphi )}{f^{}(\varphi )}\right]d\varphi =0.$$
(70)
Since $`Z`$ is unaffected by construction we obtain from the invariance of (70) that $`(\mathrm{ln}f^{})^{}`$ must be invariant. This yields

$$f^{}(\varphi )=c_0\mathrm{exp}[2\alpha \varphi ],\alpha .$$
(71)
The multiplicative constant $`c_0`$ can again be absorbed into $`U(Z)`$. The final integration involves a new additive constant which would only lead to a surface term $`d\omega `$ in (10). Thus, we fix it to zero. For $`\alpha =0`$ we obtain the solution (15), and for $`\alpha \backslash \{0\}`$ we get (16). This concludes the proof that these are the only dilaton-shift invariant actions of type (10).

## Appendix B Approximate solutions to the ESBH

Having established the non-existence of an action of type (10) reproducing the ESBH it is still possible to construct models which mimic most of its essential features. This is interesting for two reasons: firstly, one might still learn something about string theory in the non-perturbative regime. Secondly, models with a potential (16) are not studied anywhere else and they are interesting on their own.

The problem of constructing $`2D`$ dilaton gravity actions admitting classical solutions with given properties is not new. For example, the dilaton models for black holes with regular de Sitter interior were considered in .

### B.1 Exact dilaton, approximate line element

Which features do we require? First of all, dilaton-shift invariance has been of fundamental importance in the present context, so we want to keep it by all means. Secondly, we demand asymptotic equivalence to the ESBH in the weak- and strong-coupling regions. Thirdly, exactly one Killing-horizon should be present and the naively calculated Hawking temperature should be constant (by this we mean its independence on the value of the Casimir (25)). Fourthly, we require the existence of a “dual” solution which has no Killing-horizon, because by applying the momentum/winding mode duality to the ESBH one obtains a dual solution with precisely these features. Fifthly, we want the ESBH solution (3) for the dilaton $`\varphi `$. And finally, our model should have the Minkowski ground state property like the ESBH, i.e. there must exist one value $`𝒞_0`$ of the Casimir (25) where the metric yields Minkowski space.

If these requirements can be met we have a model which is very similar to the ESBH and where all differences are confined to the line-element – and even that must approximate the ESBH line element very well in two different limits.

In fact, any solution of eqs. (46)-(51) fulfills 1. and 5. by construction. It is defined almost uniquely – the only essential parameter that we have at our disposal is $`\alpha `$. Point 4. restricts us to $`\alpha =_{\mathrm{odd}}`$ due to the following observation: in (50) we have in general branch cut ambiguities; we would like to have exactly two branches for the two “dual” solutions. Note that this (sign) ambiguity can be reabsorbed into $`y_0`$ – e.g. for negative values of $`y_0`$ we have the “ordinary” solution while for positive values we have the ”dual” one. Of course, the (non-)existence of horizons still has to be checked. Moreover, as the limit $`p0`$ in (55) proves we need $`\alpha =1`$ to obtain the correct weak coupling limit. Thus, 2. restricts us to $`\alpha =1`$ (fortunately compatible with the prior restriction). Having fixed our essential parameter we have yet to check whether the other requirements can be met.

The solution of (51) for $`\alpha =1`$ turns out as131313For general $`\alpha `$ the solution is given by $`z{}_{2}{}^{}\mathrm{F}_{1}^{}(\alpha /2,\alpha /2,1+\alpha /2;z^{2/\alpha })=(ZZ_0)/y_0`$. For $`\alpha =1`$ this belongs to the degenerate class of hypergeometric functions, which is why we obtain the simpler form (72).

$$z\sqrt{1+z^2}+\mathrm{arcsinh}z=2\frac{ZZ_0}{\stackrel{~}{y}_0},$$
(72)
with

$$z:=\frac{k}{\sqrt{B}},\stackrel{~}{y}_0=y_0B.$$
(73)
This provides an alternative prove of the non-existence of an action of type (10) reproducing the ESBH: since (72) is non-algebraic, but (44) is algebraic they cannot be equivalent except at certain points. For $`y`$ in terms of $`z`$ eq. (50) yields

$$y=\stackrel{~}{y}_0z\sqrt{1+z^2}.$$
(74)
By virtue of (46) and (50) $`U`$ can be expressed as a function of $`z`$:

$$U(Z)=\stackrel{~}{y}_0\mathrm{arcsinh}z(Z)+2Z_0$$
(75)
With the redefinition $`\stackrel{~}{U}:=2(U2Z_0)/\stackrel{~}{y_0}`$ a non-algebraic equation for $`\stackrel{~}{U}(Z)`$

$$\stackrel{~}{U}+\mathrm{sinh}\stackrel{~}{U}=4\frac{ZZ_0}{\stackrel{~}{y}_0},$$
(76)
is established. The solution depends on one integration constant ($`Z_0`$) and an additional parameter ($`\stackrel{~}{y}_0`$), both of which depend on $`p`$. For $`p0`$ $`\stackrel{~}{y}_0`$ tends to infinity, for $`p1`$ it vanishes. In these limits we recover CGHS and JT, respectively,

$$U(Z;p0)=Z_0Z+𝒪(p),U(Z;p1)=2Z_0+C(p)\mathrm{ln}(ZZ_0),C(1)=0,$$
(77)
because $`𝒱(X,Z;p=0)=X^+X^{}/X+Z_0X`$ and $`𝒱(X,Z;p=1)=2Z_0X`$, in accordance with our second requirement141414 For small but non-vanishing $`p`$ we obtain still an algebraic solution for $`U`$ and one only has to solve a cubic equation $`z^3/6+z=(ZZ_0)/\stackrel{~}{y}_0`$. The limit $`p1`$ is somewhat singular (see below). Thus, unfortunately the strong coupling region is not fully under control despite of the nice JT limit. Note, however, a slight discrepancy as compared to eqs. (12), (13): if $`Z_0`$ is chosen as $`2b^2`$ the CGHS is produced correctly, while JT differs by a factor of $`1/4`$..

Remembering (48) and (73) one can use (72) to express $`Z`$ as a function of the dilaton $`X`$. This is of importance for the third and the fourth requirement, since the Killing-norm expressed as a function of $`X`$ is given by

$$\xi (X)\frac{Z(X)}{X^4(Z^{}(X))^2}\frac{X^2Z(X)}{w^2},$$
(78)
with $`w`$ defined in (42) – note that $`w`$ is strictly positive and thus there are no singularities in (78). So the question of (non-)existence of Killing-horizons reduces to the question of zeros in $`Z(X)`$. We need two ingredients: first, observe the strict monotony of the left hand side of eq. (72); second, note the strict positivity/negativity of $`z`$ due to the strict positivity/negativity151515 By virtue of its definition $`X`$ must be strictly positive, but $`𝒞_0`$ can be positive or negative. For $`𝒞_0=0`$ we obtain the (Minkowski) ground state, i.e. the (trivial) vacuum solution. of $`𝒞_0/X`$ in (48). Thus, depending on the sign of $`Z_0/\stackrel{~}{y}_0`$ (which is a fixed constant for each value of $`p`$) there is a Killing horizon or there is none. Suppose that we have fixed all constants such that a horizon exists for a given $`p`$. Then, by changing the sign of $`y_0`$ (in other words, by choosing the other branch present in the solution of (50)) we obtain another model with the same value of $`p`$ and all other constants, except that no Killing-horizon exists for that (“dual”) model.

Concerning the issue of Hawking temperature we use its definition in terms of surface gravity (cf. e.g. )

$$T_H=\frac{1}{4\pi }\frac{d\xi }{dr}|_{r_h},$$
(79)
plugging in the relations

$$\frac{d\xi }{dr}=\frac{d\xi }{dX}\frac{dX}{dr}\frac{d\xi }{dX}I^1(X).$$
(80)
Since we have to evaluate (80) only at the horizon calculations simplify considerably: we have to act with $`d/dX`$ only on $`Z(X)`$ in (78) and obtain finally $`T_H\mathrm{T}_0`$, where $`T_0`$ does not depend on the value of the Casimir function (25). Thus, it is a universal ($`p`$-dependent) constant in accordance with our second requirement.

Finally, the Minkowski ground state property must be examined. From (33) a necessary and sufficient condition for flatness is

$$𝒞_0,c_1|X^2W^1\left(\mathrm{ln}\frac{𝒞_0}{X}\right)I^2(X)=c_1.$$
(81)
There are two possibilities to satisfy this condition: either, it is satisfied independently of $`𝒞_0`$ or there exist just certain values (at least one) of $`𝒞_0`$ for which the relation (81) holds. The first case implies

$$\frac{U_{MGS}^{}}{U_{MGS}}=\frac{1}{2Z}U_{MGS}=c\sqrt{Z},c,$$
(82)
which appears to be a rather pathological solution because it means that for arbitrary values of the Casimir function one always obtains Minkowski space as a solution for the line element but a non-vacuum solution for the dilaton. This just reinforces the common knowledge that not every toy model one can make up needs to make physical sense. Incidentally, the potential $`U_{MGS}`$ is the only one satisfying both dilaton-shift invariance conditions (15) and (16). In the more interesting case of an isolated solution we assume that the quantity $`X^2I^2(X)`$ becomes a constant161616This assumption is not necessary in general, but sufficient for the present case. for a certain value of $`𝒞_0`$. Then, for the same value of $`𝒞_0`$ the function $`W^1\left(\mathrm{ln}𝒞_0/X\right)`$ must be constant. Even under this restricted assumptions we encounter still two possibilities: either $`I(X)=c/X`$ for all values of $`𝒞_0`$ and $`W^1(\mathrm{ln}𝒞_0/X)=\mathrm{const}.`$ for a particular value of $`𝒞_0`$ – this is the case for the CGHS model – or $`I(X)=c/X`$ only at a certain value of $`𝒞_0`$ and simultaneously $`W^1(\mathrm{ln}𝒞_0/X)=\mathrm{const}.`$ with the same value of $`𝒞_0`$. We focus on the latter as it applies to our model. This non-trivial case implies the existence of a $`𝒞_0^{}`$ such that $`I(X,𝒞_0^{})=c_1/X,c_10,`$ and $`Z(X,𝒞_0^{})=c_2,c_20,`$ thus promoting the Killing norm $`\xi (X,𝒞_0^{})=2c_1^2c_2`$ to a constant (which can be adjusted to 1 by rescaling the coordinate $`u`$) and hence the line element (7) describes Minkowski space for that particular value of $`𝒞_0^{}`$.

So it was indeed possible to fulfill all required features, which proves that dilaton gravity with a potential $`𝒱=XU(Z)`$ and $`U(Z)`$ given in (75) is very close to the ESBH solution. Since the only independent quantity which deviates from the latter is the Killing-norm we can quantify this statement in a simple manner. This is done most conveniently using $`\xi `$ as a function of $`X`$ in the ratio

$$(X;p):=\mathrm{ln}\left|\frac{\xi _{ESBH}(X;p)}{\xi _{\mathrm{ourmodel}}(X;p)}\right|=\mathrm{ln}\left|\frac{12/(p(1+w))}{\mu X^2Z/w^2}\right|.$$
(83)
For numerical plots we still have to fix the six constants $`b,\mu ,\varphi _0,𝒞_0,Z_0,\stackrel{~}{y}_0`$. It turns out that once the overall scale is chosen171717We fix it such that for the ESBH the Killing-horizon is located at $`X=1`$. there remain only two independent constants (e.g. $`Z_0`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{y}_0`$). We employ the conditions 1. $`lim_X\mathrm{}\xi (X)=1`$, $`p(0;1)`$ and 2. the NLO terms in a $`1/X`$ expansion should be equal for both Killing-norms (this corresponds to the proper ADM term). This model breaks down for $`p`$ close to 1 and $`X`$ close to 0, despite of the correct JT limit $`p1`$ discussed above (in that limit it is not sensible to impose the asymptotic condition $`\xi 1`$). Thus, unfortunately, we do not really describe the strong coupling region181818Of course, we can determine the two relevant constants also by fixing the first two terms in an expansion near $`X=0`$. Then, the strong coupling region will be described well and deviations become non-negligible in the weak coupling regime. very well and point 2. of our requirements is seriously challenged.

This is clearly shown in the figures. Fig. 1 is rather self-explanatory; Fig. 2 has to be discussed: If the sign of $`\xi _{ESBH}`$ equals the sign of $`\xi _{\mathrm{ourmodel}}`$ the point is depicted in white, else in black. At $`X=1`$ the ESBH Killing-norm vanishes; at a larger ($`p`$-dependent) value of $`X`$ our model has a Killing-horizon. This means, that our approximate solution shifts the horizon a little bit for small $`p`$ and quite a bit for $`p1`$.

The reason of incompatibility between strong and weak coupling region may be the Minkowski ground state property which contradicts the fact that all solutions of the JT model have a non-zero constant curvature.

Analogous studies can be performed for the “dual” solution (43).

### B.2 Exact line element and approximate dilaton?

By dropping the fifth requirement it could be possible to fix instead the line element equivalent to the ESBH. Thus, we automatically would have all its nice geometric properties, however at the cost of a deviating solution for the dilaton. We do not follow this route explicitly, but even if it works191919It is not at all clear that for any given line-element a dilaton-shift invariant action (17) can be constructed. We have neither a prove nor a counter example, but it should be possible to construct either along the following lines: assume $`e^\pm `$ as given; take the EOMs (19)-(22) and try to eliminate all variables; since there are (in components) nine equations but only six unknown functions ($`\omega _\mu ,X,X^\pm `$ and $`U`$) either produce a contradiction or extract a (unique ?) potential $`U(Z)`$. we expect similar problems: although, for instance, the weak coupling region will be described well and the limit $`p1`$ will yield the JT model the strong coupling region will differ quantitatively from the ESBH solution.

### B.3 A “nice” potential approximating the ESBH

The equations (44) and (45) can be used to extract the potential $`U(Z)`$. As proved in subsection 4.3 it cannot produce the ESBH. Remarkably, this approach still yields a very nice result resembling the ESBH in several features, which is why we present it nevertheless: it fulfills all required properties listed at the beginning of subsection B.1, except for the fifth one; on top of that the function $`U(Z)`$ is purely algebraic, a mayor advantage as compared to eq. (76). Thus, it may be a suitable starting point for a toy model study of the ESBH.

The function $`U(Z;p)`$ is plotted202020Again some constants have to be fixed conveniently: $`b\stackrel{!}{=}1\stackrel{!}{=}\alpha `$; $`U(w\mathrm{})\stackrel{!}{=}4`$ in Fig. 3.

The value $`Z=2`$ corresponds to the asymptotic limit $`X\mathrm{}`$, unless $`p=1`$; in that case $`Z`$ stops212121Like in the model discussed in B.1 a somewhat mysterious factor of 1/4 is involved in the JT limit. Whether this is numerical coincidence or something deeper has yet to be decided. at $`1/2`$. This shows (as probably expected), the non-smoothness of the limit $`p1`$ in the asymptotic region. The horizon is located at $`Z=0`$ and the “origin” $`X0`$ corresponds to $`Z\mathrm{}`$. One sees clearly the linear behavior of $`U(Z)`$ in the CGHS limit $`p0`$ and the constant behavior (until $`Z`$ reaches the kink point $`1/2`$) in the JT limit $`p1`$. So despite of being the result of a procedure inconsistent with the ESBH, $`U(Z)`$ has some very attractive properties and in principle it can be used as an approximation to the ESBH with the correct behavior in the strong and weak coupling regions: the JT limit is approached as $`lim_Z\mathrm{}U(Z;p)=3/p4`$; close to $`Z=2`$ the model behaves like the CGHS, $`U(Z2;p)=4(Z2)+p(2+p)(Z2)^2/8+\mathrm{}`$

For sake of completeness the explicit solution is provided as well. We only have to integrate (45) once and choose the integration constant conveniently,

$$U(Z)=4b^2\left(1\frac{1}{p(1+w(Z))}\frac{1}{p(1+w(Z))^2}\right),$$
(84)
where $`w(Z)`$ is a solution obtained from inverting (44). It is unique due to the following observations: the discriminant of this cubic equation222222Not very surprisingly the cubic equation becomes algebraically special at the endpoints $`p=0`$ and $`p=1`$: in the former case, it reduces to a linear equation (yielding the CGHS solution), in the latter to a quadratic one (yielding the JT solution). changes its sign at the Killing horizon; for negative $`Z`$ it is negative and a unique real solution exists in that region; continuity at the horizon allows a unique matching to the region of positive $`Z`$ (and positive discriminant) where three real solutions exist.

A “dual” model is again obtained by replacing $`ww`$ in (44) and (84), i.e. by going to the second branch of (42).


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# Partial rejuvenation of a colloidal glass

## I Introduction

Molecular and spin glasses exhibit very intriguing dynamical properties, which are still poorly understood. One of the most striking features is the aging phenomenon : a slowing down of the microscopic dynamics with the elapsed time. This behavior is generally associated with the existence of many accessible metastable states spanning a broad energy distribution. As time goes on, the material gets trapped in deeper and deeper energy wells for increasing escaping times. As a result, many physical characteristics of these systems (such as rheological struik , or dielectric properties) depend in a non trivial way on their thermal history.

In recent years, aging dynamics has been evidenced in very different systems, such as colloidal suspensions derecmanip ; cloitremicrogel , dense emulsions, amorphous polymers or weak gels. In these so-called soft glassy materials, temperature can not be varied without drastically modifying the underlying weak interactions between their constituents. It is thus not a convenient parameter to probe such history dependent effects. However, it has been recently suggested that shearing could play an analogous role as temperature by allowing a renewal of the microscopic structure lequeuxviasnoff ; berthierbarrat ; liunature . Quenching of colloidal glasses for instance, can be obtained by applying a temporary strong shearing to the material and then stopping the shear. This temperature/strain analogy has been extensively developed in different models, and allowed to account for some rheological features of soft glassy materials.

The relative success of this approach actually hides important conceptual issues : What is the effect of a macroscopic strain on microscopic scales in such disordered systems? Can this mechanical energy input yield a spatially homogeneous energy term equivalent to a temperature raise? If so, how does this local energy depend on the amplitude, frequency or duration of the shear?

In the present note, we address these questions by measuring slow relaxation times in a colloidal glass submitted to shear sequences of various amplitude, frequency and duration. We focus on the modification of the aging dynamics of the quiescent material after a finite shear period has been applied to identify the relevant mechanical parameters.

## II System and technique

The system used is a suspension of synthetic smectite particles (Sumecton SA, kindly provided by Kunimine Industries Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) dispersed in water. These clay particles consist in negatively charged disks of diameter $`125nm`$ and thickness $`5nm`$. The solution is prepared by dispersing the powder in water, and stirring at room temperature for three days. At $`pH=9`$ and concentrations higher than $`\varphi =1.2\%`$, they form a stable solution with a finite elastic modulus that slowly evolves with time. In all the experiments, the concentration is set to $`\varphi =3\%`$ for which we measure an elastic modulus $`G^{}=300Pa`$ (Fig.1). In order to probe the internal dynamics, we add latex polystyrene particles of diameter $`1\mu m`$ at a volume fraction of $`1\%`$. These particles render the system turbid thus allowing for subsequent multiple light diffusion studies. The sample is placed in a $`1mm`$ thick transparent shear cell controlled by a linear stepper motor, and illuminated with an enlarged laser beam. Dynamics of the particles is monitored by diffusing wave spectroscopy (MSDWS)msdws . Using a CCD camera, we record the multispeckle pattern at the outside surface of our sample. The correlation functions of transmitted intensity were then computed by averaging the intensity fluctuations over the entire pattern, that consists of over $`5000`$ speckles. Though, rather than computing the correlation function of diffused intensity by averaging over temporal fluctuations, one averages the intensity correlation over spatial fluctuations of the speckle pattern. We thus access : $`g_{2t_w}(t)=\frac{I\left(t_w\right)I\left(t_w+t\right)}{I\left(t_w\right)I\left(t_w+t\right)}`$, where $`\mathrm{}`$ denotes averaging over the speckle pattern and $`t_w`$ is the reference time of the first image and $`t`$ the time elapsed since $`t_w`$. Then the field correlation function at time $`t_w`$, $`g_{1t_w}(t)=\sqrt{g_{2t_w}(t)1}`$ is computed. This technique allows to study slow transient phenomena with characteristic times between $`1`$ and $`5000s`$, each of them being uncorrelated and $`q`$-independent.

In a first series of experiments, we investigate the aging dynamics of the system at rest. We prepare the system by submitting it to a sinusoidal shear strain of amplitude $`\gamma =300\%`$, at frequency $`0.3Hz`$, during $`210s`$. We observed that the turbidity of the system did not change when shearing was applied. The shear is stopped at time $`t=0`$; we then measure the correlation functions of the intensity at various waiting times $`t_w>0`$ (Fig. 2a). From the slope of these curves when $`t0`$, we extract a correlation time $`\tau `$, that increases with time $`t_w`$. This time $`\tau `$ corresponds to the slow relaxation processes of glassy dynamics, called $`\alpha `$–relaxation. Using a photomultiplier and a fast correlator, we checked that the fast ($`\beta `$) relaxation time, associated with the rapid thermal motion of the particles inside transient traps, did not depend on the age of the system, as already observed in a similar system knaebel . We notice that the plateau value of the correlation function, between fast and slow decay, is almost constant, which is consistent with our observation that the elastic modulus of the sample barely evolves with time. We observe that after this strong shearing the relaxation time $`\tau `$ increases as $`t_w^\alpha `$ with $`\alpha =1.1\pm 0.16`$ (Fig. 2b). This value $`\alpha 1`$ corresponds to a full aging behavior which has been commonly reported in dense solid suspensions and non-colloidal glassy systems knaebel . By performing successive shearing of amplitude $`\gamma =300\%`$ at frequency $`0.3Hz`$, followed by aging measurements, we obtain reproducible aging curves, which indicates that the applied shear allows for a complete rejuvenation of the system. In the rest of this paper, we focus on the evolution of the slow relaxation time $`\tau `$ after shear of moderate amplitudes.

## III Shear of moderate amplitude

We thus now apply the following protocol : after complete rejuvenation of the sample ($`300\%`$ shear at frequency $`0.3Hz`$ for $`180s`$), we let the system age at rest for $`240s`$ then apply a moderate sinusoidal shear.
Let us first study the dynamics of the system after a moderate shear, of amplitude $`\gamma =5\%`$, frequency $`1Hz`$ and duration $`1080s`$. Rather than following the standard aging curve for a quiescent material, the dynamics rapidly recover the original one, corresponding to $`\gamma =0`$ (Fig. 3). $`\tau `$ is thus not a sufficient parameter to measure the age of the system, since two systems with the same relaxation time can evolve differently depending on the history of their preparation. We thus recover the same property of the dynamical properties of concentrated suspensions of colloidal particles in the glassy phase studied in lequeuxviasnoff . It is claimed by these authors that these different evolutions are related to a modification of the energy traps distributions induced by the intermediate shearing. Identical effects can be observed in spin glasses following a quench inside the glassy phase.

Dependence of $`\tau `$ just after cessation of shear, with the duration of the shear, $`t_s`$, its frequency, $`\nu `$ and its amplitude $`\gamma `$ is now studied. With our experimental device, we could vary $`\gamma `$ between $`0`$ and $`500\%`$, and $`\nu `$ between $`.3`$ and $`3Hz`$. Shear duration $`t_s`$ was varied between $`1`$ and $`100s`$. The relaxation time $`\tau `$ measured $`60s`$ after shear cessation is found to be decreased relatively to the value it would have reached if no shear had been applied (Fig. 4). The reduction factor appears to be a sole function of the amplitude $`\gamma `$. As shown in Fig. 4, $`\tau `$ can be written as :

$$\tau (\gamma )/\tau (\gamma =0)=\mathrm{exp}(\gamma /\gamma _c)$$
(1)
with $`\gamma _c=.05`$ being the typical strain amplitude necessary to rejuvenate the system.

This result provides a direct quantitative evaluation of the effect of a moderate shear period on the relaxation dynamics in soft glassy systems. In particular, we note that $`\tau `$ is independent of the frequency $`\nu `$ of the applied shear (in the range $`.3`$ to $`3Hz`$ explored) and of the shear duration $`t_s`$ (in the range $`1s`$, $`100s`$). This rules out any cumulative or frequency dependent effect (at least within our experimental range) in the way shearing may affect the internal dynamics.

In order to understand the peculiar form of equation (1), we use a simple physical picture of the aging process bouchaudcomtetmonthus ; bouchaudaging . In this scheme, the dynamics results from the simultaneous relaxation of frozen structures of different characteristic energies. We do not discuss here the microscopic details of these structural relaxations. They might correspond to different length scales (cooperative relaxation), or just be associated with different local yield energy barriers due to the disordered nature of the suspension. After a time $`t_w`$ following a quench, we can define a limiting energy $`E(t_w)`$ which separates structures of energy $`E<E(t_w)`$ that have been fully relaxed, from out-of-equilibrium structures of energy $`E>E(t_w)`$. At a given waiting time $`t_w`$, the relaxation time $`\tau (t_w)`$ is controlled by the dynamics of the yet unrelaxed structures of lowest energy barriers, through a simple activation type equation : $`\tau (t_w)\mathrm{exp}(E(t_w)/kT)`$.

The applied intermediate shearing provides an extra energy input $`\mathrm{\Delta }E(\gamma )`$ to the system. When the system is quenched again, structures of energy lower than $`\mathrm{\Delta }E(\gamma )`$ \- which have been entirely rejuvenated - rapidly relax (for $`\mathrm{\Delta }E(\gamma )<<kT`$, this dynamics rapidly freezes out, so that this initial period is not accessible to our measurement). Moreover, the height of the energy barriers greater than $`\mathrm{\Delta }E(\gamma )`$ have been randomly redistributed around their values by a quantity $`\mathrm{\Delta }E(\gamma )`$. As a result, the apparent energy barrier of the first accessible relaxation processes becomes $`E=E(t_w)\mathrm{\Delta }E(\gamma )`$ and the associated relaxation time has been reduced by a factor $`\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{\Delta }E(\gamma ))`$.

Equation (1) demonstrates that the mechanical energy input $`\mathrm{\Delta }E(\gamma )`$ is proportional to the shear amplitude $`\gamma `$. This result is at odds with the $`\gamma ^2`$ dependence used in previous models which assumed a local elastic response of the materialsgm ; sgmlong . The correct scheme is rather similar to Eyring’s activated process description of fluid flows. According to this description, one defines a fluid element of size $`a`$, the characteristic interparticular distance. Then, the fluid flows as soon as this element is deformed by $`100\%`$, meaning that the energy input to this element, when submitted to the stress $`\sigma `$, is $`E(\sigma .a^2)a`$, i.e., if $`G^{}`$ is the elastic modulus of the element, $`EG^{}\gamma a^3`$ eyring . We can now estimate the equivalent temperature increase $`\mathrm{\Delta }T(\gamma )`$ induced by the shear strain of amplitude $`\gamma _c`$ that rejuvenates the system. We first estimate the activation volume as $`a^3`$ where $`a100nm`$ is the typical distance between neighboring particles. The mechanical energy input then writes $`\mathrm{\Delta }E(\gamma )=k_B\mathrm{\Delta }T(\gamma )G^{}\gamma a^3`$ where $`G^{}`$ is the elastic shear modulus of the material. Since $`\gamma _c=.05`$ is the typical strain necessary to rejuvenate the system, we can in particular estimate that the deviation from the glass transition necessary to rejuvenate the system is of the order $`T_gT=G^{}\gamma _ca^3/k_BT/10`$.

## IV Conclusion

We have shown than an externally applied deformation plays the same role in our colloidal glass as a temperature raise in glassy liquids, by allowing a restarting of the internal dynamics. We have demonstrated that the maximum amplitude of the deformation is the only parameter which controls the magnitude of the rejuvenation effect : a very simple correspondence between temperature and shear amplitude can therefore be drawn.

We would like to thank F. Thalman for fruitful discussions. The authors also would like to thank Kunimine Industries Co. Ltd. for providing the smectite sample.


text:
# Global Alfvén Wave Heating of the Magnetosphere of Young Stars

## 1 Introduction

In the present popular model for classical T Tauri stars (CTTSs), the so called class II objects Lada (1987), a central young star is surrounded by a geometrically thin accretion disk. The disk is disrupted at a given radius by the magnetic field of the star. For smaller radii the accretion flow follows the magnetic field lines of the star until it impacts onto the stellar surface Ghosh & Lamb (1979); Königl (1991). This magnetospheric accretion model explains observational signatures seen in some CTTSs as, for example, the excess of optical and ultraviolet continuum flux (veiling), as well as redshift absorption features in emission line profiles (Muzerolle $`etal.`$ 1998; Hartmann, Hewett & Calvet 1994). The plasma of the accretion disk flows along the dipole magnetic field lines towards the magnetic poles of the star. It is inhomogeneous in the plane perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, but although somewhat more homogeneous along the field lines, cavities and plasma condensations (plasmoids), aligned by the magnetic field, may be present. These plasmoids are distributed randomly in the plane perpendicular to the plasma flow. Waves excited by the shock of the plasma flux with the star’s surface can propagate upstream and interact with the plasmoids, creating a current, which in turn, will create current - carrying filaments. An upstream or downstream electric current can be driven by the waves or by the $`𝐯\times 𝐁`$-MHD effect in the truncated region of the disk. Such filaments have been observed in the laboratory (see, e.g. Fadeev $`etal.`$ (1965); Rosenberg $`etal.`$ (2001)). The occurrence of filaments has also been predicted in simulations of rotating magnetized disks (Machida $`etal.`$ 2000).

Hartmann, Hewett & Calvet (1994) and, more recently, Muzerrole $`etal.`$ (1998) carried out calculations on magnetosphere accretion models, solving the radiative transfer equations in the Sobolev approximation. Theoretical Balmer line profiles obtained were found to be in reasonable agreement with observations. The major uncertainty in radiative magnetosphere model calculations is the temperature profile along the tube. Martin (1996) calculated the temperature profile from the energy balance of the gas, including heating by adiabatic compression of magnetic field lines, Balmer photoionization, and ambipolar diffusion. However, the values of the temperature that he obtained were too low to explain the observed spectra. Thus, additional heating mechanisms inside the tube are needed.

The line-averaged electron temperature in the magnetosphere taken from optical measurements, is about $`0.8`$ eV (see, e.g. Hartmann, Hewett & Calvet 1994; Martin 1996; Muzerrole $`etal.`$ 1998). Balancing the heating rate with the black body emission at a temperature $`0.8`$ eV, we find that about 5$`\%`$ of the flux energy is sufficient to heat the downstream flux to a few eV. The main consumption of the flux energy is spent on plasma ionization. Using laboratory experimental data for the ionization - recombination processes (see Delcroix 1965), we can estimate the energy necessary for the plasma ionization rate to be about $`50\%`$ in the filament for electron temperatures of about $`1.6`$ eV. We use here a theoretical temperature profile, varying from $`7500`$ K to $`8300`$ K, to reproduce the optical line features observed.

Taking into account the evidence for turbulence in the observations, as well as the necessity for an additional heating mechanism, Vasconcelos, Jatenco-Pereira & Opher (2002) suggested that Alfvén waves may be important in the heating of magnetic flux tubes of CTTSs. They studied the possibility that the waves generated at the star’s surface due to the shock are produced by the accreting matter, as suggested by Scheurwater & Kuijpers (1988).

Various damping mechanisms for Alfvén waves have been suggested in the literature, such as Alfvén resonant heating of solar loops (Hollweg 1990; Elfimov $`etal.`$ 1996), wave damping by phase mixing (also in the solar context), and cyclotron heating, occurring as an Alfvén wave travels down a magnetic field gradient until its frequency matches that of the cyclotron resonance of helium or some other plasma specie due to the decreasing ion-cyclotron resonance (magnetic beach). In addition to the more conventional collisional and viscous-resistive Alfvén wave damping (Osterbrock 1961), Vasconcelos $`etal.`$ (2002) concentrate on nonlinear and turbulent damping (Vasconcelos, Jatenco-Pererira & Opher 2000). Nonlinear and turbulent damping have also been studied by Jatenco-Pereira & Opher (1989a); Jatenco-Pereira, Opher & Yamamoto (1994) in the solar wind, Jatenco-Pereira & Opher (1989b) in protostellar winds, Jatenco-Pereira & Opher (1989c) in late-type giant stars, dos Santos, Jatenco-Pereira & Opher (1993a; 1993b) in Wolf-Rayet stars, Gonçalves, Jatenco-Pereira & Opher (1993a; 1996) in quasar clouds and Gonçalves $`etal.`$ (1993b) in extragalactic jets .

The (GAW) has not been previously analyzed as a possible mechanism for the energy transport from the shock and truncation regions to the magnetosphere of T Tauri stars. They were predicted in numerical calculations (Ross $`etal.`$ 1982) using a cylindrical model for magnetized plasmas with an axial current and were observed later in tokamak experiments. GAWs are excited in plasmas in a helical magnetic field, with the poloidal component produced by an axial current, $`B_{\theta ,ef}2\pi aB_z/L`$, where $`B_z`$ is the axial magnetic field component and $`a`$ and $`L`$ are the plasma radius and length, respectively. The so-called tokamak safety factor, $`q=rB_z/RB_\theta `$, is considered to be unity. In cold plasmas with temperatures less than $``$ 0.1 eV, GAWs dissipate via electron-ion collisions. However, in hot plasmas, when the Alfvén velocity, $`c_A=B/(4\pi m_in_e)^{1/2}`$, is of the order of the electron thermal velocity, $`v_{Te}=(T_e/m_e)^{1/2}`$, GAWs dissipate via electron Landau damping. The electron Landau damping mechanism is very effective when waves interact with a group of electrons that have velocities approximately equal to the wave phase velocity, $`\omega /k_{}=c_A`$, where $`\omega `$ is the frequency and $`k_{}`$ is the wavenumber parallel to the magnetic field lines. Electromagnetic field components related to GAWs are proportional to $`\mathrm{exp}[i(m\theta +k_zz\omega t)]`$, with poloidal $`m`$ and axial $`k_z`$ wave numbers. The requirement for these waves to propagate is that $`m=1`$ and $`k_z<0`$, in the case of current flowing along the magnetic field. A GAW has a very large quality factor, ratio of frequency to dissipation decrement, $`Q=\omega /\gamma 1`$ and a very long dissipation length in comparison to their wave length, $`L_A1/k_{}`$. Thus it is a very good candidate to explain plasma heating far from a source, such as in solar loops Hollweg (1990); Elfimov $`etal.`$ (1996). In addition a GAW is able to drive the current, which can be calculated by balancing the wave momentum transfer force with the electron-ion friction force (Elfimov $`etal.`$ 1996).

## 2 Magnetosphere Accretion Model

We study here a two-fluid magnetohydrodynamic model of a young star, accreting plasma (see Fig.  Global Alfvén Wave Heating of the Magnetosphere of Young Stars). The standard parameters of CTTSs, similar to those used by Vasconcelos $`etal.`$ (2002), are assumed: star radius $`R_{}=10^{11}`$ cm, truncated radius $`R_{tr}=2\times 10^{11}`$ cm, truncated depth $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{tr}3\times 10^{10}`$ cm, magnetic field at the star’s surface $`B_{st}=1`$ kG and $`B_{tr}0.1`$ kG in the truncated region, where the electron density is $`\overline{n}_{tr}=3.0\times 10^{11}`$ cm-3. The length $`L_{mf}`$ of the magnetic field lines from the shock at the star’s surface to the truncated region is $`1.2R_{}`$. The velocity of the shock is $`v_{sh}2.5\times 10^7`$ cm s-1 at the star’s surface and $`v_{tr}3.5\times 10^7`$ cm s-1 in the truncated region. The ionization rate parameter $`<\sigma v>_{ion}`$ for $`T_e=1.5`$ eV is $`3\times 10^{13}`$ cm3 s-1 (Delcroix 1965). The accretion energy density is defined by the ratio of the energy flux density to the path length $`L_{mf}`$. Balancing ninety percent of the accretion power density $`m_in_0v_{tr}^3/L_{mf}`$ with the ionization power density $`<\sigma v>_{ion}n_en_0E_{ion}`$, we obtain a plasma with an average density along the magnetic field of $`\stackrel{~}{n}3.3\times 10^{11}`$ cm-3.

We assume that the magnetic field connecting the truncated disk and the star’s surface consists of filaments, along which the GAW propagates. The filament current can be driven by the wave ponderomotive force (see discussion below) and/or by a magnetodynamo in the truncated region of the disk. The current, $`I_{[A]}=5aB_{\theta ,ef}`$, and current density, $`j_{oh}=I/\pi a^216`$ statA cm2, in a filament of radius $`a`$ can be produced by the electric field, $`j/\sigma 10^{12}`$ statV cm-1, that is sufficient to create the required poloidal magnetic field $`B_{\theta ,ef}`$ for the GAW excitation. This electric field can be generated by the induction of a perpendicular electric field, $`E_{}=B_{tr}v_{tr}/c0.05`$ statV cm-1, in the truncated region of the disk due to the magnetodynamo $`𝐯\times 𝐁`$ effect (see Fig.  Global Alfvén Wave Heating of the Magnetosphere of Young Stars). A difference of potential on the scale of the filament radius is of the order of $`2.5\times 10^3`$ statV. This potential is much higher than is necessary and can generate a filament current with a hot electron tail and a characteristic velocity higher than that of the Alfvén velocity $`c_A`$, as was found in the plasma focus device. We expect that the electrons in the tail will remain hot in the filament by their interaction with the GAW.

For the parameters of the star assumed above, the phase velocity of a GAW, $`c_A(R_{tr})`$, is $`3\times 10^8`$ cm s-1 at the center of the filament. Taking into account the plasma resistance (see, e.g. Ginsbrug 1961), the dissipation length of the Alfvén waves can be estimated to be

$$L_A8\pi \frac{\sigma c_A}{k_{}^2c^2}1.2\times 10^{11}\mathrm{cm},$$
(1)
where

$$\sigma =\frac{\omega _{pe}^2}{4\pi \nu _{ei}}1.6\times 10^{13}T_e^{3/2}\mathrm{s}^1,k_{}=3\times 10^5\mathrm{cm}^1.$$

This $`k_{}`$ is a maximum value, determined by the condition that the dissipation length be sufficient so as to explain the plasma heating along the magnetic field from the truncated region to the star’s surface.

Assuming a conversion of 5$`\%`$ of the total accreting plasma energy flux, $`S=(1/2)n_nm_i(v_{sh}^3+v_{tr}^3)`$, into the Alfvén wave flux, $`S_A=P_AL_A`$, we obtain a wave dissipation rate of $`P_A=0.0039`$ erg cm-3 s-1. This dissipation rate produces a wave momentum transfer force $`P_Ak_{}/\omega `$ (see Elfimov $`etal.`$ 1996). Balancing the wave momentum transfer force with the electron-ion friction force $`\nu _{ei}m_en_eV_e`$, we obtain the density of the driven current,

$$<j_{cd}>=\frac{|e|k_{}P_A}{m_e\nu _{ei,ef}\omega }.$$
(2)
Using a reduced friction, $`\nu _{ei,ef}\nu _{ei}(v_{Te}/c_A)^{3/2}`$, for the electron tail with effective velocity $`c_A`$ and $`\omega =k_{}c_A=9\times 10^3`$ s-1 ($`c_A=3.\times 10^8`$ cm s$`1`$), we obtain the required current density, $`<j_{cd}>16`$ statA cm-2, in the filament. In this case, the electron tail that transports the current along the filament can be supported by the GAW via the electron Landau damping, while the current in the filament can be driven by the GAW.

Here, we also present the results of calculations for the GAW in the filament. In order to calculate the wave field and dissipation, we use the eikonal model to analyze the wave propagation along the filament, exp$`[i(m\theta +k_z𝑑z\omega t)]`$, where $`z`$ is the coordinate along the filament axis and $`\theta `$ is the poloidal angle. In this case, in order to simplify the GAW calculations using numerical codes Amarante-Segundo $`etal.`$ (1999); Galkin $`etal.`$ (2002), instead of a dipole magnetic field, we assume a cylindrical model for the filament plasma with the current flowing along a magnetic field that has a helical magnetic field line configuration. To calculate the wave characteristics along the filament, we take the major radius $`R_0=10^{11}`$ cm comparable to the star’s radius and the minor radius $`a=5\times 10^5`$ cm. The calculations are carried out with the electron density profile of the form $`n_e=n_0(1r^2/a^2)+n_a,`$ with $`n_0=5\times 10^{11}`$ cm-3 and $`n_a=5\times 10^{10}`$ cm-3. The temperatures are taken as $`T_{e0}=1.6`$ eV and $`T_{i0}=0.5`$ eV. The ion density is chosen so as to satisfy the requirement of charge neutrality, $`Zn_Z+n_i=n_e`$, where $`n_i`$ and $`n_Z`$ are the densities of hydrogen and the other ions, respectively. In accordance with the Spitzer conductivity $`T_e^{3/2}`$, the current density profile has the form $`j=j_0(1r^2/a^2)^3`$. The value of the safety factor, $`q=rB_z/RB_\theta `$, is assumed to be unity at the filament axis and to monotonically increase up to four at the plasma boundary. In Fig.  Global Alfvén Wave Heating of the Magnetosphere of Young Stars, we show the characteristic profile of the magnetic field as well as the dissipated power of the GAW for the filament parameters discussed above.

In Fig.  Global Alfvén Wave Heating of the Magnetosphere of Young Stars, we observe the peaking of the dissipation at the filament center, which predicts filament center peaking of the electron temperature distribution, as well. The GAW heats the core of the filament to higher temperature, while reducing the plasma temperature at the filament border due to heat diffusion. The axial wavenumber of the GAW, $`k_z=\omega /c_A`$, varies slowly along the magnetic field lines since it depends on changes in the local magnetic field and density.

## 3 Conclusions

Our analysis of GAWs in the magnetospheres of CTTSs shows that:
a) The energy of the shock (and/or accretion disk region) can be transported from the surface of the star (and/or accretion disk region) to the magnetosphere region by GAWs via current carrying filaments;
b) The dissipation length of GAWs is on the order of the truncation radius;
c) The conversion of only a few percent of the shock energy into GAWs is required in order to heat the filaments up to the observed temperature of the star’s magnetosphere;
d) The current in the filament may be induced by the electric field, created by the $`𝐯\times 𝐁`$-magnetodynamo effect in the truncated region of the disk. However, the major part of the current in the filaments is driven by GAWs.

The authors thank the Brazilian agency FAPESP (Proc. No. 00/06770-2) for support. VJP and RO thank the Brazilian agency CNPq and the project PRONEX (41.96.0908.00) for partial support.