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# An analysis of the emission line spectra of AG Pegasi between phases 7.34 and 9.44

## 1 Introduction

AG Pegasi (AG Peg) is a symbiotic binary consisting of a white dwarf (WD) and a red giant (spectral type M3). A continuing slow decline of the far-UV and near-UV continuum is noticed by Kenyon, Proga, & Keyes (2001). They claim that the eruption of the hot component in AG Peg may be the slowest classical nova outburst ever recorded. AG Peg evolution was followed by the observations (Kenyon et al 1993, Kenyon et al. 2001) and modeled by the interpretation of the line and continuum spectra (e.g. Contini 1997).

The collision of the winds from the hot star and the red giant in symbiotic binaries creates a complex hydrodynamic structure (Nussbaumer 2000 and references therein). The emitting gas within the system is then ionised and heated both by the photoionising flux from the hot star and by shocks. In a previous paper (Contini 1997, hereafter Paper I) the observed continuum and line spectra from AG Peg at phases earlier than $`\varphi `$ = 7.12, have been explained by composite models accounting both for photoionisation and shocks. Indeed, the complex structure of the system requires schematic models which represent roughly the real picture. The consistency of calculation results for the line spectra in the UV and in the optical ranges, as well as for the spectral energy distribution (SED) of the continuum leads to a better understanding of the physical characteristics of the system.

Following the results of Paper I, two shock fronts are created at collision of the winds between the stars, one propagating in reverse toward the WD and the other propagating outwards the system. Moreover, recent observations of symbiotic novae show that spectra are also emitted from downstream of shocks propagating outside the system and eventually merging with the ISM (Contini & Formiggini 2001). At phase 7.05 of AG Peg the expanding shock has already passed over the red giant and slightly accelerates propagating in the atmosphere of the red giant, opposite to the WD, where the density gradient is decreasing.

New observations are presented by Kenyon et al. (2001, hereafter KPK01). They provide optical and UV spectra at phases 7.34 - 9.44, acquired with Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) on board of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) between late 1993 and late 1996. Low resolution optical spectra with the FAST spectrograph mounted at the F.I. Whipple Observatory 1.5-m telescope are also reported. After an accurate analysis of the data, KPK01 conclude that ”if the hot component emits enough high energy photons to account for the forbidden line fluxes, mechanical heating from the colliding winds may explain the high electron temperature. A detailed photoionisation calculation which includes shock excitation would test this proposal.” Responding to KPK01, I present further modelling of AG Peg on the basis of their observational data at the latest phases ($`\varphi `$ = 7.39 - 9.44), adopting for the calculations the code SUMA (Viegas & Contini 1994, Paper I). SUMA calculates the emitted spectrum from the gas, accounting for the coupled effect of shock and photoionisation from an external source. The spectra in the different phases are considered in Sect. 2. The models and the modelling process are presented in Sects. 3 and 4, respectively. Results are discussed in Sect. 5 and concluding remarks appear Sect. 6.

## 2 The spectra at different phases

Line fluxes observed by KPK01 were corrected for E(B-V)=0.1. There are several values for E(B-V) in the range 0.08-0.15 obtained by different methods (Tomov, Tomova, & Raikova 1998, Penston & Allen 1985, etc.). Some significant line fluxes and line ratios corrected for E(B-V) = 0.1 are given in Fig. 1 as function of the phase. Fig. 1 shows that H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ and H$`\gamma `$ /H$`\beta `$ at phases $`\varphi `$ $`<`$ 8.8 are higher than case B values. A higher reddening correction of the spectra is not predicted because it would lead to very high values of the far UV line fluxes. Moreover, KPK01 notice that the depth of the 2200 Å absorption feature does not vary with phase and is consistent with E(B-V) = 0.1. Finally, the best fit of the calculated continuum SED to the data of the IR dust bump at early phases (Paper I) corresponds to a relatively low gas-to-dust ratio, d/g = 2. 10-15 by number.

We would like to investigate the origin of such high values of H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ and H$`\gamma `$/H$`\beta `$. We will refer to radiative transfer effects of HI, to collision excitation of H lines, and, more specifically, to the effect of the viewing angle of the emitting nebulae.

Recall that densities in the emitting nebulae of symbiotic systems are generally high ($`>`$ 104 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$), sufficiently high that some self absorption occurs in the Balmer lines. This leads to a marked strengthening of the H$`\alpha `$ line relative to the rest of the Balmer series. In case B, as the optical thickness of Ly$`\alpha `$ increases, the first effect in the decrement occurs when H$`\beta `$ converts into H$`\alpha `$ (Cox & Mathews 1969). Particularly, for large optical thickness of the Ly$`\alpha `$ line, the increase of the H$`\alpha `$ optical thickness leads to an increase of both H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ and H$`\gamma `$/H$`\beta `$ (Cox & Mathews 1969, Fig. 1). In fact, H$`\alpha `$ is mostly scattered because any L$`\beta `$ photons it forms are quickly absorbed and converted back to H$`\alpha `$, while H$`\beta `$ is absorbed and converts to H$`\alpha `$\+ P$`\alpha `$.

Moreover, Drake & Ulrich (1980) claim that H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ ratios greater than 10 can be obtained with optical depths of the order of 100 or more by Balmer self-absorption alone. Particularly, conditions which tend to produce very steep Balmer decrements are found to be large optical depths in H$`\alpha `$, low photoionisation rates, and values of the electron density between 108 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ and 1012 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ (see also Krolik & McKee 1978).

In the case of symbiotic systems, collisional processes are very effective, because shock fronts are created by collision of the winds between the stars with velocities $``$ 40 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Such velocities correspond to temperatures $``$ 20,000 K in the postshock region. Higher velocities are actually observed leading to higher temperatures. Collisional excitation increases with temperature and prevails for T $``$ 20,000 K. Collision strengths are $``$ E$`{}_{}{}^{2}{}_{ij}{}^{}`$ exp(- Eij/kT) (Contini & Aldrovandi 1983) where Eij is the energy of the level. Radiation from the hot star, on the other hand, cannot heat the gas to $``$ 20,000 K. So, high H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ line ratios are predicted in the spectra emitted from shock dominated nebulae.

It was shown in Paper I that the spectra of AG Peg at different epochs are emitted mainly by two nebulae : one in the downstream region of the shock front propagating in reverse towards the hot source and the other downstream of the shock front expanding outwards in the atmosphere of the red giant opposite to the hot source. In particular, the gas is collisionally heated in the outer region of the expanding nebula, while is heated by radiation in the internal region of the same nebula facing the hot source. So, collision dominated spectra will prevail at photometric minimum. Fig. 1 shows that the H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ line ratio has a rough maximum at phase $``$ 8.5, which could be due to collisional effects. We will come back to this point after modelling the spectra.

When the system evolves through the photometric minimum and the hot source is occulted, the HeII lines that are emitted by a photoionised gas, should strongly decline. On the contrary, Fig. 1 shows that the HeII 4686 flux does not change with phase more than about 22% throughout the period between phases 8.33 and 9.44. This behavior reveals that nebulae heated and ionised by radiation contribute to the spectra near maximum as well as near photometric minimum.

## 3 The models

SUMA calculates the emitted spectrum from a gas in a plane parallel geometry. The nebula between the stars is ionised and heated by both black body radiation from the WD and the (reverse) shock. Therefore, radiation reaches the very front edge of the shocked nebula. On the other hand, radiation and shock act on opposite edges of the nebula downstream of the expanding shock which propagates in the red giant atmosphere.

The input parameters are : the shock velocity, $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$, the preshock density, $`\mathrm{n}_0`$, the preshock magnetic field, $`\mathrm{B}_0`$, the colour temperature of the hot star, $`\mathrm{T}_{}`$, the ionisation parameter, U, the geometrical thickness of the emitting gaseous nebula, D, and the abundance of He, C, N, O, Ne, Mg, Si, S, A, and Fe relative to H. For all models $`\mathrm{T}_{}`$=105 K.

We calculated a large grid of models with the following criteria: to fit the most significant line ratios and to be consistent with the modelling reported in Paper I which was for earlier photometric phases.

Three models were selected from the grid, m1, m2, and m3. Model m1 represents the nebula in the downstream region of the shock propagating in reverse toward the WD. The downstream nebula, facing the red giant, is however close to the WD and the photoinising flux from the hot source reaches the shock front edge of the nebula. Model m2 represents the nebula downstream of the shock propagating outwards the system in the red giant atmosphere opposite to the WD. The downstream nebula toward the WD is ionised and heated by both the shock and radiation from the hot source. Model m3 shows the same shock characteristics of model m2, but the emitting nebula downstream is not reached by the WD radiation flux. Model m2 is radiation dominated (RD), while m3 is shock dominated (SD). Model m3 being SD, the emitted spectrum is mainly excited by collision. Recall that at later phases the shock front, merging with the ISM, is disrupted by R-T and K-H instabilities (see Contini & Formiggini 2001). Therefore, the ionising flux from the hot source will be eventually prevented from reaching the nebula in the downstream region of the shock by intervening matter.

So, in the following, the ”reverse shock” will refer to model m1, the ”RD expanding shock” to model m2, and the ”SD expanding shock” to model m3. Models m1 and m2 are matter-bound, while m3 is radiation bound (see Sect. 4.2).

## 4 Modelling the spectra

The spectra contain lines in a relatively large range of ionisation levels and in the different wavelength domains. Recall that the distribution of the fractional abundances of the ions downstream (Fig. 2) depends on the input parameters and that the line intensities increase with the volume of gas emitting the corresponding ion and with the square of the density.

The choice of the models depends on line ratios from different ionisation levels and is constrained by the general model of the AG Peg system.

Between $`\varphi `$ = 7.05 and $`\varphi `$ = 8.07 the conditions of the reverse shock (between the two stars) could not change sensibly because the reverse shock is most likely a standing shock, so, we adopt input parameters at $`\varphi `$ = 8.07, $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=60 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$and $`\mathrm{n}_0`$=106 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ similar to those found at $`\varphi `$ = 7.05, $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=40 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$and $`\mathrm{n}_0`$= 3 106 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ ( Paper I, Table 4, column 2). In particular, $`\mathrm{B}_0`$ = 10-3 gauss is adopted for m1, which is suitable for isolated giants (Bohigas et al 1989).

The preshock density of the shock propagating throughout the atmosphere of the red giant in the present modelling (103 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$) is lower than that calculated at phases 7.05 - 7.12 (Paper I, Table 4) by a large factor ($``$ 3000). The shock velocity is slightly lower (100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$at $`\varphi `$=8.07 and 150 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$at $`\varphi `$ = 7.05). A lower $`\mathrm{n}_0`$ indicates that the shock has proceeded towards the outskirts of the giant atmosphere. In about 820 days (between $`\varphi `$ =7.05 and $`\varphi `$ =8.07) the shock expanding with a velocity of $``$ 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$could reach a distance of $``$ 7. 1014 cm and is propagating outwards the system, merging with the ISM. Therefore, the preshock density of model m2 is low and the magnetic field is also reduced to 10-4 gauss. Both $`\mathrm{n}_0`$ and $`\mathrm{B}_0`$ are, nevertheless, still higher than found in the ISM (1-10 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$, and 10-5 \- 10-6 gauss, respectively).

The relative abundances adopted at $`\varphi `$ $``$ 8.07 are C/H = 3.3 10-4, N/H = 5.3 10-4, O/H = 9.6 10-4, Ne/H = 8.3 10-5, Mg/H = 2. 10-5, Si/H = 3.3 10-5, S/H = 1.6 10-5, A/H = 6.3 10-6, and Fe/H = 4. 10-5, as were found at $`\varphi `$=7.05-7.12 (Paper I, Table 4). Mg/H is, however, similar to that at $`\varphi `$ = 2.74 (Paper I, Table 1) because at $`\varphi `$ = 7.05 Mg lines were not observed and the Mg/H abundance ratio could not be determined by modelling the corresponding lines. The adopted relative abundances show that N/H and O/H ratios are higher than solar. Relatively high values of N/H and O/H are characteristic of symbiotic systems.

The modelling process of the spectra is roughly described in the following. Recall that model m1 represents the reverse shock, m2 the RD expanding shock , and m3 the SD expanding shock. The results corresponding to single models are summed up adopting relative weights at each phase and the final results are compared with the observations. The relative weights which lead to the best fit of the observed spectra in the different epochs are related to the configuration of the system and are discussed in the next section.

High ionisation-level lines (e.g. NV, \[MgV\], \[FeVII\], etc) increase with the ionisation parameter U and with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$. In fact, the temperature downstream behind the shock front is $``$ $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$2. NV/CIV ratios calculated by model m1 with relatively low velocities ($`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$$`<`$ 80 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) are lower than observed, therefore, they must be counter-balanced by line ratios higher than observed, calculated by the m2 model. The NV/CIV ratio calculated by SD models (m3) with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$$``$ 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$is very low. So, the only way to obtain a high NV/CIV is to adopt a high U in model m2. This leads to high HeII/CIV line ratios.

The NV/CIV ratios calculated by a RD model with ionisation and shock acting on opposite edges, are not high enough, if the density is high (106 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$). Also, at high densities, the ratio of the intermediate ionisation-level lines (NIII/CIV, SiIII/CIV, and CIII\]/CIV) would be higher than observed by a factor $`>`$ 10. High densities are thus rejected for model m2. This is consistent with the previous discussion (Sect. 3), namely, that the RD expanding shock propagates in a low density medium.

Low ionisation-level line ratios (e.g. CII\]/CIV and MgII/CIV) are low for models m1 and m2 (Table 1). Low ionisation-level lines are high in SD models, therefore, model m3 must be accounted for. The relatively high CII\]/CIV and MgII/CIV ratios calculated by m3 counter-balance in the averaged spectra the low values found by models m1 and m2.

A large grid of models is calculated in order to achieve the best fit of all the line ratios.

### 4.1 Calculated line ratios

The line ratios calculated by models m1, m2, and m3 are presented in Table 1. The input parameters are given in the bottom of the table. The parameter s, which appears in the last row of Table 1 distinguishes between the two cases: radiation from the star reaches the shocked edge of the emitting nebula (s=0) and radiation and shock act on opposite edges (s=1). The calculated absolute H$`\beta `$ flux and the CIV/H$`\beta `$ line ratios are also given in order to calculate the flux of the lines. Recall, however, that the spectra are calculated at the nebula but are observed at Earth. The adjusting factor depends on the distance to Earth of AG Peg, as well as on the distances of the nebulae to the WD.

### 4.2 Distribution of the different ions throughout the nebulae

In order to better understand the line ratios calculated by the different models, the distribution of the fractional abundance of some interesting ions as well as of the electron density and temperature downstreams is shown in Fig. 2 for models m1 (top diagram), m2 (middle diagram), and m3 (bottom diagram). The shock front is on the left; black body radiation reaches the left edge in the top diagram (m1) and the right edge in the middle diagram (m2). The middle diagram is divided in two equal symmetric parts in order to give equal importance to the shock dominated region (left) and to the radiation dominated region (right). Model m3 (bottom diagram) is shock dominated (U=0.). In all the diagrams the ions are represented by the following symbols. Solid lines : H+1; dotted lines : He+2; short-dashed lines: N+5; dash-dotted lines : C+4; long-dashed lines : C+3; long-dash-dotted lines : C+2.

Fig. 2 shows that the temperature throughout the nebulae never decreases below 104 K downstream of the reverse shock (top diagram). This is due to the coupled effect of a relatively high U and a relatively small geometrical thickness of the nebula, too small to host a large recombination region.

The profile of the temperature is different in the RD expanding nebula (middle diagram). The gas behind the shock front is heated to T $`>`$ 1.5 105 K by the shock corresponding to $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$= 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The high ionisation level lines (e.g. NV) are strong due to the coupled effects of the relatively high temperature and the strong radiation flux from the hot source. The cooling rate ($``$ n2) of the gas is sped up by free-free, free-bound, and line emission, therefore a large cool region appears in the left side of the diagram. Notice that H remains fully ionised and the N+5/N fractional abundance is high in the shocked side of the nebula, even if the temperature drops, because they are maintained by the strong radiation flux from the hot source. C+4 prevails throughout the nebula corresponding to the m1 and m2 models owing to the high U.

The shock dominated model (m3) shows different conditions, characteristic of SD models. A relative large region is dominated by the C+2 ion. The absolute flux of the H$`\beta `$ line is low because the emitting region throughout the nebula is relatively small.

Interestingly, H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ is higher in the postshock region (left side of the middle diagram) of model m2 than in the region reached by the radiation from the hot source (right side) and is definitively high throughout all the nebula represented by model m3.

## 5 Results

The best modelling of AG Peg should, indeed, imply a huge number of models in order to represent the complex nature of symbiotic systems (see Nussbaumer 2000). The models, however, are schematized to three main types representing the three emitting nebulae described in the previous sections; therefore, the results show only a consistent approach.

### 5.1 Comparison of calculated with observed line ratios

The calculated spectra at each phase are compared with observations in Table 2. Each spectrum results from the weighted sum of the three models. The relative weights of the models are shown in the last rows of Table 2. The weights are very different for different models because they depend on the emitting area of the corresponding nebula.

A very schematic representation of the system and the angles of view at the different phases are given in Fig. 3 (top panel and bottom panel, respectively).

At $`\varphi `$ = 8.07 we see almost all of the shock fronts, internal and external to the system (Fig. 3). The distance of the reverse shock from the white dwarf, r1, is of the order of the binary separation (in Paper I it is found that the front is very close to the red giant surface), so, we adopt r1 =5 1013 cm ; the radius of the RD expanding front is r2($`\varphi `$=8.07)= r2($`\varphi `$=7.05)+$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ r, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ r is the distance covered by the shock front between phases 8.07 and 7.05. Then, r2 = 3.2 1015 cm (Paper I) + 7 1014 cm (Sect. 4) is $``$ 4 1015 cm.

Actually, (r2/r1)2 $``$ 6400 at $`\varphi `$ = 8.07 is lower than w(m2)/w(m1) = 1.2 104 by a factor $`<`$ 2. The ratios of the weights which appear in Table 2 are determined by the best fit of the calculated to the observed data. The discrepancy by a factor of $`<`$ 2 indicates that the radiation emitted by the reverse shock is slightly absorbed by the outer atmosphere of the red giant. At later phases, $`\varphi `$ = 8.33 and $`\varphi `$ = 9.27, the radiation intersects the red giant at angles that depend on the phase angle, and the path length throughout the red giant, l = 2 rRG cos $`\alpha `$ (rRG is the radius of the red giant and $`\alpha `$ is the angle between the binary system axis and the viewing direction from Earth), is higher at $`\varphi `$=8.33 than at $`\varphi `$=9.27. So, at $`\varphi `$=9.27 the radiation from the reverse shock is less absorbed than at $`\varphi `$=8.33, in agreement with the trend of the w(m2)/w(m1) ratio that is 105 at $`\varphi `$=9.27 and is 1.5 105 at $`\varphi `$=8.33 . The trend is clearly depending on the phase angle, however, the trend does not depend only on the angle because the radius of the expanding shock is not symmetric around the system (see Nussbaumer 2000, Fig. 1).

Regarding the SD shock, the ratio of the relative weights w(m3)/w(m2) does not follow any specific trend, because it depends on fragmentation of matter and on the filling factor. Also those ratios were chosen by the best fit to the data.

Considering that the AG Peg system is very complex, we have focused on the most significant lines, e.g. NV 1240, CIV 1550, HeII 1640, CIII\] 1908, CII\] 2325, etc. in the UV, and HeII 4686 in the optical range. NIV\] 1486 is overestimated by the calculations. OI 1305, HeI 4471 and MgII are underestimated by a large factor. The contribution from a model corresponding to a large low temperature region could improve this result. \[NeV\] 3426/ CIV line ratio is overpredicted. Notice, however, that this ratio refers to lines emitted from one or two different nebulae, indicating that more model components should be considered. The same is valid for the \[FeVII\] 6087 /CIV line ratio. In this case, however, some iron could be locked into dust grains.

A slightly lower N/H could improve the fit of the NV 1240 and NIV\] 1486 line ratios to CIV, particularly at phase 9.44. N/H approaching to the ISM value, and the relatively low $`\mathrm{n}_0`$ and $`\mathrm{B}_0`$ adopted for models m2 and m3, confirm that the merging process is taking place.

In the averaged spectra we found H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$$`<`$ 3, lower than the observed line ratios, because the weights of m1 and m2 models are relatively high. A possible explaination is given by Shore (1992) who claims that in a moving medium with an internal velocity gradient, the optical depth of the line $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\tau `$ $``$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$v/(dv/dl). $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$v=$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\nu _D`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\nu _D`$ is the Doppler width of a line with rest frequency $`\nu _0`$. The reduction of the velocity gradient causes a rapid increase in the line opacity , even if the density has dropped enough as to make the equivalent static line profile completely optically thin. Indeed, a velocity gradient is predicted in the outer atmosphere of the red giant. Adopting $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=150 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$at $`\varphi `$ = 7.12 (Contini 1997), $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$at the latest epochs, and dl=1014 cm, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\tau `$ should increase by a factor $`>`$ 107, leading to higher H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ (see Sect. 2).

We can now compare the luminosities of the lines calculated by the models with those observed by KPK01. Considering, for instance \[NeV\] 3426 at $`\varphi `$ = 8.07, the calculated luminosity is $``$ 3 1030 erg s-1 while the observed one (KPK01, Table 4) is 4 1031 erg s-1 adopting a distance to Earth, d=800 pc. This line is mainly emitted from the nebula corresponding to model m1. A better fit to the observed luminosity could be obtained adopting $`\mathrm{n}_0`$=3 106 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ instead of 106 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ for m1. The preshock density used at $`\varphi `$ = 7.05 (Paper I, Table 4) was 3 106 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$.

The distance of the SD expanding nebula from the center of the binary system, r3, at $`\varphi `$=9.44 is obtained comparing the luminosities of calculated and observed CII\] lines. From CII\]obs $`\times `$ d2 = CII\]m3 $`\times `$ r$`{}_{}{}^{2}{}_{3}{}^{}`$, r3 results $``$ 1016 cm. The CII\] line is considered because it is emitted mainly from the outer SD nebula at photometric minimum. The distance is larger by a factor $`>`$ 2 than the distance of the RD expanding nebula corresponding to model m2. Even if the RD and SD expanding shocks are at different distances from the system center, they may belong to the same wave. In fact, the ”fingers” created by R-T and K-H instabilities at the shock front can be elongated up to a large fraction of the shock front radius (see Contini & Formiggini 2001).

In summary, the interpretation of the data by a relatively small number of models is sound, even if approximated. Anyway, some interesting results follow.

### 5.2 Relative contribution of the different nebulae to the spectra

The relative contribution of the emitting nebulae to each line is shown in Table 3. The weight of models m2 and m3, representing the nebulae propagating outwards in the atmosphere of the red giant, relative to the weight of the nebula corresponding to the reverse shock between the stars increases with the angle determined by the phase fraction (.07, .27, .33, and .44), indicating that the external nebula is not present around the whole system, but only in the region opposite to the WD.

The nebula downstream of the reverse shock dominates at $`\varphi `$ = 8.07 except for a few lines (SiIII\], CIII\], CII\], and MgII). A large contribution to these lines comes from the SD expanding shock. The RD expanding shock contributes partly to NIV, \[NeV\], and to \[FeVII\].

The relative contribution of the three nebulae to the lines are similar at $`\varphi `$ = 8.33 and at $`\varphi `$ = 9.27, the reverse shock being less dominant and indicating that the relative contributions of the nebulae depend on the viewing angle of the system rather than on the phase. At both phases 8.33 and 9.27 the RD expanding shock is dominating for most of the lines (NV, HeII 1640, NIV, \[MgV\], \[NeV\], HeII 3203, \[NeV\] 3426, HI 4340, HeII 4686, \[FeVII\], and H$`\alpha `$). The SD expanding shock dominates the low ionisation level lines.

At $`\varphi `$ = 9.44 the contribution from the reverse shock becomes negligible because the nebula between the stars is occulted by the red giant. The high ionisation level lines are produced mainly by the RD expanding shock and low ionisation level lines come from the SD nebula.

The relative contribution of the nebula between the stars to the HeII 1640 line decreases monotonically with phase fractions .07, .27, .33, and .44 On the other hand, the relative contributions of m2 to NV 1240 are 14.8%, 61.4%, 68.75%, and 99.0%, at the same angles, respectively.

Concluding, the evolution of the spectra is more likely related to the viewing angle of the system, not particularly to the phase between $`\varphi `$ = 8.07 and $`\varphi `$ = 9.44. We do not have data relative to viewing angles higher than 0.44, which could hopefully strengthen the results.

### 5.3 Evolution of the line fluxes with phase

It is now possible to understand the trend of the lines shown in Fig. 1. Table 3 shows that the contribution from the SD shocked nebula (m3) to H$`\alpha `$ is only a few % , therefore, the calculated H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ line ratio is likely to be $``$ 3 throughout the whole period between phase 8.07 and 9.44. On the other hand, the observed value is $``$ 5 towards photometric minimum. This high value may be explained considering that the RD expanding shock is represented by a composite model which accounts for both the photoionisation by the WD and the shock. The side of the emitting nebula facing the observer at photometric minimum is shock dominated (Fig. 2, middle diagram). So, in this phase we see mainly H$`\alpha `$ and H$`\beta `$ fluxes from this side of the nebula, which are produced by collisional ionisation. Moreover, the optical depth in the radiation dominated region is high (see Sect. 4.1) leading to high H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$.

HeII 4686 and \[FeVII\] do not show a periodic change with phase because a large fraction of these lines is emitted by the nebula downstream of the RD expanding shock. So, the decrease of the reverse shock contribution at phases approaching the photometric minimum is compensated by the large contribution from the RD expanding shock. These lines show, therefore, less impressive variability up to $`\varphi `$ $``$ 9.2. At $`\varphi `$ = 9.27 the calculated Fλ4686 is 0.11 $`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$, while at $`\varphi `$ = 9.44 Fλ4686 = 0.06 $`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$. The decrease of the calculated flux between these two phases is in agreement with the observed decrease shown in Fig. 1 after $`\varphi `$ = 9.27.

HeI 4471 is emitted mainly by the SD expanding shock (m3) and the flux is very low, Fλ4471= 2 10-5 $`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$. Therefore, this line flux shows a maximum in Fig. 1 when the system is near maximum. The same is valid for H$`\alpha `$ and H$`\beta `$. Notice, however that HeI 4471/CIV line ratio is underpredicted by the models.

All the lines show an asymmetric behaviour before and after maximum. This is explained by the fact that the emitting nebulae are not symmetric relative to the axis joining the center of the WD with the center of the red giant. In the hydrodynamical picture of symbiotic systems presented by Nussbaumer (2000, Fig. 1 left) the wake is, in fact, strongly asymmetric, so that the emitting nebulae could partly disappear in some location at angles corresponding to high phase fractions.

## 6 Concluding remarks

The analysis of the spectra from the HST and from the FAST spectrograph at the Whipple Observatory reported by Kenyon et al (2001) at different phases leads to new results about the configuration of AG Peg. The FAST spectra contain both H$`\alpha `$ and H$`\beta `$ lines, providing the tool for modelling the system at different phases. Interestingly, the trend of the periodical variability of H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$, as well as the trend of the most significant lines indicate that different nebulae contribute to the final spectra. In particular, the high H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ line ratios ($``$ 5) suggest that shock dominated models must be accounted for. Moreover, the trend of the HeII 4686 line variability with phase indicates that radiation dominated nebulae are strongly contributing to the spectra also near the photometric minimum.

Consistent modelling by the code SUMA, which accounts for the coupled effect of photoionisation from the hot star and shocks, shows that at least three nebulae provide the spectral components : 1) the nebula between the stars, downstream of the shock created by head-on collision of the winds, which propagates in reverse towards the WD, 2) the nebula downstream of the head-on-back shock expanding in the outskirts of the red giant atmosphere and reached by the photoionising flux from the WD, and 3) the nebula downstream of the same shock front which is shock dominated, i.e. it is not reached by the photoionising radiation flux. In fact, the matter in this region is very clumpy because the shock front is disrupted by R-T instability, and radiation from the WD is prevented from reaching the region by the intervening clumps in some locations.

The fit of calculated to observed line ratios is acceptable enough to justify the choice of the models, so that the relative contribution of the different nebulae to the final spectra at different phases can be calculated for all the lines. It is found that the contribution of the nebula between the stars prevails for most of the lines near maximum ($`\varphi `$ = 8.07), declining towards higher phases and even disappearing at phase 9.44. Low ionisation level lines (e.g. CII\] and MgII) are mainly emitted from the SD expanding nebula. The evolution of the spectra between phases 7.34 and 9.44 is more likely related with the viewing angle of the system, and not to the temporal evolution of the system.

Models m2 and m3 which represent the expanding shock are characterized by a relatively low preshock density and magnetic field, much lower than found by modelling AG Peg at $`\varphi `$ $``$ 7.12 (Paper I). This suggests that the shock, expanding in the red giant atmosphere opposite to the WD, has already reached the outskirts of the system and is merging with the ISM. At $`\varphi `$ = 9.44 the expanding shock has swept up a large portion of matter with relatively low density. The line and continuum fluxes emitted from downstream the shock are $``$ n2 and, therefore, decrease as more IS matter is swept up, leading to the slow decline of AG Peg continuum and line fluxes observed by KPK01.

## Aknowledgments

I am very grateful to the referee for many enlightening suggestions and precious remarks, and to D. Prialnik and S. Beck for reading the manuscript.


text:
# Stellar Populations and Star Cluster Formation in Interacting Galaxies with the Advanced Camera for Surveys

## 1 Introduction

Integrated broad-band colours have been used extensively to study the global star formation histories (SFHs) of elliptical and spiral galaxies and of spiral bulges. However, integrated colours are almost always dominated by the light from the central regions of the galaxies or by bulge light.

The use of resolved multi-passband colour data has only recently been pioneered in efforts to disentangle local stellar populations from dust and extinction effects in the disks and bulges of nearby spiral galaxies (e.g. ??????) and in intermediate-redshift galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field (??). Probably the most detailed studies of spatially resolved stellar populations to date are the recent analysis of M81 by ?), and ?)’s ultraviolet–optical colour analysis of Hubble Space Telescope (HST) images of NGC 6753 and NGC 6782. The use of resolved galaxy colours, i.e., the colours of spatially resolved areas of galactic disks, allows the study of localised extinction, age distributions and SFHs of spatially distinct components within a given galaxy, with highly robust results (e.g. ?????).

### 1.1 The Single Stellar Population approximation

The distribution of colours and spectral energy distributions (SEDs) across the face of a given galaxy is the cumulative result of the way in which the local stellar population has been assembled, and of projection effects.

In this paper we will, as a first-order approximation, assume that the integrated local colours throughout our galaxy images are sufficiently closely represented by either a single or a superposition of multiple single stellar populations (SSPs; ?), i.e. a single generation of coeval stars with fixed parameters such as metallicity, initial mass function (IMF), and internal extinction (see ?). This will allow us to analyse the properties and SFH of the stellar population that dominates the light at a given wavelength. We note that while this approximation holds relatively well for young, luminous stellar populations, at older ages the underlying galactic population is not well represented anymore by a single stellar population. However, as we will show below, for older ages ($`t10^9`$ yr) the age vectors of the individual SSPs in colour-colour space (defined by the passbands used in this paper) are almost parallel to each other, so that any deviation from the SSP approximation will only have a very small effect.

The use of the relatively well-understood SSPs for the interpretation of localised colours instead of more complex SFHs simplifies our interpretation, while the adoption of more complex SFHs changes neither the results nor the interpretation qualitatively (see e.g. ?).

In this paper we follow the recent pioneering studies by ?) and ?) in constructing colour-colour and colour-magnitude diagrams (CC, CMDs) on a pixel-by-pixel basis. This technique was first used by ?), who used a $`B`$ vs. $`(BR)`$ CMD to analyse the stellar populations in NGC 4449. While ?) employed the technique to intermediate-redshift galaxies, in ?) we brought it back to the study of stellar populations in the local Universe. Here, we explore for the first time the advantages of using this type of pixel mapping technique in interacting galaxies. Galaxy interactions induce violently star-forming episodes, which are expected to leave signatures in the victims’ CC diagrams and CMDs in the form of distinct features that can be traced back to, for instance, newly formed stellar populations and their associated dust lanes.

Although the local Universe contains a mere handful of interacting systems at various stages of their gravitational embrace, the addition of the high-resolution Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) to the HST suite of instruments has increased the applicability of pixel-mapping techniques to interacting systems at greater distances. Since the ACS is somewhat undersampled by its point-spread function (PSF) at optical wavelengths, the individual pixels are statistically independent.

In Section 2, we give a brief overview of the archival HST images used for our analysis, and of the data reduction process. We will then present our results in Section 3, which we interpret in the context of star and star cluster formation induced by the gravitational interactions in Section 4. For a brief summary of the main results and conclusions, we refer the reader to Section 5.

## 2 ACS observations and reduction: the Tadpole and Mice galaxies

Our analysis of the star clusters in and SFHs of the interacting galaxies UGC 10214 (Arp 188; VV 029; the “Tadpole” galaxy) and NGC 4676 (Arp 242; VV 224; first nicknamed “The \[Playing\] Mice” galaxies by ?)) is based on the Early Release Observations (EROs) obtained with the ACS onboard HST. The field of view (FOV) of these images, taken as part of programme GO-8992 (PI Ford), was adjusted to optimise the sampling of the tidal tails and debris surrounding both systems.

Broad-band images through the F475W, F606W and F814W filters (roughly corresponding to Johnson-Cousins broad-band B, V and I filters, respectively) of both systems were obtained with the ACS/Wide Field Camera (WFC), the instrument of choice for red-optimised optical observations with the HST. The ACS/WFC consists of two parallel rectangular $`2048\times 4096`$ thinned, back-illuminated Scientific Imaging Technologies (SITe) CCDs, separated by a $`2^{\prime \prime }`$ gap. With a pixel size of $`0`$$`\stackrel{}{.}`$05, the total FOV is $`202^{\prime \prime }\times 202^{\prime \prime }`$; this set-up provides a good compromise between adequately sampling the PSF and a wide FOV (e.g. ?). For both fields, the observations were taken with a relative vertical offset of $`3^{\prime \prime }`$ to be able to fill in the gap between the two WFC chips. The ACCUM imaging mode was used to preserve dynamic range and to facilitate the removal of cosmic rays.

The observations of the Mice were taken on 7 April 2002 (UT); those of the Tadpole galaxy were obtained on 1 and 9 April 2002 (UT). The total exposure times of the observations of the Mice used in this paper are 4650s, 4150s, and 3450s in F475W, F606W and F814W, respectively. The corresponding total exposure times for the Tadpole images are 13780s, 7610s and 8360s.

We used the (calacs) pipeline-processed data products provided by the HST archive, which include the recalibration with new flat fields (dated 6 August 2002). These are expected to result in a generic large-scale photometric uniformity level of the images of $`1`$%. In particular, for our analysis we used the final, dithered images produced by the most recent release of the PyDrizzle software tool. PyDrizzle also performs a geometric correction on all ACS data, using fourth-order geometric distortion polynomials, and subsequently combines multiple images into a single output image and converts the data to units of count rate at the same time.

We registered the individual images obtained for all passbands and for both galaxy systems to high (subpixel) accuracy, and created combined images for each galaxy/passband combination, using the appropriate imalign and imcombine routines in iraf/stsdas111The Image Reduction and Analysis Facility (iraf) is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. stsdas, the Space Telescope Science Data Analysis System, contains tasks complementary to the existing iraf tasks. We used Version 2.3 (June 2001) for the data reduction performed in this paper..

## 3 The distribution of ages, colours and dust

### 3.1 The brightest star clusters

With the unprecedented combination of resolution and field of view offered by the ACS, it has now become possible to resolve and study (at least the bright end of) the star cluster luminosity function (CLF) out to greater distances than ever before. In this section, we give the full observational details for the clusters in the bright wing of the CLFs of both of our targeted systems.

The ongoing tidal interactions between both galaxies of the Mice, and the tidal disruption of a smaller satellite galaxy by the dominant Sc-type spiral galaxy in the Tadpole system have caused highly variable galactic backgrounds in both systems. In addition, the high sensitivity of the ACS, combined with the long exposure times used for these EROs, reveals large numbers of background galaxies in the frames of both interacting systems. Both of these aspects render the unambiguous detection of genuine star cluster candidates troublesome.

We based our initial selection of source candidates on a modified version of the daofind task in the daophot software package (?), running under idl, in which we selected all potential sources with peak luminosities – in any of the passbands – brighter than $`5\sigma _{\mathrm{sky}}`$, i.e. five times the noise in the sky background (see Section 3.2). We required our star cluster candidates to meet the following stringent selection criteria:

* Good star cluster candidates must be detected in all of the F475W, F606W, and F814W passbands. Upper limits in any of the passbands make a direct comparison with the underlying galactic stellar populations impossible, or highly uncertain at best.
* Their sizes must be of the same order as the ACS PSF, i.e., $`\sigma _{\mathrm{cl}}\sigma _{\mathrm{PSF}}`$. Ground-based test measurements and artificial PSFs generated by TinyTim (?) show that the ACS PSF is $`0.81.0`$ pixels. The onboard performance is affected by optical aberrations and geometric distortions. Point sources imaged with the WFC also experience blurring due to charge diffusion into adjacent pixels because of CCD subpixel variations (e.g. ?). We adopted a conservative size selection criterion of $`\sigma _{\mathrm{cl}}0.8`$ pixel.
* Genuine star clusters should not be significantly elongated, so that we limited the roundness parameter in daofind to fall in the range $`[1.0,1.0]`$.
* Finally, the candidate clusters must be associated with the galaxies, but we do not want to exclude objects that may have been ejected from the main body of the system due to gravitational kicks. Therefore, we required their (conservative) maximum projected distance to be 2$`\stackrel{}{.}`$0 and 1$`\stackrel{}{.}`$5 from the $`3\sigma _{\mathrm{sky}}`$ contours of the Mice and the Tadpole galaxies, respectively. At their respective distances (distance moduli $`mM=34.93`$ and 35.70, based on their Virgocentric radial velocities and $`H_0=70`$ km s-1 Mpc-1), this corresponds to a maximum projected distance of $`1`$ kpc in both cases.

Finally, we visually verified all of the star cluster candidates by simultaneously displaying enlargements of them in all three passbands, and assigned appropriate annuli for aperture photometry to obtain source and sky background fluxes. Our final cluster samples contain 45 and 38 sources for the Mice and the Tadpole, respectively. We used standard aperture radii for the source fluxes of 20 ACS pixels ($``$ 1$`\stackrel{}{.}`$01), and determined the sky background in annular rings with radii $`20r32`$ pixels (1$`\stackrel{}{.}`$01 $`r`$ 1$`\stackrel{}{.}`$61), although in a few individual cases these annuli had to be adjusted to include all of the source flux or avoid bright features in the background annuli. Photometric calibration to the STMAG system was achieved by applying the image header keywords photflam and photzpt to the total count rates for each cluster. As photometric zero-point offsets we used 25.564, 26.538 and 26.706 for F475W, F606W and F814W, respectively. Our bright cluster samples are characterised by brightnesses of $`20\mathrm{F606W}(\mathrm{mag})25`$ in both systems. A proper completeness analysis is severely complicated by the highly variable extinction and (galactic) background levels across the individual interacting galaxies, and by the small sizes of our objects.

In Tables 1 and 2 we list the clusters’ coordinates, properly corrected for the geometric distortions inherent to the optical design of the ACS, and their photometric properties in all passbands. The photometric uncertainties include the effects of Poisson-type noise, and variations and shot noise in the background annuli. Due to the almost parallel age and extinction vectors, we cannot correct our magnitude measurements for the effects of extinction (but see Section 4). This clearly shows, therefore, that the particular combination of F475W, F606W and F814W passbands by itself is not a good choice for age estimates based on broad-band colours, for objects older than $`10^8`$ yr.

### 3.2 Properties of the interacting systems as a whole

The analysis of broad-band galaxy colours in terms of their SFHs and stellar content is complicated due to the composite nature of the galaxy’s stellar population, the age-metallicity degeneracy, the effects of internal extinction, possible variations in the initial mass function (IMF; e.g. ?), and the uncertainties in the absolute age zero point arising from these. Therefore, the use of spatially resolved colours has major advantages over that of the integrated colours alone.

We constructed CC diagrams and CMDs for both the Tadpole and the Mice galaxies on a pixel-by-pixel basis, following the recent studies by ?) and ?) that showed the viability of such an approach. To avoid the spurious effects of noise in the sky background and to optimise the scientific return with respect to the processing time of the millions of pixel values, we only consider pixels with a minimum count level in the image with the lowest signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. For the Tadpole system, this translated to a minimum count level of three times the sky noise in the F606W image, and for the Mice galaxies we used a $`4\sigma _{\mathrm{sky}}`$ level in the F475W image. The pixel CC diagrams, $`(\mathrm{F475W}\mathrm{F606W})`$ vs. $`(\mathrm{F606W}\mathrm{F814W})`$, and CMDs, F606W vs. $`(\mathrm{F606W}\mathrm{F814W})`$, of both galaxies are shown in Figs. 1, 2, 4 and 5. The data have been corrected for foreground extinction using the ?) extinction map and the Galactic reddening law of ?): $`A_{\mathrm{F475W}}/A_V1.24;A_{\mathrm{F606W}}/A_V0.90;A_{\mathrm{F814W}}/A_V0.50`$ mag. The arrows indicate the reddening and fading vectors for $`A_V=1.0`$ mag (internal) extinction, assuming a foreground screen dust geometry.

#### 3.2.1 Dissecting the Tadpole

We have also included our cluster colour measurements in the CC diagrams of Figs. 1 and 4. Close inspection of the density distribution of pixels in the CC diagram of the Tadpole (Fig. 1) reveals a sharp drop in density to bluer colours below the dashed line. The lower-density plateau bluewards of this drop coincides approximately with the loci of the majority of the star clusters. Therefore, we define the region characterised by $`(\mathrm{F606W}\mathrm{F814W})0.7(\mathrm{F475W}\mathrm{F606W})`$ as Tadpole Region I of special interest. The pixels in this region also occupy a coherent region in colour-magnitude space, although not as sharply delineated as in colour-colour space (see Fig. 2). The slight density enhancement in Fig. 1 towards redder colours in $`(\mathrm{F475W}\mathrm{F606W})`$ and bluer colours in $`(\mathrm{F606W}\mathrm{F814W})`$ is an artificial feature caused by the lowest-S/N pixels in the F606W passband, located at the interface region between the galaxy and the sky background.

In the Tadpole CMD of Fig. 2, we define two further regions of interest. Region II consists of the pixels in the well-defined, bright, sharply delineated peak at F606W $`26.8`$ mag; Region III is the fuzzy swarm of pixels on the redward side of that same peak. These three features occupy similar well-defined loci in all of the other CMDs that can be constructed from the available observations.

In Fig. 3 we show the physical locations in the Tadpole system corresponding to these three features. The blue plateau in its CC diagram, Region I, corresponds to regions in which active star formation is currently taking place. A large fraction of the star clusters, indicated by circles, appears to be associated with these areas as well. The sharply delineated bright peak in the Tadpole CMD corresponds to the core of the dominant spiral galaxy UGC 10214, a projected area occupying roughly $`3.1\times 1.2`$ kpc along the galaxy’s major axis, while the bright fuzzy swarm of red pixels is located in the galactic disk underlying the sharp bright peak in the centre region of $`6.2\times 3.1`$ kpc, elongated along the galaxy’s major axis and not corrected for the galaxy’s inclination. Although these latter pixels have redder colours than those in the galactic centre, a close inspection of the individual observations and of the “true-colour” image of ?) does not reveal significant amounts of extinction surrounding the immediate centre of the galaxy; these pixels are not associated with the dust lane seen at slightly larger radii. Thus, we conclude that the central galactic disk stellar population is intrinsically redder than the population in its very core. This may indicate stronger present or more recent star formation in the core (see e.g. NGC 7252; ?), or perhaps low-level nuclear (Seyfert or LINER) activity, such as seen in a number of early-type spiral galaxies with blue cores (e.g. ?). Near-infrared photometry in an $`8^{\prime \prime }`$ aperture centred on the galactic centre (?) classifies the galactic centre as relatively “normal”, without the $`(KL)`$ excess expected from a recent burst of star formation.

Finally, we compared the distributions and densities in colour-colour and colour-magnitude space of the pixels originating in the tidal tail and the galactic disk itself (see Fig. 3). While the colours of the tidal tail and of the main galactic disk occupy very similar areas in the CC diagram, the pixels in the tidal tail are dominated by “Region I” colours: $`60`$% of the pixels in the tidal tail correspond to colours in Region I. They contribute $`70,55,`$ and 40% of the total flux in the F475W, F606W, and F814W passbands, respectively. (Only a small fraction of the light from the main disk of the galaxy corresponds to “Region I”-type colours.) The colours of the remaining pixels coincide with the colours of the main galactic disk.

#### 3.2.2 Unraveling the Mice

Although the drop in density towards bluer colours in the CC diagram of the Mice (see Fig. 4) is not as sharp as for the Tadpole, we see that the star clusters are predominantly found in the same region in colour-colour space as before. Therefore, we adopt the same definition as for the Tadpole for Region I in the Mice. The difference between the Mice and the Tadpole in the sense that we observe a more gradual decrease in density towards bluer colours in the Mice than in the Tadpole indicates most likely a real difference in the SFH of both systems. In the Tadpole, the interaction has affected only small regions of the system because of the relatively minor gravitational disturbance of the lower-mass galaxy on the higher-mass one (see Section 4.2), while the active star formation is more widespread throughout both galaxies and the tidal tails of the Mice.

The Mice CC diagram shows a red extension, roughly characterised by $`(\mathrm{F475W}\mathrm{F606W})0.0`$ mag and $`(\mathrm{F606W}\mathrm{F814W})0.2`$ mag. Further verification of this feature in the CMD (Fig. 5) shows that we also need to restrict the pixels in this feature, Region II, to obey F606W $`28.0`$ mag, to avoid contamination by low-S/N pixels and background noise.

The “plume” of enhanced density in Fig. 4 at $`(\mathrm{F606W}\mathrm{F814W})0.2`$ mag is an artificial feature caused by the lowest-S/N pixels in the F475W passband.

We define two further regions of interest in the Mice: Region III consists of the bright peak with pixel values brighter than F606W = 26.0 mag, while it appears that a further plume in the CMD, starting at the faint limit of the bright peak, but with bluer colours, might be a physically distinct population of pixels. We define Region IV to be composed of pixels with F606W $`26.5`$ mag, and $`(\mathrm{F606W}\mathrm{F814W})0.2`$ mag. Again, all of these features occupy similarly well-defined loci in the other CMDs that can be constructed from the available observations.

In Fig. 6, we show the correspondence between the features in the CC diagram and the CMDs of the Mice and their physical locations in the system itself. Again, we see that all of the features we identified coincide with physically distinct regions in the galaxies. Region I again coincides with regions of active star formation, and a fairly good match with the locations of the star clusters is observed once more. Region II is associated with areas of heavy extinction.

Although we did not define a similar region as Region II in the CC diagram of the Tadpole galaxy, this is merely due to the sharper demarcation of Region II in the Mice, and not to the absence nor even the lower density of such red pixels in the Tadpole system. The sharper demarcation in the Mice indicates that the dust and stellar populations are less well mixed in this system than in the Tadpole (or that dust is more important in the Mice). We attribute this to the difference in viewing angle between the two systems. The dust lanes are most clearly seen and most sharply defined in the edge-on view of NGC 4676A, while the dust is seen through an upper layer of stars in the Tadpole galaxy, which hence appears to be better mixed in projection.

The bright peak of Region III is clearly identified as the population of pixels originating from the centre of the southern galaxy, NGC 4676B. The width of the bright peak in the CMD of the Mice is smaller than that in the Tadpole CMD. It therefore appears that the contrast between the blue core and the redder central region in the Tadpole is of real significance.

The slightly fainter but bluer feature of Region IV is associated with central star forming regions in both galaxies in the system. Both NGC 4676A and NGC 4676B are located in the region occupied by the “normal” galaxies in the near-infrared $`(KL)`$ vs. $`(HK)`$ diagram of ?), without the $`(KL)`$ excess indicative of recent nuclear star formation. This is confirmed by the relatively inconspicuous and red CMD features associated with the galactic centres, and the low far-infrared luminosity of the system (??).

A comparison between the CMDs and CC diagrams of the individual galaxies of the Mice does not reveal significant differences that cannot be explained by the different viewing angles. For instance, Region II is not as densely populated in the CC diagram of NGC 4676B as in that of NGC 4676A, but this is likely due to the more face-on orientation of the former galaxy. Region I is approximately similarly well populated in both CC diagrams; $`(1.52.5)`$% of the total number of pixels with F475W fluxes in excess of the $`4\sigma _{\mathrm{sky}}`$ level are found in Region I. This indicates that the burst of star formation triggered by the encounter is similar in both galaxies and has affected only relatively small areas in either galaxy, in particular in their tidal tails and outer spiral arms.

## 4 Implications for star and cluster formation scenarios

### 4.1 Dynamical time-scales and cluster formation in the Mice

Starting with ?)’s seminal paper based on a small number of test particles, sophisticated N-body simulations have been employed to generate an interaction morphology resembling that observed for the Mice (e.g. ????). The current state of the art simulations seem to converge to agreement on the interaction geometry, inclination angles of the individual galaxies, parabolic orbital parameters, and a mass ratio of the two galaxies of roughly unity (e.g. ??) to 1:2 for NGC 4676A : NGC 4676B (??) \[from Hi rotation curves\]. While the morphological features are fairly well reproduced in most respects, matching the kinematic properties of the entire system including the tidal tails requires the presence of extended massive dark matter haloes surrounding both galaxies (?), but see ?) for an opposing view.

The system’s morphology suggests that the Mice represents a galaxy merger in its very early stages (e.g. ?); current best estimates for the time-scale since pericentre are $`(160180)\times 10^6`$ yr (??). In order to facilitate a comparison of the relevant time-scales, in Figs. 1 and 4 we have overplotted the model predictions for the evolution of SSPs, based on the SSP models of ?), properly folded through the HST/ACS filter response curves and taken account of the better-than-expected in-flight performance (Gilliland, priv. comm.). We added the age-dependent contributions of an exhaustive set of gaseous emission lines and of gas continuum emission to the ?) models. Emission-line contributions to optical broad-band fluxes are very important during the first $`3\times 10^7`$ yr of evolution for subsolar metallicities ($`Z=0.004=0.2Z_{}`$). For solar metallicity SSPs, their contribution is slightly lower but still important for $`t1.2\times 10^7`$ yr (?). We assume roughly solar metallicity for the star clusters: for star formation associated with any reasonable interaction scenario in the present-day Universe one can expect metallicities in the range $`(0.51.0)Z_{}`$ (?).

Due to the almost parallel age and extinction vectors, we cannot determine the ages of the star clusters unambiguously, nor correct their magnitude measurements for the effects of extinction. However, Fig. 4 shows that the majority of the bright clusters in the Mice are located in Region I, with only a small spread along the extinction and age vectors. The other, redder clusters could be either part of an older cluster population, or more heavily affected by extinction. If we assume that for the blue clusters in Region I the combination of foreground and internal extinction is small or negligible, this allows us to place a lower limit on their age. However, such a lower limit is highly uncertain due to two further complications: (i) the majority of the bluest star clusters are located in the region of the CC diagram where the models are multi-valued; and (ii) the resulting age estimates are a strong function of metallicity for such young ages, even for a close-to-solar metallicity range. Nevertheless, the available data for the Mice imply a minimum age for the majority of the blue clusters of $`(1.0\pm 0.2)\times 10^8`$ yr for solar metallicity, or $`t_{\mathrm{min}}2\times 10^8`$ yr for $`Z=0.4Z_{}`$. (Note that because of the good match of our models to the observed colours we can recover all of parameter space by mixing various amounts of young and old\[er\] stellar populations with extinction. This implies that our basic assumption that we can use pixel CMDs and CC diagrams as composites of SSPs is a reasonable approximation to reality.)

We are now in a good position to comment on the importance of star cluster formation in the context of the tidally-induced violent star formation in the general field population. A large fraction of the bluest clusters coincide spatially with the blue field population in the spine of the NGC 4676A tidal tail and the outer spiral arm of NGC 4676B (see Fig. 6). H$`\alpha `$ observations of the Mice (?????), indicative of recent star formation, are consistent with a tidal origin. A detailed comparison of Fig. 6 with the H$`\alpha `$ map in ?) shows remarkably good agreement between the H$`\alpha `$-bright condensations and features within the tidal tails and the outer spiral arms of NGC 4676B, and the spatial distribution of the bluest pixels (Regions I and IV) in the Mice (Figs. 4 and 5).

We can, in fact, place a strong lower limit on the age of the H$`\alpha `$-bright regions in the Mice. ?) concluded, from his H$`\alpha `$+\[Nii\] spectroscopy, that all of the emission from NGC 4676A, including the entire length of the tidal tail, and from at least part of NGC 4676B is A-star dominated. The most likely origin for such an A-type spectrum is rapid, widespread star formation that effectively ceased $`5\times 10^7`$ yr ago, so that earlier-type O and B stars would have had sufficient time to evolve off the main sequence. This is consistent with the current star formation rates derived by ?) in both NGC 4676A and its tidal tail, which are not unlike the rates found in normal spiral galaxies. This implies, therefore, that these parts of the interacting system are currently not undergoing enhanced star formation due to the encounter, but did so $`>5\times 10^7`$ yr ago.

Secondly, ?) and ?) suggest that the actual mechanism responsible for the star formation in the H$`\alpha `$ condensations is driven by gravitational instabilities in the gas caused by the encounter. They calculate that the time-scale for developing such instabilities is on the order of a few times $`10^7`$ yr, which places a similar lower limit on the age of these compact objects. Therefore, the main event triggering the cluster formation must have occurred at least $`(1.52.0)\times 10^8`$ yr ago, depending on the precise cluster metallicities.

We conclude, therefore, that Regions I and IV in the CC diagram of the Mice correspond to active and recent star formation induced by the tidal interaction, while the star clusters found scattered throughout these star-forming regions are also consistent with having been formed on similar time-scales.

The fractional contribution of the star clusters to the total flux in Region I in the Mice is $`40`$%, independent of wavelength. Because of our selection bias towards brighter star clusters, this is in fact a lower limit to the total cluster contribution. Despite the fact that this region is not as sharply defined in the Mice as in the Tadpole system, this clearly shows that star cluster formation is a major mode of star formation in galactic encounters.

Some 40% of the star cluster candidates identified in Section 3.1 coincide spatially (in projection) with the H$`\alpha `$-bright condensations, which therefore might be either young star clusters, knots of active star formation, giant Hii complexes (???), or due to projection effects. Most of the objects are unresolved by the ACS PSF, and therefore have diameters of $`35`$ pc.

If we assume that the ongoing tidal interactions between NGC 4676A and NGC 4676B have indeed induced the formation of the observed bright blue star clusters in the past $`2\times 10^8`$ yr, we can estimate the cluster masses and compare those to the masses of star clusters in other young cluster systems. The bright blue star clusters in the Mice exhibit a peak in their brightness distribution at F606W $`22`$ mag; combined with the mass-to-light ($`M/L`$) ratio in the F606W passband at an age of $`2\times 10^8`$ yr, $`M/L_{606}0.2`$, we estimate a characteristic photometric mass for these clusters of $`3\times 10^6M_{}`$.

We emphasize that we are only sampling the bright wing of the CLF, and therefore the high-mass wing of the cluster mass function. Independent dynamical mass estimates are available only for a few of the most luminous SSCs, and are approximately $`10^6M_{}`$ (???). The masses of Galactic globular clusters are typically in the range $`10^43\times 10^6M_{}`$ (e.g. ??). Thus, the approximate photometric mass estimate obtained for the median of the bright blue clusters in the Mice is consistent with this being the bright wing of a “normal” SSC or globular cluster progenitor population.

### 4.2 Star and cluster formation in the Tadpole galaxy

The Tadpole system is an example of a galaxy encounter between two unequal-mass galaxies at a later stage. The system is composed of a mildly disturbed SBc galaxy and a long, low-S/N tidal tail. The latter shows a number of bright, blue condensations, while active star formation is also apparent on the inside of the western spiral arm (Fig. 3). ?) attribute this region of enhanced star formation to the remnant of a low-mass galaxy that caused the disturbed appearance of the system.

As for the Mice, in Fig. 1 we have overplotted the model predictions for the evolution of SSPs. We see that the majority of the star clusters are located in a very similar region as the clusters in the Mice, again with a relatively small spread along the age/extinction vector. In view of the formation constraints imposed by the time-scale to develop gravitational instabilities, we conclude that the clusters we identified in the Tadpole (Table 2) must also have been formed very recently, $`(1.52.0)\times 10^8`$ yr ago, and represent the high-mass wing of a similar mass distribution as in the Mice. This minimum age estimate is consistent with their spatial distribution throughout the galactic disk and tidal tail, which matches the actively star forming regions defined by the pixels in Region I reasonably well. The clusters located in Region I of the Tadpole CMD contribute $`35`$% to the total flux of all pixels in this region, again independent of passband for the filter combination used here.

It is rather remarkable that the interaction of a massive SBc galaxy and a low-mass companion caused such a strong deformation of the massive galaxy and also very pronounced star cluster formation. We can obtain a rough, independent estimate of the dynamical age of the interaction in the Tadpole interacting system by comparing the length of its tail ($`110`$ kpc) to the stellar velocity dispersion expected in the undisturbed progenitor galaxy. In a typical large spiral galaxy, velocity dispersions of $`(150300)`$ km s-1 are expected (?), so that the dynamical age since the beginning of the interaction resulting from this impulse approximation is $`t_{\mathrm{dyn}}(48)\times 10^8`$ yr. This is remarkably close to the ages of the star clusters estimated from their loci in the CC diagram.

## 5 Summary and Conclusions

We have utilised optical pixel-by-pixel CMDs and CC diagrams to explore and deduce the star and star cluster formation histories of the Mice and the Tadpole interacting galaxies. Despite their considerable distance of $`100`$ Mpc, this technique now offers promising prospects to study the local, dominant stellar populations out to greater distances than ever before thanks to the capabilities of the Advanced Camera for Surveys onboard HST. The analysis performed in this paper is based on a subset of the ACS Early Release Observations, obtained from the HST data archive. One of the main advantages of ACS/WFC observations is that the PSF is (marginally) undersampled, so that each pixel corresponds to a spatially independent measurement of the underlying composite stellar population.

In both interacting systems we find some 40 bright young star clusters ($`20\mathrm{F606W}(\mathrm{mag})25`$, with diameters $`35`$ pc and a characteristic mass of $`3\times 10^6M_{}`$), which are spatially coincident with blue regions of active star formation in the tidal tails and spiral arms of our target galaxies. Despite the complications caused by the age–extinction degeneracy in the combination of the F475W, F606W and F814W optical passbands, we estimate that the main event triggering the formation of these clusters occurred $`(1.52.0)\times 10^8`$ yr ago. It is therefore likely that the gravitational interactions responsible for the disturbed appearances of our target galaxies have induced not only enhanced star formation, but also star cluster formation. We argue that star cluster formation is a major mode of star formation in galactic interactions, with $`35`$% of the active star formation in encounters occurring in star clusters. This is the first time that young star clusters have been detected along the tidal tails in interacting galaxies.

We find that specific features and plumes in the CMDs and CC diagrams of both interacting systems correspond to sharply demarcated regions in the systems themselves. In the Tadpole system, we detect a hitherto unknown very bright blue core superimposed on a redder central area, which we speculate may be related to some form of nuclear activity in the main disk galaxy of this system, UGC 10214. The tidal tail of the system is dominated by blue star forming regions, which occupy some 60% of the total area covered by the tail; they contribute $`70`$% of the total flux in the F475W passband (decreasing to $`40`$% in F814W). The remaining pixels in the tail have colours consistent with those of the main disk.

The Mice interacting galaxies are an example of an approximately equal-mass encounter. We identify regions of pronounced star formation in the tidal tails, outer spiral arms, and near the galactic centres. We conclude that the tidally triggered burst of star formation is of similar strength in both galaxies, but it has affected only relatively small spatially coherent areas.

Finally, the analysis in this paper has shown that the technique of using both CMDs and CC diagrams on a pixel-by-pixel basis, combined with measurements of individual, distinct compact objects, is a very powerful tool to unravel the complex star formation histories and their associated star cluster formation in interacting galaxies.

## Acknowledgements

JTL and MCMH acknowledge PPARC funding to attend the 2002 PPARC/ Cambridge International Undergraduate Summer School. We thank Paul Eskridge, Max Mutchler, Ronald Gilliland, Rolf Jansen, and Richard Sword for scientific or graphics suggestions and support. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Abstract Service. The Interactive Data Language (idl) is licensed by Research Systems Inc., of Boulder, CO, USA.


text:
# Solving the liar detection problem using the four-qubit singlet state

## I Introduction

Some interesting applications of the $`N`$-particle $`N`$-level singlet states have been recently introduced Cabello02b . Particularly, the three three-level singlet state

$`|𝒮_3^{(3)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}}(|012|021|102+|120`$ (1)
$`+|201|210)`$
(the lower and upper indexes refer, respectively, to the number of constituents and the dimension of the Hilbert space of any of the constituents of the composite system) was shown to be useful for solving the “liar detection problem” Cabello02b , which is a simplification of a classically unsolvable problem in quantum computing called the “Byzantine generals’ problem” or the “Byzantine agreement problem” introduced in two seminal papers by Lamport, Pease, and Shostak PSL80 ; LSP82 , and inspired by a pseudohistorical scenario commh . A version of this problem was previously solved by Fitzi, Gisin, and Maurer FGM01  also using the three three-level singlet state. Ref. Cabello02b  ended by remarking that the preparation of the required states would pose a formidable challenge. Meanwhile, Gisin has proposed a method for preparing the three three-level singlet state Gisin02 . To my knowledge, no experimental results have as yet been reported.

On the other hand, the Munich group Weinfurter02  (see also Ref. WZ01 ) has prepared, using parametric down-converted photons entangled in polarization, a four-qubit entangled state that can be expressed as

$`|𝒮_4^{(2)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\sqrt{3}}}(2|0011|0101|0110`$ (2)
$`|1001|1010+2|1100).`$
This state belongs to a family of states of $`N`$ (even) qubits that generalizes the familiar two-qubit singlet state

$$|𝒮_2^{(2)}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|01|10).$$
(3)
Any member of this family can be expressed as

$`|𝒮_N^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\frac{N}{2}!\sqrt{\frac{N}{2}+1}}}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{\mathrm{permutations}}{\mathrm{of}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0}\mathrm{}01\mathrm{}1}}{}}z!\left({\displaystyle \frac{N}{2}}z\right)!(1)^{\frac{N}{2}z}`$
$`\times |ij\mathrm{}n,`$ (4)
where the sum is extended to all of the states obtained by permuting the state $`|0\mathrm{}01\mathrm{}1`$, which contains the same number of 0’s and 1’s; $`z`$ is the number of 0’s in the first $`N/2`$ positions (for example, in $`|01`$, $`z=1`$; in $`|1100`$, $`z=0`$; in $`|010110`$, $`z=2`$). Expression (4) is similar to that introduced in Ref. Cabello02b  for the $`N`$-particle $`N`$-level singlet states (which, according to the notation introduced here, should be denoted as $`|𝒮_N^{(N)}`$).

The interesting point is that the $`N`$-qubit “singlet” comm1  states given by Eq. (4) share some properties with the $`N`$-particle $`N`$-level singlet states introduced in Ref. Cabello02b . Both are nonseparable and $`N`$-lateral unitary invariant. Nonseparability means that no local model can mimic the predictions of quantum mechanics for these states comm2  and implies that the outcomes of the measurements do not reveal predefined results. $`N`$-lateral unitary invariance means that, if we act on any state with the tensor product of $`N`$ equal unitary operators, the result will be to reproduce the same state:

$$U^{\scriptscriptstyle N}|\psi =|\psi ,$$
(5)
$`U^{\scriptscriptstyle N}`$ being $`U\mathrm{}U`$, where $`U`$ is a unitary operator. This implies that the same correlations between the outcomes of measurements on the $`N`$ particles occur for different sets of measurements. Both properties were essential to the solutions to the problems proposed in Refs. Cabello02b ; FGM01 . The question is whether the $`|𝒮_N^{(2)}`$ states can be used to perform tasks that, so far, were specific to the $`|𝒮_N^{(N)}`$ states.

The $`|𝒮_N^{(2)}`$ states can be used to distribute cryptographic keys BB84 ; Ekert91 , encode quantum information in decoherence-free subspaces PSE96 ; DG97 ; ZR97a ; KBLW01 , perform secret sharing, and teleclone quantum states (telecloning is a process combining quantum teleportation and optimal quantum cloning from $`1`$ input to $`M`$ outputs) MJPV99 . In fact, for $`N4`$, the $`|𝒮_N^{(2)}`$ states are the $`N`$-lateral unitary invariant version of the telecloning states introduced in Ref. MJPV99 . In this paper, I shall show that the state $`|𝒮_4^{(2)}`$ can also be used to solve the Byzantine generals’ and liar detection problems.

The Byzantine generals’ problem is a classical problem in distributed computing defined as follows. $`N`$ generals are connected by secure pairwise classical channels. A commanding general must send an order to his $`N1`$ lieutenant generals such that: (a) All loyal lieutenant generals obey the same order; (b) if the commanding general is loyal, then every loyal lieutenant general obeys his order. If the commanding general is loyal, (a) follows from (b). However, the commanding general may be a traitor.

The Byzantine generals’ problem is a metaphor for distributed processes, some of which may be faulty. For $`N=3`$ generals and $`1`$ traitor the problem has no classical solution, as proved in Refs. PSL80 ; LSP82 . However, a version thereof can be solved with the aid of quantum mechanics. The protocol proposed in Ref. FGM01  solves the Byzantine generals’ problem for $`N=3`$ in the following sense: if all generals are loyal then, after the protocol, all the generals would obey the commanding general’s order. If one general is a traitor then, after the protocol, either the two loyal generals would obey the commanding general’s order or abort the process.

As can be easily seen, the Byzantine generals’ problem for $`N=3`$ generals and $`1`$ traitor is equivalent to the liar detection problem defined as follows Cabello02b : three parties $`A`$(lice), $`B`$(ob), and $`C`$(arol) are connected by secure pairwise classical channels. $`A`$ sends a message $`m`$ to $`B`$ and $`C`$, and $`B`$ forwards the message to $`C`$. If both $`A`$ and $`B`$ are honest, then $`C`$ should receive the same message from $`A`$ and $`B`$. However, $`A`$ could be dishonest and send different messages to $`B`$ and $`C`$, $`m_{AB}m_{AC}`$, or, alternatively, $`B`$ could be dishonest and send a message that is different from that he has received, $`m_{BC}m_{AB}`$. For $`C`$ the problem is to ascertain without a shadow of a doubt who is being dishonest.

In Sec. III I shall introduce a protocol based on the $`|𝒮_4^{(2)}`$ state for solving the liar detection problem (and thus also the Byzantine generals’ problem) in the following sense: if both $`A`$ and $`B`$ are honest then $`C`$ will receive the same message from $`A`$ and $`B`$. If one of $`A`$ and $`B`$ is dishonest then, after the protocol, either $`C`$ ascertain who is being dishonest or $`C`$ does not accept the message from one of the parties $`A`$ and $`B`$.

Before getting into the details of the protocol, it would be useful to give a rough idea of how it works: besides their messages, $`A`$ and $`B`$ must send some additional information. For instance, $`A`$ must also send $`B`$ some private information correlated with the message. $`B`$ and $`C`$ must be able to check the authenticity of the information they have received by using private information. In addition, to convince $`C`$ that the message $`B`$ is sending her is actually that $`B`$ received from $`A`$, $`B`$ would also need to send $`C`$ the information $`B`$ has received from $`A`$. In this scenario, being a liar means that she/he did not distribute the appropriate additional information. The advantage derives from the fact that $`C`$ can detect the origin of the inappropriate information.

## II Distribute and test protocol

The protocol for solving the liar detection problem described in Sec. III is based on the assumption that, at the beginning of the protocol, $`A`$, $`B`$, and $`C`$ share a large number $`L`$ of four-qubit systems in the $`|𝒮_4^{(2)}`$ state described by Eq. (2) such that, for each four-qubit system $`j`$ (from 1 to $`L`$), $`A`$ possesses two qubits (qubits $`j_1`$ and $`j_2`$, or qubits $`j_1`$ and $`j_3`$, but she does not know which two), $`B`$ possesses one qubit ($`j_3`$ or $`j_2`$, but he does not know which one), and $`C`$ possesses the fourth qubit $`j_4`$ and knows which qubits $`A`$ and $`B`$ have in their possession.

The purpose of this distribute and test protocol, preceding the protocol for liar detection, is to prepare the initial scenario required for the second protocol and test whether or not said initial scenario has been achieved. The distribute and test protocol has only two possible outcomes: success or failure. In case of success, $`C`$ would assume that the required initial scenario has been achieved and then the liar detection can be reliably accomplished. In case of failure, $`C`$ would conclude that something went wrong and would abort any subsequent action.

The initial assumptions are that there are only three parties involved: $`A`$, $`B`$, and $`C`$, and that they are connected by secure pairwise classical channels and by noiseless quantum channels.

The distribute and test protocol is as follows.

(i) $`C`$ prepares a large number $`M>L`$ of four-qubit systems in the $`|𝒮_4^{(2)}`$ state. For each four-qubit system $`j`$ (from 1 to $`M`$), $`C`$ sends two qubits (qubits $`j_1`$ and $`j_2`$, or qubits $`j_1`$ and $`j_3`$) to $`A`$, one qubit to $`B`$ ($`j_3`$ or $`j_2`$), and keeps the fourth qubit for herself.

(ii) For each four-qubit system $`j`$ sent, $`C`$ checks whether or not $`A`$ and $`B`$ have received the right number of qubits (two qubits for $`A`$ and one for $`B`$).

(iii) $`C`$ randomly chooses two large enough subsets $`S_1`$ and $`S_2`$ of the distributed four-qubit systems. These subsets are used only to test whether or not the initial scenario required for the protocol for liar detection has been achieved. Qubits belonging to $`S_1`$ and $`S_2`$ will be discarded at the end of the distribute and test protocol. If $`N_i`$ is the number of four-qubit systems in $`S_i`$, then $`M=N_1+N_2+L`$.

(iv) For each four-qubit system $`j`$ of $`S_1`$, $`C`$ asks $`A`$ to send $`B`$ her two qubits.

(v) $`C`$ checks whether or not $`B`$ has received $`A`$’s qubits.

(vi) $`C`$ asks $`B`$ to perform some measurements on each of the three qubits (the two qubits $`B`$ has received from $`A`$ plus the one that has been in $`B`$’s possession from the start), and report his results to her by using the secure pairwise classical channel between them. For instance, $`C`$ can ask $`B`$ to perform a measurement of the spin along the same direction on all three qubits, $`M_j`$.

(vii) $`C`$ performs a measurement on her corresponding qubit. For instance, $`C`$ can measure $`M_j`$. The outcomes of $`B`$ and $`C`$’s measurements must be correlated. For instance, if they have measured $`M_j`$ on the four qubits, two of them must be “$`0`$” and the other two must be “$`1`$”; due to unitary invariance, this occurs for any $`M_j`$. Due to the fact that $`A`$’s qubits are entangled with $`B`$ and $`C`$’s qubits, the outcomes can be proved comm2  to be genuinely unpredictable (if one does not know the results of the other measurements). $`C`$ checks whether the expected correlations occur.

(viii) For each four-qubit system $`j`$ of $`S_2`$, $`C`$ follows the same steps as in (iv)–(vii), only exchanging the roles of $`A`$ and $`B`$.

(ix) Since $`C`$’s choice of subsets $`S_1`$ and $`S_2`$ is known by $`A`$ and $`B`$ only after all qubits have been distributed among them, then, if all the outcomes are correctly correlated, $`C`$ would assume that the remaining $`L`$ distributed four-qubit systems are in the $`|𝒮_4^{(2)}`$ state and use them for the protocol described below. If not, $`C`$ would conclude that something went wrong and abort any subsequent action.

## III Protocol for liar detection

Let us suppose that the message $`m`$ that $`A`$ sends to $`B`$ and $`C`$, and $`B`$ sends to $`C`$ is a bit value “$`0`$” or “$`1`$” and that all three parties agree to use the following protocol.

(I) For each four-qubit system, $`C`$ asks $`A`$ and $`B`$ to perform the same measurement on their individual qubits. After a large number of these measurements, both $`B`$ and $`C`$ ($`A`$) are in possession of a long list of (pairs of) 0’s and 1’s $`l_B`$, and $`l_C`$ ($`l_A`$) such as the following.

Each of these lists has the following properties.

(a) It is random (i.e., generated by an intrinsically unrepeatable method that gives each possible number the same probability of occurring).

(b) It is correlated to the other two lists. If “$`00`$” (“$`11`$”) is in position $`j`$ in $`l_A`$, then “$`1`$” (“$`0`$”) is in position $`j`$ in $`l_B`$ and $`l_C`$.

(c) Each party knows only his/her own list.

(II) The message $`A`$ sends $`B`$ is denoted as $`m_{AB}`$. In addition to $`m_{AB}`$, $`A`$ must also send $`B`$ the list $`l_A^{(m_{AB})}`$ of positions in $`l_A`$ in which $`m_{AB}`$ appears twice. For instance, if $`A`$ sends $`B`$ the message $`m_{AB}=0`$, then she must also send $`B`$ the list $`l_A^{(m_{AB}=0)}=\{1,3,6,\mathrm{}\}`$ since, in $`l_A`$, “$`00`$” appears in positions 1, 3, 6,…Note that, if the sequences are random and long enough, then the length of $`l_A^{(m_{AB}=0)}`$ must be about one-quarter of the total length $`L`$ of the list $`l_A`$.

(III) $`B`$ would not accept the message if the received list $`l_A^{(m_{AB})}`$ is not compatible with $`l_B`$ or the length of $`l_A^{(m_{AB})}L/4`$. For instance, if $`l_A^{(m_{AB}=0)}=\{1,2,3,6,\mathrm{}\}`$, then $`B`$ would not accept the message because “$`0`$” is in position 2 in $`l_B`$, so $`A`$ cannot have “$`00`$” in this position.

Requirements (II) and (III) force $`A`$ to send $`B`$ information which is correct but perhaps incomplete. Otherwise, if $`A`$ sends a list containing $`n`$ erroneous data, then the probability that $`B`$ does not accept the message $`m_{AB}`$ would be at last $`(2^n1)/2^n`$.

(IV) The message $`B`$ sends $`C`$ is denoted as $`m_{BC}`$. $`B`$ must also send $`C`$ a list $`l_A^{(m_{BC})}`$, which is supposedly the same $`l_A^{(m_{AB})}`$ that $`B`$ has received from $`A`$.

(V) The message $`A`$ sends $`C`$ is denoted as $`m_{AC}`$. $`A`$ must also send $`C`$ a list $`l_{AC}`$, which is supposedly $`l_A`$.

(VI) When $`C`$ finds that $`m_{AC}m_{BC}`$, she has three lists $`l_C`$, $`l_A^{(m_{BC})}`$, and $`l_{AC}`$, to help her find out whether it is $`A`$ or $`B`$ who is being dishonest. $`C`$ must first check whether $`l_{AC}`$ is consistent with $`l_C`$. If not, then $`A`$ is the liar. If yes, then $`C`$ must check whether $`l_A^{(m_{BC})}`$ has an appropriate length and is consistent with $`l_{AC}`$. If not, then $`B`$ is the liar. At this stage, this is the only possibility.

## IV Conclusions

The main practical advantage of the introduced protocol over those presented in Refs. Cabello02b ; FGM01  is that it requires a simpler quantum state (a four-qubit state instead of a three-qutrit state) which has been already prepared in a laboratory Weinfurter02 . This would make the new protocol immediately applicable for solving both the Byzantine generals’ and liar detection problems. The main theoretical advantage is that the introduced protocol seems to be fundamental in a greater degree than those in Refs. Cabello02b ; FGM01 , in the sense that it requires that only one party uses trit values, instead of all three parties.

Although both the Byzantine generals’ and liar detection problems assume that the parties are connected by secure pairwise classical channels (secure messengers in Ref. commh ), this is an unrealistic constraint for real applications. Note, however, that the protocol described above also works if the classical channels between $`A`$ and $`C`$, and between $`B`$ and $`C`$ are not secure but public and unjamable (i.e., which cannot be tampered with). Obviously, such a channel cannot be used to distribute delicate information (like, for instance, whether or not the generals will attack, or the lists $`l_A^{(m_{BC})}`$ and $`l_{AC}`$), but can be used, together with an additional quantum channel, to implement a standard quantum key distribution protocol BB84 ; Ekert91  to send this delicate information. The final picture gives us a quantum solution to a problem without classical solution: the liar detection problem without secure classical channels.

###### Acknowledgements.

I thank N. Gisin for useful suggestions, M. Bourennane, M. Eibl, S. Gaertner, N. Kiesel, C. Kurtsiefer, and H. Weinfurter for discussions, C. Serra and M. Żukowski for comments, H. Weinfurter for his hospitality at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München and Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik, Garching, and the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología Grants Nos. BFM2001-3943 and BFM2002-02815, the Junta de Andalucía Grant No. FQM-239, the Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik, and the European Science Foundation (Quantum information theory and quantum computation short scientific visit grant) for support.