text:
# 𝐵 Physics and Supersymmetry

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Flavour changing neutral currents (FCNC) and CP-violating processes are very sensitive probes of new physics. The GIM suppression of FCNC amplitudes is generally absent beyond the Standard Model (SM), giving possibly large enhancements of FCNC processes over the SM predictions. Furthermore, CP violation in weak decays in the SM is entirely governed by a single phase in the CKM matrix, resulting in a strong correlation between all CP-violating processes. In general, this correlation is lost beyond the SM. Until now, all experimental data are fully compatible with the SM, as can be clearly seen from the standard analysis of the Unitarity Triangle (UT) . One is then left with two basic questions: i) How can the SM be extended without spoiling the impressive consistency of the SM UT fit? ii) Can we still hope to see some hint of new physics in low-energy FCNC and CP-violating phenomena? While these two questions can be considered in full generality, I will focus in the rest of this talk on Supersymmetry (SUSY), which is at present the most successful extension of the SM with respect to the consistency with precision electroweak data. SUSY can modify the SM predictions on FCNC and CP-violating processes in three different ways: 1) With additional loop contributions still proportional to elements of the CKM matrix. A typical example of this kind of contributions is given by stop and chargino loops. This effect is present in any SUSY extension of the SM. 2) With additional loop contributions governed by new sources of flavour and CP violation . When these new sources of FCNC are present, typically the largest contributions arise from gluino exchange. This effect is absent in SUSY models with Minimal Flavour Violation (MFV) (see Sec. 2). 3) With additional tree-level contributions. These can only arise in models with R-parity violation, and typically affect FCNC processes in a dramatic way.

Clearly, models in which only the first kind of contributions are present tend to agree much better with experimental data than more general models. On the other hand, the presence of contributions of the second or third kind usually generates larger deviations from SM predictions on yet unobserved FCNC and CP violating processes. In this respect, $`B`$ physics is the next frontier of testing SUSY in weak decays: $`B`$ factories and the Tevatron will provide us with data on a large variety of FCNC and CP-violating $`B`$ decays, and $`B`$ physics is playing an ever-increasing role in the UT fit. In the following, I will discuss in some detail SUSY effects in $`B`$ physics in models with R-parity conservation.111For a recent example of the large effects in $`B`$ physics generated by R-violating couplings, see .

## 2 $`B`$ PHYSICS IN MODELS WITH MFV

Let me start by considering models with MFV, defined by the following requirements. First, I assume that all sfermion masses are flavour diagonal and real at the electroweak scale, and all gaugino and Higgs mass parameters are real. This ensures that the CKM matrix is the only source of flavour and CP violation, so that only the first kind of contributions discussed above can arise. Second, I assume that $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is not too large ($`\mathrm{tan}\beta 10`$), so that no new operator is generated in the effective Hamiltonian for $`B`$ decays. This implies that the SM analysis of perturbative and non-perturbative strong interaction effects can also be applied in this model. Finally, I assume that all squarks are degenerate except for the stop. This ensures that SUSY only modifies the contribution of the top quark in the SM. In particular, this means that SUSY contributions cancel from all quantities that in the SM do not depend on the top quark mass. A typical example is given by the ratio of the mass difference of $`B_d`$ and $`B_s`$ mesons. Indeed, a Universal Unitarity Triangle (UUT) can be constructed in these models, independent of SUSY contributions , once a sufficient number of top-mass independent quantities becomes available. At present, this is not the case and one needs to perform the full UT analysis to determine the CKM parameters for any given value of SUSY masses. The relevant SUSY parameters for the analysis are stop masses and mixing angle, the mass of the lightest chargino, the $`\mu `$ parameter, $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ and the charged Higgs mass. Potentially large contributions to $`bs\gamma `$ arise; once the constraints from $`bs\gamma `$ and the lower bounds on Higgs and SUSY masses from direct searches are taken into account, the UT fit in these models is indistinguishable from the SM one . Deviations at the level of $`2030\%`$ are possible in rare $`B`$ decays . This is a property shared also by non-SUSY MFV models . In the near future, $`bs\gamma `$ and $`bs\mathrm{}^+\mathrm{}^{}`$ will be the most sensitive probes of SUSY models with MFV .

If one allows $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ to be very large, huge effects are possible in $`B_s\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ , increasing the BR from $`BR(B_s\mu ^+\mu ^{})_{SM}410^9`$ to $`10^6`$, behind the corner of $`BR(B_s\mu ^+\mu ^{})_{EXP}<210^6`$ . This large enhancement of $`B_s\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ is in general correlated to a decrease of the $`B_s\overline{B}_s`$ mass difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$, cutting out a large part of parameter space . Once a measurement of $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$ becomes available, this correlation will be very useful in determining the prediction for $`B_s\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ in this model. It is also interesting to notice that, in minimal supergravity models, a correlation can be established between contributions to $`B_s\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ and $`(g2)_\mu `$. In the region of parameter space favoured by the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon, one can obtain enhancements of one or two orders of magnitude of $`BR(B_s\mu ^+\mu ^{})`$ over the SM prediction .

## 3 $`B`$ PHYSICS IN GENERAL SUSY

We now turn from MFV to SUSY models with arbitrary sfermion mass matrices. In general, FCNC and CP-violating processes impose stringent constraints on off-diagonal sfermion mass terms . To study these models in full generality, it is convenient to parameterize FCNC amplitudes in terms of $`(\delta _{ij}^d)_{AB}`$, the ratio of the off-diagonal squark mass term $`(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^d)_{AB}`$ connecting squarks of flavour $`i`$ and $`j`$ and helicities $`A`$ and $`B`$ over the average squark mass $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}^2`$. Let us first consider $`(\delta _{13}^d)_{AB}`$, the mass insertion that induces $`bd`$ transitions. Constraints on this parameter from the $`B_d\overline{B}_d`$ mass difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_d`$ and from the time-dependent CP asymmetry in $`B_dJ/\mathrm{\Psi }K`$ decays $`a_{\mathrm{\Psi }K}`$ have been recently studied in . This analysis includes NLO QCD corrections  and lattice matrix elements . As an example of the constraints one obtains from this kind of analysis, I report in Fig. 1 the allowed regions in the Abs$`(\delta _{13}^d)_{AB}`$ – Arg$`(\delta _{13}^d)_{AB}`$ plane $`(AB=LL,LR)`$, for $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}=500`$ GeV. Other results and details of the analysis can be found in . A similar analysis including also chargino contributions has been very recently carried out in . Effects of $`(\delta _{13}^d)_{LR}`$ can also be tested using $`B\rho \gamma `$ decays .

A similar analysis can be carried out for $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{AB}`$, the mass insertions that generate $`bs`$ transitions . In this case, however, at present we only have a lower bound on $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$ and the precise measurement of $`BR(BX_s\gamma )`$. The latter quantity is very effective in constraining $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{LR}`$, while its impact on $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{LL}`$ is quite limited. In Fig. 1 I report preliminary results on the allowed regions in the Re$`(\delta _{23}^d)_{AB}`$ – Im$`(\delta _{23}^d)_{AB}`$ plane, for $`AB=LL,LR`$, for the present lower bound $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s>14`$ ps-1. To illustrate the possible impact of a future measurement of $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$, in Fig. 1 I also report the allowed regions for $`15`$ ps$`{}_{}{}^{1}<\mathrm{\Delta }M_s<19`$ ps-1 and $`16`$ ps$`{}_{}{}^{1}<\mathrm{\Delta }M_s<18`$ ps-1. While the constraints on $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{LR}`$ are completely dominated by $`BR(BX_s\gamma )`$, one can see clearly that a measurement of $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$ will drastically reduce the allowed values of $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{LL}`$. However, given the errors on hadronic matrix elements, the allowed range for $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{LL}`$ cannot shrink too much when the experimental error on $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$ is reduced.

Clearly, $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{AB}`$ enter many other interesting $`bs`$ decays. Let us first consider $`B\varphi K_s`$. The first measurements of $`a_{\varphi K_s}`$ by the BaBar and Belle collaborations display a $`2.7\sigma `$ deviation from the observed value of $`a_{\mathrm{\Psi }K}`$ , while in the SM both quantities should measure $`\mathrm{sin}2\beta `$ with negligible hadronic uncertainties  (here $`\beta `$ is one of the angles of the UT). In Fig. 1 I report $`S_{\varphi K_s}`$ (the coefficient of the $`\mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Delta }M_dt`$ term in $`a_{\varphi K_s}`$) as a function of $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{LL}`$ for different values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$ . At present, SUSY effects can account for the observed central value, but this may change with future data on $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$. It is interesting to notice that direct CP violation can also occur in this channel . Another interesting process in which effects of $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{AB}`$ can be seen is $`bs\mathrm{}^+\mathrm{}^{}`$. Here large deviations from the SM in the asymmetries can be generated even for values of the BR close to the SM expectations .

## 4 CONCLUSIONS

For reasons of space, in this talk I was able to discuss only a few of the many interesting implications of SUSY in $`B`$ physics. However, already from these selected topics it is clear that the richer the flavour structure of superpartners is, the more probable it is to discover indirect signs of SUSY in $`B`$ physics. In any case, forthcoming data in this field will certainly help us learn more on SUSY extensions of the SM.

### ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am much indebted to M. Ciuchini for his kind and patient help in preparing the figures.


format: text

text:
# On the time evolution of giant radio galaxies

## 1 Introduction

Extragalactic radio sources, powered by twin jets resulting from nuclear energy processes in the Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN), exhibit a very large span of their linear size. The sizes of these powerful sources range from less than $`10^2`$ pc (GPS: gigahertz-peaked spectrum), through $`10^210^4`$ pc (CSS: compact steep spectrum), $`10^410^6`$ pc (normal-size sources), up to greater than $`10^6`$ pc $`1`$ Mpc (‘giant’ radio sources). One of the key problems of the evolution of extragalactic sources is whether and how different size sources are related. Is there a single evolutionary scheme governing the size evolution of radio sources, or do small and large sources evolve in a different way?

From many years ‘giant’111hereafter we use giant or giants instead of giant radio source(s) radio sources are of a special interest for several reasons. Their very large angular sizes give excellent opportunity for the study of source physics. They are also very useful to study the density and evolution of the intergalactic and intracluster environment (cf. Subrahmanyan & Saripalli 1993; Mack et al. 1998), as well as to verify the unification scheme for powerful radio sources (Barthel 1989; Urry & Padovani 1995). Finally, they can be used to constrain dynamical models of the source time evolution (e.g. Kaiser & Alexander 1999). The general questions are: do the largest radio sources reach their extremal giant sizes due to (i) exceptional physical conditions in the intergalactic medium, (ii) extraordinary intrinsic properties of the AGN, or simply (iii) because they are extremely old?

To answer these questions, in a number of papers the attempts were undertaken to recognize eventual other properties but size which may differentiate giants from normal-size sources. The giant-source morphologies, energy density in the lobes and interaction with the intergalactic medium were studied by Subrahmanyan et al. (1996), who suggested that giant radio galaxies may be located in the lowest density regions, and ‘may attained their large size as a result of restarting of their central engines in multiple phases of activity along roughly similar directions’. Also Mack et al. (1998), after a study of 5 nearby giant radio galaxies, argued that those sources are so huge because of their low-density environment and not because of old ages. A similar conclusion was drawn by Cotter (1998) after his study of a sample of high-redshift 7C giants. He found those sources to be not old and of similar kinetic powers of the jet as normal-size 3C sources. But the densities of their surrounding medium was found much lower than those around most of 3C sources (Rawlings & Saunders 1991). Ishwara-Chandra & Saikia (1999) compiled a sample of more than 50 known giant sources (many of them being of FRI-type morphology) and compared some of their properties with those of a complete sample of 3CR sources ‘to investigate the evolution of giant sources, and test their consistency with the unified scheme for radio galaxies and quasars’. They concluded that the location of giants on the power–linear size ($`PD`$) diagram may suggest that the largest sources have evolved from the smaller sources. Finally, in the recent extensive study of 26 giant radio galaxies by Schoenmakers et al. (2000), the authors argued that those galaxies ‘are both old sources, in term of their spectral age, and are situated in a relatively low-density environment, but also that neither of these two properties are extreme. Therefore, their large size probably results from a combination of these properties’.

From the above results, it is clear that the phenomenon of the giant radio sources is still open to further research. Therefore, in this paper we analyse whether observed properties of giant radio galaxies can be explained by a model of the dynamical evolution of classical double radio sources in cosmic time, and what factor (if there is a one) is primarily responsible for the giant size. Two recent analytical models, published by Kaiser et al. (1997) \[hereafter referred to as KDA\] and Blundell et al. (1999), are very convenient for this purpose. The overall dynamics of a FRII-type source (precisely: its cocoon) in both models is based on the earlier self-similar model of Kaiser & Alexander (1997) \[hereafter referred to as KA\], in which the linear size is very sensitive to a density of the source environment and a rate of its evolution with cosmic time. The models of KDA and Blundell et al. differ between themselves in predictions of a time evolution of the source luminosity. In the KDA model the synchrotron radiating particles expand from the leading head into the cocoon whose pressures are in a constant ratio during the source lifetime. This ensures the constant adiabatic losses in a self-similar expansion of the cocoon with constant geometry (axial ratio). In the model of Blundell et al. the radiating particles drift out of a constant pressure hotspot region into the cocoon in which pressure decreases throughout the source lifetime. This causes that both the expansion losses and the source axial ratio steadily increase with time, inducing a faster decrease of source (cocoon) luminosity.

In this paper, synchrotron ages in a sample of giant sources with FRII-type (Fanaroff & Riley 1974) morphology are used to verify the dynamical time evolution of such sources predicted by the KDA model. It is chosen here for its simplicity in spite of some objections about its application to large and old sources in which an internal pressure cannot be always above the external medium pressure, as required by a self-similar model (e.g. Hardcastle & Worrall 2000). Basic physical parameters, namely the jet power $`Q_0`$, central density of the galaxy nucleus $`\rho _0`$, energy density and pressure in the lobes or cocoon ($`u_c`$ and $`p_c`$), and total energy of the source $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ are derived from the model for each of member of the sample to fit its redshift, radio luminosity, projected size, and axial ratio. Next, these physical parameters are compared with (1) the relevant parameters derived for normal-size sources in a comparison sample, and with (2) the parameters taken from observational data, i.e. the age, equipartition energy density $`u_{\mathrm{eq}}`$, total energy $`U_{\mathrm{eq}}`$, lobes pressure, etc., calculated under ‘minimum energy’ conditions. The observational data used are given in Sect. 2. The method of a comparative analysis of giants and normal-size sources is outlined in Sect. 3. The application of the dynamical model is described in Sect. 4, while in Sect. 5 results of the modelling are presented. The evolutionary tracks of the sources on the $`P`$$`D`$ and $`u_{\mathrm{eq}}E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ planes are derived and confronted with the observational data in Sect. 6. In the result, we realize that a modification of the original KDA model is necessary to provide a satisfactory fits to the data. Discussion of the obtained results and final conclusions are given in Sect. 7.

## 2 Observational data

Similarly to the approach of Ishwara-Chandra & Saikia (1999), we have compiled a sample of 18 giant sources and a comparison sample of 49 normal-size sources for which their spectral age was available from the literature. Both samples are confined to FRII-type sources only. The spectral ageing data for the giants are taken from the papers of Saripalli et al. (1994), Klein et al. (1996), Mack et al. (1998), Schoenmakers et al. (1998, 2000), Ishwara-Chandra & Saikia (1999), Lara et al. (2000), and Machalski & Jamrozy (2000). For the aim of this paper, i.e. for an observational verification of the dynamical time evolution of giant sources predicted by its analytical model, the comparison sample has been chosen to comprise high-luminosity (high- and low-redshift), as well as low-luminosity normal-size sources. The high-redshift (with $`z`$0.5) and low-redshift ($`z<`$0.5) subsamples consist of 3C sources taken from the papers of Alexander & Leahy (1987), Leahy et al. (1989), and Liu et al. (1992). All of them have $`P_{178}10^{25}`$ W Hz-1sr-1 (other selection criteria are summarized in Liu et al.). A low-luminosity subsample comprises FRII-type sources with $`P_{1.4}<10^{24.4}`$ W Hz-1sr-1 (corresponding to $`P_{178}<10^{25}`$ W Hz-1sr-1 assuming a mean spectral index of 0.7 between 178 and 1400 MHz). A limited number of such sources with spectral ages determined have been available from the papers of Klein et al. (1995) and Parma et al. (1999). An additional criterion applied in our study was a consistence of ages or expansion velocities given in the original papers with spectral ages homogeneously estimated by us from a fitted spectrum of the sources’ cocoon using the standard ageing analysis. The use of the spectral age is justified in Sect. 3.1 where the details of our analysis are given. The wavelength-dependent observational data are taken at $`\lambda =21`$ cm at which a large variety of radio maps are available for all the sources.

The observational data for the sample of giant-size and normal-size sources are given in the Appendix.

## 3 Method of analysis

To start a comparative analysis of giants and normal-size sources, we have to determine a number of physical parameters of these sources which must be connected to their dynamical evolution. All of them are derived from the observational data using some theoretical models of a classical double radio source. In this paper we consider the following parameters: (i) the spectral age, equipartition magnetic field and total energy density derived from the standard ‘ageing analysis’ of relativistic particles in a steady-state synchrotron sources (e.g. Miley 1980; Myers & Spangler 1985), and (ii) the jet power, density of the intergalactic medium and its distribution, energy densities of relativistic particles and magnetic field, pressures at a head of the jet and in the cocoon, and total energy of a source derived from the analytical KDA model.

### 3.1 The spectral age

A determination of the age of the radio sources is crucial to constrain the dynamical model of time evolution. A characteristic lifetime of sources can be estimated from their total energy, $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$, determined under the ‘minimum energy’ consideration and the observed power $`dE/dt`$. The resultant lifetime, being rather an upper limit to the age of source, is usually greater than the synchrotron age of relativistic particles commonly determined from the spectral-ageing analysis (e.g. Alexander & Leahy 1987). However, the time-dependence of various energy losses suffered by the particles cause that different parts of the lobes or cocoon have different ages. Besides, the radiation losses (and thus a synchrotron age) depend on a history of the particle injection, a distribution of the pitch angle, etc. described by the different synchrotron models: Kardashev–Pacholczyk (KP); Jaffe & Perola (JP); or continuous injection (CI), cf. Carilli et al.(1991) for a detailed description. An attempt to minimize the discrepancies between spectral and dynamical ages has been undertaken by Kaiser (2000). His 3-dimensional model of the synchrotron emissivity of the cocoon traces the individual evolution of parts of the cocoon and provides, according to the author, more accurate estimate for the age of a source. Its application to the lobes of Cygnus A gave a very good fit to their observed surface brightness distribution.

However, since an application of the above model is confined to the sources for which their lobes are reasonable resolved in direction perpendicular to the jet axis – we cannot use it for our statistical approach to the dynamical evolution of giant radio sources and have to base on the standard ageing analysis. In order to estimate a spectral age of the sample sources as homogeneously as possible, we have used a spectrum of the sources’ cocoon or their two lobes, i.e. the spectrum of entire source after a subtraction of evident hot spots and bright cores emission (e.g. the core in 3C236). This spectrum, fitted at least between 151 MHz and 5 GHz, has been used to estimate a synchrotron age of the cocoon, $`t_{\mathrm{syn}}`$, with the prescription of Myers & Spangler (1985) for the JP model. Applying their plot of spectral index between 1446 and 4885 MHz, as well as that between 151 and 1490 MHz given in Leahy et al. (1989), we were able to find the best injection spectral index and the break frequency. The resultant ages were then compared with synchrotron ages of the sources either given explicitly in the cited papers or calculated by us from the published expansion velocities (the reference papers are given in column 9 of Table A1). If the former age agreed with the latter (to $`\pm `$30 per cent), the source is included to the samples. The above procedure was necessary because usually the values published in different papers were not derived in a uniform way. On the other hand side, it assured us that our estimates are not discrepant with those of other authors. Basing on a commonly accepted assumption about a proportionality of the spectral and dynamical ages, hereafter we assume $`t_{\mathrm{dyn}}=2t_{\mathrm{syn}}`$ (e.g. Lara et al. 2000). This age (marked by $`t`$\[Myr\]) is given in column 2 of Table A2.

### 3.2 The equipartition magnetic field and energy density

Also the equipartition magnetic field strength, $`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$, and energy density, $`u_{\mathrm{eq}}`$, in the cocoon or the lobes of the sample sources are homogeneously calculated using the method outlined by Miley (1980), and compared with their values given in the published papers (cf. Sect. 2). Total luminosity of the cocoons has been integrated between 10 MHz and 100 GHz using their fitted radio spectrum (cf. Sect. 3.1). The volume of the cocoons is calculated assuming a cylindrical geometry with the base diameter resulting from the axial ratio determined in the radio maps (cf. the Appendix), and the length $`D/\mathrm{sin}\theta `$, where $`\theta `$ is an orientation angle of the jet axis to the observer’s line-of-sight. The values of $`u_{\mathrm{eq}}`$ and $`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$ with their estimated error, calculated with assumption of the filling factor of unity and equal distribution of energy between electrons and protons, are given in columns 3 and 4 of Table A2, respectively.

## 4 Application of the analytical model

Below we summarize the KA and KDA dynamical models, and precise their application in our analysis. It is assumed in the model that the radio structure is formed by two jets emanating from the AGN into a surrounding medium in two opposite directions, then terminating in strong shocks, and finally inflating the cocoon. A density distribution of the unperturbed external gas is approximated by a power-law relation $`\rho _\mathrm{d}=\rho _0(d/a_0)^\beta `$, where $`d`$ is the radial distance from the core of a source, $`\rho _0`$ is a constant density at the core radius $`a_0`$, and $`\beta `$ is a constant exponent in this distribution.

The half of the cocoon is estimated by a cylinder of length $`L_\mathrm{j}=D/2`$ and axial ratio $`R_\mathrm{T}=AR/2`$. It expands along the jet axis driven by the hot spot pressure $`p_\mathrm{h}`$ and in the perpendicular direction by the cocoon pressure $`p_\mathrm{c}`$. In the model the rate at which energy is transported along each jet (of power $`Q_0`$) is constant through the source lifetime. The model predicts self-similar expansion of the cocoon and gives analytical formulae for the time evolution of various geometrical and physical parameters, e.g. the cocoon pressure $`p_\mathrm{c}`$, its linear size $`L_\mathrm{j}`$ and luminosity $`P_\nu `$.

However, the pressure ratio $`𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}p_\mathrm{h}/p_\mathrm{c}=4R_\mathrm{T}^2`$, implied in the original KDA paper, has later been found to seriously overestimate a value of $`𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}`$ obtained in hydrodynamical simulations by Kaiser & Alexander (1999). Therefore, in our modelling procedure we use the empirical formula taken from Kaiser (2000):

$$𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}=(2.140.52\beta )R_\mathrm{T}^{2.040.25\beta }.$$
(1)
Moreover, taking into account the relation pointed out in Sect. 5.2.3, the KDA model is modified in our paper by a subjection of $`R_\mathrm{T}`$ on age $`t`$ and $`Q_0`$.

### 4.1 Radio power

The radio luminosity of the cocoon $`P_\nu `$ is calculated in the model by splitting up the source into small volume elements and allowing them to evolve separately. The effects of adiabatic expansion, synchrotron losses, and inverse Compton scattering on the cosmic microwave background radiation are traced for these volume elements independently. The total radio emission at a fixed frequency $`\nu `$ is then obtained by summing up the contribution from all such elements, resulting in an integral over the time \[Eq.(16) in KDA\]. The integral is not analytically soluable and must be calculated numerically.

The predicted radio luminosities can be used to construct evolutionary tracks of sources on the $`PD`$ diagram. These tracks can be compared with the observed distribution of sample sources on this diagram, and answer the question whether giant sources evolve in the same way as normal-size sources, or not.

### 4.2 Source energetics

In our approach we neglect thermal particles, hence the overall source dynamics is governed by the pressure in the cocoon in the form $`p_\mathrm{c}=(\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}1)(u_\mathrm{e}+u_\mathrm{B})`$, where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}`$ is the adiabatic index of the cocoon, $`u_\mathrm{e}`$ and $`u_\mathrm{B}`$ are energy densities of relativistic particles and magnetic field, respectively. Both energy densities are a function of the source lifetime $`t`$. In particular, $`u_\mathrm{B}(t)B^2(t)=\mathrm{const}t^a`$, where $`a=(\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{B}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c})(4+\beta )/(5\beta )`$.

Since the time evolution of the pressure $`p_\mathrm{c}`$ is known from the self-similar solution, then one can calculate the energy density in the cocoon at any specific age $`t`$:

$$u_\mathrm{c}(t)u_\mathrm{e}(t)+u_\mathrm{B}(t)=p_\mathrm{c}(t)/(\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}1),$$

and the total source energy: $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}(t)=u_\mathrm{c}(t)V_\mathrm{c}(t)`$, where $`V_\mathrm{c}`$ is the cocoon volume attained at the age $`t`$:

$$V_\mathrm{c}(t)=2\frac{\pi }{4R_\mathrm{T}^2}[L_\mathrm{j}(t)]^3t^{9/(5\beta )}.$$
(2)
Following KDA and Kaiser (2000) we can write:

$$E_{\mathrm{tot}}=u_\mathrm{c}V_\mathrm{c}=\frac{2(5\beta )}{9[\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}+(\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}1)(𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}/4)]4\beta }Q_0t.$$
(3)
Thus, the ratio of enery delivered by the twin jets and stored in the cocoon is:

$$\frac{2Q_0t}{E_{\mathrm{tot}}}=\frac{9\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}4\beta }{5\beta }+\frac{9(\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}1)}{4(5\beta )}𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}},$$

i.e. if $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}`$=const and $`\beta `$=const, this ratio is a function of the pressure ratio $`𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}`$ only. For $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}=5/3`$ and $`\beta =3/2`$ we have

$$2Q_0t/E_{\mathrm{tot}}=2.7+0.43𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}.$$
(4)
### 4.3 The fitting procedure

On the basis of the above model we aim to predict the specific physical parameters of the sample giants and normal-size sources at their estimated (dynamical) ages. These are: $`Q_0`$, $`\rho _0`$, $`u_\mathrm{c}`$, $`p_\mathrm{c}`$, and $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$. This differs from the KDA approach, who basing on available observational data, evaluated some general trends and made crude estimation of possible range of values attained by the model parameters. Following them, we adopt their ‘Case 3’ where both the cocoon and magnetic field are ‘cold’ ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}=\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{B}=5/3)`$ and the adiabatic index of the jet and internal gas is also $`5/3`$. For the initial ratio of the energy densities of the magnetic field and the particles we use $`ru_\mathrm{B}/u_\mathrm{e}=(1+p)/4`$, with the exponent of the energy distribution $`p=2.14`$.

The core radius $`a_0`$ is one of the most difficult model parameter to be set up. Even carefull 2-D modelling of a distribution of radio emission for well known sources with quite regular structures can lead to values of $`a_0`$ discrepant with those predicted by X-ray observations, the only presently available method to determine the source environment (cf. an extensive discussion of this problem in Kaiser 2000). In our statistical approach we assume $`a_0=10`$ kpc for all sources, a conservative value in between 2 kpc used by KDA and 50 kpc found by Wellman et al. (1997). In Sect. 7.1 we discuss the consequences of other possible values of this parameter. We also use a constant value of $`\beta `$ for all sample sources. This exponent can be easily estimated from the slope of the observed relation between log$`B_{corr/z}`$ and log$`t`$ in Fig.2b. As it is $`0.65\pm 0.04`$, then $`a=(0.65\times 2)\pm 0.08`$ and $`\beta =1.09\pm 0.20`$. This slope is much flatter than $`\beta =1.9`$ adopted in KDA on the basis of Canizares et al.’s (1987) paper who found that value as typical for a galaxy to about 100 kpc from its center. The latter value was probably justified because the uncorrected for redshift relation log$`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$log$`t`$ has a steeper slope of $`0.98\pm 0.05`$ what implies $`\beta =1.96\pm 0.21`$. Thus, we take $`\beta =1.5`$ for further calculations which is compatible with other estimates of this parameter (e.g. Daly 1995). Another free parameter of the model, the orientation of the jet axis in respect to the observer’s line-of-sight $`\theta =90^{}`$ is assumed for all giants and $`\theta =70^{}`$ for other sources. This latter value is justified by the dominance of FRII-type radio galaxies in our sample. In view of the unified scheme for extragalactic radio sources, an average orientation angle $`\theta _{\mathrm{RG}}69^{}`$ for radio galaxies only was determined by Barthel (1989).

Given the values of $`a_0`$, $`\beta `$ and $`\theta `$, one can find the jet power $`Q_0`$ and the initial density of external medium $`\rho _0`$ for each individual sample source characterized by the observational parameters: the age $`t`$, axial ratio $`AR`$ and redshift $`z`$, by fitting the jet length $`L_\mathrm{j}`$ and the luminosity of cocoon to its observed values of $`D/2`$ and $`P_\nu `$, respectively. The above fitting procedure was done iteratively and proved to give always stable and unique solutions.

## 5 Results of the modelling

The fitted physical parameters for all the sample sources are given in the Appendix. Below, we analyse a range of values and distributions of the above parameters attained by the sample sources.

### 5.1 Jet power $`Q_0`$ and core density $`\rho _0`$

A distribution of these parameters on the log($`Q_0`$)–log($`\rho _0`$) plane is shown in Fig. 1a. As both parameters should be independent between themselves, we test whether the observed distribution is or is not biased by possible selection effects. The data in Table A2 implicate that $`Q_0`$ correlates, in order of a significance level of the correlation, with luminosity $`P_{1.4}`$, redshift $`z`$ and age $`t`$. Calculating the Pearson partial correlation coefficients, we found no significant correlation between $`Q_0`$ and $`\rho _0`$ when $`z`$ (or $`P_{1.4}`$) and $`t`$ are kept constant.

In view of the above, one can realise in Fig. 1a that (i) among the sources with a comparable jet power $`Q_0`$, giant sources have an average central density $`\rho _0`$ smaller than a corresponding central density of normal-size sources, (ii) giants have at least ten times more powerful jets than much smaller low-luminosity sources of a comparable $`\rho _0`$, and (iii) for a number of sources in the sample the derived values of their fundamental parameters $`Q_0`$ and $`\rho _0`$ are very close, while their ages are significantly different. Thus in view of the model assumptions, they may be considered as ‘the same’ source observed at different epochs of its lifetime. Such bunches of three to five sources (hereafter called ‘clans’) are indicated in Fig. 1a with the large circles. These clans have appeared crucial in a comparison of the observing data and the model predictions, and in the analysis of the giant-source phenomenon. More detailed analysis of these clans and their evolution is given in Sect. 6.2.

### 5.2 Relations between principal parameters of the sources

In this subsection we analyse a degree of correlation between the principal derived parameters of the sources: $`Q_0`$, $`\rho _0`$, $`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$, and their linear size $`D`$, axial ratio $`AR`$, redshift $`z`$, and assumed age $`t`$. For the reason that most relations between different parameters seem to be a power law, hereafter we analyse their linear correlations in the logarithmic form. Slopes of these correlations are then used to constrain the dynamical evolution model outlined in the previous Section.

#### 5.2.1 The relations between log($`D`$), log($`Q_0`$), log($`\rho _0`$), log($`t`$), and log($`1+z`$)

A strong correlation between linear size and spectral age of 3C radio sources was already noted by Alexander & Leahy (1987) and confirmed by Liu et al. (1992). This correlation in our samples is shown in Fig. 2a. The giant sources do not show any departure from the correlation for the comparison sources. The same conclusion has been made by Schoenmakers et al. (2000). This means that the mean expansion velocities of those sources are similar. However, two other details are worth to emphasize: (i) There are four high-redshift giants which are much younger sources than the low-redshift giants. Two of them are quasars. It seems that they might grow so large under some exceptional conditions. (ii) The (log) $`Dt`$ relation for the low-luminosity (mostly B2) sources follows a slope of the correlation, but those sources are definitely much smaller indicating a dependence of the size and expansion velocity on luminosity.

We also note a very significant anticorrelation between redshift and age. This anticorrelation is expected because older sources at higher redshifts may fall down beyond a survey flux-limit due to the spectral and, especially inverse Compton, losses and also adiabatic expansion (cf. Blundell et al.). Since each parameter of sources in our sample correlates somehow with other parameters, in order to determine which correlation is the strongest, we calculate the Pearson partial correlation coefficients between selected parameters. All correlations are calculated between given parameters taken in the logarithmic scale (for the sake of simplicity, the ‘log’ signs are omitted in the Tables below, showing these correlations). Hereafter $`r_{XY}`$ is the correlation coefficient between parameters $`X`$ and $`Y`$, $`r_{XY/W}`$ is the partial correlation coefficient between these parameters in the presence of a third one, ($`W`$), which can correlate with both $`X`$ and $`Y`$, and $`P_{XY/W}`$ is the probability that the test pair $`X`$ and $`Y`$ is uncorrelated when $`W`$ is held constant. Similarly, $`r_{XY/VW}`$, $`r_{XY/UVW}`$, $`P_{XY/VW}`$, and $`P_{XY/UVW}`$ are the correlation coefficients for the correlations involving four or five parameters, and the related probabilities, respectively.

The partial correlation coefficients between selected combinations of the source parameters with the related probabilities of their chance correlation are given in Table 1.

In view of the dynamical model applied and as a result of the above statistical correlations, we realize that the linear size of a source strongly depends on both its age and the jet power, where the correlation with age is the strongest. However, the size also anti-correlates with central density of the core. That anticorrelation seemes to be a weaker than the correlations with $`Q_0`$ and $`t`$ and become well pronounced only when all three remaining parameters ($`Q_0`$, $`t`$ and $`z`$) are kept constant.

All dynamical models predict that luminosities of matured radio sources decrease with their age. Therefore, more distant sources fall through the flux-density limit of a sample sooner than nearer sources, and in any sample the high-redshift sources will be younger and more luminous than the low-redshift ones. A significant anticorrelation between $`Q_0`$ and age $`t`$, expected as a consequence of the above effect (called ‘youth-redshift degeneracy’ by Blundell et al.), is shown in Fig. 1b.

#### 5.2.2 The relation between log($`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$), log($`t`$), and log(1+$`z`$)

An anticorrelation between $`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$ and $`t`$ is expected due to the basic relations for energy densities defined in Sect. 4.2. The Pearson partial correlation coefficients and the relevant probability for the chance correlation between $`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$ and $`t`$, independent of redshift, are given in Table 2.

Table 2 confirms that there is a strong and very significant anticorrelation between the equipartition magnetic field and age of the lobes or cocoon. An apparent correlation between $`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$ and 1+z is less significant. A rate of decrement of the magnetic field strength is an indication of the dynamical evolution of a source (cf. Sect. 4). Thus, in order to determine a slope of the linear dependence between log($`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$) and log($`t`$) independent of redshift, we have transformed the $`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$ values from Table A.2 to a reference redshift of 0.5 using the correlation between log($`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$) and log(1+z). The relation between the transformed magnetic field in the sources and their age is shown in Fig. 2b.

#### 5.2.3 The relation between log($`AR`$), log($`Q_0`$), and log($`t`$)

A first time (to our knowledge) axial ratios of giant sources were analysed and compared with those of smaller FRII-type sources by Subrahmanyan et al. (1996), who found no difference between the axial ratios of eight giants and eight 3C sources with a median size of about 400 kpc. The authors did not precise what 3C sources were considered, but since all giant and normal sources were of comparable powers and at comparable redshifts, we pressume they might be at similar ages, so the dependence of $`AR`$ on time could not be visible.

In the model of Blundell et al., the axial ratio of an individual source steadily increases throughout its lifetime. Besides, that model implicates a dependence of the $`AR`$ on the jet power $`Q_0`$. The latter dependence was probably reflected by an apparent correlation between $`AR`$ and 178-MHz luminosity of 3C sources noted by Leahy & Williams (1984). Taking into account the unavoidable anticorrelation between $`Q_0`$ and redshift (cf. Sect. 5.2.1), in Table 3 we have calculated the partial correlation coefficients and the related probabilities of chance correlations between $`AR`$ and $`t`$, $`AR`$ and $`Q_0`$, and $`AR`$ and $`\rho _0`$ when relevant combinations of the parameters $`t`$, $`Q_0`$, $`\rho _0`$, and 1+$`z`$ are kept constant.

Table 3 shows a statistically significant correlations between the axial ratio and the source’s age, as well as the axial ratio and the jet power. Therefore, we have fitted a plane to the values of log($`AR`$) over the (log) $`Q_0`$$`t`$ plane. In this and other fits of a plane performed hereafter, the ordinate values are weighted by the square of their uncertainty given in Tables A1 or A2. As a result of the above fit we found

$$AR(Q_0,t)Q_0^{0.12\pm 0.02}t^{0.23\pm 0.04}.$$
(5)
Indeed, the statistical data strongly support the implication of the Blundell et al.’s model about a dependence of $`AR`$ on $`Q_0`$. A consequence of this effect for the expansion speed of the cocoon is pointed out in the next subsection. Using the above relation, one can transform the apparent $`AR`$ values from Table A.1 to a reference jet power of $`10^{39}`$ W. The relation between the transformed axial ratio and age of the sample sources is shown in Fig. 2c.

### 5.3 Statistical expansion speed of the cocoon

The expansion speed of the cocoon along the jet axis is indirectly described by Eq.(2). Inserting $`D=2L_\mathrm{j}`$ and $`AR=2R_\mathrm{T}`$ into Eq.(2), we have $`D(t)(AR)^{2/3}t^{3/(5\beta )}`$. Substitution of $`AR`$ from Eq.(5) and $`\beta =1.5`$ into Eq.(2) gives $`D`$ as a function of $`Q_0`$ and $`t`$, i.e. the expansion speed dependent on the jet power $`Q_0`$

$$D(Q_0,t)=c_1Q_0^{0.10\pm 0.03}t^{1.08\pm 0.04},$$
(6)
where $`c_1`$ is a constant to be empirically determined from the observed data of size and age. Expressing $`D`$ in kpc and $`t`$ in Myr, the constant $`c_1=(2.2\pm 0.04)\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^3`$ has been found. The power exponent over $`t`$ greater than unity implicates that the cocoon may expand in time with some systematic though minor acceleration. Moreover, this acceleration \[according to Eq.(6)\] depends on the jet power. For example, if $`Q_0=10^{39}`$ W, an average time needed to expand the cocoon from 30 to 300 kpc is about 12.1 Myr which gives an expansion speed of about 0.073$`c`$, while about 28.2 Myr is necessary to expand it from 300 kpc to 1 Mpc which gives the speed of 0.081$`c`$. If the jet power is two orders fainter ($`Q_0=10^{37}`$ W), these speeds are reduced to 0.047 and 0.053$`c`$, respectively. The relation between $`AR`$ and $`t`$ in Eq.(5) implicates a time deceleration of the cocoon’s expansion if a decrease of the environment density with distance from the cluster centre is slower, i.e. if $`\beta <1.1`$. However, a time evolution of the, so called, ‘clan sources’ (Sect. 6.2) seems to support the possibility of a slow acceleration in their case.

A distribution of the sample sources on the $`\mathrm{log}Q_0\mathrm{log}t`$ plane (Fig. 1b) shows a dramatic discrepancy between the observed large size and derived short lifetime of three giants: 3C274.1, 3C292, and 0437$``$244. They are three of four high-redshift giant sources in our sample. If their ages are real, they must expand with the highest velocity of about $`0.20.25c`$ (cf. also Fig. 2a). More extensive discussion of the above effect is given in Sect. 7.3.

### 5.4 Pressure and energy of the cocoon

In the model, energetics of the radio source is governed by the jet power $`Q_0`$, adiabatic index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}`$, and the pressure ratio $`𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}`$. Since $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}`$ is assumed constant for all the sources and $`Q_0`$ is constant for a given source, the energy of the cocoon $`u_\mathrm{c}`$ and its total energy $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ are determined by $`p_\mathrm{c}`$ attained by the source at age $`t`$. The cocoon pressure of the sample sources is plotted against $`Q_0`$ in Fig. 3a. It is clearly seen that the giants have the lowest cocoon pressure and, hence, the lowest energy density among all sources in the sample. As $`p_\mathrm{c}`$ decreases with $`t`$, and the size of source (cocoon) $`D`$ increases with $`t`$, we have calculated the partial correlation coefficients for the correlation between log($`p_\mathrm{c}`$) and log($`Q_0`$) at constant $`t`$ or constant $`D`$. In a result, this correlation in our sample is much stronger for $`D`$=const ($`r_{XY/W}=+0.969`$) than that for $`t`$=const ($`r_{XY/W}=+0.379`$). Therefore, the lines of constant $`D`$ in Fig.3a almost perfectly agree with actual sizes of the sources. The vertical lines indicate the time axis for members of the clans introduced in Sect. 5.1 and whose dynamical evolution is analysed in Sect. 6.2 and 6.3.

In Fig. 3b, a total energy of the cocoon $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ is plotted against $`Q_0`$. It shows that the energy contained in giant sources spans the same range of values as does energy of normal-size sources in spite of their redshift, luminosity or age. This implicates that the decrease of energy density in time is compensated by a parallel increase of the source (cocoon) volume. Only the low-luminosity sources have energies much smaller. Imagining a division of the log($`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$)–log($`Q_0`$) plane into some quadrants, the giant, and normal-size low-redshift and high-redshift sources are in a quadrant with $`Q_0>10^{37.5}`$ W and $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}>10^{52.5}`$ J, while the low-luminosity low-redshift radio galaxies are in the quite opposite quadrant with $`Q_0<10^{37.5}`$ W and $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}<10^{52.5}`$ J. Since the relation between $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ and $`Q_0`$ at constant $`t`$, dependent only of $`𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}`$, is very high (the corresponding partial correlation coefficient equals to +0.991), the dotted lines in Fig. 3b indicating a constant age of sources also agree very well with the data. All giants but four high-redshift ones have the highest lifetime.

Now, analysing how the energetics of the sources relates to the core density $`\rho _0`$, we found that a pressure in the cocoon $`p_\mathrm{c}`$ (thus the energy density $`u_\mathrm{c}`$ as well) also significantly depends on $`\rho _0`$. A distribution of the sample sources on the log($`u_\mathrm{c}`$)–log($`\rho _0`$) plane is shown in Fig. 4. Although the correlation coefficient between log($`u_\mathrm{c}`$) and log($`\rho _0`$) in Fig. 4 is only +0.548, a calculation shows that this direct correlation is smoothed by other correlations between the parameters $`u_\mathrm{c}`$, $`\rho _0`$, $`t`$, and 1+$`z`$. The partial correlation coefficient for the correlation between log($`u_\mathrm{c}`$) and log($`\rho _0`$), when $`t`$ and 1+$`z`$ are constant, equals to +0.932. Therefore the dotted lines of constant age in Fig. 4 again corresponds very well to the actual ages of the sources. On this plane giant sources occupy an area of the lowest values of $`u_\mathrm{c}`$ and $`\rho _0`$.

### 5.5 Energy ratio $`2Q_0t/U_{\mathrm{eq}}`$

The ratio of total energy supplied by twin jets during the lifetime of a source $`(2Q_0t)`$ and its energy stored in the cocoon, derived from the data under the equipartition assumption, $`U_{\mathrm{eq}}=u_{\mathrm{eq}}V_\mathrm{c}`$, allows another test of the dynamical model predictions, and is given in column 9 of Table A2. This ratio vs. the cocoon axial ratio $`AR`$ is plotted in Fig. 5. The uncertainties of both values are marked by error bars on some data points. The solid curve indicates the model prediction from Eq.(4), while the dashed curve shows the best fit to the weighted data. The observed trend fully corresponds to the model prediction. However, the derived values of $`2Q_0t/U_{\mathrm{eq}}`$, i.e. the reciprocal of an efficiency factor by which the kinematic energy of the jets is converted into radiation, is much higher than $``$2, a value usually assumed in a number of papers. This aspect is discussed in Sect. 7.4.

### 5.6 The correlation of the cocoon pressure with age and redshift

In our statistical analysis we have noted a significant correlation between the cocoon pressure and age of sources. But age also correlates with redshift, so we have calculated the partial correlation between these parameters. Since dynamical age of sources in our sample seems to be reliably estimated, we can show that the cocoon pressure $`p_\mathrm{c}`$ very weakly depends on redshift but very strongly upon the source age. The partial correlation coefficients between $`p_\mathrm{c}`$, $`t`$, and 1+$`z`$ (all values in logarithmic scale) are given in Table 4.

Thus, Table 4 shows that the apparent correlation between the cocoon pressure and redshift is caused by the stronger correlations between the pressure and age, and between the age and redshift. Fitting a plane to the values of log $`p_\mathrm{c}`$ over the (log) $`t`$ – (1+$`z`$) plane we found

$$\mathrm{log}p_\mathrm{c}=(1.79\pm 0.15)\mathrm{log}t[\mathrm{Myr}]+(1.56\pm 0.65)\mathrm{log}(1+z)$$

$$(10.0\pm 0.30).$$

Therefore, one can transform the pressure values either to a fixed age or to a constant redshift. The plot of cocoon pressures transformed to $`z=0.5`$ \[$`p_{\mathrm{corr}/\mathrm{z}}`$\] versus age $`t`$ is shown in Fig. 6a, while the pressures transformed to $`t=10`$ Myr versus (1+$`z`$) \[$`p_{\mathrm{corr}/\mathrm{t}}`$\] – in Fig. 6b. These plots well illustrate very different partial correlation coefficients $`r_{XY/W}`$ given in Table 4. The above result put a new insight into a cosmological evolution of the IGM and is discussed in Sect. 7.5.

## 6 Evolutionary tracks of sources

The KDA model enables one to calculate evolutionary tracks of some secondary parameters of radio sources if their primary parameters $`Q_0`$ and $`\rho _0`$ are given. In the papers of KDA and Blundell et al. the tracks of radio luminosity $`P`$ versus linear size $`D`$ were derived for imaginary sources with assumed values of $`Q_0`$, $`\rho _0`$, $`a_0`$, $`\beta `$, and $`z`$.

In our approach we are able to calculate such evolutionary tracks for actual sources. In Sect. 5.1, the ‘clans’ of sources have been pointed out, i.e. the sources with very close values of both fundamental parameters: $`Q_0`$ and $`\rho _0`$, and evidently different ages and axial ratios. Since the dynamical model assumes constant jet power during a source lifetime, and a nucleus density $`\rho _0`$ is a priori constant, members of such clan can be considered as ‘the same’ source observed at a number of different epochs throughout its life. The observed parameters of these members can verify predictions of the model. However, fits of the tracks predicted with the original KDA model to the observed parameters of sources have appeared unsatisfactory. Much better fits of the modelled tracks to observational data of the ‘clan’ members are found with the cocoon axial ratio evolving in time, as reported in Sect.5.3. This, in turn, implicates a time evolution of the pressure ratio $`𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}`$. Indeed, substitution of Eq.(5) into Eq.(1), one has (for $`\beta =3/2`$, and where $`Q_0`$ is in watts and $`t`$ in Myr)

$$𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}(t)\mathrm{2.3\hspace{0.17em}10}^8Q_0^{0.20\pm 0.03}t^{0.38\pm 0.05}.$$
(7)
### 6.1 The clans

We found 6 clans consisting of 3, 4 or 5 sample sources fulfilling a selection criterion, namely that the fitted values of $`Q_0`$ and $`\rho _0`$ do not differ between themselves by more than 30 per cent. Also redshift of members should be comparable, however in our small sample we have accepted the redshift ratios up to about 3. Three of six clans are marked in Fig. 3a. Their members are listed in Table 5.

The members are ordered according to their increasing age. In all three clans that increase of age is accompanied with an increase of the size and total energy of the members, altogether with a decrease of their luminosity and energy density. This qualitative observational behaviour, concordant with the model expectations, is quantitatively presented in the following subsections.

### 6.2 Time evolution of the clans

In order to check whether observed parameters of the members of a given clan are consistent with a time evolution derived from the model, a fiducial source has been determined for each clan. This fiducial source has $`Q_0`$ and $`\rho _0`$ equal to the mean value of these parameters in a given clan and the evolving axial ratio of the cocoon, as given by Eq.(5). For each of the clans, a time evolution of its size $`D(t)`$, luminosity $`P(t)`$, energy density $`u_\mathrm{c}(t)`$, and total energy $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}(t)`$ have been calculated. The predicted $`D(t)`$ tracks for the three clans are shown in Fig. 7a with the dotted lines overlayed on the solid lines connecting members of each clan drawn with different symbols. The data points are shown with error bars (the errors in size are usually smaller than the vertical size of symbols). The dashed line indicates $`D(t)`$ for the constant advance speed of 0.1$`c`$. The higher slopes of the modelled tracks in respect to this constant speed seem to confirm accelerating a little expansion of the cocoon in the investigated clans (as deduced in Sect. 5.4), however the effect is of low significance because of uncertainties of the age.

The predicted evolution of the total energy for the three clans is shown in Fig. 7b with the dotted lines. The solid lines indicate the best linear fit to the data points. A correspondence between the modelled $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}(t)`$ and the data points is satisfactory.

### 6.3 The tracks log$`P`$–log$`D`$

The evolutionary tracks for the three clans are shown in Fig. 8 with solid curves. The markers of the same time on these tracks are connected with a dotted line. The members of separate clans are indicated by different symbols. A numer in vicinity of each symbol indicates actual age of the corresponding source in Myr. The dashed curves show the relevant track calculated from the original KDA, model, i.e. with a constant $`AR`$ taken as the mean of axial ratios in a given ‘clan’. It is clearly seen that the evolving $`AR`$ much better fits the observed changes of $`P`$ and $`D`$. The further discussion about these tracks is given in Sect. 7.6.

### 6.4 The tracks log($`u_{\mathrm{eq}}`$)–log($`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$)

The model also allows to predict the evolution of a source on the energy density–total energy plane. These tracks are shown in Fig. 9 with solid curves. As in Fig. 8, the time markers are connected with dotted lines, and the member sources of each clan are indicated with the same symbols. Note that the ordinate of every source is its equipartition energy density derived from the observational data, while the modelled tracks show the fitted cocoon energy density. This is an additional argument that the modified model satisfactory reproduce the data. In Fig. 9, an uncertainty of a value of both parameters is shown by the error bars, where error of $`u_{\mathrm{eq}}`$ is given in Table A2 and error of $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ is estimated from the error of source volume. Again, the numbers mark actual age of the corresponding source. The straight dashed lines indicate the tracks computed with the constant $`AR`$. It is worth to emphasize that the predicted evolutionary $`u_\mathrm{c}`$$`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ tracks are steeper and curved in respect to those expected from the original KDA model. This effect, related to a rate of adiabatic losses and inflation of the cocoon, is discussed in Sect. 7.6.

## 7 Discussion of the results and conclusions

### 7.1 Influence of fixed model parameters on the model predictions

Basic physical parameters of the radio sources derived in this paper, i.e. jet power $`Q_0`$, central density $`\rho _0`$, and cocoon pressure $`p_\mathrm{c}`$, are in principle dependent on assumed central core radius, exponent in the external gas distribution, adiabatic indices of electrons and magnetic field, as well as on orientation of the jet axis towards the observer. In application of the KA model we have assumed the same values of these parameters for all sample sources. This assumption can only be valid in our statistical analysis of the evolutionary trends in the whole FRII-type population but not for individual sample sources. In particular, we have adopted $`a_0=10`$ kpc and $`\beta =1.5`$, respectively. Taking up a lower core radius, e.g. $`a_0=2`$ kpc, and keeping $`\beta =1.5`$ will result in increase of the modelled density of the core $`\rho _0`$ by roughly one order of magnitude, while other modelled parameters will not be changed. Oppositely, a lower density gradient, e.g. $`\beta =1.1`$, will lower $`\rho _0`$ approximately $`1.56`$ times. In this case however, the jet power will be increased about a few percent and accordingly will be changed the pressure and energy density in the cocoon. A relativistic equation of state for the magnetic field does not change our results significantly, unless the KDA ‘Case 1’ ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}=\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{B}=4/3`$) is adopted. However, this case, i.e. when both, the cocoon and the magnetic field energy, have a relativistic equation of state, is unlikely for our sample sources. Therefore, we argue that the results discussed below are not significantly biased by a selection of particular set of the model parameters.

### 7.2 A cause of extremal linear size

In view of the KA and KDA analytical models of dynamical evolution of FRII-type radio sources, many such sources can evolve into a stage characterized by the linear size exceeding 1 Mpc. An access to this stage depends on a number of the model parameters: jet power $`Q_0`$, its Lorentz factor $`\gamma _{\mathrm{jet}}`$, adiabatic indices of the cocoon material and magnetic field, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}`$ nad $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{B}`$, respectively, as well as a core radius $`a_0`$, external gas density $`\rho _0`$, and exponent of its distribution $`\beta `$. For a given set of these parameters, the model allows to determine whether an evolving source will reach or not the size of 1 Mpc, and if so, at what age. From this point of view, giant sources should be the oldest ones.

In this paper we have confronted the model predictions with the observational data on giant-size and normal-size FRII sources. Our analysis strongly suggests that there is not a single evolutionary scheme governing the size development. An old age or a low external density alone is insufficient to assure extremely large linear extent of a source, both are necessary together with a suitable power driven from AGN by the highly relativistic jets. About 83 per cent of giants in our sample possess the projected linear size over 1 Mpc owing to statistically old age, low or moderate density of the external medium, and high enough power of their jets. The remaining 17 per cent (3 sources) are high luminosity radio galaxies at redshifts $`z>0.40.5`$ and ages from 15 to 25 Myr which are typical for normal-size sources. The jet power of these galaxies is high enough to compensate for a higher ram pressure in a denser surrounding environment and higher energy losses during the cocoon expansion. The jet power of giants is not extreme, so several FRII-type sources having that $`Q_0`$ can potentially achieve very large size after a suitable long time. According to our results (cf. Fig. 2a), these potential giants should have $`Q_0>10^{37.5}`$ W and be situated in environment with $`\rho _0<10^{23}`$ kg m-3.

The above scenerio is not caused by a selection effect. We show that there are low-luminosity sources which lay in the parts of $`\mathrm{log}Q_0\mathrm{log}\rho _0`$ (Fig. 2a) and $`\mathrm{log}E_{\mathrm{tot}}\mathrm{log}Q_0`$ (Fig. 3b) planes completely avoided by giant sources. They diverge from giants and even normal-size powerful sources by having low jet power $`Q_0<10^{37.5}`$ W and total energy $`E_{\mathrm{tot}}<10^{52.5}`$ J, thus are not expected to ever reach the giant size. It is worth to note that some of them already have an age comparable to that of typical giants, in accordance with the model expectations.

### 7.3 Acceleration of the cocoon expansion speed

The statistical analysis in Sect. 5.4 suggests that for $`\beta >1.1`$ the power exponent of age $`t`$ in Eq.(6) is greater than unity, thus the cocoon expansion along the jet axis may accelerate in time. This effect is also seen in the time evolution of fiducial sources well representing the ‘clans’ of a few actual sample sources in which each source in the ‘clan’ with almost identical values of $`Q_0`$ and $`\rho _0`$ is observed at different age (cf. Sect. 6.2 and Fig. 7a).

Below we argue that the above effect may be real and some arguments come from the well known hydrodynamical considerations. Beginning from Scheuer (1974), it is commonly accepted that the ram pressure of the external gas behind the head of jet is $`\rho _\mathrm{d}𝒱_\mathrm{h}^2Q_0/(A_\mathrm{h}v_{\mathrm{jet}})`$, where $`\rho _\mathrm{d}`$ is the external density (at the radial distance $`d`$), $`𝒱_\mathrm{h}`$ is the head expansion speed, $`A_\mathrm{h}`$ is the head working surface, and the jet bulk velocity $`v_{\mathrm{jet}}`$ is commonly assumed to be close to the light speed $`c`$. Therefore, $`𝒱_\mathrm{h}`$ is a function the root square of the ratio $`Q_0/\rho _\mathrm{d}`$ and the reciprocal of a linear size (diameter) of the working area. $`Q_0/\rho _\mathrm{d}`$ simply represents an effectiveness of the jet propagation across the surrounding medium. We can consider this ratio at the core radius $`a_0`$ and at the source leading head where it is $`Q_0/\rho _0`$ and $`Q_0/\rho _{\mathrm{end}}=Q_0/\rho _0(D/2a_0)^\beta `$, respectively. Both ratios are derived from the model. Values of the first ratio for giant sources are not much different from those for other sample sources being little smaller than corresponding values for high-redshift sources, comparable with those for low-redshift sources, and evidently higher from those for low-luminosity ones. The second ratio, as a function of $`D^\beta `$, is the highest for giant sources.

The area of $`A_\mathrm{h}`$ at a given radius from the AGN centre can be determined from high-resolution observations of the hotspots. For example, VLBI observations of selected ‘compact symmetric objects’ (CSO), possibly progenitors of classical double FRI and/or FRII sources give a linear size of the working area of about a few parsecs at a radius of about 50$``$100 pc (cf. Owsianik et al. 1998). Many VLA observations of hotspots in sources of size 10$``$20 kpc show that their sizes are not larger than about 500 pc, while the hotspot sizes in the lobes of large sources do not exceed 15 kpc. Schoenmakers et al. (2000) in their study of giant radio sources have assumed a typical hotspot size of 5 kpc at a radius of $`0.51`$ Mpc. After a discovery of the third largest radio galaxy J1343+3758 (1343+379 in Tables A1 and A4), Machalski & Jamrozy (2000) determined a working surface with diameter of about 13 kpc in one of its lobes.

From the data in our subsample of giant sources we have $`Q_0/\rho _0=10^{61.9\pm 0.13}`$ W m3kg-1 and $`Q_0/\rho _{\mathrm{end}}=10^{64.9\pm 0.19}`$ W m3kg-1. Dividing the first ratio by $`A_\mathrm{h}\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}10}^{38}`$ m2 (the working area for hotspot diameter of 0.5 kpc) and the second ratio by $`A_\mathrm{h}\mathrm{8\hspace{0.17em}10}^{40}`$ m2 (for hotspot diameter of 10 kpc), we obtain $`𝒱_\mathrm{h}`$ of about 0.12 and 0.19$`c`$, respectively. Although these speeds are, at least, two times higher than those expected from the total linear extent of sources and their estimated ages (cf. Fig. 1a), their proportion agrees with proportions found in Sect. 5.4. The above speeds, too high in respect to an upper limit of $`𝒱_\mathrm{h}`$ (i.e. the quotient $`D/2t`$), can be caused by either too high modelled jet power or too low internal density of the core and of the cocoon at its end. An adjustment of $`\beta `$ will not work because some increase of $`\beta `$ can compensate for too low $`\rho _0`$, but will dramatically lower $`\rho _{\mathrm{end}}`$. Since the values of $`A_\mathrm{h}`$ adopted for this calculation may be rather overestimated than underestimated, only a decrease of $`Q_0`$ can fit the observed expansion speeds. Even authors of the KDA paper already noted that $`Q_0`$ derived from their model is an order of magnitude stronger than a jet power ($`Q^{\mathrm{rs}}`$) calculated from the values given by Rawlings & Saunders (1991). Indeed, neglecting a thermal gas in the cocoon and taking $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{c}=5/3`$ and $`\beta =3/2`$ (as in our calculations), one can found $`Q_0/Q^{\mathrm{rs}}=1.75.5`$ depending on the value of $`𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}`$. Also Lara et al. (2000), assuming an upper limit temperature of the ambient gas around the high-redshift giant galaxy 0821+695 and deriving the source expansion speed, have determined its jet power of $`(7.19)10^{37}`$ W which is almost ten times weaker than our value of $`\mathrm{6.9\hspace{0.17em}10}^{38}`$ W for that source (cf. Table A2). A suspicion that the jet power determined from the KA model may be too high is supported by much higher than usually assumed ratios of energy $`2Q_0t/U_{\mathrm{eq}}`$.

### 7.4 Energy budget

In a number of studies of giant radio sources (e.g. Parma et al. 1996; Schoenmakers et al. 1998) a fraction of the total jet energy wasted for adiabatic expansion of the cocoon is usually assumed to be about 0.5 and used to estimate the jet power $`Q_0`$ if the age of a source is known (almost always from the spectral ageing analysis). In the KA model the energy stored in the source (cocoon) is

$$E_{\mathrm{tot}}\{Q_0dt(p_\mathrm{c}d[V_\mathrm{c}(t)]+p_\mathrm{h}d[V_\mathrm{h}(t)])\}$$

where $`p_\mathrm{c}dV_\mathrm{c}+p_\mathrm{h}dV_\mathrm{h}`$ is a work done to expand the cocoon, and $`p_\mathrm{h}`$ and $`V_\mathrm{h}`$ are the hotspot pressure (cf. Sect. 4) and its volume, respectively. If $`V_\mathrm{h}`$ is neglected, the expansion work will be $`0.5Q_0t`$; if not, it is dependent on the pressure ratio $`𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}`$ as shown in Sect. 4.2.

In spite of a supposed uncorrectness (possibly a systematic overestimation) of the jet power derived from the model, the data in our sample fully confirm a dependence of the energy ratio $`2Q_0t/U_{\mathrm{eq}}`$ on the cocoon axial ratio $`AR`$, and imply an increase of the fraction of jet energy lost for the adiabatic slender expansion of the cocoon volume in time. However, the data also suggest that for a constant $`AR`$ (a given geometry of cocoon), giants tend to have a smaller ratio of $`2Q_0t/U_{\mathrm{eq}}`$ than normal-size sources, i.e. less energy of the jets was converted into adiabatic expansion of the cocoon. This may indicate a lower pressure of the external medium surrounding the giant sources than that around shorter ones. That external pressure may be in the thermal equilibrium with internal pressure in a large part of the cocoon.

### 7.5 External pressure of the surrounding medium and its evolution

A non-relativistic uniform intergalactic medium (IGM) in thermal equilibrium filling an adiabatically expanding Universe should have an electron pressure evolving with redshift $`p_{\mathrm{IGM}}=p_{\mathrm{IGM}}^0(1+z)^5`$. The advancing hotspots of FRII-type radio sources are probably confined by ram pressure of the IGM. Giant sources, with their lobes extended far outside a cluster halo, have the lowest values of $`p_\mathrm{c}`$ and may be useful to determine an upper limit of $`p_{\mathrm{IGM}}`$. Using a small sample of giant sources, Subrahmanyan & Saripalli (1993) limited its local value to $`p_{\mathrm{IGM}}^0(0.52)\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{15}`$ N m-2. A further study was undertaken by Cotter (1998) who, using a larger sample of 7C giants with sources out to redshift of about 0.9, confirmed a strong dependence of the lowest $`p_\mathrm{c}`$ and redshift in agreement with a $`(1+z)^5`$ relation. This observational result has been critically discussed by Schoenmakers et al. (2000), who have considered possible selection effects in the Cotter’s analysis, and concluded that there was not evidence in their own sample for a cosmological evolution of $`p_{\mathrm{IGM}}`$. However, they also declare that this hypothesis cannot be rejected until some low-pressure high-redshift sources are found.

In all above analyses the age of sources was out of consideration. The very significant correlation between $`p_\mathrm{c}`$ and $`t`$, shown in Sect. 5.7, strongly suggests that the intrinsic dependence of age on redshift but not the Malmquist bias is mainly responsible for the apparent correlation between $`p_\mathrm{c}`$ and 1+$`z`$. Nevertheless, we agree with the Schoenmakers et al.’s conclusion that until giant sources with internal pressures in their lobes $`p_\mathrm{c}<\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}10}^{15}`$ N m-2 at redshifts of at least $`0.60.8`$ are not discover, the IGM pressure evolution in the form $`p_{\mathrm{IGM}}(1+z)^5`$ cannot be rejected.

Most giants in our sample, but four high-redshift ones, reveal the lowest pressure in their cocoons. Sharing Subrahmanyan & Saripalli’s arguments, we can expect those cocoon pressures are indicative of an upper limit to the present-day external pressure of the IGM, $`p_{\mathrm{IGM}}^0`$. Taking into account the lowest values of $`p_\mathrm{c}`$ (cf. Figs. 3a and 5a), we found $`p_{\mathrm{IGM}}^0<\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}10}^{15}`$ N m-2 in accordance with their value. It is worth to emphasize that the above results are obtained from the analytical model assuming the energy equipartition (cf. Sect. 4.3). This may not be the case in every part of the source (cocoon). Hardcastle & Worrall (2000) estimated gas pressures in the X-ray-emitting medium around normal-size 3CRR FRII radio galaxies and quasars, and found that, with few exceptions, the minimum pressures in their lobes, determined under equipartition conditions, were well below the environment pressures measured from old ROSAT observations. Therefore, they argued after an additional contribution to the internal pressure in lobes of those sources including pressure from protons, magnetic fields differing from their minimum-energy values, or non-uniform filling factors. Nevertheless, the diffuse lobes of giants, extending farther off from a host galaxy than a typical radius of high-density X-ray-emitting cluster gas, may be in equilibrium with an ambient medium whose emissivity is not directly detectable.

### 7.6 Dynamical evolution of individual sources

In Sections 6.3 and 6.4 we have presented the evolutionary tracks of the ‘fiducial’ sources across the $`P`$$`D`$ and $`u_{\mathrm{eq}}`$$`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ planes, respectively, calculated according to our modified KDA model, and afterwards compared them with the predictions of the original KDA model. A predicted evolution of each ‘fiducial’ source, i.e. its tracks across the above planes, is verified by the age, luminosity, size, and the energy of a ‘clan’ members (cf. Sect. 6.2). Therefore, we consider those sources as an individual source observed at different lifetime epochs, and the relevant ‘fiducial’ source is its model representation.

Figs. 8 and 9 show that for each of the three ‘clans’ our tracks are steeper than those resulting from the KDA model, and much better corresponds to the observed parameters of the ‘clan’ sources. Our $`P`$$`D`$ tracks strictly resemble those published by Blundell et al., as both arise from the dynamical models accounting for not self-similar evolution of the source cocoon. This is interesting that we get similar tracks from a different approach, subsequently supporting predictions of their model. The observed distributions of the ‘clan’ sources across the $`P`$$`D`$ and $`u_{\mathrm{eq}}`$$`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ planes give further arguments after a necessity to account for evolving axial ratio of the cocoon in studies of the dynamical evolution of individual radio sources.

This is worth to emphasize a much higher potential of such analytical models than it was exploited in previous papers, namely an evolution of the energy density and total energy stored in a source (its lobes or cocoon) can be modelled and compared with observations. The tracks of our ‘clans” across the $`u_{\mathrm{eq}}`$$`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ plane are steeper than those predicted by the original KDA model for sources with constant axial ratios. Moreover, the steepening increases throughout the source lifetime. This is caused by a non-linear decline of the adiabatic losses and inflation of the cocoon in time, as well as a faster decrease of the cocoon pressure in very large sources. Quantitatively this process is evaluated by the substitution of the evolving (increasing) value of the pressure ratio $`𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}(t)`$, given by Eq.(7), into Eq.(3).

From our analysis we can conclude as follows:

(1) The data show that the source (cocoon) geometry, described by its axial ratio, depends on its estimated age. Incorporation of the cocoon axial ratio evolving with time into the analytical model of Kaiser et al. (1997) \[referred in this paper as KDA\], allow us to reproduce a dynamical evolution of the FRII-type radio sources better than with their original model which assumes a self-similar expansion of the cocoon of sources. Therefore we can confirm a conclusion drawn by Blundell et al. (1999) that throughout the lifetime of an individual source its axial ratio must steadily increase, thus its expansion cannot be self-similar all the time. A self-similar expansion seems to be feasible if the power supplied by the jets is a few orders of magnitude above the minimum-energy values. In other cases the expansion can only initially be self-similar; a departure from self-similarity for large and old radio sources is justified by observations of giant sources.

(2) Inserting a statistical correlation between axial ratio and age of the sample sources into the model, we calculate the evolutionary tracks of a few ‘fiducial’ sources across the $`P`$$`D`$ and $`\rho _{\mathrm{eq}}`$$`E_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ planes. Resultant luminosity, size, and energy density of a given ‘fiducial’ source, derived for different epochs of its lifetime, are then compared with relevant parameters of a few real sample sources (called a ‘clan’) having the model parameters $`Q_0`$ and $`\rho _0`$ similar and common with the fiducial source. The derived $`P`$$`D`$ tracks appear to be much steeper and better fit the observational data than those provided with the original KDA model, and are compatible with those expected from more sophisticated model of Blundell et al. (1999).

(3) In the case of ‘clan’ sources, we found a slow acceleration of the average expansion speed of the cocoon along the jet axis. This effect is predicted with the model modified as above, and is caused by a systematic increase of the ratio between hotspot and cocoon pressures ($`𝒫_{\mathrm{hc}}`$) with the age of source and decreasing density of the external environment with $`\beta >1.1`$ in its $`\beta `$-model. The statistics suggests that this acceleration is also dependent of the jet power.

(4) An evolution of the energetics of sources, predictable from the model, form another characteristics of their population which can be constrained by observational data.

(5) Giant sources do not form a separate class of radio sources, and do not reach their extreme sizes exclusively due to some exceptional physical conditions of the external medium. In average, they are old sources with high enough jet power evolved in relatively low-density environment. However, for the observed high-redshift giants we found their jets almost ten times more powerful than those in low-redshift ones, while the core densities of high-$`z`$ and low-$`z`$ giants do not differ so much. From the statistical point of view, we found that for sources with comparable jet power $`Q_0`$, the size $`D`$ correlates stronger with their age than anti-correlates with core density $`\rho _0`$. For giants with a comparable $`\rho _0`$ and age, the size $`D`$ strongly correlates with $`Q_0`$.

(6) Giants possess the lowest equipartition magnetic field strength and energy density of their cocoons making a difficulty of their detection in synchrotron emission. However, the accumulated total energy is the highest and exceeds $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{52}`$ W.

(7) The apparent increase of the lowest internal pressures (observed in the largest sources) with redshift is mainly caused by the intrinsic dependence of their age on redshift and dominates over the Malmquist bias suspected by Schoenmakers et al. (2000) as responsible for this increase. However, a cosmological evolution of the IGM cannot be rejected until giant sources with internal pressures in their lobes less than $`\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}10}^{15}`$ N m2 at high redshifts are not discovered.

## 8 acknowledgements

We thank Dr. C. R. Kaiser for explanations of the integration procedures used in the KDA paper. This work was partly supported by the State Committee for Scientific Research (KBN) under contract PB 266/PO3/99/17.

## Appendix A Observational data and physical parameters of the sample sources

The observational data for the giant-size and normal-size sources are listed in Table A1. Although all columns of Table A1 are self-explanatory, some more detailed informations are given below. The overall axial ratio ($`AR`$) of the sources is determined from total intensity maps as the ratio of the entire projected source size to the average of the full deconvolved widths of the two lobes. The later are measured between $`3\sigma `$ contours on a radio contour map half-way between the core and the hot spots or distinct extremities of the source. The reference to the maps used is given in column 8 of Table A1. The volume of the sources is calculated assuming a cylindrical geometry with the diameter equal to the average width as above. The same geometry has been applied in the dynamical model used in this paper.

Table A2 contains the physical parameters of the sample sources derived from the model. The entries are:

Columns 2, 3 and 4: Age, equipartition energy density, and equipartition magnetic field strength with their estimated uncertainty, respectively – as described in Sect. 3.

Columns 5, 6 and 7: Logarithms of the jet power, initial density of the external medium at the core radius $`a_0`$, and the cocoon pressure, respectively, derived from the model.

Column 8: Logarithms of the total source (cocoon) energy.

Column 9: Ratio between the total energy of twin jets and source energy.