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# Global Monopole in Asymptotically dS/AdS Spacetime

## Abstract

Abstract : In this paper, we investigate the global monopole in asymptotically dS/Ads spacetime and find that the mass of the monopole in the asymptotically dS spacetime could be positive if the cosmological constant is greater than a critical value. This shows that the gravitational field of the global monopole could be attractive or repulsive depending on the value of the cosmological constant.

Various of kinds of topological defects could be produced by the phase transition in the early Universe and their existence has important implications in cosmologyvilenkin . Global monopole, which has divergent mass in flat spacetime, is one of the most important above mentioned defects. The property of the global monopole in curved spacetime, or equivalently, its gravitational effects, was firstly studied by Barriola and Vilenkinbarriola . When one considers the gravity, the linearly divergent mass of global monopole has an effect analogous to that of a deficit solid angle plus that of a tiny mass at the origin. Harari and Loustòharari , and Shi and Lili1  have shown that this small gravitational potential is actually repulsive. A new class of cold stars, addressed as D-stars(defect stars) have been proposed by Li et.al.li2 ; li3 ; li4 . One of the most important features of such stars, comparing to Q-stars, is that the theory has monopole solutions when the matter field is abscent, which makes the D-stars behave very differently from the Q-stars. The topological defects are also investigated in the Friedmann-Robertson-Walker spacetimeBasu .On the other hand, there has been a renewed interest in AdS spacetime due to the theoretical speculation of AdS/CFT correspondence, which state that string theory in anti-de Sitter space (usually with extra internal dimensions) is equivalent to the conformal field theory in one less dimensionmaldacina ; witten . Recently, the holographic duality between quantum gravity on de Sitter(dS) spacetime and a quantum field theory living on the past boundary of dS spacetime was proposedstrominger  and the vortices in dS spacetime was studied by Ghezelbash and Mannmann . Many authors conjectured that the dS/CFT correspondence bear a lot of similarities with the Ads/CFT correspondence, although some interpretive issues remain. The monopole and dyon solution in gauge theories based on the various gauge group have been foundhooft . However, in flat space there can not be static soliton solution in the pure Yang-Mills theorydeser . The presence of gravity can supply attractive force which binds non-Abelian gauge field into a soliton. The cosmological constant influence the behavior of the soliton solution significantly. In asymptotically Minkowski spacetime the electric components are forbidden in static solutionvolkov . If the spacetime includes the cosmological constant, forbidding the electric components of the non-Abelian gauge fields fail, thus allowing dyon solutions. A continuum of new dyon solutions in the Einstein-Yang-Mills theory in asymptotically AdS spacetime have been investigatedbjoraker , which are regular everywhere and specified with their mass, and non-Abelian electric and magnetic charges. Similarly, the presence of cosmological constant affects the behavior of the global monopole remarkably. If the spacetime is modified to include the positive cosmological constant, the gravitation field of global monopole can be attractive in contrast to the same problem in asymptotically Minkowski or AdS spacetime.

In this paper, we study the global monopole in asymptotically AdS/dS spacetime and show that the mass of the monopole might be positive in asymptotically dS spacetime if the cosmological constant is greater than a critical value.

The Lagrangian for the global monopole is

$$L=\frac{1}{2}_\mu \varphi ^a^\nu \varphi ^a\frac{1}{4}\lambda ^2(\varphi ^a\varphi ^a\sigma _0)^2$$
(1)
where $`\varphi ^a`$ is the triplet of Goldstone field and possesses a internal O(3) symmetry. When the symmetry breaks down to U(1), there will exist topological defects known as monopole. The configuration describing monopole solution is

$$\varphi ^a=\sigma _0f(\rho )\frac{x^a}{\rho }$$
(2)
where $`x^ax^a=\rho ^2`$ and $`a=1,2,3.`$

When $`f`$ approaches unity at infinity, we will have a monopole solution. The static spherically symmetric metric is

$$ds^2=B(\rho )dt^2A(\rho )d\rho ^2\rho ^2(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2)$$
(3)
By introducing the dimensionless parameter $`r=\sigma _0\rho `$, we obtain the equations of motion for goldstone field as:

$$\frac{1}{A}f^{^{\prime \prime }}+[\frac{2}{Ar}+\frac{1}{2B}(\frac{B}{A})^{^{}}]f^{^{}}\frac{2}{r^2}f\lambda ^2(f^21)f=0$$
(4)
where the prime denotes the derivative with respect to $`r`$.

In dS/AdS spacetime, the Einstein equation is

$$G_{\mu \nu }+\beta g_{\mu \nu }=\kappa T_{\mu \nu }$$
(5)
where $`\beta `$ is the cosmological constant and $`\kappa =8\pi G`$. dS and AdS spacetime correspond to the cases that $`\beta `$ is positive and negative respectively. The Einstein equations in dS/AdS spacetime now are ready to written as:

$$\frac{1}{A}(\frac{1}{r^2}\frac{1}{r}\frac{A^{^{}}}{A})+\frac{1}{r^2}=ϵ^2T_0^0\frac{\beta }{\sigma _0^2}$$
(6)
$$\frac{1}{A}(\frac{1}{r^2}+\frac{1}{r}\frac{B^{^{}}}{B})+\frac{1}{r^2}=ϵ^2T_1^1\frac{\beta }{\sigma _0^2}$$
(7)
where

$`T_0^0=D+U+V`$ (8)
$`T_1^1=D+UV`$ (9)
are energy momentum tensors and

$`D`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{f^2}{r^2}}`$
$`U`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{\lambda ^2}{4}}(f^21)^2`$ (10)
$`V`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{f^{}_{}{}^{}2}{2A}}`$
and $`ϵ^2=\kappa \sigma _0^2`$ is a dimensionless parameter. Solving Eqs.(6) and (7), one can obtain

$$A^1(r)=1ϵ^2+\frac{\beta }{3\sigma _0^2}r^2\frac{2G\sigma _0M_A(r)}{r}$$
(11)
$$B(r)=1ϵ^2+\frac{\beta }{3\sigma _0^2}r^2\frac{2G\sigma _0M_B(r)}{r}$$
(12)
where

$`M_A(r)=4\pi \sigma _0\mathrm{exp}[\mathrm{}(r)]\times {\displaystyle _0^r}𝑑y\mathrm{exp}[\mathrm{}(y)]\{f^21+y^2[U+(1ϵ^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta }{3\sigma _0^2}}y^2)f^{}_{}{}^{}2]\}`$ (13)
and

$`M_B(r)=M_A(r)\mathrm{exp}[\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{}}(r)]+{\displaystyle \frac{r(1ϵ^2+\frac{\beta }{3\sigma _0^2}r^2)}{2}}\{1\mathrm{exp}[\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{}}(r)]\}`$ (14)
In which

$$\mathrm{}(r)=\frac{ϵ^2}{2}_0^r𝑑y(yf^{}_{}{}^{}2)$$
(15)
and

$$\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{}}(r)=ϵ^2_{\mathrm{}}^r𝑑y(yf^{}_{}{}^{}2)$$
(16)
Next, we discuss the behavior of these functions in asymptotically dS/AdS spacetime. A global monopole solution $`f`$ should approaches unity when $`r1`$. If this convergence is fast enough then $`M_A(r)`$ and $`M_B(r)`$ will also quickly converge to finite values. Therefore, we can find the asymptotic expansions:

$$f(r)=1\frac{3\sigma _0^2}{\beta +3\lambda ^2\sigma _0^2}\frac{1}{r^2}\frac{9[2\beta ϵ^2\sigma _0^4+3(2ϵ^23)\lambda ^2\sigma _0^6]}{2(2\beta 3\lambda ^2\sigma _0^2)(\beta +3\lambda ^2\sigma _0^2)^2}\frac{1}{r^4}+O(\frac{1}{r^6})$$
(17)
$$M_A(r)=M_A(\beta ,ϵ^2)+\frac{4\pi \sigma _0}{r}+O(\frac{1}{r^3})$$
(18)
$$M_B(r)=M_A(r)(1\frac{ϵ^2}{r^4})+\frac{4\pi \sigma _0(1ϵ^2)}{r^3}+O(\frac{1}{r^7})$$
(19)
where $`M_A(\beta ,ϵ^2)lim_r\mathrm{}M_A(r)`$, which is a function dependent on $`\beta `$ and $`ϵ^2`$. The dependence on $`ϵ`$ of asymptotic behavior is quite weak for the global monopole solution. However, the asymptotic behavior is evidently dependent of the parameters $`\beta `$, $`\sigma _0`$ and $`\lambda `$. The Eqs.(17)-(19) in the limit of small cosmological constant reduce to the well known ones in flat spacetime. The solution Eqs.(11)-(12) induce a deficit angle in asymptotically dS/AdS spacetime. Numerical calculation for $`f(r)`$ show that its shape is quite insensitive to $`ϵ`$ in the range $`0ϵ1`$ not only asymptotically, but also close to the origin. We also find that an increasing positive cosmological constant tends to make a thicker monopole solution and a decreasing negative cosmological constant tends to make a thinner monopole solution.

In the following, We present a numerical analysis to the system and the results are shown in Fig.1.

Fig1. The plot of mass as a function of $`r`$. Here we choose $`\lambda =1`$, $`\sigma _0=0.01`$, $`G=1`$. Curve (a), (b) and (c) are plotted when $`\beta =0.0010,0.0003`$ and $`0.0005`$ respectively.

From Fig.1, one can find that the mass decrease to a negative asymptotic value when $`r`$ approaches infinity in AdS spacetime. But in dS spacetime, the mass will be positive if the cosmological constant is large enough. The critical value for the cosmological constant is 0.0003 in our set-up. The asymptotic mass for the above Curve (a), (b) and (c) are 0.1415, 0.0000 and -0.1760 respectively. It is clear that the presence of cosmological constant affects the behavior of the global monopole significantly. If the spacetime is modified to include a positive cosmological constant, the gravitational field of global monopole can be attractive in contrast to the same problem in asymptotically flat or AdS spacetime.

Finally, We want to discuss why the tiny mass of global monopole is defined as the limiting value of the function $`M_A(r)`$ given by Eq.(13). The standard definition of the ADM mass is different: It is defined by the $`g_{rr}^1=1\frac{2GM(r)}{r}\frac{\lambda }{3}r^2`$, where $`\lambda `$ is the cosmological constant. The mass, $`M`$, is then the limiting value of $`M(r)`$, and it is always positive. This agrees with the well-known positive mass theorem for the dS/AdS space firstly proved by abbott . However, in the case of global monopole, $`M(r)`$ is linearly divergent for large $`r`$, which leads to a deficit solid angle plus a residual effect of gravitational field. When a test particle moves in the gravitational field of the global monopole, the repulsive or attractive nature of the residual gravitational effect can be perceived by this particleharari ; li1 . That is, the standard definition of the mass gives in the case of a global monopole a linearly divergent expression plus a constant term. Now, it turns out that the divergent term does not produce any gravitational effect on the matter interacting with the monopole, and the whole interaction is entirely determined by the subleading finite term. This is why it is customary to subtract the divergent term from the definition of mass, since it is the resulting finite ‘effective’ mass that determines the gravitational interaction with the monopole. Furthermore, the attractive or repulsive property of the residual gravitational field is determined by the positiveness or negativeness of $`M_A(r)`$. For the relation between the Positive Mass Conjecture and global monopole, one may refer to Ref.cvetic1 , in which Cvetiĉ and Soleng pointed out that ”In Refcvetic2 , a Positive Mass Conjecture was formulated saying that there is no singularity free solution of Einstein’s field equations with matter sources(not including the vacuum) obeying the weak energy condition equations for which an exterior observer can see a negative mass object. A global monopole Refbarriola ; harari ; li1  would appear to be a counter example, but in this case the Goldstone fields extended to infinity, which means that these objects are extended sources and all observers must be inside the system”. Therefore, although the effective mass $`M_A`$ is negative under certain circumstance, it will not contradict the Positive Mass Conjecturecvetic2  and the Positive Mass theorem in dS/AdS spacetimeabbott .

When one study the motion of test particles around a global monopole, it is an excellent approximation to take $`M_A(r)`$ as the constant $`M_A(\beta ,ϵ^2)`$ since the effective mass approaches its asymptotic value very quickly. Apart from the academic interest in the global monopole configuration, the D-starsli2 ; li3 ; li4  seem to make it relevant to astronomical situation. Work on the generalization of D-stars to asymptotically ds/Ads spacetime is in preparation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was partially supported by National Nature Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 19875016, National Doctor Foundation of China under Grant No. 1999025110, and Foundation of Shanghai Development for Science and Technology under Grant No. 01JC1435.


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# Pion and kaon parton distribution functions in a meson cloud model

## Abstract

In a model of hadrons in which the hadron wave function at low $`Q^2`$ is represented by a hadron-like Fock state expansion, we calculate the $`\pi `$ and $`K`$ parton distribution functions by comparing to experimental data. We show that the model gives an accurate description of available data and, in addition, gives a clear prediction of the initial flavors to be considered at the low $`Q^2`$ scale where perturbative evolution starts

The parton content of mesons is not well known due to the scarce experimental information as compared to the rich and accurate data existing for the proton. The meson structure is measured in dilepton Drell-Yan (D-Y) production in meson-nucleon interactions. So far, a few experimentspions ; e615  have measured the valence quark distribution in charged pions, while for kaons, the only experimental information today available is on the $`\overline{u}_k`$ distribution in the $`K^{}`$, which has been obtained by the NA3 Collaboration na3  in the 80’s.

In D-Y dilepton production in the reaction $`H^A+H^Bl^+l^{}`$, the biggest contribution comes from the subprocesses $`\overline{q}+ql^+l^{}`$, where $`\overline{q},q`$ are quarks in the initial hadrons $`H^A,H^B`$. Then the partonic structure of one of the initial hadrons can be extracted if the structure of the other one is known. Thus, the structure of charged pions can be measured in $`\pi ^\pm N`$ interactions. Furthermore, some authors have claimed that adequate linear combinations of $`\pi ^\pm p`$ and $`\pi ^\pm n`$ D-Y cross sections can allow the measurement of the valence quark distributions in charged pions independently of their sea quark and gluon distributions some . In a similar way, the $`\overline{u}`$ valence quark distribution in the $`K^{}`$ can be measured. However, the valence $`s`$ quark distribution cannot be easily determined in kaons since it has to anihilate with a $`\overline{s}`$ sea quark in the nucleon to produce the $`l^+l^{}`$ pair, giving a negligible contribution to the D-Y cross section in the experimentally accessible kinematic region.

Then, to know the kaon structure, which is desirable since, for instance, kaons are frequently used as beam particles in experiments, one has to rely on theoretical models to complement the experimental information. On this respect, several models have been proposed. Among them we can mention the model of Ref. hwa , where the kaon structure is derived in a constituent quark model; the model of Ref. grs , where some quark and gluon sea is considered in addition to the constituent quarks at the scale where evolution starts; and most recently, the model presented in Ref. ams , where an expansion of the pion and kaon wave-functions in terms of hadron-like Fock states is done at the input $`Q^2`$ scale. One interesting feature of the last one is that the model predicts the parton structure of the pion and kaon, at the low $`Q^2`$ scale where evolution starts, up to a few parameters which must be fixed from experimental data. This is a remarkable property since leaves the model free of the arbitrariness of the other two, where by no means both the form and initial parton distribution functions (PDF) are justified.

In what follows, after a short revision of the model of Ref. ams , we shall use it to extract information on the pion and kaon parton content from simultaneous fits to the available experimental data.

Following Ref. ams , the $`\pi ^{}`$ and $`K^{}`$ wave functions can be written as

$`|\pi ^{}`$ $`=`$ $`a_0^\pi |\pi ^{}+a_1^\pi |\pi ^{}g+a_2^\pi |K^0K^{}+\mathrm{}`$ (1)
$`|K^{}`$ $`=`$ $`a_0^K|K^{}+a_1^K|K^{}g+a_2^K|\overline{K}^0\pi ^{}+\mathrm{},`$ (2)
at some low $`Q_v^2`$ scale, where we have neglected higher order contributions involving heavier mesons and fluctuations to Fock states containing more than two mesons. These fluctuations should be far off-shell and they can be safely ignored at this point. The first terms in Eqs. (1)-(2) are the bare meson states, which are formed only by valons hwa . The following terms are fluctuations whose origin can be traced back to the processes $`vv+g`$ and $`gq+\overline{q}`$ followed by the recombination of the perturbative $`q\overline{q}`$ pair with the valons, $`v`$, to form the hadron-like structure. As discussed in Ref. cm2 , we assume that interactions between a quark or antiquark and a valon of the same flavor do not form a neutral, unflavored, virtual meson structure but annihilates nonperturbatively to a gluon. Additionally, in-meson hadrons are assumed to be formed only by valons.

Thus, these fluctuations are an effective representation of the nonperturbative -intrinsic\- sea of quarks and gluons which should provide the necessary binding among constituent quarks to form hadrons cm2 ; bps . DGLAP evolution to higher $`Q^2`$ generates the perturbative -extrinsic\- sea of $`q\overline{q}`$ pairs and gluons.

It is worth noting that, on very general basis, individual hadrons in the $`|MM^{}`$ Fock states are colored. The same is also true for the $`|Mg`$ fluctuations in the second term of Eqs. (1)-(2) as far as the gluon is in a color octet state. However, the fluctuation itself is colorless. Notice that, if the two components of a generic fluctuation are in the $`\mathrm{𝟖}`$ representation of color SU(3), and since $`\mathrm{𝟖}8=188\mathrm{}`$, then there is a singlet (colorless) representation where the fluctuation can be accommodated.

Coefficients $`a_i^M`$; $`M=\pi ,K`$; $`i=1,2,3,\mathrm{}`$; in Eqs. (1)-(2) are constrained by probability conservation: $`_i|a_i^M|^2=1`$.

Since valon distributions in pions and kaons are related by

$`v_\pi (x)`$ $``$ $`v_{\overline{u}/\pi ^{}}(x)=v_{d/\pi ^{}}(x)`$ (3)
$`=`$ $`v_{u/\pi ^+}(x)=v_{\overline{d}/\pi ^+}(x)`$
$`v_k(x)`$ $``$ $`v_{\overline{u}/K^{}}(x)=v_{d/K^{}}(x)`$ (4)
$`=`$ $`v_{\overline{d}/\overline{K}^{}}(x)=v_{u/K^+}(x)`$
$`v_{s/k}`$ $``$ $`v_{s/K^{}}(x)=v_{\overline{s}/K^+}(x)`$ (5)
$`=`$ $`v_{s/\overline{K}^{}}(x)=v_{\overline{s}/K^{}}(x),`$
due to isospin invariance, then at the $`Q_v^2`$ scale, parton distribution functions can be written as

$`\overline{u}_\pi (x)`$ $`=`$ $`d_\pi (x)=|a_0^\pi |^2v_\pi (x)+|a_1^\pi |^2P_{\pi g}v_\pi `$ (6)
$`+|a_2^\pi |^2P_{KK}v_k`$
$`s_\pi (x)`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{s}_\pi (x)=|a_2^\pi |^2P_{KK}v_{s/k}`$ (7)
$`g_\pi (x)`$ $`=`$ $`|a_1^\pi |^2P_{g\pi }(x)`$ (8)
for pions, and

$`\overline{u}_K(x)`$ $`=`$ $`|a_0^K|^2v_k(x)+|a_1^K|^2P_{Kg}v_k`$ (9)
$`+|a_2^K|^2P_{\pi K}v_\pi `$
$`s_K(x)`$ $`=`$ $`|a_0^K|^2v_{s/k}(x)+|a_1^K|^2P_{Kg}v_{s/k}`$ (10)
$`+|a_2^K|^2P_{K\pi }v_{s/k}`$
$`d_K(x)`$ $`=`$ $`|a_2^K|^2P_{\pi K}v_\pi `$ (11)
$`\overline{d}_K(x)`$ $`=`$ $`|a_2^K|^2P_{K\pi }v_k`$ (12)
$`g_K(x)`$ $`=`$ $`|a_1^K|^2P_{gK}(x)`$ (13)
for kaons, where

$$P_{MM^{}}v_{q/M}_x^1\frac{dy}{y}P_{MM^{}}(y)v_{q/M}\left(\frac{x}{y}\right)$$
(14)
is the probability density of the nonperturbative contribution to the parton distribution coming from the $`|MM^{}`$ fluctuation cm2 ; mc .

The meson probability density $`P_{MM^{}}(x)`$ in the $`|MM^{}`$ fluctuation has been calculated in Refs. cm2 ; mc . It is given by

$$P_{MM^{}}(x)=_0^1\frac{dy}{y}_0^1\frac{dz}{z}F(y,z)R(x,y,z)$$
(15)
with

$`F(y,z)`$ $`=`$ $`\beta yv_q(y)zq^{}(z)(1yz)^a`$ (16)
$`R(x,y,z)`$ $`=`$ $`\alpha {\displaystyle \frac{yz}{x^2}}\delta (1{\displaystyle \frac{y+z}{x}}).`$ (17)
In Eqs. (16)-(17), $`v_q`$ and $`q^{}`$ are the valon and the quark or antiquark distributions which will form the meson $`M`$ in the $`|MM^{}`$ fluctuation. The $`q^{}`$ distribution is generated through the gluon emission from a valon followed by the $`q^{}\overline{q}^{}`$ pair creation. Thus its probability density is cm

$`q^{}(x)`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{q}^{}(x)=N{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _{st}^2(Q_v^2)}{(2\pi )^2}}{\displaystyle _x^1}{\displaystyle \frac{dy}{y}}P_{qg}\left({\displaystyle \frac{x}{y}}\right)\times `$ (18)
$`{\displaystyle _y^1}{\displaystyle \frac{dz}{z}}P_{gq}\left({\displaystyle \frac{y}{z}}\right)v_q(z),`$
where $`P_{qg}(z)`$ and $`P_{gq}(z)`$ are the Altarelli-Parisi splitting functions a-p ,

$`P_{gq}(z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{1+(1z)^2}{z}},`$ (19)
$`P_{qg}(z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(z^2+(1z)^2\right).`$ (20)
The only scale dependence appearing in Eq. (18) arises through $`\alpha _{st}(Q^2)`$. Since the valon scale is tipically of the order of $`Q_v^20.64`$ GeV2 hwa , then the $`q^{}\overline{q}^{}`$ pair creation can be safely evaluated perturbatively because $`\alpha _{st}^2/(2\pi )^2`$ is still sufficiently small. The normalization constants $`\alpha `$, $`\beta `$ and $`N`$ in Eqs. (16)-(17) and (18) contribute to the global normalization coefficient of the corresponding Fock state fluctuation in the expansions of Eqs. (1)-(2).

Momentum conservation also requires

$$P_{MM^{}}(x)=P_{M^{}M}(1x),$$
(21)
a condition which relates the in-meson $`M`$ and $`M^{}`$ probability densities. Additionally, hadrons in the $`|MM^{}`$ fluctuation must be correlated in velocity in order to form a bound state. This imply that

$$\frac{xP_{MM^{}}(x)}{m_M}=\frac{xP_{M^{}M}(x)}{m_M^{}},$$
(22)
fixing the exponent $`a`$ in Eq. (16). Notice also that $`P_{gM}`$ is calculated from the “recombination” of an antiquark with a valon of the same flavor cm2 . Then, formally, the $`P_{gM}`$ corresponds to the would be $`\pi ^0`$ distribution in a hypothetical $`|M\pi ^0`$ fluctuation.

With the $`\pi `$ and $`K`$ PDF given in Eqs. (6)-(8) and Eqs. (9)-(13) we proceed to fit simultaneously the experimental data on the $`\overline{u}_\pi `$ and $`\overline{u}_K/\overline{u}_\pi `$ by the E615 e615  and NA3 na3  Collaborations respectively. To that end we parametrize hwa

$`v_\pi (x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta (a_\pi +1,b_\pi +1)}}x^{a_\pi }(1x)^{b_\pi },`$ (23)
$`v_k(x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta (a_k+1,b_k+1)}}x^{a_k}(1x)^{b_k},`$ (24)
$`v_{s/k}(x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta (a_k+1,b_k+1)}}x^{b_k}(1x)^{a_k};`$ (25)
where the last two are related one another by momentum conservation; and construct a $`\chi ^2`$ function as

$`\chi ^2`$ $`=`$ $`\chi _{E615}^2+\chi _{NA3}^2`$ (26)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\left[y_ix_iu_\pi (x_i,Q_{E615}^2)\right]^2}{\sigma _{y_i}^2}}`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\left[z_i\frac{u_k}{u_\pi }(x_i,Q_{NA3}^2)\right]^2}{\sigma _{z_i}^2}},`$
to be minimized. $`\beta (a,b)`$ in Eqs. (23)-(25) is the Beta function, which gives the correct normalization.

We have a total of 8 free parameters to be fixed by the fit, namely, $`\left|a_0^{\pi ,K}\right|`$, $`\left|a_1^{\pi ,K}\right|`$ and the four exponents in the valon distributions of Eqs. (23)-(25). The fit procedure started from an arbitrary set of parameters, for which the low $`Q^2`$ $`\pi `$ and $`K`$ PDF were calculated and evolved to the $`Q^2`$ scale of the E615 and NA3 experiments respectively. Then the $`\chi ^2`$ was calculated. This procedure was repeated until a minimun of $`\chi ^2`$ was found.

Results of the fit are shown in Table 1 and displayed in Fig. 1. As evidenced by the figure, the quality of the fit is quite good.

Once the parameters in the pion and kaon wave-functions are known, we build the full set of PDF. They are shown for both, the $`\pi ^{}`$ and the $`K^{}`$, in Figs. 2 and 3 respectively at $`Q^2=30`$ GeV2. To obtain the pion and kaon PDF we have used the central values of parameters in Table 1. Note that, since $`\left|a_2^\pi \right|^20`$, then the quark sea of the pion is nearly SU(3)-flavor symmetric foot1 . However, in the quark sea of the kaon the SU(3) symmetry is largely broken due to the big contribution of fluctuations to the intrinsic sea. Another interesting feature of the kaon structure is the $`d\overline{d}`$ asymmetry of the $`K^{}`$ sea. This is due to the fact that $`d`$ is a valon in the $`\pi `$ while $`\overline{d}`$ is a valon in the $`K`$ in the $`|K\pi `$ fluctuation. Isospin symmetry tell us that $`(d\overline{d})^K^{}(x)=(\overline{d}d)^{K^+}(x)=(u\overline{u})^{\overline{K}^0}(x)=(\overline{u}u)^{K^0}(x)`$. The $`u`$ and $`\overline{s}`$ sea are, however, equal in the $`K^{}`$. Once again, via the isospin symmetry, we get $`\overline{u}=s`$ in the $`K^+`$ sea, $`d=\overline{d}`$ in the $`\overline{K}^0`$ sea and $`\overline{d}=s`$ in the $`K^0`$ sea foot1 .

The PDF of $`\pi ^+`$, $`K^+`$, $`K^0`$ and $`\overline{K}^0`$ can be obtained just by using isospin symmetry. The $`\pi ^0`$ structure, however, deserves separate considerations. In fact, the $`\pi ^0`$ wave-function at the low $`Q_v^2`$ scale can be writen as cm2

$`|\pi ^0`$ $`=`$ $`b_0|\pi ^0+b_1|\pi ^0g+b_2|\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ (27)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{b_3}{\sqrt{2}}}\left[|K^{}K^+|K^0\overline{K}^0\right]+\mathrm{}.`$
Thus, contrarily to charged pions, where the intrinsic sea is formed only by gluons and eventually strange quarks, in the $`\pi ^0`$ the intrinsic sea is formed also by $`u\overline{u}`$ and $`d\overline{d}`$ quarks due to the $`|\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ fluctuation. It should be noted also that, as the $`|\pi ^0g`$ and the $`|\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ fluctuations have the same origin, namely the splitting of a gluon to a $`u\overline{u}`$ or $`d\overline{d}`$ pair, then it can be assumed that $`|b_1|^2|b_2|^2`$, thus possibly reducing the intrinsic gluon sea due to probability conservation. This indicates a remarkable difference between the structure of charged and neutral pions within the model.

We want to stress that we have determine the complete structure of charged pions and kaons from a minimal set of measurements of the $`\pi ^{}`$ and $`K^{}`$ PDF just by extracting the three valon distributions $`v_\pi `$, $`v_k`$ and $`v_{s/k}`$ and the parameters $`\left|a_0^{\pi ,K}\right|^2`$ and $`\left|a_1^{\pi ,K}\right|^2`$ from experimental data. In this sense the model has an interesting predictive power. Note that, as a matter of fact, the experimental information one can get on the kaon structure is only on the light valence quark distribution. The measurement of the strange and even sea quark distributions in kaons is not possible due to practical reasons. Actually, strange and sea quarks only contribute to the total Drell-Yan dilepton cross section through valence-sea and sea-sea $`q\overline{q}`$ anihilation. Then their contributions are small and cannot be easily separated. A similar difficulty arises to measure the sea parton distributions in pions, where, once again, valence-sea and sea-sea contributions to the Drell-Yan cross section are small than the valence-valence ones.

Moreover, the model predicts the structure of pions and kaons at the low $`Q_v^2`$ scale, where perturbative QCD evolution starts. This gives a plausible solution to the long standing problem of the origin of the valence-like sea quark and gluon distributions nedeed, at the low $`Q^2`$ input scale for evolution, to describe experimental data on hadron structure.

###### Acknowledgements.

J.M. is grateful for the warm hospitality at the Physics Department, Los Andes University, where part of this work was done.


text:
# A CHARACTERIZATION OF SCHMIDT GROUPS BY THEIR ENDOMORPHISM SEMIGROUPS

## 1. Introduction

The question, whether two algebraic structures are isomorphic when their automorphism groups or endomorphism semigroups are isomorphic, is a fundamental but generally difficult problem in algebra. For example, H.Leptin  showed in 1960 that if $`p5`$, then abelian $`p`$-groups are determined by their automorphism groups. Only after 25 years W.Liebert  proved that it is so if $`p=3`$. Finally, in 1998 P.Schultz  showed that Leptin’s result holds for $`p=2`$, too. We have found many examples of groups which are determined by their endomorphism semigroups in the class of all groups. Some of such groups are: finite abelian groups (, Theorem 4.2), non-torsion divisible abelian groups (, Theorem 1), generalized quaternion groups (, Corollary 1). In this paper we give a characterization of Schmidt groups by their endomorphism semigroups.

A Schmidt group is a non-nilpotent finite group in which each proper subgroup is nilpotent. This notion is dedicated to O.J.Schmidt, who first described some properties of the mentioned groups (). The structure of Schmidt groups is well-known (L.Redei ). Each Schmidt group $`G`$ can be described by three natural numbers $`p,q`$ and $`v`$, where $`p`$ and $`q`$ are different primes and $`v1`$. These numbers are called parameters of $`G`$. A Schmidt group is not uniquely determined by its parameters. But there exists only one Schmidt group $`G`$ (up to an isomorphism) with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$ such that $`G`$ is a group of Miller and Moreno. Let us call it the group of Miller and Moreno with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$. Remember that a group of Miller and Moreno is a non-abelian finite group in which each proper subgroup is abelian.

Fix parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$ and denote by $`𝒮`$ the class of all Schmidt groups which have these parameters. In this paper we shall show that the class $`𝒮`$ can be characterized by the properties of the endomorphism semigroups of the groups of this class (Theorem 3.1). It follows from this characterization that if $`G`$ and $`H`$ are groups such that $`G𝒮`$ and the endomorphism semigroups $`\text{End}(G)`$ and $`\text{End}(H)`$ are isomorphic, then $`H𝒮`$ (Theorem 3.2). Let $`u`$ be the order of $`p`$ in the group of units of the residue-class ring $`Z_q`$ modulo $`q`$. As corollary from the previous two theorems, it follows that the group of Miller and Moreno with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$ is determined by its endomorphism semigroup in the class of all groups if and only if $`u`$ is odd (Theorem 3.3). Remark that the endomorphism semigroups of the groups of the class $`𝒮`$ were found in .

We shall use the following notations: $`G`$ \- a group; $`\text{End}(G)`$ \- the endomorphism semigroup of the group $`G`$; $`Z(G)`$ \- center of $`G`$; $`[G:H]`$ \- index of the subgroup $`H`$ in the group $`G`$; $`C_G(H)`$ \- the centralizer of $`H`$ in $`G`$; $`N_G(H)`$ \- the normalizer of $`H`$ in $`G`$; $`I_0(G)`$ \- the set of all idempotents of $`\text{End}(G)`$ different from $`0`$ and $`1`$; $`[x]=\{y\text{End}(G)|y^2=y,xy=y,yx=x\}`$ ($`x\text{End}(G)`$); $`\widehat{g}`$ \- the inner automorphism of $`G`$, generated by an element $`gG`$; $`p,q,v`$ \- parameters of a Schmidt group; $`𝒮`$ \- the class of all Schmidt groups with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$; $`Z_r`$ \- the residue-class ring modulo $`r`$; $`u`$ \- the order of $`p`$ in the group of units of the ring $`Z_q`$; $`Z_r[x]`$ \- the polynomial ring over $`Z_r`$; $`[a,b]=a^1b^1ab`$; $`AB`$ \- the (internal) semidirect product of $`A`$ and $`B`$; $`K_G(x)=\{y\text{End}(G)|yx=xy=y\}`$; $`V_G(x)=\{y\text{Aut}(G)|yx=x\}`$; $`D_G(x)=\{y\text{Aut}(G)|yx=xy=x\}`$; $`H_G(x)=\{y\text{End}(G)|xy=y,yx=0\}`$;

Remark that $`V_G(x),D_G(x),K_G(x)`$ and $`H_G(x)`$ are subsemigroups of $`\text{End}(G)`$, however, $`V_G(x)`$ and $`D_G(x)`$ are subgroups of $`\text{Aut}(G)`$. Note that a map is written in this paper right from the element on which it acts.

## 2. Preliminaries

Let us cite some easy facts useful in the proofs of the main theorems.

If $`x`$ is an idempotent of $`\text{End}(G)`$, then $`G`$ decomposes into the semidirect product $`G=\text{Ker}x\text{Im}x`$. Clearly, if $`x`$ and $`y`$ are two idempotents of $`\text{End}(G)`$, then $`x=y`$ if and only if $`\text{Im}x=\text{Im}y`$ and $`\text{Ker}x=\text{Ker}y`$.

###### Lemma 2.1

If $`x`$ is an idempotent of $`\text{End}(G)`$, then the semigroups $`K_G(x)`$ and $`\text{End}(\text{Im}x)`$ are isomorphic. This isomorphism is given by the correspondence $`zz|\text{Im}x`$ where $`zK_G(x)`$.

###### Lemma 2.2

If $`x\text{End}(G)`$ and $`\text{Im}x`$ is abelian, then $`\widehat{g}V_G(x)`$ for each $`gG`$.

###### Lemma 2.3

If $`x\text{End}(G),gC_G(\text{Im}x)`$ and the subgroup $`\text{Im}x`$ of $`G`$ is abelian, then $`\widehat{g}D_G(x)`$.

###### Lemma 2.4

If $`x,y\text{End}(G)`$ and $`xy=yx`$, then $`(\text{Im}x)y\text{Im}x`$ and $`(\text{Ker}x)y\text{Ker}x`$.

The proofs of lemmas 2.1-2.4 are easy exercises.

In the next part of this section $`G`$ will everywhere denote an arbitrary Schmidt group with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$. By L.Redei ,the group $`G`$ satisfies following properties: 1) $`G`$ decomposes into a semidirect product $`G=G^{}C(q^v)`$ of the derived subgroup $`G^{}`$ of $`G`$ and a cyclic subgroup $`C(q^v)=<b>`$ of the order $`q^v`$; 2) the derived subgroup $`G^{}`$ is a $`p`$-group; 3) the second derived subgroup $`G^{\prime \prime }`$ of $`G`$ is a subgroup of the center $`Z(G)`$ of $`G`$; 4) the factor-group $`G^{}/G^{\prime \prime }`$ is an elementary abelian $`p`$-group of the order $`p^u`$ ( the integer $`u`$ is defined later in this section) 5) $`Z(G/G^{\prime \prime })=<b^qG^{\prime \prime }>`$.

Denote $`G^{}=G/G^{\prime \prime }`$. Next we remember some properties of $`\text{End}(G)`$ and $`\text{End}(G^{})`$ which are proved in .

The map $`{}_{}{}^{}:\text{End}(G)\text{End}(G^{}),\tau \tau ^{}`$, where $`(gG^{\prime \prime })\tau ^{}=(g\tau )G^{\prime \prime }(gG,\tau \text{End}(G))`$, is a monomorphism. This monomorphism induces an isomorphism between the semigroups $`\text{End}(G)\text{Aut}(G)`$ and $`\text{End}(G^{})\text{Aut}(G^{})`$ of all proper endomorphisms of $`G`$ and $`G^{}`$.

Assume that $`\psi (x)`$ is an arbitrary irreducible normalized divisor of the polynomial

$$\frac{x^q1}{x1}=x^{q1}+x^{q2}+\mathrm{}+x+1Z_p[x].$$

Denote by $`u`$ the degree of $`\psi (x)`$. Otherwise, $`u`$ is equal to the order of the element $`p`$ in the group of units of the ring $`Z_q`$. Remark that the lowest natural number $`n`$ such that $`\psi (x)`$ is a divisor of $`x^n1`$ in $`Z_p[x]`$ is equal to $`q`$ (, Proposition 6). Denote by $`\overline{Z}_p[x]`$ the factor-ring $`Z_p[x]/(\psi (x))`$ of $`Z_p[x]`$ over the principial ideal $`(\psi (x))`$, generated by $`\psi (x)`$. Proper endomorphisms of $`G^{}`$ are given as pairs $`[n;f(x)]`$, where $`nZ(q^v)`$ and $`f(x)\overline{Z}_p[x]`$. Two pairs $`[n_1;f_1(x)]`$ and $`[n_2;f_2(x)]`$ are equal if and only if 1) $`n_1=n_2(=n)`$; 2) $`f_1(x)=f_2(x)`$ or $`q`$ is a divisor of $`n`$. Automorphisms of $`G^{}`$ are given as triplets $`[n;a(x);b(x)]`$, where $`nZ(q^v);a(x),b(x)\overline{Z}_p[x];b(x)0`$ and $`q`$ is not a divisor of $`n`$. If two triplets are distinct, then the corresponding automorphisms of $`G^{}`$ are distinct, too. The composition rule of elements of $`\text{End}(G^{})`$ is given by the following equalities:

$$[n;f(x)][m;g(x)]=[nm;g(x)],$$

$$[n;a(x);b(x)][m;f(x)]=[nm;f(x)],$$

$$[m;f(x)][n;a(x);b(x)]=[nm;a(x)(x1)^1+b(x)f(x^n)].$$
$`(2.1)`$
## 3. Main theorems

Suppose that $`u`$ is the degree of the polynomial $`\psi (x)`$, mentioned in the previous section. Then $`u`$ is equal to the order of the element $`p`$ in the group of units of the ring $`Z_q`$. The following theorem gives a characterization of Schmidt groups by their endomorphism semigroups.

###### Theorem 3.1

Let $`G`$ be a finite group. Then $`G`$ is isomorphic to a Schmidt group with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$ if and only if there exists $`xI_0(G)`$ such that

$`1^0`$ $`K_G(x)\text{End}(C(q^v))`$;

$`2^0`$ $`H_G(x)=\{0\}`$;

$`3^0`$ $`I_0(G)=[x]`$, where $`[x]=\{y\text{End}(G)|y^2=y,xy=y,yx=x\}`$;

$`4^0`$ $`|I_0(G)|=p^u`$;

$`5^0`$ $`\text{End}(G)\text{Aut}(G)=_{yI_0(G)}K_G(y)`$;

$`6^0`$ $`z_{yI_0(G)}K_G(y)`$ if and only if $`z^v=0`$;

$`7^0`$ $`D_G(x)`$ is a $`p^{}`$-subgroup of $`V_G(x)`$;

$`8^0`$ each Sylow $`p`$-subgroup of $`V_G(x)`$ is an elementary abelian group of the

order $`p^u`$.

Proof of the necessity of Theorem 3.1.

Assume that $`G`$ is a Schmidt group with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$. Then

$$G=G^{}<b>,$$
$`(3.1)`$
where $`<b>C(q^v)`$. Denote by $`x`$ the projection of $`G`$ onto its subgroup $`<b>`$. By lemma 2.1 and $`\text{Im}x=<b>`$, property $`1^0`$ holds.

Suppose that $`zH_G(x)`$. Then $`zx=0`$ and $`xz=z`$. Hence, $`\text{Im}z\text{Ker}x=G^{}\text{Ker}z`$ and $`bzG^{}`$. Since $`b`$ is a $`q`$-element and $`G^{}`$ is a $`p`$-subgroup of $`G`$, then $`bz=1`$ and $`Gz=(G^{}<b>)z=<1>`$. Therefore, $`z=0`$, $`H_G(x)=\{0\}`$ and property $`2^0`$ is true.

As the monomorphism $`{}_{}{}^{}:\text{End}(G)\text{End}(G^{})`$, defined in the previous section, induces an isomorphism between the semigroups of all proper endomorphisms of $`G`$ and $`G^{}=G/G^{\prime \prime }`$, then it is sufficient to prove properties $`3^06^0`$ for $`G=G^{}`$ and $`x=x^{}`$.

By (2.1), $`[0;f(x)]`$ is the zero of the semigroup $`\text{End}(G^{})`$ and

$$I_0(G^{})=\{[1;f(x)]|f(x)\overline{Z}_p[x]\}.$$
$`(3.2)`$
Since $`[1;f(x)][1;g(x)]=[1;g(x)]`$, then $`I_0(G^{})=[x^{}]`$ and property $`3^0`$ is true.

The idempotents $`[1;f(x)]`$ and $`[1;g(x)]`$ of $`\text{End}(G^{})`$ are equal if and only if $`f(x)=g(x)`$. Hence, $`|I_0(G^{}|=|\overline{Z}_p[x]|=p^u`$ and property $`4^0`$ holds.

It follows from (2.1) that

$$[n;f(x)][1;f(x)]=[1;f(x)][n;f(x)]=[n;f(x)],$$

i.e. $`[n;f(x)]K_G^{}([1;f(x)])`$ and, therefore, property $`5^0`$ is true.

Assume that

$$[n;g(x)]_{yI_0(G^{})}K_G^{}(y).$$

By (3.2), $`[n;g(x)]K_G^{}([1;f(x)])`$ for each $`f(x)\overline{Z}_p[x]`$, i.e.

$$[n;g(x)][1;f(x)]=[1;f(x)][n;g(x)]=[n;g(x)].$$

Since the first product in the last equalities is equal to $`[n;f(x)]`$, then $`[n;g(x)]`$ $`=[n;f(x)]`$ for each $`f(x)\overline{Z}_p[x]`$. Hence, $`[n;g(x)]=[n;\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}]`$ and $`q`$ is a divisor of $`n`$. Conversely, if $`q`$ is a divisor of $`n`$, then $`[n;\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}]_{yI_0(G^{})}K_G^{}(y)`$. Therefore,

$$_{yI_0(G^{})}K_G^{}(y)=\{[n;\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}]|nqZ_{q^v}\}.$$
$`(3.3)`$
It follows from (3.3) that

$$z=[n;f(x)]_{yI_0(G^{})}K_G^{}(y)$$

if and only if $`z^v=[n^v;f(x)]=0=[0;f(x)]`$. Property $`6^0`$ is proved.

For the proof of properties $`7^0`$ and $`8^0`$ we find first $`|V_G^{}(x^{})|`$ and $`|D_G^{}(x^{})|`$.

Assume that $`z\text{Aut}(G^{})`$. Then $`z=[n;a(x);b(x)]`$ for some $`nZ(q^v);a(x),b(x)\overline{Z}_p[x]`$, where $`b(x)0`$ and $`q`$ is not a divisor of $`n`$. It was proved in  that $`x^{}=[1;\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}]`$. The automorphism $`z`$ of $`G^{}`$ belongs to $`V_G^{}(x^{})`$ if and only if $`zx^{}=x^{}`$, i.e.,

$$[n;a(x);b(x)][1;\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}]=[n;\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}]=[1;\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}].$$

Hence, $`n=1`$ and

$$V_G^{}(x^{})=\{[1;a(x);b(x)]|a(x),b(x)\overline{Z}_p[x];b(x)0\}.$$

Since $`|\overline{Z}_p[x]|=p^u`$, then

$$|V_G^{}(x^{})|=p^u(p^u1).$$
$`(3.4)`$
Let us calculate $`|D_G^{}(x^{})|`$. The group $`D_G^{}(x^{})`$ consists of $`z=[1;a(x);`$ $`b(x)]V_G^{}(x^{})`$ such that $`x^{}z=x^{}`$, i.e.,

$$[1;\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}][1;a(x);b(x)]=[1;\frac{a(x)}{x1}]=[1;\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}].$$

Hence, $`a(x)=0`$ and

$$|D_G^{}(x^{})|=p^u1.$$
$`(3.5)`$
Clearly, $`(D_G(x))^{}D_G^{}(x^{})`$, and, therefore, property $`7^0`$ is true.

As $`G^{\prime \prime }Z(G),Z(G/G^{\prime \prime })`$ is a $`q`$-group and $`G^{}/G^{\prime \prime }`$ is an elementary abelian $`p`$-group of the order $`p^u`$, then $`G^{\prime \prime }G^{}Z(G)`$ and

$$Z(G/G^{\prime \prime })(G^{}/G^{\prime \prime })=\{1\}.$$
$`(3.6)`$
If $`gG^{}Z(G)`$, then $`gG^{\prime \prime }Z(G/G^{\prime \prime })(G^{}/G^{\prime \prime })`$ and, in view of (3.6), $`gG^{\prime \prime }=G^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`gG^{\prime \prime }`$. Hence, $`G^{}Z(G)G^{\prime \prime },G^{\prime \prime }=G^{}Z(G)`$ and

$$\widehat{G^{}}=\{\widehat{g}|gG^{}\}G^{}/(G^{}Z(G))=G^{}/G^{\prime \prime }.$$

Therefore, $`\widehat{G^{}}`$ and $`(\widehat{G^{}})^{}`$ are elementary abelian groups of the order $`p^u`$. By lemma 2.2, $`\widehat{G^{}}V_G(x)`$. Hence, $`(\widehat{G^{}})^{}V_G^{}(x^{})`$ and, by (3.4), $`(\widehat{G^{}})^{}`$ is a Sylow $`p`$-subgroup of $`V_G^{}(x^{})`$. Then $`\widehat{G^{}}`$ is a Sylow $`p`$-subgroup of $`V_G(x)`$ and property $`8^0`$ holds.

The necessity of theorem 3.1 is proved.

Assume now that $`G`$ is a finite group, $`xI_0(G)`$ and $`x`$ satisfies properties $`1^0`$-$`8^0`$, formulated in theorem 3.1. Under these assumptions we shall prove the following lemmas.

###### Lemma 3.1

Let $`S`$ be an arbitrary Sylow $`p`$-subgroup of $`G`$. Then there exists $`bG`$, satisfying the following conditions:

$$G=\text{Ker}x\text{Im}x,\text{Im}x=<b>C(q^v),$$
$`(3.7)`$
$$I_0(G)=[x]=\{x\widehat{g}|gG\},$$
$`(3.8)`$
$$I_0(G)=\{x\widehat{g}|g\text{Ker}x\},$$
$`(3.9)`$
$$[\text{Ker}x:C_{\text{Ker}x}(b)]=p^u=[S:C_S(b)],$$
$`(3.10)`$
$$I_0(G)=\{x\widehat{s}|sS\}.$$
$`(3.11)`$
Proof. Since $`x`$ is an idempotent of $`\text{End}(G)`$, then $`G=\text{Ker}x\text{Im}x`$ and $`K_G(x)\text{End}(\text{Im}x)`$. By $`1^0`$, $`\text{End}(\text{Im}x)\text{End}(C(q^v))`$. As each finite abelian group is determined by its endomorphism semigroup in the class of all groups ( , Theorem 4.2), then $`\text{Im}xC(q^v)`$ and there exists $`bG`$ such that $`\text{Im}x=<b>C(q^v)`$.

By property $`2^0`$, $`\text{Ker}x`$ is a $`q^{}`$-group. Indeed, otherwise there exists an element $`g\text{Ker}x`$ of the order $`q`$ and a non-zero $`zH_G(x)`$:

$$(\text{Ker}x)z=\{1\},bz=g.$$

Therefore, $`<b>`$ is a Sylow $`q`$-subgroup of $`G`$. Since $`\text{Ker}xG`$ and all Sylow subgroups related to a prime are conjugate, then all $`q^{}`$-elements belong to $`\text{Ker}x`$.

By property $`3^0`$, $`I_0(G)=[x]`$. Therefore, for the proof of (3.8) and (3.9) it is sufficient to prove the inclusions

$$[x]\{x\widehat{g}|g\text{Ker}x\}\text{and}\{x\widehat{g}|gG\}I_0(G).$$

Suppose $`h,gG`$. As $`\text{Im}x`$ is abelian, then the commutator $`[hx,g]`$ belongs to $`\text{Ker}x`$ and

$$h(x\widehat{g})^2=(g^1hxg)(x\widehat{g})=(hx[hx,g])(x\widehat{g})=$$

$$=(hx^2)\widehat{g}=h(x\widehat{g}),$$

i.e. $`(x\widehat{g})^2=x\widehat{g}I_0(G)`$. Hence, $`\{x\widehat{g}|gG\}I_0(G)`$.

If $`y[x]`$, then $`\text{Ker}x=\text{Ker}y`$ and $`\text{Im}x\text{Im}y`$. As $`\text{Im}x`$ is a Sylow $`q`$-subgroup of $`G`$, then so is $`\text{Im}y`$ and there exists $`g\text{Ker}x`$ such that $`\text{Im}y=(\text{Im}x)\widehat{g}=G(x\widehat{g})=\text{Im}(x\widehat{g})`$. Since $`x\widehat{g}I_0(G),\text{Im}y=\text{Im}(x\widehat{g})`$ and $`\text{Ker}y=\text{Ker}x=\text{Ker}(x\widehat{g})`$, then $`y=x\widehat{g}`$. Consequently, $`[x]\{x\widehat{g}|g\text{Ker}x\}`$. Equalities (3.8) and (3.9) are proved.

In view of (3.9), $`\text{Im}x=<b>`$ and property $`4^0`$, the first equality of (3.10) follows. For the proof of the second equality of (3.10) remark that $`S\text{Ker}x`$. Clearly,

$$[S:C_S(b)][\text{Ker}x:C_{\text{Ker}x}(b)]=p^u.$$

Assume that $`S_0`$ is a Sylow $`p`$-subgroup of $`C_{\text{Ker}x}(b)`$ such that $`C_S(b)S_0`$. Then $`|C_{\text{Ker}x}(b)|=|S_0|t`$, where $`pt`$. By the first equality of (3.10),

$$|\text{Ker}x|=p^u|C_{\text{Ker}x}(b)|=p^u|S_0|t$$

and, therefore, $`|S|=p^u|S_0|`$. If $`[S:C_S(b)]<p^u`$, then $`|C_S(b)|>|S|:p^u=|S_0|`$. This contradicts the inclusion $`C_S(b)S_0`$. Hence, $`[S:C_S(b)]=p^u`$ and equalities (3.10) hold.

Now equality (3.11) follows already from (3.9) and (3.10). The lemma is proved.

In the next part of this section it will be assumed that $`S`$ is an arbitrary Sylow $`p`$-subgroup of $`G`$ and $`\text{Im}x=<b>`$.

###### Lemma 3.2

The element $`b`$ satisfies the following two properties

$$C_S(b)Z(G),$$
$`(3.12)`$
$$b^qZ(G).$$
$`(3.13)`$
Proof. By lemma 2.3, $`\widehat{C_S(b)}=\{\widehat{s}|sC_S(b)\}D_G(x)`$. Clearly, $`\widehat{C_S(b)}`$ is a $`p`$-group. On the other hand, by property $`7^0`$, $`\widehat{C_S(b)}`$ is a $`p^{}`$-group. Hence, $`\widehat{C_S(b)}=\{1\}`$ and $`C_S(b)Z(G)`$. Inclusion (3.12) is proved.

Choose $`gG`$ and denote $`y=x\widehat{g}`$. By (3.8), $`yI_0(G)`$. Define now a map $`z:GG`$ as follows:

$$(cd)z=c^q;c\text{Im}y=<g^1bg>,d\text{Ker}y.$$

As $`G=\text{Ker}y\text{Im}y`$, then $`z`$ is defined everywhere on $`G`$. It is easy to check that $`z`$ is an endomorphism of $`G`$ and $`z^v=0`$. By property $`6^0`$, $`z_{uI_0(G)}K_G(u)`$. Therefore, $`zK_G(x)`$ and $`zx=xz`$. In view of lemma 2.4, $`(\text{Im}x)z\text{Im}x=<b>`$ and $`bz=b^r`$ for some integer $`r`$. Since the group $`\text{Im}z=<g^1bg>G/\text{Ker}z`$ is abelian, then $`G^{}\text{Ker}z`$ and $`[b,g]z=1`$. Hence,

$$b^r=bz=(bz)([b,g]z)=(b[b,g])z=$$

$$=(g^1bg)z=g^1b^qg=b^q[b^q,g]$$

and

$$[b^q,g]=b^{rq}\text{Im}xG^{}.$$

As $`\text{Im}xG/\text{Ker}x`$ is abelian, then $`G^{}\text{Ker}x`$ and $`[b^q,g]\text{Im}x\text{Ker}x`$. By (3.7), $`\text{Im}x\text{Ker}x=\{1\}`$. Therefore, $`[b^q,g]=1`$. Since $`g`$ is an arbitrary element of $`G`$, then $`b^qZ(G)`$. Equality (3.13) is proved, and so is lemma 3.2.

###### Lemma 3.3

There exists a Sylow $`p`$-subgroup $`S`$ of $`G`$ such that $`bN_G(S)`$ and $`<b,S>=S<b>`$.

Proof. Suppose that $`S_1`$ is an arbitrary Sylow $`p`$-subgroup of $`G`$. Denote $`N=N_G(S_1)`$. By (3.13), $`<b^q>N`$ and, hence, $`q^{v1}||N|`$. Assume that $`q^v|N|`$. Then $`<b^q>`$ is a Sylow $`q`$-subgroup of $`N`$. Since $`b^qZ(G)`$, then $`N=<b^q>\times N_1`$, where $`N_1`$ is a Hall $`q^{}`$-subgroup of $`N`$. In view of (3.7), $`N_1\text{Ker}x`$ and, therefore, $`N<\text{Ker}x,b^q>`$. Due to  , Theorem 1.6.18, $`<\text{Ker}x,b^q>`$ coincides with its normalizator in $`G`$. This contradicts (3.7). Consequently, $`q^v||N|`$.

Since $`q^v||N|`$ and $`<b>`$ is a Sylow $`q`$-subgroup of the order $`q^v`$ of $`G`$, then $`N`$ consists a Sylow $`q`$-subgroup of $`G`$ and there exists $`gG`$ such that $`g^1<b>gN=N_G(S_1)`$. Denote $`S=gS_1g^1`$. Then $`<b>N_G(S)`$ and $`<b,S>=S<b>`$. The lemma is proved.

In the next part of this section it will be assumed that $`S`$ is a Sylow $`p`$-subgroup of $`G`$ such that $`bN_G(S)`$ and $`<b,S>=S<b>`$.

###### Lemma 3.4

The subgroup $`S`$ of $`G`$ splits up as follows

$$S=\{[b,s]|sS\}C_S(b).$$
$`(3.14)`$
Proof. If $`sS`$ then $`b^1s^1bS`$ and $`[b,s]=b^1s^1bsS`$. Assume that $`[b,s_1]`$ and $`[b,s_2]`$ belong to a common left coset of $`C_S(b)`$ in $`S`$ ($`s_1,s_2S`$). Then $`[b,s_1]=[b,s_2]c`$ for some $`cC_S(b)Z(G)`$ and

$$s_1^1bs_1=b[b,s_1]=b[b,s_2]c=s_2^1bs_2c.$$

As the order of $`s_1^1bs_1`$ and $`s_2^1bs_2`$ is $`q^v`$ and $`c`$ is a $`p`$-element which belongs to $`Z(G)`$, then $`c=1,[b,s_1]=[b,s_2]`$ and $`s_1^1bs_1=s_2^1bs_2`$, i.e., $`s_1`$ and $`s_2`$ belong to a common coset of $`C_S(b)`$ in $`S`$. Hence, different elements of the form $`[b,s]`$ ($`sS`$) belong to different left cosets of $`C_S(b)`$ in $`S`$ and the number of elements of this form is equal to the number of cosets of $`C_S(b)`$ in $`S`$. Consequently, equality (3.14) holds. The lemma is proved.

###### Lemma 3.5

The group $`G`$ is a semidirect product of its subgroups $`S`$ and $`<b>`$:

$$G=S<b>.$$
$`(3.15)`$
Proof. First we shall prove that

$$S<b>G.$$
$`(3.16)`$
In view of (3.12) and (3.14), it is necessary to show that $`g^1bg,g^1[b,s]g<b,S>`$ for each $`gG,sS`$. By (3.8) and (3.11), $`x\widehat{g}=x\widehat{s_1}`$ and $`x\widehat{sg}=x\widehat{s_2}`$ for some $`s_1,s_2S`$. On the other hand, $`bx=b`$. Hence,

$$g^1bg=b\widehat{g}=b(x\widehat{g})=b(x\widehat{s_1})=b\widehat{s_1}=s_1^1bs_1<b,S>,$$

$$b\widehat{sg}=b(x\widehat{sg})=b(x\widehat{s_2})=b\widehat{s_2},$$

$$g^1[b,s]g=g^1b^1s^1bsg=g^1b^1g(b\widehat{sg})=$$

$$=(g^1bg)^1(b\widehat{s_2})=(g^1bg)^1(s_2^1bs_2)<b,S>.$$

Equality (3.16) is proved.

Let us prove now (3.15). By (3.16) and the theorem of Schur and Zassenhaus (, Theorem 9.1.2) there exists a $`\{p,q\}^{}`$-subgroup $`C`$ of $`G`$ such that $`G=(S<b>)C`$. Let $`y`$ be the projection of $`G`$ onto $`C`$. Clearly, $`y1`$. If $`y0`$, then $`yI_0(G)`$ and, by (3.8), $`y=x\widehat{g}`$ for some $`gG`$, i.e. $`\text{Im}y=C=\text{Im}(x\widehat{g})\text{Im}xC(q^v)`$. This contradicts to the fact that $`C`$ is a $`\{p,q\}^{}`$-group. Therefore, $`y=0`$ and $`G=\text{Ker}y=S<b>`$. The lemma is proved.

###### Lemma 3.6

Let $`p`$ and $`q`$ be different primes and $`P`$ be finite group such that

a) $`P`$ is non-abelian;

b) $`P=H<d>`$, where $`H`$ is a $`p`$-group and $`<d>C(q^v)(v1)`$;

c) $`d^qZ(P)`$;

d) $`H`$ is abelian;

e) if $`hH<1>`$, then $`P=<h,d>`$.

Then $`P`$ is a group of Miller and Moreno with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$. If $`P`$ satisfies instead of properties a), d) and e) the properties

a’) $`P`$ is non-nilpotent,

d’) $`C_H(d)Z(P)`$,

e’) if $`hHC_H(d)`$, then $`P=<h,d>`$,

then $`P`$ is a Schmidt group with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$.

Proof. Assume that $`P`$ satisfies properties a)-e) (the first case) or a’), b), c), d’), e’) (the second case). Since different Sylow $`q`$-subgroups of $`P`$ are conjugate and each $`q`$-element of $`P`$ belongs to some Sylow $`q`$-subgroup of $`P`$, then all $`q`$-elements of $`P`$ have a form $`g^1d^ig`$ ($`gP,iZ(q^v)`$).

Suppose that $`N`$ is a proper subgroup of $`P`$. Assume first that $`N`$ does not contain $`q`$-elements of the order $`q^v`$. By c), all $`q`$-elements of $`N`$ have a form $`g^1d^{iq}g=d^{iq}`$ and, therefore, $`N<H,d^q>=H\times <d^q>`$. Hence, in the first case $`N`$ is abelian and in the second case $`N`$ is nilpotent.

Assume now that $`N`$ contains a $`q`$-element of the order $`q^v`$, i.e., $`g^1d^igN`$, where $`gP,iZ(q^v)`$ and $`qi`$. Then $`g^1dgN`$ and $`dgNg^1`$.

Let us consider the first case. If $`HgNg^1<1>`$, then, by e), $`gNg^1=P,N=g^1Pg=P`$. It is impossible, because $`N`$ is a proper subgroup of $`P`$. Therefore, $`HgNg^1=<1>`$. In view of $`dgNg^1`$ and b), $`gNg^1=<d>`$, i.e. $`N`$ is abelian.

Let us now check the second case. It was showed that $`dgNg^1`$. Since all $`p`$-elements of $`P`$ belong to $`H`$, then $`HgNg^1`$ is a Sylow $`p`$-subgroup of $`gNg^1`$. Assume that $`HgNg^1C_H(d)`$ and choose $`s(HgNg^1)C_H(d)`$. By e’), $`P=<s,d>`$. On the other hand, $`<s,d>gNg^1`$. Hence, $`P=gNg^1`$ and $`N=g^1Pg=P`$. It is impossible, because $`N`$ is a proper subgroup of $`P`$. Therefore, $`HgNg^1C_H(d)`$. By d’), $`gNg^1=(HgNg^1)\times <d>`$ and $`gNg^1`$ is nilpotent. Hence, $`N`$ is nilpotent, too.

We have proved that in the first case all proper subgroups of $`P`$ are abelian and in the second case all proper subgroups of $`P`$ are nilpotent. Consequently, in the first case $`P`$ is a group of Miller and Moreno and in the second case $`P`$ is a Schmidt group. The lemma is proved.

###### Lemma 3.7

Denote $`\overline{G}=G/C_S(b),\overline{S}=S/C_S(b),\overline{g}=gC_S(b)`$ ($`gG`$). Then

1) $`\overline{S}`$ is a non-trivial elementary abelian $`p`$-group;

2) $`\overline{G}=\overline{S}<\overline{b}>`$;

3) $`G`$ does not contain normal subgroups of the index $`p`$;

4) $`\overline{b}`$ induces a non-trivial inner automorphism on $`\overline{S}`$;

5) if $`\overline{s}\overline{S}<\overline{1}>`$, then $`\overline{G}=<\overline{s},\overline{b}>`$.

Proof. In view of lemma 3.2, $`C_S(b)Z(G)`$. Therefore, $`SZ(G)=C_S(b)`$ and $`\widehat{S}(SZ(G))=\overline{S}`$. By lemma 2.2, $`\widehat{S}V_G(x)`$. Hence, by $`8^0`$, $`\overline{S}`$ is an elementary abelian $`p`$-group. Suppose $`S=C_S(b)`$. Then equality (3.15) implies $`G=S\times <b>`$, i.e., $`G`$ is abelian. Therefore, $`x\widehat{g}=x`$ for each $`gG`$ and, by (3.8), $`I_0(G)=\{x\}`$. This contradicts property $`4^0`$. Consequently, $`SC_S(b)`$ and $`\overline{S}<1>`$. Statement 1) of the lemma is proved.

Statement 2) of the lemma follows immediately from equality (3.15).

Let us prove now statement 3). By contradiction, assume that $`M`$ is a normal subgroup of the index $`p`$ of $`G`$, i.e. $`G/MC(p)`$. Choose a generator $`gM`$ of $`G/M`$ and an element $`hG`$ of the order $`p`$. Then there exists $`\tau =\pi \rho \text{End}(G)`$, where $`\pi :GG/M`$ is the natural homomorphism and $`\rho :G/M<h>,(gM)\rho =h`$, is the isomorphism. By construction, $`\tau `$ is a non-zero proper endomorphism of $`G`$ and $`\text{Im}\tau C(p)`$. In view of property $`5^0`$, $`\tau K_G(y)`$ for some $`yI_0(G)`$. Hence, $`\tau y=y\tau =\tau `$ and $`\text{Im}\tau \text{Im}y`$. By (3.8), $`y=x\widehat{g_1}`$ for some $`g_1G`$. Therefore,

$$C(p)\text{Im}\tau \text{Im}y=\text{Im}(x\widehat{g_1})=(\text{Im}x)\widehat{g_1}\text{Im}xC(q^v).$$

It is impossible. Consequently, $`G`$ does not contain normal subgroups of the index $`p`$. Statement 3) is proved.

For the proof of statement 4) remark that $`S`$ is a normal subgroup of $`G`$ and $`C_S(b)`$ is invariant with respect to the automorphism $`\widehat{b}`$. Hence, it is correct to construct the automorphism $`\mu `$ of $`\overline{S}`$ as follows

$$\overline{s}\mu =\overline{b^1sb}=\overline{s}\widehat{\overline{b}},sS.$$

Since $`\overline{s}\mu ^q=\overline{b^qsb^q}=\overline{s}`$, then $`\mu ^q=1`$ and the order of $`\mu `$ is $`q`$ or $`\mu =1`$. If $`\mu =1`$, then, by 2), $`\overline{G}=\overline{S}\times <\overline{b}>`$ and there exists a normal subgroup $`M`$ of $`G`$ such that $`G/MC(p)`$ (we took into account that $`\overline{S}`$ is a non-trivial elementary abelian $`p`$-group). This contradicts to statement 3). Consequently, the order of $`\mu `$ is $`q`$, and statement 4) is proved.

Let us prove now statement 5). The group $`\overline{S}`$ can be expanded into the direct product

$$\overline{S}=\overline{S_1}\times \mathrm{}\times \overline{S_k},$$

where $`\overline{S_1},\mathrm{},\overline{S_k}`$ are minimal non-trivial subgroups of $`\overline{S}`$ which are invariant with respect to the automorphism $`\mu `$ which was defined above ( , Theorem 3.3.2). Clearly, $`<\overline{S_i},\overline{b}>=\overline{S_i}<\overline{b}>`$ for each $`i\{1,\mathrm{},k\}`$. Since $`\mu `$ is a non-trivial automorphism of $`\overline{S}`$ then there exists $`i`$ such that $`\mu `$ acts on $`\overline{S_i}`$ non-identically. We can assume that $`i=1`$. Denote $`P=<\overline{S_1},\overline{b}>`$. By construction and lemma 3.2, the group $`P`$ satisfies properties a)-d) of lemma 3.6 (take there $`H=\overline{S_1}`$ and $`d=\overline{b}`$). Since $`\overline{S_1}`$ is a minimal non-trivial subgroup of $`\overline{S}`$ which is invariant with respect to $`\mu `$, then $`P`$ satisfies also property e) of lemma 3.6. In view of lemma 3.6, $`\overline{S_1}<\overline{b}>`$ is a group of Miller and Moreno with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$. By the characterization of groups of Miller and Moreno with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$ (), $`|\overline{S_1}|=p^u`$. As $`p^u=|\overline{S_1}|=|\overline{S_1}|:|C_S(b)|=[S_1:C_S(b)]`$, then, by (3.10), $`S=S_1,\overline{S}=\overline{S_1},k=1`$ and $`\overline{G}=\overline{S}<\overline{b}>=\overline{S_1}<\overline{b}>`$. Hence, $`\overline{G}`$ can be generated by $`\overline{b}`$ and an arbitrary non-trivial element $`\overline{s}\overline{S}`$. Statement 5) is proved. The lemma is proved.

Proof of the sufficiency of theorem 3.1.

Let $`G`$ be a finite group. Assume that $`xI_0(G)`$ and $`x`$ satisfies properties $`1^08^0`$ of Theorem 3.1. By these assumptions, lemmas 3.1-3.5 and 3.7 hold. Let us preserve the notations of these lemmas. We will prove that $`G`$ is a Schmidt group with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$. For this aim we shall show that $`G`$ satisfies statements of lemma 3.6 (take there $`P=G,H=S,d=b`$).

In view of lemmas 3.1, 3.2 and 3.5, statements b), c) and d’) of lemma 3.6 hold. Statement a’) of lemma 3.6 is also true. Indeed, otherwise $`G`$ is the direct product of its Sylow subgroups and, therefore, $`\overline{G}=\overline{S}\times <\overline{b}>`$. This contradicts statements 4) of lemma 3.7.

For the proof of property e’) choose $`sSC_S(b)`$. Then $`\overline{s}=sC_S(b)`$ is a non-trivial element of $`\overline{S}`$ and, by property 5) of lemma 3.7, $`\overline{G}=<\overline{s},\overline{b}>`$ and $`G=<b,s,C_S(b)>`$. Since $`C_S(b)Z(G)`$, then it follows from here that $`H=<b,s>`$ is a normal subgroup of $`G`$. As $`S`$ is a $`p`$-group, then $`G/H`$ is a $`p`$-group, too. If $`HG`$, then $`G/H`$ is non-trivial and there exists a normal subgroup $`M`$ of $`G`$ such that $`HM`$ and $`G/MC(p)`$. This contradicts property 3) of lemma 3.7. Consequently, $`G=H`$ and $`G`$ satisfies property e’) of lemma 3.6.

We have proved that $`G`$ satisfies properties a’), b), c), d’) and e’) of lemma 3.6. By this lemma, $`G`$ is a Schmidt group with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$. The sufficiency of theorem 3.1 is proved.

Theorem 3.1 is proved.

###### Theorem 3.2

Let $`G`$ be a Schmidt group with parameters $`p,q,v`$ and $`H`$ be an arbitrary group such that the semigroups $`\text{End}(G)`$ and $`\text{End}(H)`$ are isomorphic. Then the group $`H`$ is a Schmidt group with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$.

Proof. Let $`G`$ and $`H`$ be groups as assumed in the theorem. Since $`G`$ is finite, then so is $`H`$ ( , Theorem 2). By assumption, there exists an isomorphism $`T:\text{End}(G)\text{End}(H)`$. In view of theorem 3.1, there exists $`xI_0(G)`$ which satisfies properties $`1^08^0`$. By isomorphism $`T`$, the idempotent $`xTI_0(H)`$ satisfies similar properties of this theorem. Applying theorem 3.1 for $`H`$, it follows that $`H`$ is a Schmidt group with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$. The theorem is proved.

Let $`u`$ be the order of $`p`$ in the group of units of residue-class ring $`Z_q`$ modulo $`q`$. In , Proposition 3, it was proved that all Schmidt groups with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$ are isomorphic if and only if $`u`$ is odd. In , Theorem 4.4, it was proved that the endomorphism semigroup of the group of Miller and Moreno with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$ is isomorphic to the endomorphism semigroup of the Schmidt group of the maximal order with same parameters. Therefore, by theorem 3.2, the following theorem is true.

###### Theorem 3.3

The group of Miller and Moreno with parameters $`p,q`$ and $`v`$ is determined by its endomorphism semigroup in the class of all groups if and only if the order of $`p`$ in the group of units of the residue-class ring $`Z_q`$ is odd.

Acknowledgment. This work was supported in part by the Estonian Science Foundation Research Grant 4291, 2000.


text:
# Probing dark energy with SNAP

## 1 Dark Energy Today

The discovery in 1998  that the expansion of the universe is accelerating energized both the cosmology and particle physics communities. Whatever the physical mechanism – a cosmological constant, dynamical scalar field, higher dimensions, or altered gravitation – it lies beyond the current standard model of physics. Moreover, such an acceleration requires an unknown component to contribute the majority of the energy density of the universe – twice as much as the matter density. Researchers are intently designing theories to explain these observations as well as experiments to test the theories and probe the nature of this “dark energy”.

Type Ia supernovae observations have a clear, simple connection to the expansion of the universe that makes them excellent at probing the dynamics out to redshifts $`z2`$. The apparent magnitude, or intensity, of the supernova is a measure of the distance and its redshift directly translates into the expansion factor, mapping out the recent expansion history of the universe.

Other cosmological probes exist as well, and early data from them have confirmed the original supernova results. From the cosmic microwave background (CMB), the locations of the acoustic peaks in the temperature power spectrum coincidentally lie along contours of the age of the universe , with their measurement implying a total age $`14.0\pm 0.5`$ billion years. Such a high number requires a substantial negative equation of state component in addition to matter, at least for conventional values of the Hubble constant. Note though that this argument does rely on the universe being flat and the matter density perturbations adiabatic. The detailed structure of the CMB power spectrum gives further information: currently it is best fit with a cosmological constant contribution to the dimensionless energy density of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.530.70`$ . This as well depends on subsidiary knowledge, e.g. neglecting the gravitational wave contribution to the power.

From large scale galaxy redshift surveys such as 2dF, the power spectrum of matter density fluctuations also points to an accelerating universe through its shape . The “look” of large scale structure in computer simulations agrees as well with the presence of a large cosmological constant like component. In the next few years measurements of the growth rate of evolving structure may become precise enough to give further evidence. Combining CMB and large scale structure provides strong evidence for a universe consisting 1/3 of matter and 2/3 of some dark energy ; this is independent of and fully consistent with the supernova measurements. So today we have a concordance that the universe is accelerating, its energy dominated by dark energy with a strongly negative equation of state.

## 2 The Next Generation

But we know almost nothing of the nature of the dark energy – its equation of state ratio of pressure to density, $`w=p/\rho `$, or whether this evolves, e.g. $`w^{}`$. These two quantities hold crucial clues to the underlying fundamental physics. By mapping the expansion history of the universe we can investigate the properties of the new physics. Illustratively, distance-redshift observations $`d(z)`$ teach us the cosmological dynamics, which in turn guides us to the high energy field theory:

$$d(z)a(t)V(\varphi (a(t)))$$
(1)
where $`V(\varphi )`$ is the potential of the dark energy field.

A next generation experiment needs to be carefully designed to probe the dark energy. But systematic uncertainties rather than merely paucity or imprecision of observations will be the key obstacle. The CMB is insensitive to time variation and can only provide a rough estimate of an averaged value of $`w`$, except for a small impact on the late time Sachs-Wolfe effect buried in cosmic variance. Gravitaional lensing and the growth rate of large scale structure is promising, but needs to be separated from complicated nonlinear astrophysics. Supernovae studies directly measure the expansion dynamics and have a longer history than the various structure related methods. From this history a comprehensive list of possible systematics, and methods for accounting for them, have been developed and a new experiment is under design dedicated to exploring dark energy: the Supernova/Acceleration Probe (SNAP) satellite .

To investigate the dark energy and distinguish between classes of physics models we need to probe the expansion back into the matter dominated deceleration epoch, indeed over a redshift baseline reaching $`z>1.5`$ . The SNAP mission concept is a 2.0 meter space telescope with a nearly one square degree field of view. A half billion pixel, wide field imaging system comprises 36 large format new technology CCD’s and 36 HgCdTe infrared detectors. Both the imager and a low resolution ($`R100`$) spectrograph cover the wavelength range 3500 - 17000 Å, allowing detailed characterization of Type Ia supernovae out to $`z=1.7`$.

As a space experiment SNAP will be able to study supernovae over a much larger range of redshifts than has been possible with the current ground-based measurements – over a wide wavelength range unhindered by the Earth’s atmosphere and with much higher precision and accuracy.

An array of data (e.g. supernova risetime, early detection to eliminate Malmquist bias, lightcurve peak-to-tail ratio, spectrum, separation of supernova light from host galaxy light, identification of host galaxy morphology, etc.) makes it possible to study each individual supernova and measure enough of its physical properties to recognize deviations from standard brightness subtypes. For example, an approach to the problem of possible supernova evolution  uses the rich stream of information that an expanding supernova atmosphere sends us in the form of its spectrum. A series of measurements will be constructed for each supernova that define systematics-bounding subsets of the Type Ia category. Only the change in brightness as a function of the parameters classifying a subtype is needed, not any intrinsic brightness. By matching like to like among the supernova subtypes over redshift, we can construct independent distance-redshift, or Hubble, diagrams for each, which when compared bound systematic uncertainties at the targeted level of 0.02 magnitudes.

## 3 Revealing the Nature of Dark Energy

Generically the equation of state of dark energy is not constant in time and indeed its evolution provides critical information on the class of physics responsible for the accelerating expansion. Only SNAP, with its systematics bounded measurements and broad redshift reach, looks promising for uncovering this clue. Until recently this variation was parametrized through a linear expansion in redshift

$$w(z)=w_0+w_1z,$$
(2)
and SNAP measurements together with a prior on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ of 0.03 could determine $`w_1`$ to $`\pm 0.3`$.

However as we probe the expansion history to redshifts $`z>1`$ we would like a more accurate representation of the field evolution than Eq. 2. Indeed if we wish to combine complementary cosmological probes, such as CMB data with supernovae, then clearly such a simple parametrization is insufficient. Linder  has developed a new parametrization in terms of expansion factor $`a`$ that removes these difficulties and greatly improves the accuracy of reconstruction of the field behavior and the cosmological parameter estimation,

$$w(a)=w_0+w_a(1a),$$
(3)
while retaining simplicity and a two parameter phase space.

Figure 1 illustrates the success in modeling various dark energy models. While the $`w_1`$ parametrization blows up for high redshifts, and indeed by $`z=1.7`$ is already off by 27% for the supergravity inspired SUGRA model, the new parametrization stays well behaved and is within 3% of the true SUGRA equation of state. More important observationally is the distance-redshift relation, and this parametrization recreates it for SUGRA to within 0.2% out to the CMB last scattering surface at $`z=1100`$ .

The well behaved nature of this parametrization allows CMB data to be conjoined naturally with the supernovae measurements. This has great advantages due to their complementarity . For example, SUGRA predicts $`w_a=0.58`$ and one might consider $`w^{}dw/d\mathrm{ln}(1+z)|_{z=1}=w_a/2`$ a natural measure of time variation. It is directly related to the scalar field potential slow roll factor $`V^{}/V`$, and $`z1`$ is the region where the scalar field is most likely to be evolving as the epoch of matter domination begins to change over to dark energy domination. SNAP plus data from the Planck CMB mission could estimate this important quantity to $`\sigma (w^{})0.1`$, i.e. this could demonstrate time variation of the dark energy equation of state at the $``$99% confidence level (cf. Figure 2).

## 4 Summary

Dark energy is a crucial puzzle for fundamental physics, cosmology, and gravitation. But upcoming experiments, especially the proposed SNAP satellite, can probe its nature by constructing datasets both precise and bounded in systematic effects. Adding Planck CMB data, we have a real hope for exploring the time variation of the equation of state, a critical guide to the underlying physics. Furthermore, mapping the recent expansion history of the universe can test the cosmological framework , including higher dimensions, leading to new discoveries.

## Acknowledgments

This work was supported in part by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy under contract DE-AC03-76SF0098. I thank Neil Spooner for inviting me to participate in such a stimulating conference.