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# Feedback and the fudamental line of low-luminosity LSB/dwarf galaxies

## 1 Introduction

The galaxies can be crudely divided into two main classes based on their location in the plane of surface brightness versus luminosity or stellar mass $`M_{}`$ \[see for example Fig. 1 in Dekel & Silk (1986, hereafter DS), Fig. 7a of Kauffmann et al. (2003b, hereafter K03), and other references cited below\]. The bright galaxies, dominated at the bright end by ellipticals and early-type spirals, have relatively high surface brightnesses which are only weakly correlated with stellar mass. The fainter galaxies, spanning the broad range from relatively bright late-type spirals all the way down to the Local-Group dwarf galaxies, have their conditional average surface brightness at a given $`M_{}`$ decrease with decreasing $`M_{}`$. The transition occurs near $`M_{}3\times 10^{10}M_{}`$ (corresponding to absolute magnitude of about $`20.8`$ and $`19.0`$ in the r and b bands respectively). Other global galaxy properties, such as the mean metallicity, behave in a similar manner as a function of stellar mass, with the transition seen at a similar characteristic scale (see references below). We refer to these two general classes hereafter as HH versus LL galaxies, standing for High-luminosity High-surface-brightness (HSB) galaxies versus Low-luminosity Low-surface-brightness (LSB) and dwarf galaxies. For the purpose of our current idealized theoretical modeling, we simply distinguish between these two coarse types based on the $`M_{}`$ transition scale.111LSBs are sometimes defined in the literature by central blue surface brightness $`>22`$ mag arcsec-2, 1-$`\sigma `$ from Freeman’s (1970) mean value for bright HSB spirals ($`21.65\pm 0.35`$), and sometimes by $`>23`$ mag arcsec-2. By referring to LL and HH we do not imply that there are no LSB galaxies of high luminosity (see below). The term “dwarfs” is also used in different ways, referring alternatively to small, faint, and low surface brightness galaxies.  This kind of classification can be traced back, e.g., to Binggeli, Sandage & Tarenghi (1984), Wirth & Gallagher (1984), Kormendy (1985) and Hoffman et al. (1985). Dekel & Silk (1986) have highlighted this classification scheme (their Fig. 1) in the context of their early theoretical modeling (their Fig. 6).

### 1.1 HH and LL galaxies

The analysis by K03 of 80,000 galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) highlight the bivariate distribution of relatively bright galaxies in the plane of surface brightness and stellar mass, above their claimed completeness limits of absolute r magnitude $`17`$ and effective surface brightness $`23`$ mag arcsec-2. With the spectral information available for SDSS galaxies, their stellar masses can be evaluated more reliably than before using population synthesis models (Kauffmann et al. 2003a). The transition scale shows very clearly at $`M_{}3\times 10^{10}M_{}`$ (K03, Figure 7a). The bright galaxies in the range $`3\times 10^{10}<M_{}<10^{12}M_{}`$ have their effective surface brightnesses scattered about a mean value of $`\mu _{}10^9M_{}\mathrm{kpc}^2`$ (referring to the mean surface brightness within the half-light radius; the central surface brightness is typically larger by a factor of $`3`$), with only a weak systematic trend of roughly $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.2}`$. (When viewed as a function of luminosity, the surface brightness is actually decreasing slowly with luminosity in this range, because the stellar mass-to-light ratio is increasing, see Blanton et al. 2003.) On the other hand, the correlation at the top part of the LL regime, $`10^8<M_{}<3\times 10^{10}M_{}`$, is well fit by $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.6}`$ (or even slightly steeper). A similar correlation, with a slope $`0.60.7`$, is found in the top LL regime between surface brightness and $`i`$ absolute magnitude based on 144,609 SDSS galaxies (Blanton et al. 2003), indicating that the translation to stellar mass by K03 makes a negligible difference in this regime. A consistent correlation is measured from other samples of galaxies as well, e.g., Cross et al. (2001) find a slope of $`0.42`$ in the 2dF survey over the whole range of galaxies brighter than $`M_\mathrm{b}16`$, de Jong & Lacey (2000) measure a slope of $`0.5`$ for Sdm galaxies, Driver (1999) finds a slope of $`0.67`$ for a sample of fainter galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field, and Ferguson & Binggeli (1994) reported a slope of $`0.7`$ for Virgo dwarf galaxies.

The spread in surface brightness at a given luminosity, which is not directly relevant for our theoretical analysis in the current paper, is a matter of debate among the observers. The uniformly selected SDSS data show a relatively tight distribution about the mean relation in the $`\mu _{}M_{}`$ plane, both above and below the transition scale (see K03, Figs. 7, and 10). We learn for example that low-luminosity galaxies with high surface brightness, such as M32, seem to be rare. If the photometric completeness limit of the SDSS data in r is indeed below $`23.0`$ mag arcsec-2, then, for a given $`M_{}`$ near $`M_{}10^9M_{}`$, this data indicate a significant drop in the galaxy count as a function of decreasing surface brightness.222Blanton et al. (2003, in preparation) provide further evidence for their completeness down to below $`23.0`$ by showing that when the galaxies are binned according to Galactic extinction $`E`$, the peak of the apparent surface brightness distribution shifts accordingly, from about 21.2 at $`E=0`$ to about 23.0 at $`E=1.8`$ (a test first applied by Davies et al. 1993 to the ESO-Uppsala catalog).  A similar conclusion, of a dearth of high-luminosity galaxies with low surface brightness, is obtained from the 2dF survey by Cross et al. (2001). On the other hand, there are claims in the literature for a significant population of low surface brightness galaxies with high luminosities (e.g., Disney 1976; Phillipps, Davies & Disney 1988, 1990; Davies et al. 1994; Impey et al. 1996; Bothun, Impey & McGaugh 1997; Sprayberry et al. 1997; papers in Davies, Impey & Phillipps 1999; O’Neil & Bothun 2000).333 O’Neil & Bothun argue for a population of luminous LSBs based on their finding that the surface brightness distribution function is flat down to below a central blue value of $`24`$ – down to the survey completeness limit. They infer that many of the LSBs are luminous and extended based on the moderate differences in the distributions of sizes and velocities between HSBs and LSBs in these surveys. With the correlation $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.60.7}`$, the expected variation in radius across this decade of $`\mu _{}`$ is only a factor of $`2`$, which may be consistent with the data. The corresponding variation in velocity, $`VM_{}^{0.2}`$, is similarly weak. The flat surface-brightness distribution can therefore be consistent with the correlation detected in SDSS, 2dF and other surveys between surface brightness and luminosity.  The SDSS and 2dF results argue that this is either a smaller population, or a separate population that occupies a different locus in the $`\mu _{}M_{}`$ plane, below the surface-brightness limits of these surveys. Independently of this ongoing dispute, we seek in the current paper theoretical understanding for the general correlation between average surface brightness and stellar mass, as indicated by SDSS and the other datasets across 5 decades in $`M_{}`$, from the transition scale to the smallest dwarfs. As mentioned in §8, the scatter in surface brightness at a given luminosity may be affected by other physical processes not studied here in detail — the obvious one being angular momentum (e.g., Dalcanton, Spergel & Summers 1997).

We notice in passing that, given the observed Schechter luminosity function and the transition at $`M_{}3\times 10^{10}M_{}`$ (about a factor or 2 below the mass corresponding to Schechter’s characteristic $`L_{}`$), more than 95% of the galaxies are below the transition scale, while most of the light still comes from the bright galaxies above this scale. In terms of mass, if the mass function of haloes is similar to that predicted for the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology by simulations or Press-Schechter-like approximations, then the vast majority of the virialized mass is in haloes of LL galaxies. This clearly motivates a major theoretical effort aimed at understanding the origin of the low-luminosity LSBs.

At least two additional independent relations, beyond the $`\mu _{}M_{}`$ relation, are apparent in the SDSS data of the relatively bright galaxies. The second, based on preliminary reports (Tremonti et al. 2003, in preparation), is a re-confirmation of a scaling relation involving the metallicity $`Z`$, of roughly $`ZM_{}^{0.5}`$ at the high end of the LL regime, turning into no significant correlation between $`Z`$ and $`M_{}`$ in the HH regime, $`Z`$const. Similar gradients in gas metallicity have been seen before in other samples of LSBs (e.g., McGaugh 1994; de Blok & McGaugh 1997).

The third, which is typically the tightest correlation obeyed by galaxies, is between their luminosity and the characteristic velocity $`V`$ measuring the depth of the gravitational potential well, corresponding to roughly $`VM_{}^{1/4}`$ (e.g., Bernardi et al. 2003). This is the Tully-Fisher relation for the rotation velocity in discs and the Faber-Jackson relation (or a projection of the generalized Fundamental-Plane relation) for the dispersion velocity in spheroids. We term this kind of relation between $`M_{}`$ and $`V`$ a “TF” relation. A similar TF relation seems to extend down at least to the top part of the LL regime, with no obvious change at the transition between HH and LL galaxies (e.g., Zwaan et al. 1995; Sprayberry et al. 1995; Dale et al. 1999).

K03 (Fig. 9 and 11) also find that the luminosity “concentration” within the galaxies correlates with stellar mass, which they interpret as a measure of bulge-to-disc ratio. The bright galaxies are dominated by elliptical galaxies, the LLs near $`M_{}10^9M_{}`$ are dominated by discs, and in between the bulge-to-disc ratio is gradually decreasing with decreasing $`M_{}`$. Associated with this trend is an increasing gas-to-star ratio (e.g., Longmore et al. 1982; McGaugh & de Blok 1997) and a younger, bluer stellar population in galaxies of decreasing $`M_{}`$ down to $`10^8M_{}`$ (e.g., de Blok, van der Hulst & Bothun 1995; Sprayberry et al. 1995; McGaugh, Schombert & Bothun 1995; another interpretation in van den Hoek et al. 2000). At a given $`M_{}`$, the galaxies with lower bulge-to-disc ratio and younger stellar ages tend to be of lower surface brightness (K03, Fig. 14). Preliminary results from the SDSS data (Brinchmann et al. 2003, in preparation) indicate that while the current star formation rate in HHs shows no clear correlation with stellar mass, there is a correlation of the sort $`\dot{M}_{}M_{}`$ in the top LL regime.

### 1.2 Local-Group dwarfs

The dwarf galaxies of the Local Group (LG, see §6), as well as those observed in the Virgo cluster and the Local Supercluster (e.g., Binggeli & Cameron 1991; Ferguson & Binggeli 1994), seem to be in a crude sense an extension of the LL population of SDSS, stretching its range to almost 5 decades in stellar mass: $`6\times 10^5<M_{}<3\times 10^{10}M_{}`$. The LG dwarfs themselves span almost the whole LL range, up to $`10^{10}M_{}`$, and they therefore constitute a very useful sample, which we use extensively in this paper. As summarized below and displayed in figures in §6, the correlations between the observed global quantities seem to be roughly consistent throughout this range, including the surface brightness, metallicity and velocity as a function of stellar mass. The correlations between every pair of parameters for galaxies in this regime define a fundamental line in the multi-parameter space, say $`M_{}`$, $`\mu _{}`$, $`V`$ and $`Z`$. For the purpose of our idealized modeling of this mean line, we ignore the differences between different types within the galaxies that populate the line, and any possible population outside this family.

Within the broad LL family, the brighter dwarfs are typically disc-like or irregular in shape and gas rich (we use hereafter the broad term “dwarf irregulars”, dI); in many ways they seem to represent a continuous extension of the LLs observed by SDSS. On the other hand, the faint end, $`M_{}3\times 10^7M_{}`$, is dominated by dwarf ellipticals or spheroidals (hereafter dE), typically with only little gas and current star formation. While the dEs extend the general LL trends of decreasing surface brightness and metallicity, they clearly represent a reversal in the trend of galaxy type (bulge-to-disc ratio, gas-to-stars ratio and star-formation rate), and as we show below they seem to show an additional difference in the velocity trend (TF). After addressing the origin of the LL/dwarf family as a whole in the main body of this paper, we also discuss the possible origin of the distinction between dEs and dIs.

The data on the $`40`$ dwarf galaxies of the Local Group, based primarily on the compilations by Mateo (1998) and van den Bergh (2000), have been analyzed by Woo & Dekel (in preparation, hereafter WD). They computed the corresponding scaling relations in the range $`6\times 10^5<M_{}<10^{10}M_{}`$ in comparison with the SDSS results for the bright end of the LLs. The stellar mass $`M_{}`$ of each galaxy has been derived from the observed magnitudes using the mean age and metallicity of the stellar population and a simple population synthesis model (kindly provided by G. Kauffmann); the results were found to be quite insensitive to the details of this derivation. For the central surface brightness WD find a tight correlation about the scaling relation $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.55\pm 0.03}`$, extending down to $`\mu _{}3\times 10^6M_{}\mathrm{kpc}^2`$ at the faint end. The best-fit slope is determined by WD via a linear regression of the log variables, taking into account the errors in both (i.e., minimizing the 2-dimensional $`\chi ^2`$ as in Numerical Recipes, Press et al. 1992, §15.3). The Pearson correlation coefficient (NR, eq. 14.5.1) is $`r=0.88`$. The slope is quite similar to the slope obtained for the effective surface brightness of LLs sampled by SDSS, while the amplitude for the effective $`\mu _{}`$ is lower by a factor of $`3`$.

For the metallicity $`Z`$, WD took the stellar \[Fe/H\] (mostly for dE) and/or a constant factor times the Oxygen abundance of the gas (mostly for dI), where the constant factor has been chosen to minimize the scatter in the $`ZM_{}`$ relation. They find a tight correlation, with the best-fit scaling relation $`ZM_{}^{0.40\pm 0.02}`$ and $`r=0.92`$

For the internal velocity $`V`$, WD adopted the observed maximum circular velocity for the dIs and $`\sqrt{3}\sigma _\mathrm{p}`$ for dEs, where $`\sigma _\mathrm{p}`$ is the observed projected central dispersion velocity. When the fit is performed across the whole dwarf range, the TF scaling relation is $`VM_{}^{0.24\pm 0.01}`$ with $`r=0.89`$. When inspected more carefully, the dIs at the bright end show a slight steepening which merges smoothly into the known TF relation for bright galaxies. At the faint end, $`M_{}<3\times 10^7M_{}`$, there is an indication that the velocities of the dEs are bound from below by $`V10\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, and can actually be fit by $`V\mathrm{const}.`$ (see §7). Nevertheless, the tight scaling relations over the whole range indicate that the LL/dwarf galaxies basically constitute a one-parameter family, which calls for a simple physical explanation.

### 1.3 Supernova feedback

The dwarf galaxies are central players in one of the main problems facing galaxy-formation theory in the context of CDM cosmology — the so called “missing dwarf problem”. This refers to the apparent discrepancy between the predicted abundances of halo masses in the CDM cosmology, especially subhaloes within larger haloes, and the relatively few, faint dwarf galaxies observed, e.g., in the Local Group (Klypin et al. 1999; Moore et al. 1999; Springel et al. 2001). This problem is related to the fact that for galaxies fainter than $`L_{}`$ the luminosity function is observed to be flatter than the mass function predicted for haloes in the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology. This implies that the stellar-to-virial mass ratio $`M_{}/M`$ must be decreasing with decreasing $`M`$, namely fewer stars were formed per unit total mass in fainter LSB galaxies. The systematic variation in $`M_{}/M`$ can serve as a clue for understanding the LL-LSB phenomenon. Following preliminary ideas by Larson (1974), Dekel & Silk (1986) studied the general scenario where the key physical process governing this phenomenon is the supernova feedback from a first generation of stars, which either drives out a significant fraction of the original halo gas or suppresses star formation in the retained and added gas. DS showed that the observed scaling properties of dwarf galaxies can be qualitatively consistent with this picture, provided that the potential wells are dominated by non-gaseous dark haloes with a structure that crudely resembles the predictions of the CDM scenario. They studied the amount of energy fed into the interstellar gas by supernova ejecta subject to radiative losses and found that haloes with virial velocities significantly lower than a critical value of order $`100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ can lose significant amounts of their gas and/or effectively suppress further star formation.

Recent observations provide cumulative evidence for massive outflows from galaxies, consistent with being generated by supernovae. For example, HI maps of large disk galaxies show empty bubbles associated with outflowing clouds, which indicate an energy equivalent to $`100`$ normal supernovae (Boomsma et al. 2002). Chandra x-ray measurements show extended winds of soft x-ray about galaxies such as M82, associated with hard x-ray sources in the galaxy, indicative of young massive stars and supernovae (Roy et al. 2000; Martin, Kobulnicky & Heckman 2002). Outflows are detected directly in local starburst galaxies, and are seen to be driven by SNII activity (e.g., Legrand et al. 1997; Martin 1999b; Heckman et al. 2001). In some of these galaxies, outflows of a few hundred $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ are inferred based on the blueshifted metal absorption lines from the approaching foreground compared to the redshifted Ly-$`\alpha `$ photons backscattered from the receding background. Spectroscopy of the brighter lensed galaxies at high redshifts reveal using a similar effect typical outflows of $`200800\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (Franx et al. 1997; Frye & Broadhurst 1998; Pettini et al. 2001; Frye, Broadhurst & Benitez 2002). New evidence for strong outflows at $`z3`$ is provided by Adelberger et al. (2003), who interpret their measurements of absorption systems in QSO spectra as bubbles of radius $`1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ (comoving) around Lyman-break galaxies, almost empty of neutral hydrogen. Combined with the measured outflow velocities of a few hundred $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, this is an indication for energetic winds that persist for a few hundred million years and drive away nearby intergalactic gas. A strong observed correlation of galaxies with intergalactic metals supports the idea that the IGM has been enriched by the outflows from Lyman-break galaxies. In several cases, the outflow rate is observed to be proportional to the star formation rate (Martin 1999a), consistent with a stellar feedback origin for the outflows. This body of evidence indicates that supernova-driven winds actually exist, which helps motivating our theoretical modeling of the relevant features of galaxy formation.

In this paper we improve the DS scenario for the formation of dwarf galaxies in view of the developments in galaxy formation theory and the refined observed scaling relations across the LL/dwarf family. Using a simple energetics criterion and standard assumptions regarding the origin of galaxy sizes, we now show that the observed scaling relations naturally emerge from the simplest possible supernova feedback scenario, even before one tries to model and simulate in detail the complex physics of the feedback mechanism, and before one worries about the different types of dwarf and LSB galaxies and the scatter in their properties. We then address the possible role of radiative feedback in distinguishing between dE and dI galaxies, and in preventing star formation altogether in some halos.

In §2 we address the role of standard assumptions in determining the scaling relations for galaxies in general. The assumptions include spherical collapse to virial equilibrium in CDM haloes and angular-momentum conservation. In §3 we apply the analysis to bright galaxies where we assume that $`M_{}/M\mathrm{const}.`$. In §4 we summarize the DS derivation of the velocity characterizing the supernova-feedback scale. In §5 we use simple theoretical considerations regarding supernova feedback to derive the scaling relations of the LL/dwarf family. In §6 we compare the model predictions to the observed relations shown by the Local Group dwarfs, and comment on the comparison with the SDSS data. In §7 we discuss the possible role of radiative feedback in distinguishing between dEs and dIs. In §8 we discuss our results and related issues.

## 2 Scaling Relations: General

We show that the basic observed scaling relations for galaxies in the two regimes can be reproduced to a surprising accuracy based on the simplest possible physical assumptions. These include the virial theorem for spherical cold-dark-matter haloes, and the notion that a fraction $`\eta `$ of the original gas makes stars in a disc such that the size of the stellar system is determined by angular momentum. For HH galaxies we recover the scaling relations by taking $`\eta `$ to be independent of halo mass, assuming that feedback is not too effective there. For LL galaxies, where feedback is a key factor, we use in §5 below a simple energy constraint for the efficiency of supernova feedback to predict how $`\eta `$ should vary with the halo virial velocity. Together with the constraints from the virial theorem and angular momentum, this leads to the characteristic scaling relations in the LL regime. In this section we derive the scaling relations in general terms without specifying the behavior of $`\eta `$.

Assume a dark-matter halo of mass $`M`$ reaching virial equilibrium at a time corresponding to cosmological expansion factor $`a=(1+z)^1`$. The virial radius $`R`$ is defined in the spirit of the spherical collapse model by a given density contrast $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ relative to the mean universal density at that time, namely by $`M/R^3\mathrm{\Delta }a^3`$. At early times, when $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}1`$, the relevant density contrast is $`\mathrm{\Delta }180`$, while for the standard $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology (with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.3`$ today) it rises to $`\mathrm{\Delta }340`$ today. In the following, we ignore the weak redshift dependence of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ factor.444The maximum change is obtained at low redshifts. For example, in the range $`z=02`$ the change is roughly $`\mathrm{\Delta }a^{1/2}`$, which implies that $`a`$ in the following expressions should be replaced by $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{1/3}aa^{5/6}`$. This is a weak effect, which becomes even weaker at higher redshifts. The virial velocity is defined by the virial theorem, $`V^2M/R`$, such that the three virial quantities at $`a`$ define a one-parameter family:

$$Ma^{3/2}V^3a^3R^3.$$
(1)
In the simplest analysis we ignore the possible systematic increase of $`a`$ as a function of halo mass (but see below). This dependence is relatively weak already as predicted by cosmological spherical collapse in the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology, it gets weaker for smaller haloes as the rms density fluctuations approach a constant on small scales, and it is weaken further by effects like the merging of early-forming small haloes into bigger ones (see Wechsler et al. 2002). The virial relations for typical haloes thus take in this approximation the simple form

$$MV^3R^3.$$
(2)
We may keep tracing the $`a`$ dependence in the general expressions below in order to allow small corrections due to its possible weak dependence on $`M`$, when desired.

Considering next the baryonic component, we assume that the halo is initially filled with gas of mass $`M_\mathrm{g}f_\mathrm{b}M`$, where $`f_\mathrm{b}`$ ($`0.13`$) is the universal baryonic fraction. For large galaxies, the gas is assumed to be shock-heated to the halo virial temperature, but as long as $`M<10^{12}10^{13}M_{}`$ the gas in the halo can cool in a dynamical time (shorter than the Hubble time) and contract to form stars (Rees & Ostriker 1977; Silk 1977; White & Rees 1978; Blumenthal et al. 1984 in the context of dark haloes). We denote the ratio of luminous stellar mass $`M_{}`$ to initial gas mass $`M_\mathrm{g}`$ by $`\eta `$,

$$M_{}\eta M_\mathrm{g}\eta M,$$
(3)
without yet specifying how $`\eta `$ may depend on $`M`$. Substituting eq. (3) in the virial relations, eq. (1), we straightforwardly obtain a general TF relation between $`V`$ and $`M_{}`$:

$$Va^{1/2}\eta ^{1/3}M_{}^{1/3}.$$
(4)
As long as the halo rotation curves are roughly flat at large radii, we ignore the difference between the virial velocity $`V`$ and the observed velocity $`V_{\mathrm{max}}`$.

If the baryons within the halo virial radius $`R`$ cool and contract to a centrifugally supported disc of radius $`R_{}`$ while preserving their specific angular momentum $`j`$, then, following Fall & Efstathiou (1980) and Mo, Mao & White (1998), we write $`R_{}\lambda R`$, where $`\lambda =j/(RV)`$ is the initial baryonic spin parameter (according to the revised, practical definition of Bullock et al. 2001b). Then, from the virial relations above,

$$R_{}\lambda aM^{1/3}.$$
(5)
With $`M_{}\eta M`$, this implies for the surface brightness

$$\mu _{}M_{}R_{}^2\lambda ^2a^2\eta ^{2/3}M_{}^{1/3}.$$
(6)
The characteristic radii and surface brightnesses derived for discs can be argued to be roughly valid also for the spheroidal stellar components, elliptical galaxies or bulges of spirals. This is based on energy conservation and the virial theorem under the assumption that the spheroids were formed by mergers of discs.

The distribution of halo spin parameter is known from cosmological simulations to be insensitive to halo mass (Barnes & Efstathiou 1987; see Bullock et al. 2001b for the case of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology), so for a crude approximation it could be dropped from the mean scaling relations for the radius and surface brightness (but see a comment in §5). However, we note in passing that the $`\lambda `$ dependence in the expressions for the radius and surface brightness, as opposed to its absence from the TF relation, may have an important implication on the scatter about these relations. Cosmological simulations of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM reveal that the distribution of halo spin parameter is log-normal with a mean of $`\lambda =0.035\pm 0.005`$ and a standard deviation in the (decimal) log of $`\sigma _\lambda =0.184\pm 0.011`$ (Bullock et al. 2001b). This is already comparable to the standard deviation of the distribution of stellar radii for the LL galaxies in SDSS (K03, Fig. 8), even before considering the additional scatter in $`a`$ and in $`\eta `$. The absence of $`\lambda `$ dependence in the TF relation, and its weaker dependence on $`a`$ and $`\eta `$, may explain why the TF relation is much tighter (see Courteau et al. 2003).

The amount of metals produced in a galaxy is assumed to be proportional to $`M_{}`$ with a constant yield $`y`$. When $`\eta 1`$, the metallicity is simply $`Zy`$. When $`\eta 1`$, in the instantaneous-recycling approximation (e.g., Searle & Sargent 1972; Audouze & Tinsley 1976), one expects $`Zy\eta `$. So we approximate in general

$$ZM_{}/M_\mathrm{g}=\eta .$$
(7)
As mentioned above, small corrections to the above relations may result from a correlation between the time of formation of a halo and its mass. An upper bound to this effect may be obtained from the straightforward prediction based on spherical collapse, ignoring the fact that many early-forming small haloes eventually merge to bigger ones and thus weaken the $`a(M)`$ relation. For a power spectrum of linear density fluctuations that resembles the power law $`P_kk^n`$ at the vicinity of the scales relevant for galactic haloes, the typical mean density fluctuation within a proto-halo is $`\delta M^{(n+3)/6}D(t)`$, where $`D(t)`$ is the linear growth rate, $`D(t)a`$ for the Einstein-deSitter cosmology relevant at high redshifts. The formation time in the spherical collapse model can be approximated by $`\delta 1.7`$ for the linearly extrapolated mean density fluctuation, so one obtains

$$aM^{(n+3)/6}.$$
(8)
The virial relations for typical haloes, eq. (1), thus become

$$MV^{12/(1n)}R^{6/(5+n)}.$$
(9)
The TF relation, eq. (4), is now

$$V(\eta ^1M_{})^{(1n)/12}.$$
(10)
The stellar radius is now given by $`R_{}\lambda M^{(5+n)/6}`$ such that the surface brightness, eq. (6), is replaced by

$$\mu _{}\lambda ^2\eta ^{(5+n)/3}M_{}^{(2+n)/3}.$$
(11)
The expressions so far should be valid in general, both for HH and LL galaxies. The differences between the two classes enter mainly via the behavior of $`\eta `$, with an additional weak effect due to the difference in the effective $`n`$ in the maximum $`M`$ dependence of $`a`$.

## 3 HH Galaxies

For HH galaxies we take $`\eta `$ to be roughly independent of halo mass. This is based on the assumption that feedback effects do not significantly heat or remove most of the gas from these galaxies such that most of the gas, or a constant fraction of it, eventually forms stars (see §4). With $`\eta `$ and $`a`$ independent of mass in eq. (4), eq. (6) and eq. (7), the scaling relations for HH galaxies become

$$VM_{}^{1/3},\mu _{}M_{}^{1/3},Z\mathrm{const}.$$
(12)
These are already in qualitative agreement with the observed relations for HH galaxies.

When considering the limit of maximum $`M`$ dependence of $`a`$, we recall that big galactic haloes in a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology correspond to the part of the power spectrum where $`n\stackrel{<}{}2`$. For example, with $`n=2`$ at the bright end, one has $`aM^{1/6}`$. Then the virial relations become $`MV^4R^2`$. With $`\eta `$ assumed independent of $`V`$ for HH galaxies, and with the maximum $`M`$ dependence of $`a`$ computed above, the predicted scaling relations become

$$V_{\mathrm{max}}M_{}^{1/4},\mu _{}\mathrm{const}.,Z\mathrm{const}.$$
(13)
In order to compare with observations in terms of luminosity rather than stellar mass, one can assume that for HH galaxies the stellar mass-to-light ratio varies like $`M_{}/LL^{0.3}`$ (e.g., Courteau et al. 2003). \[This is based, for example, on the reading of Fig.7 of Courteau et al. that $`(VI)0.09M_I`$, combined with the result from Table 1 of Bell & de Jong (2001) that $`\mathrm{log}(M_{}/L_I)1.35(VI)`$. A similar result is obtained for elliptical galaxies (Bender, Burstein & Faber 1992).\] With $`V_{\mathrm{max}}V`$ we thus roughly recover the observed TF relation: $`LV_{\mathrm{max}}^3`$. The surface brightness as measured in terms of luminosity is predicted to be slowly decreasing with luminosity: $`IL/R_{}^2L^{0.3}`$, in qualitative agreement with observations. We note that in the TF relation the correction due to the correlation of $`a`$ and $`M`$ roughly balances the correction due to the correlation of $`M_{}/L`$ and $`M`$. However, the corresponding corrections to the relation of surface brightness and luminosity add up. In any case, the corrections to the simple predictions of eq. (12) are small, and we expect the predicted scaling relations for HH galaxies to lie somewhere between the relations in eq. (12) and eq. (13). This range is in general agreement with the observed scaling relations for HH galaxies.

Recall that, beyond the standard assumptions of virial equilibrium and spherical collapse, the key assumption for HHs was that most of the original gas, or a constant fraction of it, turns into stars, namely, $`\eta \mathrm{const}.`$

## 4 Supernova Feedback: the Critical Scale

Dekel & Silk (1986) evaluated the maximum total energy fed into the interstellar gas by a collection of supernova explosions due to a period of star formation at a constant rate $`\dot{M}_{}`$, taking into account the radiative loses (based on the standard evolution of a supernova remnant in a uniform interstellar medium, e.g. Spitzer 1978; Ostriker & McKee 1988). They found that at time $`t`$ this energy can be approximated by

$$E_{\mathrm{SN}}(t)ϵ\nu \dot{M}_{}t_{\mathrm{rad}}f(t),$$
(14)
where $`ϵ`$ is the initial energy released by a typical supernova ($`ϵ10^{51}\mathrm{erg}`$) and $`\nu `$ is the number of supernovae per unit mass of forming stars (which for a typical IMF is $`\nu 1`$ per $`50M_{}`$ of stars). The characteristic time $`t_{\mathrm{rad}}`$ marks the end of the “adiabatic” phase and the onset of the “radiative” phase of a typical supernova remnant, by which it has radiated away a significant fraction of its energy. The dimensionless factor $`f(t)`$ turns out to be of order unity when $`tt_{\mathrm{rad}}`$; it grows roughly $`t`$ for $`t<t_{\mathrm{rad}}`$ and $`t^{0.4}`$ for $`t>t_{\mathrm{rad}}`$.

We assume here that the stellar population of mass $`M_{}`$ has formed over some constant multiple $`\tau `$ of the free-fall time $`t_{\mathrm{ff}}`$, namely

$$\dot{M}_{}=\frac{M_{}}{\tau t_{\mathrm{ff}}}.$$
(15)
Substituting in eq. (14) we obtain that the total energy fed into the gas is

$$E_{\mathrm{SN}}M_{}\frac{t_{\mathrm{rad}}}{t_{\mathrm{ff}}}.$$
(16)
DS noticed that in the temperature range $`6\times 10^4<T<6\times 10^5`$K the cooling rate scales approximately like $`\mathrm{\Lambda }T^1`$, which implies that the ratio $`t_{\mathrm{rad}}/t_{\mathrm{ff}}`$ is roughly a constant, of order $`10^2`$, independent of the gas density or the halo parameters. This leads to $`E_{\mathrm{SN}}M_{}`$, which we show below is a key for deriving the scaling relations of LL galaxies (§5). Note that DS originally assumed $`\dot{M}_{}M_\mathrm{g}/t_{\mathrm{ff}}`$ rather than the $`M_{}/t_{\mathrm{ff}}`$ of eq. (15). The two assumptions are roughly equivalent in the case of bright galaxies and when trying to estimate the transition scale between HH and LL galaxies where $`M_{}M_\mathrm{g}`$.

DS also showed that if star formation is rapid, $`\tau 1`$, then the filling factor of the expanding supernova shells within the halo is of order unity when the typical shell is at the end of its adiabatic phase, at $`t_{\mathrm{rad}}`$. This coincidence indicates that the supernova energy (minus the radiative losses) can be fed quite evenly and efficiently into most of the gas via the expanding shells that reach a significant mutual overlap roughly at the time after which they become ineffective. It also justifies the adoption of $`f1`$ in eq. (14).

A necessary condition for heating or unbinding most of the initial gas of mass $`M_\mathrm{g}`$ is obtained by requiring that the energy fed by supernovae is comparable to the binding energy of the gas in the halo potential well,

$$E_{\mathrm{SN}}=(1/2)M_\mathrm{g}V^2.$$
(17)
Here $`V`$ is the virial velocity of the halo, which we assume for simplicity to be isothermal and to dominate the potential. DS then pushed this approximate relation to the limit where a large fraction of the gas turns into stars and obtained the critical velocity

$$V_{\mathrm{SN}}=\left(2fϵ\frac{\nu }{\tau }\frac{t_{\mathrm{rad}}}{t_{\mathrm{ff}}}\right)^{1/2}100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1.$$
(18)
This critical velocity is evaluated using the typical values of $`ϵ`$ and $`\nu `$ with $`f\tau 1`$ and is independent of the gas density because of the robustness of $`t_{\mathrm{rad}}/t_{\mathrm{ff}}`$. The interpretation of this critical velocity is that gas removal becomes possible in haloes with virial velocities smaller than $`V_{\mathrm{SN}}`$. We note that the corresponding virial mass is

$$M_{\mathrm{SN}}2.2\times 10^{11}M_{}\left(\frac{V_{\mathrm{SN}}}{100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1}\right)^3a^{2/3}.$$
(19)
With $`M_{}M_\mathrm{g}f_\mathrm{b}M`$ and the universal baryonic fraction $`f_\mathrm{b}0.13`$ the corresponding characteristic stellar mass today is

$$M_{\mathrm{SN}}3\times 10^{10}M_{},$$
(20)
in excellent agreement with the transition scale seen in the SDSS data.

The haloes of bright galaxies, which have retained most of their gas, are thus limited to the regime of deep potential wells, $`V>V_{\mathrm{SN}}`$. We associate the galaxies that form in haloes below the critical supernova scale with LL or dwarf galaxies. The importance of feedback effects in the history of these galaxies implies that their scaling relations can be very different from those shown by galaxies that live in haloes of virial velocities larger than $`V_{\mathrm{SN}}`$.

## 5 LL Galaxies

We now use the feedback energetics constraints, eq. (16) and eq. (17), to determine the behavior of $`\eta `$ in the LL regime, where we expect feedback effects to allow only a fraction of the gas to turn into stars,

$$\eta \frac{M_{}}{M_\mathrm{g}}<1.$$
(21)
The supernovae resulting from the first burst of stars either blow out the rest of the gas, or at least provide enough feedback energy to regulate the subsequent star formation rate and keep it low. We assume that $`\eta 1`$ at $`V=V_{\mathrm{SN}}100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and that $`\eta `$ becomes gradually smaller for haloes of smaller velocities. The following simple analysis is actually carried out in the limit of strong feedback, $`\eta 1`$.

Our key starting point is eq. (16) with $`t_{\mathrm{rad}}/t_{\mathrm{ff}}=\mathrm{const}.`$, namely the energy fed into the interstellar gas by supernovae is proportional to the final stellar mass,

$$E_{\mathrm{SN}}M_{}.$$
(22)
Without the radiative losses of the supernova energy, this would have been anybody’s first intuitive guess for a relation between these quantities. We argue here, in the spirit of the DS analysis, that the actual energy fed into the gas after significant radiative losses is still a constant fraction of the original supernova energy. This makes eq. (22) a valid approximation in the realistic case.

In order to allow significant heating or total blowout of the initial gas, the total input by supernovae should be at least comparable to the binding energy of the gas, eq. (17). With eq. (22), the energy condition becomes $`M_{}M_\mathrm{g}V^2`$, namely

$$\eta V^2.$$
(23)
The scaling relations for LLs all follow from this basic relation, which measures the strength of the feedback effects along the halo sequence characterized by the parameter $`V`$ in the range $`V<V_{\mathrm{SN}}`$.

Eq. (23), combined with the virial relations for the halo, eq. (1), and then $`M_{}=\eta M`$, yield

$$\eta a^1M^{2/3}a^{3/5}M_{}^{2/5}.$$
(24)
Recall that in the instantaneous-recycling approximation, for $`\eta 1`$, the metallicity is simply

$$Z\eta ,$$
(25)
so the mean scaling relation involving metallicity is given by eq. (24).

Substituting $`\eta `$ in eq. (4) we obtain for the TF relation in the LL regime

$$Va^{3/10}M_{}^{1/5}.$$
(26)
Then substituting $`\eta `$ in eq. (5) and eq. (6) we obtain for the radius $`R_{}\lambda a^{6/5}M_{}^{1/5}`$ and for the surface brightness

$$\mu _{}\lambda ^2a^{12/5}M_{}^{3/5}.$$
(27)
In summary, when ignoring possible weak systematic dependences of $`a`$ and $`\lambda `$ on $`M`$, the scaling relations for LL/dwarf galaxies are predicted to be

$$VM_{}^{1/5},ZM_{}^{2/5},\mu _{}M_{}^{3/5}.$$
(28)
In order to evaluate the maximum correction due to the possible dependence of $`a`$ on $`M`$, we use eq. (8) in eq. (24) and obtain

$$\eta M^{(1n)/6}M_{}^{(1n)/(7n)}.$$
(29)
Then the TF relation, eq. (26), becomes

$$Va^{3/10}M_{}^{1/5}M_{}^{(1n)/(142n)}.$$
(30)
and the surface brightness, eq. (27), becomes

$$\mu _{}\lambda ^2M_{}^{3(1+n)/(7n)}.$$
(31)
Very small galaxies in the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology correspond to the part of the power spectrum where $`n`$ is not much larger than the lower limit of $`n=3`$, implying a similar formation time for dwarf galaxies of all masses and therefore a constant $`a`$ in the above relations, thus leading to eq. (28). For LL galaxies not much below $`V_{\mathrm{SN}}`$ we may try for example a typical $`n=2.5`$, for which $`aM_{}^{(n+3)/(7n)}M_{}^{1/19}`$. This implies negligible effects on the TF relation and the metallicity relation, but the weak correction to the surface brightness relation may be marginally detectable, $`\mu _{}\lambda ^2M_{}^{9/19}`$ compared to $`\mu _{}\lambda ^2M_{}^{3/5}`$.

In this case, however, we may also wish to incorporate the possible mass dependence of $`\lambda `$. To a first approximation, as said above based on cosmological simulations, the distribution of halo spin parameter is independent of the halo virial properties and its formation time. As long as the baryons initially trace the spatial distribution and kinematics of the halo, their $`\lambda `$ distribution can be assumed independent of $`M`$ and $`a`$. However, while the baryons in bright disc galaxies seem to have spin parameters similar to those of their host haloes, LSB disc galaxies may tend to be associated with a higher spin parameter. For example, van den Bosch, Burkert & Swaters (2001, hereafter BBS) studied the spin in a sample of 14 LSB discs with an estimated average of $`V60\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. They found an average spin parameter about 50% larger than that of the dark haloes (see Maller & Dekel 2002, Fig. 8). At the same time, BBS estimated in these galaxies an average baryonic fraction of only $`f_\mathrm{d}0.035`$, which translates in our terminology to $`\eta (V=60)=f_\mathrm{d}/f_\mathrm{b}0.27`$. Following Maller & Dekel (2002), we model these systematic trends based on preferential blowout of low-spin material in dwarf galaxies. In order to obtain the 50% change in spin parameter over the same $`\eta `$ range (between 1 and 0.27) the effect of blowout should roughly scale like $`\lambda \eta ^{0.3}a^{0.18}M_{}^{0.12}`$. Plugged into eq. (27), using $`n=2.5`$, we now obtain $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.7}`$. This kind of correction to the surface-brightness relation should be valid for relatively large LL galaxies, where $`n`$ is not too close to $`3`$ and where the BBS analysis indicates a systematic spin dependence. For smaller dwarfs the actual relation may be better approximated by eq. (27) with constant $`a`$ and $`\lambda `$, namely $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.6}`$.

The scatter about the mean scaling relations is expected to partly reflect the random scatter about the mean $`a`$ and $`\lambda `$. Based on eq. (27), the scatter about the mean relation $`\mu _{}(M_{})`$ is expected to be significant, dominated by the scatter in $`\lambda `$, while the scatter in $`V`$ and $`Z`$ is expected to be smaller. The residuals in these different relations are expected to be correlated. For a given $`M_{}`$, galaxies that lie at the bottom of the $`\mu _{}`$ distribution are expected to be of relatively high $`a`$ (late formation time) and high $`\lambda `$. In turn, based on eq. (26) and eq. (25), these galaxies compared to the average for that $`M_{}`$ are expected to be of low $`V`$ (though high $`M`$, given the high $`a`$) and low $`Z`$.

## 6 Model vs. Local-Group Dwarfs

The success of the simple feedback model for LL galaxies as described in §5 can be evaluated by comparing the predicted scaling relations, eq. (28), to the observed scaling relations for LLs in SDSS and in the Local Group. Given the idealized nature of the straightforward model, one might only hope for a crude qualitative fit.

The match of the predicted characteristic scale for supernova feedback, $`V100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, with the observed transition at $`M_{}3\times 10^{10}M_{}`$ is already remarkable; it indicates that this transition may indeed be associated with the onset of supernova feedback effects.

Fig. 1 shows the central surface brightness $`\mu _{}`$ versus stellar mass $`M_{}`$ for the Local Group dwarfs (from WD). The galaxies are either of the two major types, dI and dE, or transition cases marked Tr. The data are fit very well by the predicted scaling relation $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.6}`$ throughout the whole LL range, spanning 5 decades in $`M_{}`$. We do not attempt to normalize the predicted relation, and therefore the model line in the figure is normalized artificially to provide the best fit for the predicted slope of 0.6. The correlation is relatively tight, with a Pearson’s correlation coefficient for the logs of $`r=0.88`$. The model slope is also a good fit to the SDSS data in the LL range (Kauffmann et al. 2003b); even the predicted slight steepening to $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.7}`$ or so can be seen at the bright end of the LL range. The SDSS data refers to the surface brightness within the half-light radius, which, for an exponential profile, is a factor of $`3`$ smaller than the central value. With this relative normalization, the bright end of the Local-Group dwarfs lies along the upper 68% contour of the SDSS distribution (Fig. 7a of Kauffmann et al. 2003b).

Fig. 2 shows the metallicity $`Z`$ versus stellar mass $`M_{}`$ for the Local Group dwarfs (WD). The predicted metallicity relation, $`ZM_{}^{0.4}`$, is a very good fit to the Local Group dwarfs. The correlation is tight, with a correlation coefficient for the logs of $`r=0.92`$. The preliminary SDSS data indicate a similar and perhaps slightly steeper relation at the bright end, $`ZM_{}^{0.5}`$.

Fig. 3 shows the velocity $`V`$ versus stellar mass $`M_{}`$ for the Local Group dwarfs (WD). The predicted relation, $`VM_{}^{0.2}`$, is an acceptable eye-ball fit to the data, despite the fact that the formal regression slope is somewhat steeper, $`0.24\pm 0.01`$. The correlation is tight, with $`r=0.89`$.

We see that the idealized theory for supernova feedback provides a surprisingly good fit to the characteristic scale and to the three independent scaling relations valid across the whole LL range. This indicates that the supernova feedback effects, via the parameter $`\eta `$, indeed have a primary role in determining the gross features of the galaxy properties in the LL regime.

The data from SDSS also allow a quantitative evaluation of the distribution of galaxies about the mean relation in the $`\mu _{}`$-$`M_{}`$ plane (Kauffmann et al. 2003b). In the LL regime, the spread in $`\mu _{}`$ at a given $`M_{}`$ is roughly consistent with the spread in spin parameter $`\lambda `$ for haloes of a given mass as measured in N-body simulations of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM. This indicates that $`\lambda `$ can indeed serve as the main secondary parameter for the LL family.

The idealized theory predicts a dependence of $`\mu _{}\lambda ^2`$ for a given $`M_{}`$ \[eq. (6)\]. In Fig. 4 we test the self-consistency of this prediction for the Local Group dwarfs. We display $`\mu _{}`$ versus an estimated “spin parameter” given by $`\lambda R_{}/R`$, the ratio of stellar radius to halo radius. The stellar radius is determined from $`M_{}`$ and the central surface brightness $`\mu _{}`$, $`R_{}(M_{}/\mu _{})^{1/2}`$. The halo radius is the virial radius corresponding to virial velocity $`V`$, where $`V`$ is $`\mathrm{max}\{V_{\mathrm{circ}},\sqrt{3}\sigma _\mathrm{p}\}`$ as described in WD. When dividing the galaxies into three relatively narrow bins of $`M_{}`$ values, we see that there is indeed a systematic trend within each bin, though slightly flatter than the expected $`\mu _{}\lambda ^2`$.

Although the surface brightnesses of dEs and dIs follow in general a similar scaling relation, the dIs do tend to lie somewhat below the best fit line. This is consistent with the finding in SDSS that at a fixed $`M_{}`$ the galaxies with lower bulge-to-disc ratio and younger stellar populations tend to have a lower surface brightness. These trends are qualitatively consistent with the $`a`$ and $`\lambda `$ dependences predicted in eq. (27).

While the predicted $`VM_{}^{0.2}`$ is a good fit across the whole dwarf range, a more detailed investigation of Fig. 3 reveals very interesting secondary features. First, there is an apparent lower bound for galaxies at $`V10\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Second, there is an apparent transition at $`M_{}3\times 10^7M_{}`$. The fainter galaxies can actually be well fit by $`V\mathrm{const}.`$. The dwarfs brighter than $`3\times 10^7M_{}`$ are then fit by a line which could be as steep as $`VM_{}^{0.4}`$. Since these velocities are measured in the inner regions of the haloes, they can be regarded as lower bounds to the actual dispersion velocities of the haloes. If the velocities of the dE haloes are actually larger than these lower estimates (as argued by Stoehr et al. 2002), then the difference between the TF relation in the two regimes, below and above $`3\times 10^7M_{}`$, could become even more significant. We note that the faint part is dominated by dEs while the brighter part is mostly dIs. These are clues for the origin of the distinction between these two types of dwarf galaxies, which we address in the following section.

## 7 Radiative Feedback: dddE vs. dddI

After demonstrating the encouraging success of supernova feedback in explaining the basic systematic trends in the LL family as a whole, we now attempt to consider the possible role of another feedback mechanism, and in particular how it may differentiate between dEs and dIs within the LL family.

### 7.1 Radiative feedback

Cosmological reionization of Hydrogen is complete by $`z_{\mathrm{ion}}67`$ (see a review by Barkana & Loeb 2001, hereafter BL; also Loeb & Barkana 2001). The flux of UV radiation that is generated by the first stars or AGNs heats and photoionizes the gas in the IGM and in virialized haloes (except perhaps for the inner regions which can become shielded). As long as the ionizing flux persists, the gas is kept at a fixed temperature of $`T_{\mathrm{ion}}(12)\times 10^4`$K. This can be regarded as another feedback mechanism; it can suppress star formation and clean haloes from gas in two ways. First, by photo-evaporation of gas already in haloes. Barkana & Loeb (1999) estimated that haloes of $`V<10\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ would lose most of their gas. Their analysis provides an estimate of the gas loss during the first dynamical time after $`z_{\mathrm{ion}}`$. However, if the gas is kept ionized until $`z12`$, a dynamical calculation of evaporation by a continuous wind reveals that photo-evaporation would remove the gas from somewhat larger haloes, up to $`V_{\mathrm{evap}}20\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (Shaviv & Dekel 2003). Second, based on simulations and computations of Jeans mass, the pressure of the hot IGM shuts off gas infall into even more massive haloes, those with velocities up to $`V_{\mathrm{Jeans}}30\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (see BL §6.5 and references therein). Gas could resume falling into small haloes after $`z12`$ when the UV background flux declined sufficiently (Babul & Rees 1992), but only haloes of $`V>2025\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ can form molecular hydrogen by $`z1`$ and then cool further to make stars (Kepner et al. 1997).

In the presence of a halo potential well characterized by a velocity $`V`$, the fraction of gas of temperature $`T_{\mathrm{ion}}`$ that is bound to the halo can be estimated by the Boltzmann distribution,

$$f_{\mathrm{bound}}1e^{(V^2/kT_{\mathrm{ion}})}.$$
(32)
The velocity corresponding to $`T_{\mathrm{ion}}`$ is on the order of $`V_{\mathrm{evap}}20\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ mentioned above. Note that in the limit $`V<V_{\mathrm{evap}}`$, eq. (32) predicts $`f_{\mathrm{bound}}V^2`$ (as pointed out by J.P. Ostriker in a private communication). This reminds us of the energy relation for supernovae, $`\eta V^2`$, which led to the global scaling relations of LLs in §5. Could radiative feedback (rather than supernova feedback) be the actual mechanism responsible for the global scaling relations of LLs? First, it is unlikely that a mechanism whose characteristic scale is $`2030\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ can be dominant in determining the observed critical scale of $`100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and the properties of bright LLs not much below this scale. Second, $`f_{\mathrm{bound}}`$ in the radiative case refers to the sum of bound mass in stars and in gas while $`\eta `$ in the supernova case refers to the stellar mass only. While $`M_{}/MV^2`$ is consistent with the observed scaling relations for LLs, a similar relation for the gas-to-mass ratio does not seem to be in agreement with the observed trend, especially not in the large, gas-rich LLs. There are indications that as one moves from bright to fainter galaxies the ratio of gas to stellar mass increases until it reaches a maximum at some intermediate scale typical to dIs before it starts decreasing towards the dE regime (e.g., McGaugh & de Blok 1997). We interpret this as another evidence against radiative feedback being the dominant mechanism in determining the global properties of galaxies in the upper LL regime. The radiative feedback should have an important effect though in the small, gas-poor dEs, and possibly a complementary effect to the supernova feedback in the larger, gas-rich dIs and LLs.

In haloes of $`V<V_{\mathrm{evap}}`$, stars can form only before the reionization epoch (and possibly much later, at $`z<12`$). If $`V_{\mathrm{evap}}<V<V_{\mathrm{Jeans}}`$, gas that cooled and collapsed before the reionization epoch can turn into stars in a slow rate also at later times, but new gas cannot be accreted. These effects could lead to the gas-poor dEs. On the other hand, in haloes of $`V>V_{\mathrm{Jeans}}`$ there is no much radiative gas loss. Galaxies that form in such haloes can retain some gas that has not been blown away by supernova winds, or has come back after such blowout, and thus give rise to gas-rich dIs. We thus propose that the main role of radiative feedback is to clean up the dEs from their gas and to help regulating star formation in dIs.

### 7.2 Dwarf elliptical galaxies

Fig. 5 shows the same data as in Fig. 3, but with separate fits below and above $`M_{}=3\times 10^7M_{}`$, in the ranges dominated by the dwarf spheroidals of the Local Group and by dIs respectively. In the low-$`M_{}`$ range we fit a horizontal line, $`V=15\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, and then determine the best-fit slope in the high-$`M_{}`$ range, $`VM_{}^{0.37}`$. This fit with a broken line naturally provides a better fit than with a single line across the whole LL range. It does provide a crude hint for different TF relations in the two regimes.

We thus propose that haloes in the range $`10<V<30\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ tend to form gas-poor dEs. Efficient cooling by Hydrogen recombination at $`T\stackrel{>}{}10^4`$K leads to an early burst of stars. The associated supernovae blow out much of the gas. The rest of the gas photo-evaporates (if $`V<V_{\mathrm{evap}}`$) and no new gas can fall in (if $`V<V_{\mathrm{Jeans}}`$), leaving behind a gas-poor system with no significant recent star formation. The gas in haloes of $`V<10\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ cannot cool to form stars at any early epoch. This confines all the dEs to a narrow range of halo velocities, $`V20\pm 10\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The spread of $`M_{}`$ within the dE family is thus predicted not to correlate with $`V`$ (as it does for the dIs) but rater to represent variations in other quantities such as the time available for star formation between the halo collapse and $`z_{\mathrm{ion}}`$ (as suggested by Miralda-Escude & Rees 1998). The spread in $`M_{}`$ for a given halo $`V`$ is large for the dEs and much smaller for the dIs and the rest of the LL family (Fig. 3). This is because the gas that remains in dI haloes (or falls back in later on) allows star formation to continue after reionization, bringing $`M_{}`$ close to its value predicted by the energy requirement $`\eta V^2`$.

If radiative feedback is indeed important in the formation of dEs, we should try to understand why the scaling relations shown by the dEs for the metallicity and surface brightness versus stellar mass seem to be natural extrapolations of those shown by the dIs, which we associated with supernova feedback. For example, if all dEs have similar haloes and therefore similar initial gas masses, and if the metals were assumed to be uniformly distributed throughout the gas as assumed for larger LLs, then we might have expected a steeper dependence of $`ZM_{}/MM_{}`$ within the dE range (rather than the global $`ZM_{}^{0.4}`$ which applies throughout the LL range). However, since some of the gas is expected to photo-evaporate or be kept away from the halo even before it cools and falls into the halo center, we expect the metals to enrich a smaller fraction of the initial gas in fainter dEs, which should lead to a weaker dependence of $`Z`$ on $`M_{}`$, perhaps as flat as $`ZM_{}^{0.4}`$. Given the limited width of the dE range, we can probably tolerate some deviation from the global $`ZM_{}^{0.4}`$ there.

As for the surface brightness in dEs, the similarity in $`V`$ between all the dE haloes would lead to the predictions $`R_{}\lambda R\lambda a^{1/2}`$ and therefore $`\mu _{}M_{}/(\lambda R)^2\lambda ^2a^1M_{}`$ (compared to the global $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.6}`$). If the sequence of $`M_{}`$ in dEs indeed represents variations in formation time, then the combination of the $`a`$ and $`\lambda `$ factors should be responsible for the flattening of the $`M_{}`$ dependence of $`\mu _{}`$ to the observed $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.6}`$. While $`a`$ is expected to be smaller for larger $`M_{}`$, the baryonic spin parameter is expected to be smaller for dEs of smaller $`M_{}`$, those that formed later and closer to $`z_{\mathrm{ion}}`$. This is because in those only the gas from the inner halo managed to form stars before the reionization time, and this inner gas is naturally expected to be of lower than average spin (see Bullock et al. 2001b). The observed relation of roughly $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.6}`$ tells us that the required trend should roughly be $`R_{}\lambda a^{1/2}M_{}^{0.2}`$. If $`a`$ is indeed anticorrelated with $`M_{}`$ for dEs, we expect for $`\lambda `$ a stronger dependence than $`\lambda M_{}^{0.2}`$. Such a spin gradient could also explain why the dwarfs at the faint end are low-spin spheroidals while the brighter dwarfs tend to be centrifugally supported discs. As a consistency check, Fig. 6 shows the stellar radius $`R_{}`$ versus stellar mass $`M_{}`$ for the dEs in the range $`M_{}3\times 10^7M_{}`$. There is indeed an apparent trend, best fit by $`R_{}M_{}^{0.3}`$ and reasonably consistent with the required $`R_{}\lambda a^{1/2}M_{}^{0.2}`$. Again, given the limited width of the dE range, we can probably tolerate there a certain deviation from the global relation of $`\mu _{}M_{}^{0.6}`$.

## 8 Discussion

We identify four basic characteristic scales in the theory of galaxy formation, each originating from a different physical process, and each having a different imprint on the galaxy population, as follows:

1. The upper limit for bright galaxies separating them from clusters of galaxies, at $`M_{}10^{12}M_{}`$, is where radiative cooling occurs on a dynamical time scale (Rees & Ostriker 1977; Silk 1977; White & Rees 1978 in the context of dark haloes). The cooling curve in the relevant temperature and density range makes this bound roughly coincide with an upper bound to the total mass.
2. Supernova feedback becomes effective in heating and removing gas in haloes of $`V<100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, as predicted by Dekel & Silk (1986). We argue that this scale marks the transition between HH and LL/dwarf galaxies, as seen in the SDSS data near $`M_{}3\times 10^{10}M_{}`$.
3. Radiative feedback after $`z_{\mathrm{ion}}`$ heats the gas to $`T10^4`$K, which causes efficient evaporation from haloes of $`V<20\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (Shaviv & Dekel 2003) and prevents further infall into haloes of $`V<30\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (see a review by Barkana & Loeb 2001). We propose the possibility that this scale, corresponding to $`M_{}3\times 10^7M_{}`$, marks the transition between the gas-poor dE galaxies and the gas-rich dI galaxies.
4. A sharp lower bound for haloes that can form galaxies, at $`V10\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, arises from the sharp drop in the cooling rate below $`T10^4`$K, where, in the absence of metals, it relies on molecular Hydrogen (see Barkana & Loeb 2001, Fig. 12). The $`H_2`$ molecules are dissociated by the weak UV flux from the first stars or AGNs long before $`z_{\mathrm{ion}}`$ (Haiman, Rees & Loeb 1996; Haiman, Abel & Rees 2000), allowing no gas cooling in these small dark haloes (see DS, Figs. 5,6). We find a hint for this lower bound to $`V`$ in the dwarf spheroidals of the Local Group, Fig. 3.

### 8.1 HH galaxies

Therefore, the cooling upper limit and the supernova scale limit the stellar masses of bright galaxies to the range $`3\times 10^{10}<M_{}<10^{12}M_{}`$. A significant fraction of the gas is assumed to have turned into stars in these galaxies, such that $`\eta `$ is not significantly correlated with the halo properties. Then the tight TF relation, the high surface brightness and metallicity, and the weak correlation between the last two and stellar mass, all follow naturally from the simplest possible assumptions as described in §3 (see also, e.g., Blumenthal et al. 1984). In summary, the assumptions made are:

1. The halo is in virial equilibrium after spherical collapse from a cosmological background.
2. The epoch of galaxy formation is only weakly correlated with halo mass, consistent with the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology where the power index of density fluctuations is $`n\stackrel{<}{}2`$ in the range corresponding to HH galaxies.
3. The stellar mass is proportional to the total mass, $`M_{}M`$, such that $`\eta `$, the ratio of stellar to initial-gas mass, is uncorrelated with the halo mass. This assumption distinguishes the HHs from the LLs.
4. The size of the stellar system is related to the halo virial radius by conservation of angular momentum, namely via the spin parameter $`\lambda `$, which is uncorrelated with the halo mass.

The idealized picture is disk formation via gas contraction in pre-formed haloes, unperturbed by recent strong galaxy interactions. This should be especially valid for the fragile LL disks discussed later, where it is supported by a weak spatial correlation observed between LSBs and other galaxies, especially below a pair separation of $`2h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ (Mo, McGaugh & Bothun 1994).

It is not hard to understand why the galaxies at the bright end, mostly large ellipticals, are dominated by a spheroidal stellar component with little gas and a low current star formation rate (SFR). The high density of the cooled gas in the early progenitors of these haloes allows the formation of molecules which provide efficient cooling even after the gas has cooled to below $`10^4`$K. This explains the high SFR in discs early on. Mergers of discs lead to bulges and elliptical galaxies, which therefore tend to be those galaxies that dominate the high $`M_{}`$ end. The decrease in number of objects due to mergers may partly explain the low scatter in radius and surface brightness at a given $`M_{}`$ in the HH regime, as indicated by K03. The mergers provide an additional trigger for a high early SFR. The associated high gas consumption in these early epochs results in gas-poor systems with low SFR today. Since the supernova feedback energy is weak compared to the depth of the potential wells in HHs, it has a negligible effect on the SFR.

A potential caveat in the picture that assumes no gas loss from HHs may arise from the indications that the baryonic fraction in these systems may in fact be lower than the universal fraction by a factor of 2 or more (e.g., Klypin, Zhao & Somerville 2002, based on semi-analytic modeling of the Milky Way within the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM scenario, and references therein). Such gas loss may be expected if the HHs result from a hierarchical merger process, where the gas is lost at early stages from the small building blocks by supernova and radiative feedback. Another possibility is that supernova feedback is actually stronger than assumed, either due to microscopic effects such as porosity in a multiphase ISM, or due to hypernova from very massive stars (Silk 2003). Alternatively, there might be an even stronger feedback mechanism at work in big galaxies and in clusters. Hints from SDSS for a correlation between HHs and AGN activity (Kauffmann et al. 2003, in preparation), together with the established presence of massive black holes in early-type galaxies and the known energetic radio jets associated with AGNs, may provide a clue for the required energetic feedback process.

### 8.2 LL and dwarf galaxies

Most of the galaxies and most of the mass belong to the LL and dwarf family below the transition scale: $`M_{}<3\times 10^{10}M_{}`$. Their halo velocities are below the critical supernova scale of $`V_{\mathrm{SN}}100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and they are therefore subject to supernova feedback effects which can determine their characteristic scaling relations, as argued based on the simplest possible model in §5. The energy fed into the gas leads to a lower stellar mass fraction $`M_{}/M`$ and therefore lower surface brightness and metallicity in haloes of lower $`V`$. Some of the gas may be blown out and some may be retained or may fall in at a later time. This gas is kept hot and possibly turbulent such that the SFR is regulated by supernova feedback, as well as by radiative feedback at the lower part of the dwarf sequence. Note that for the scaling relations to be valid in the LL regime the gas does not have to be blown away — it should just be prevented from forming stars too efficiently. Our feedback model predicts $`M_{}/M_\mathrm{g}V^2`$, where $`M_\mathrm{g}`$ is the mass of the gas affected by feedback and prevented from forming stars. In LLs and dwarf irregulars, a significant fraction of this gas must have been retained in the galaxy rather than been blown away. In this case, the model indeed predicts an increasing gas-to-star ratio for decreasing halo mass, as observed.

Our key assumption for supernova feedback is that $`E_{\mathrm{SN}}M_{}`$. It is crudely justified also in the presence of significant radiative cooling, when the gas is at $`T10^5`$K, based on the analysis of supernova remnants by DS. The second assumption is the straightforward energy requirement for affecting most of the original gas, $`E_{\mathrm{SN}}M_\mathrm{g}V^2`$. Together they yield that the effectiveness of feedback varies along the LL sequence as

$$M_{}/MV^2.$$
(33)
The scaling relations for LLs are then obtained using the same standard assumptions as used for HHs, namely virial equilibrium after spherical collapse and angular-momentum conservation, noting that the correlation of formation time with halo mass is even weaker for dwarfs where $`n3`$. Our basic energy condition is clearly based on a simplistic model for feedback, which was expected to provide rough estimates at best. The fact that this model recovers so well the observed scaling relations is partly a matter of lucky coincidences and it should not be taken too literally. However, our main moral from the remarkable success of the crude model is that supernova feedback can be the primary physical process determining the fundamental line of LL/dwarf galaxies. One may in fact reverse the logic and infer the feedback energy relation, $`E_{\mathrm{SN}}M_{}M_\mathrm{g}V^2`$, from the observed scaling relations, via the other standard assumptions of virial equilibrium and spherical collapse in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology. Our toy analysis therefore provides the basis and the motivation for detailed future studies of the supernova feedback effects, using more sophisticated modeling and simulations. The inferred energy relation should serve as a useful constraint that must be obeyed by these models. It may be a non-trivial challenge for such realistic models to achieve a match with observations as good as the match achieved by the naive toy model.

The actual supernova feedback process is likely to be much more complex than assumed in our toy model. For example, suprenovae exploding in a disk would affect the disk gas and the halo gas in different ways and in an aspherical configuration, with fountains punching out the ISM and the IGM in a nonuniform and possibly porous manner (e.g., MacLaw & Ferrara 1999; Scannapieco, Thacker & Davis 2001; Mori, Ferrara & Madau 2002; Scannapieco, Ferrara & Madau 2002; Silk 2003). This would affect the way the ISM and IGM are enriched with metals (e.g., Madau, Ferrara & Rees 2001; Thacker, Scannapieco, & Davis 2002). Another complication is that the supernova energy can be transferred to the gas in either bulk kinetic energy or thermal energy, but it can also be kept in reservoirs of other forms such as turbulence, which would amplify the feedback effects on the gas (e.g., Efstathiou 2000; Thacker & Couchman 2000, 2001; Springel 2000; Springel & Hernquist 2003a,b). These preliminary studies would hopefully guide us to a reliable, realistic, detailed feedback model, but our results indicate that the global energy balance should somehow mimic the predictions of the early naive toy models (Larson 1974; DS).

If supernova feedback is the primary parameter varying along the fundamental line, the other factors affecting the galaxy properties can be regarded as secondary parameters, responsible for the scatter about the mean scaling relations. These may include the following:

1. The spin parameter $`\lambda `$ and the internal angular-momentum distribution for the dark matter and in particular for the baryons (e.g., Dalcanton, Spergel & Summers 1997).
2. The halo density profile, e.g., as parameterized by its concentration parameter (Navarro, Frenk & White 1997; see Bullock et al. 2001a).
3. The epoch when the halo collapsed relative to the typical collapse time of haloes of a similar mass and its mass accretion/merger history.
4. The detailed efficiency of gas cooling and gas removal by feedback.
5. The star formation efficiency, e.g., as a function of gas surface density.

In general, the surface brightness at a given $`M_{}`$ is expected to be below the mean relation for younger galaxies that had more recent major mergers and therefore typically have high spin and low concentration (e.g. Wechsler et al. 2002). These qualitative predictions are consistent with the findings from the SDSS data as well as the Local-Group dwarfs.

As mentioned in §2, the distribution of spin parameter, in particular, is a natural cause for variation in stellar radius, and therefore surface brightness of disk galaxies (see modeling by Fall & Efstathiou 1980; Dalcanton, Spergel & Summers 1997; Mo, Mao & White 1998; van den Bosch 2000, 2001; Avila-Reese & Firmani 2000, 2003; Firmani C. & Avila-Reese 2000). All the scatter observed in $`R_{}`$ and $`\mu _{}`$ for SDSS galaxies (K03) can be accounted for by scatter in halo spin parameter (e.g., Bullock et al. 2001b). However, the lack of correlation between $`\lambda `$ and halo mass implies that the spin parameter cannot be the primary factor driving the systematic variation of $`\mu _{}`$ with halo mass for LL/dwarfs.

It is worth noting though that the key relation leading to the observed scaling relations, $`M_{}/MV^2`$, might in principle arise from processes other than feedback. For example, $`M_{}/M`$ may increase with halo mass because of a systematic increase in star formation efficiency due to the higher gas surface density (e.g., Galaz et al. 2002). Is this enough for explaining the observed correlation without a contribution from feedback effects, namely such that the cold-gas mass is $`M`$? Consider a star formation rate which depends on gas surface density as in the Kennicutt-Schmidt law, $`\dot{\mu }_{}\mu _{\mathrm{gas}}^N`$, namely $`\dot{M}_{}/M\mu _{\mathrm{gas}}^{N1}`$. From the virial relation we have from eq. (11) and eq. (9) $`\mu _{\mathrm{gas}}\lambda ^2M^\tau \lambda ^2V^{3\tau }`$ with $`0\tau 1/3`$ (for $`2n3`$). We therefore obtain $`\dot{M}_{}/MV^{3\tau (N1)}`$. If we assume $`\dot{M}_{}M_{}`$, as indicated for the SDSS LLs and the Local-Group dIs, we get the required scaling relation $`M_{}/MV^2`$ for $`3\tau (N1)=2`$. With $`\tau 1/3`$ we obtain $`N3`$. This is a stronger dependence of SFR on surface gas density than measured for star-forming galaxies, $`N=1.4\pm 0.15`$ (Kennicutt 1998). It indicates that star-formation efficiency is not a natural primary driver for the LL scaling relations, though it may have an important role.

### 8.3 Related work on the role of feedback

Our model for the additional role of radiative feedback in distinguishing dwarf spheroidals from dwarf irregulars can be regarded as a qualitative speculation, to be investigated in more detail in future work.

The trend of increasing total-mass-to-light ratio with decreasing mass, which naturally results from supernova feedback and reproduces the fundamental line, may not be enough for fully resolving the mystery of missing dwarf galaxies (Klypin et al. 1999; Moore et al. 1999; Springel et al. 2001). The discrepancy is not only between the faint-end slopes of the predicted mass function and the observed luminosity function, but it also involves the distribution of internal velocities. The halo masses inferred straightforwardly from the observed velocities in the LG dwarf galaxies, many of which are on the order of $`10\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, are too small compared to the CDM model predictions. One possibility is that the relevant halo velocities are severely underestimated because the sampling by stars in dwarfs is biased towards the very inner halo regions, where the rotation and dispersion velocities may be significantly lower than the maximum or virial velocity relevant for mass estimation (Stoehr et al. 2002). This possibility is unlikely to provide the full answer because the velocities measured from HI gas, which typically samples more extended radii by a factor of 2-3, are still of similarly low, $`10\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (Blitz 2003, private communication). The discrepancy between the observed velocity function and that predicted by the CDM model thus seems to indicate the presence of some barren haloes, which are completely dark and show no trace of luminous stars in them (e.g., Kochanek 2001). Attempts have been made to explain the barren haloes by the radiative feedback effects discussed in §7.2, which indeed are expected to “squelch” the formation of stars in haloes that form after cosmological reionization at $`z7`$ (e.g., Bullock, Kravtsov & Weinberg 2000; Somerville 2002; Tully et al. 2002). Such barren dark haloes may alternatively be explained by the destructive effect of energetic outflows from one galaxy on neighboring forming protogalaxies via ram pressure brushing aside the tenuously held gas (e.g., Scannapieco, Ferrara & Broadhurst 2000; Scannapieco & Broadhurst 2001; Scannapieco, Thacker & Davis 2001; Thacker, Scannapieco & Davis 2002). These processes are yet to be studied with more realistic simulations, in an attempt to find out whether they can indeed explain the absence of luminous components in massive enough haloes.

A scale similar to the supernova scale, originating in a different way from the features of the cooling curve, is associated with another transition between different behaviors, as discussed in Birnboim & Dekel (2003). They found, using analytic arguments supported by simulations with a spherically symmetric Lagrangian hydrodynamical code, that in haloes less massive than $`3\times 10^{11}M_{}`$ the gas falling into the halo does not cross a virial shock until it hits the “disc” itself. The “standard” virial shock develops only in more massive haloes, hosting large galaxies and clusters, where the shock quickly expands to near the virial radius. Then, as commonly assumed, infalling gas is heated behind the shock to the halo virial temperature and is kept pressure supported in the halo until it cools radiatively and slowly contracts into the disc. In less massive haloes, where the virial temperature is below a few $`\times 10^5`$K, the shock that tries to develop loses energy very efficiently via radiation that is dominated by He recombination and Oxygen lines. This prevents the shock from ever expanding into the halo. A possible implication of this result is that early star formation becomes more efficient in haloes of $`M<3\times 10^{11}M_{}`$, in shocks produced by the cold infalling gas when it hits the cold gaseous disc, giving rise to the burst which heats much of the remaining gas and produces an LSB galaxy. Further infalling gas may prevent blowout and keep the hot gas in the galaxy, giving rise to gas-rich dwarf irregulars.

The low baryonic fraction observed in $`V60\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ LSB’s (by BBS), together with the prediction of $`\eta V^2`$ for the feedback effect, implies $`V_{\mathrm{SN}}80\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, which is quite consistent with the DS estimate of $`V_{\mathrm{SN}}100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and with the observed transition scale at a stellar mass $`M_{}\stackrel{>}{}10^{10}M_{}`$. Furthermore, as argued by Maller & Dekel (2002), feedback can help solve the apparent angular-momentum problem within the CDM scenario, where the baryons in cosmological simulations seem to lose most of their angular momentum and fail to form large discs as observed (Navarro & Steinmetz 2000). Maller, Dekel & Somerville (2001) and Maller & Dekel (2002) modeled the properties of the LSB galaxies observed by BBS based on spin buildup from the orbital angular momenta along the halo merger history, combined with gas blowout from small merging satellites and the associated baryonic spin increase. They found that a value of $`V_{\mathrm{SN}}90\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ can indeed explain the higher spin observed in the LSB galaxies.

We note that gas blowout in small haloes may also help resolve a third problem of the CDM scenario, the cusp/core problem of halo density profiles, where simulated haloes show a steep inner cusp while observations indicate that at least some galaxies have flat-density cores. While feedback cannot significantly affect the dark-matter distribution in big galaxies, an impulsive blowout may reduce the core densities in dwarf satellites by a factor of a few (Gnedin & Zhao 2002). When these puffed-up satellites merge to build up bigger haloes, they get tidally disrupted before they manage to penetrate the inner regions and turn the cores into cusps. In this indirect way the feedback can help the survival of cores even in relatively big galaxies (Dekel, Devor & Hetzroni 2003; Dekel et al. 2003). However, working out a feedback model within the CDM scenario that will explain the possible existence of cores in giant galaxies and clusters of galaxies could be challenging; it will require a feedback mechanism more energetic than simple supernova feedback, perhaps by hypernovae from massive stars or by radio jets from AGNs.

We conclude that feedback effects seem to be able to provide the cure to all three major problems facing galaxy formation theory within the CDM scenario. Understanding the details of the feedback processes is therefore a major goal of galaxy formation studies.

## Acknowledgments

We acknowledge stimulating discussions with S. Courteau, G. Kauffmann, C. Kochanek, J.P. Ostriker, D. Spergel, N. Shaviv & S.D.M. White. This research has been supported by the Israel Science Foundation grant 213/02, by the US-Israel Bi-National Science Foundation grant 98-00217, by the German-Israel Science Foundation grant I-629-62.14/1999, and by NASA ATP grant NAG5-8218.


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# Commensurate spin dynamics in the superconducting state of an electron-doped cuprate superconductor

## Abstract

We report neutron scattering studies on single crystals of the electron-doped (n-type) superconducting cuprate Nd2-xCexCuO4 (x=0.15) with Tc = 18 K and 25 K. Unlike the hole-doped (p-type) superconducting cuprates where incommensurate magnetic fluctuations commonly exist, the n-type cuprate shows commensurate magnetic fluctuations at the tetragonal (1/2 1/2 0) reciprocal points both in the superconducting and in the normal state. A spin gap opens up when the n-type cuprate becomes superconducting, as in the optimally doped p-type La2-xSrxCuO4. The gap energy, however, increases gradually up to about 4 meV as T decreases from Tc to 2 K, which contrasts with the spin pseudogap behavior with a T-independent gap energy in the superconducting state of p-type cuprates.

High-$`T_\mathrm{c}`$ superconductivity, Electron-doped system, Neutron scattering

High-Tc superconductivity emerges when charge carriers, holes or electrons, are doped into an antiferromagnetic Mott insulator Bednorz ; Kastner ; Tokura . Mechanism of the superconductivity lies on their common two-dimensional CuO2 planes into which the charge carriers go. One of the issues in understanding the mechanism is question of the electron-hole symmetry. Electronic structure of the optimally doped cuprates shows evidence for the electron-hole symmetry. Sato ; Armitage  Their phase diagrams over doping concentrations, however, are asymmetric. Damascelli  For hole doping, antiferromagnetism rapidly weakens and is replaced by a spin-glass-like phase with characteristics of incommensurate spin correlations and pseudo-gap in transport measurements. The pseudo-gap temperature, T, is well defined in the underdoped region and decreases with doping. The system becomes superconducting (SC) over a wide range of the hole concentration, x, around the optimal x = 0.15. The SC state has incommensurate spin correlations with a T-independent spin gap. The normal state of the underdoped and optimally doped SC region also shows unusual non-Fermi-liquid (FL) behaviors. There are increasing evidence for a Quantum Critical Point (QCP) around the optimal doping which is responsible for the unusual properties of the SC and the normal phase Tallon ; Tallon2 ; Kusko ; Panagopoulos . For the electron-doped (n-type) cuprates, on the other hand, antiferromagnetism survives until the superconductivity appears over a narrow range of x around the optimal x $``$ 0.15. The normal state of the n-type cuprates shows Fermi-Liquid T2 behavior in resistivity rather than the linear behavior of the hole-doped (p-type) cuprates. Therefore, investigating similarities and differences of the n-type and p-type cuprates would be crucial to understanding physics of the high-Tc superconductivity. Compared to a large number of studies on the hole-doped cuprates using various techniques, however, only a small number of key experiments have been done on electron-doped cuprates Sato ; Armitage ; Tsuei ; Yanase  mainly because it is difficult to grow large single crystals and to prepare homogeneous superconducting samples by post-growth heat treatment.

In this paper, we report neutron scattering measurements on single crystals of the electron-doped (n-type) superconducting cuprate Nd2-xCexCuO4 (x = 0.15) with Tc = 18 K and 25 K. We have found commensurate magnetic fluctuations at the tetragonal (1/2 1/2 0) reciprocal points in the superconducting and normal states. A spin gap opens up when the system becomes superconducting, as in the optimally doped p-type La2-xSrxCuO4 Yamada ; CHLee ; Lake1 . The gap energy, however, increases gradually up to about 4 meV as T decreases from Tc to 2 K, which contrasts with the T-independent spin pseudogap energy for the superconducting state of the p-type cuprate near Tc. Our results indicate that doped electrons self-organize in a different way than holes that form stripes such as in (La,Nd)2-xSrxCuO4 Tranquada ; Zhou , La2-x(Sr,Ba)xCuO4 Fujita  and the isostructural insulator La2-xSrxNiO4 Tranquada2 ; SHLee .

Sizable single crystals of NCCO with x = 0.15 were grown by a traveling-solvent-floating-zone (TSFZ) method. The as-grown crystal is an antiferromagnetic insulator with the Néel temperature TN of around 125 $``$ 160 K depending on the excessive oxygen concentration in the crystal. Bulk superconductivity only appears with proper heat treatments on these as-grown crystals. Detailed procedure of the crystal growth and the heat treatment is described in a separate paper Kurahashi . For the SC sample, Tc is determined from zero-field-cooled diamagnetic susceptibilities measured by a SQUID magnetometer. For the present study, we used two SC samples with Tc = 18 K and 25 K.

Neutron scattering experiments were performed on the thermal neutron triple-axis spectrometer of Tohoku University, TOPAN and a cold neutron triple-axis spectrometers of University of Tokyo, HER installed at JRR-3M in JAERI, Tokai Establishment. We performed the experiment with low energy excitations below 1 meV on the cold neutron triple-axis spectrometer, SPINS at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Center for Neutron Research. Incident neutron energies of 13.7 meV for TOPAN and 5 meV for HER and SPINS were selected using the (0 0 2) reflection of pyrolytic graphite monochromators. Additionally, in order to eliminate the higher-order reflected beams, pyrolytic graphite filter for thermal neutrons and Be filter for cold neutrons were placed in the up or down stream of the sample position. Previously, a few attempts have been made to study spin dynamics in NCCO using neutron scattering technique Matsuda . However, no well-defined magnetic signal has been found in the superconducting phase. In the previous measurements, the total volume of the sample was 0.5 cc and the (hhl) scattering plane was examined. For our study, we have investigated mostly the (hk0) scattering plane to increase the signal from two dimensional magnetic rod along c-axis by using the larger vertical angular divergence of the beam. Furthermore, we cut a long single crystalline rod with a total volume of 2 cc into three pieces and stacked those vertically using an aluminum sample-holder. The holder was mounted in an aluminum can attached either to the cold plate of a 4He-closed cycle refrigerator, or to a top-loading liquid-He cryostat, which cools down to 1.5 K.

Figure 1 (a) shows temperature dependence of elastic neutron scattering intensity at (3/2 1/2 0) reflection, obtained from three samples: the as-grown insulating sample and the two heat-treated superconducting samples with Tc = 18 K and 25 K. For the as-grown insulating sample, upon cooling the intensity starts gradually increasing below TN $``$ 140 K, signaling the antiferromagnetic long range order of Cu2+ moments. And it rapidly increases below TNd $``$ 20 K due to the participation of Nd3+ moments. When the sample gets the proper heat-treatment and becomes superconducting, the static magnetic order is drastically suppressed. Even though the magnetic elastic peaks remain even in the SC phase, the superconducting samples have lower TN $``$ 60 - 80 K and TNd, and weaker intensity than the insulating sample. The suppression is more severe for the superconducting sample with the higher Tc = 25 K than for the one with Tc = 18 K. The width of the static peak was resolution limited for the insulating sample and was broadened for the superconducting samples. By fitting the static peak with a Lorentzian convoluted with the instrumental resolution, we obtained the in-plane and the out-of-plane correlation length, $`\xi _{ab}`$ = 150(60) Å and $`\xi _c`$ = 80(30) Å respectively, at T = 8 K for the Tc = 25 K sample. This indicates that superconductivity competes with the magnetic order in the n-type cuprate as in p-type cuprates.

To investigate the relationship between the superconductivity and the dynamic spin correlations, we have performed constant energy scans around the antiferromagnetic (1/2 1/2 0) point. Figures 2 (a) and (b) show the results for the normal state obtained with $`\omega `$ = 2 meV along the \[1 0 0\] and \[1 1 0\] directions, which are parallel and diagonal to Cu-O bonds in the CuO2 plane, respectively. In both directions, a commensurate peak appears. This results sharply contrast with the incommensurate peaks found in the p-type superconducting cupratesTranquada . Solid lines are the best fits to a gaussian convoluted with the instrumental resolution function yielding the intrinsic Half-Width-of-Half-Maximum (HWHM) of 0.025(3) a. Indeed, the data shown in Figures 2 (a) and (b) are the first direct experimental evidence for the commensurate spin fluctuations in the n-type cuprate. The peak-widths of the SC samples are substantially broader than those of the AF phase, while the q \- integrated peak intensities are comparable between the AF and SC samples except at low temperatures below Tc. Furthermore, the peak-width is broader for the Tc = 25 K sample than the Tc = 18 K sample. Figure 1 (b) shows that for $`\omega `$ = 0.8 meV the commensurate spin fluctuations diminishes as T decreases below Tc, which indicates opening of a spin gap in the superconducting state. Figures 2 (c) and (d) clearly show the depletion of the spectral weight for $`\omega <`$ 3 meV. To study the energy dependence of the dynamic spin fluctuations in detail, we have performed the constant $`\omega `$-scans shown in Figure 2 with various energy transfers. The data were fitted to a gaussian convoluted with the instrumental resolution function. The integrated intensity of the gaussian was converted to the imaginary part of dynamic susceptibility via the fluctuation dissipation theorem, $`I(\omega )\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )[1+n(\omega )]/\pi `$ where $`n(\omega )`$ is the Bose thermal population factor. Figure 3 shows the resulting $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )`$ as a function of the energy transfer, $`\omega `$. For both SC samples, at T = 2 K, $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )`$ has a gap of 2$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ 4 meV and 5 meV for the Tc = 18 K and 25 K samples, respectively. The fact that the sample with the higher Tc has the larger 2$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, whereas it has the weaker Nd-ordering and the lower TNd, tells us that the gapped commensurate spin fluctuation is an intrinsic property of the spin dynamics in the optimally doped n-type superconductor. Such a spin gap has also been reported in the p-type La2-xSrxCuO4 near optimal doping. A spin gap of 2$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ = 6 $``$ 7 meV was observed in the optimally-doped La2-xSrxCuO4 CHLee ; Lake1 . As shown in the inset of Figure 4, their maximum gaps 2$`\mathrm{\Delta }_{max}`$ behave linearly with the SC temperature scale $`Ck_BT_c`$ with $`C=1.9`$, irrespective of carrier type. There is, however, a qualitative difference of the spin dynamics between the n-type and the p-type cuprates: For the n-type Nd2-xCexCuO4 (x = 0.15), as shown in Figure 3, upon warming $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(𝐐,\omega )`$ shifts toward lower energies and eventually fills up the gap in the normal phase. The shift of the spectral weight in the energy spectrum is summarized in Figure 4: 2$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ decreases with increasing T and eventually disappears when the system enter the normal phase. This suggests the absense or degradation of spin pseudogap state and is in a sharp contrast with those observed in the La2-xSrxCuO4 (x = 0.15) in which for T $``$ Tc $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(𝐐,\omega )`$ diminishes for all $`\omega <2\mathrm{\Delta }`$, and as T approaches Tc, $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(𝐐,\omega )`$ smears into lower $`\omega `$ without remarkable change in 2$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ Yamada ; CHLee .

Commensurate short range spin correlations in the superconducting phase of the n-type cuprate suggest that the doped electrons may be inhomogeneously distributed or form droplets/bubbles in the CuO2 planes, rather than organizing into one-dimensional stripes as the doped holes seems to do in the p-type cuprates. Their different orbital characters might be responsible for the different behaviors. Doped holes are dominantly introduced into the 2$`p_{xy}`$ orbital of oxygen ions in CuO2 planes and induce the frustrated magnetic interactions between the neighboring Cu spins which stabilize the formation of stripes. The elastic incommensurate magnetic signal increases when an external magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the CuO2 planes.Katano ; Lake2 ; Khaykovich  On the other hand, doped electrons predominantly enter into the 3$`d_{x^2y^2}`$ orbitals of Cu ions to make the Cu site nonmagnetic, which reduces the size of the antiferromagnetic domains without changing the commensurability. For the p-type SC cuprates the stripe phase (or the pseudo-gap phase) competes with the superconducting phase, whereas for the n-type SC cuprates it is the three-dimensional antiferromagnetic state that competes with the superconductivity. Our results show that for n-type cuprates the AFM coexists with superconductivity at the optimal region. This indicates that the transition from the AFM to superconductivity upon doping is a first order in nature and therefore it lacks a QCP. This difference may be responsible for their different properties in SC and normal statesSachdev ; Varma ; Coleman .

In summary, we revealed by neutron scattering study on the single crystals of Nd1.85Ce0.15CuO4 the coexistence of dynamical gapped spin fluctuations with the electron-doped superconductivity. In contrast to the incommensurate spin fluctuations in the hole-doped systems the spin fluctuations are commensurate to the CuO2 square lattice. The energy gap of around 4 meV closes at or near Tc, which suggests the absence or degradation of the spin pseudo gap state in the electron-doped superconductor. More comprehensive study on the electron-doped superconductor free from the effect of rare-earth magnetic moments is highly required for the fully understanding of the universal properties of spin fluctuations irrespective of types of carrier.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank Y. Kojima, I. Tanaka, S. Hosoya, K. Hirota, H. Y. Kee, J. M. Tranquada, P. A. Lee, G. Shirane and R. J. Birgeneau for their valuable discussions. This work was supported by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Areas Contract, Scientific Research (A), Encouragement of Young Scientists, Creative Scientific Research, the Japan Science and Technology Corporation, the Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology Project (CREST), and the National Science Foundation under Agreement No. DMR-9986442.