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# MISSING PARAMETERS IN THE CMB PHYSICS

## 1 Introduction

In my lecture, I will discuss the physics of cosmological hydrogen recombination and properties of the last scattering surface (at redshift $`z10^3`$), which play a crucial role for the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) anisotropy and polarization formation. A detailed understanding of the ionization history of the cosmic plasma is very important in the context of recent CMB experiments, such as the BOOMERANG (de Bernardis et al. 2000), MAXIMA-1 (Hanany et al. 2000), DASI (Halverson et al. 2001), CBI (Mason et al. 2002), VSA (Watson et al. 2002) and especially, the new DASI polarization data (Kovac et al,2002 ). I will show how these experiments, including the upcoming MAP and Planck data, would be fundamental for our understanding of the most general properties of the structure and evolution of the Universe, the history of the galaxies and the large-scale structure formation as well. Moreover, the Planck mission will be able to measure the polarization of the CMB with unprecedented accuracy. I will show that polarization power spectra contain all information about the kinetics of hydrogen recombination and allow us to determine the parameters of the last scattering surface and the ionization history of the cosmic plasma at very high redshifts ($`z10^3`$).

In the framework of the modern theory of the CMB anisotropy and polarization formation the kinetics of hydrogen recombination are assumed to be “standard” ones. The classical theory of the hydrogen recombination was developed by Peebles (1968), Zel’dovich, Kurt and Sunuyaev (1968) for the pure baryonic cosmological model of the Universe and was generalized by Zabotin and Naselsky (1982), Jones and Wyse (1985), Seager, Sasselov and Scott (1999), Peebles, Seager and Hu (2000) for non-baryonic dark matter in the Universe. This standard model of recombination has been modified in various ways.

Naselsky (1978) and Naselsky and Polnarev (1987) investigated the evaporation of primordial black holes as a possible source of the hydrogen recombination delay. Avelini et al. (2000), Battye et al. (2001), Landau et al. (2001) have pointed out that possible slow variations in time on the fundamental constants could be important for the ionization history of the cosmic plasma. Sarkar and Cooper (1983), Scott et al. (1991), Ellis et al. (1992), Adams et al. (1998) and Doroshkevich & Naselsky (2002) have investigated the influence of the decays of possible unstable particles on the kinetics of hydrogen recombination and have shown that these particles could be powerful sources for the distortions of the hydrogen ionization fraction. It is worth noting that all the models mentioned above show that the injection of non-thermal high energy electrons and/or photons produces the delay and distortions of the ionization history of the Universe starting from very high redshift $`z10^3`$ and down to redshift $`z510`$ when the galaxies started to form. These non-standard models on the ionization history of hydrogen recombination can be characterized by a few additional parameters which we needs to take into account in the framework of the best-fit cosmological parameter determination while using recent and future CMB anisotropy and polarization data. I call these parameters as “missing parameters” of the CMB anisotropy and polarization formation theory and I will show how important these parameters are for the CMB physics. The aim of my talk is to compare the possible manifestation of the more complicated ionization history of the Universe with the contemporary CMB anisotropy observational data (BOOMERANG, MAXIMA-1, CBI and VSA) in order to restrict some parameters of the models and to find the best-fit model of the hydrogen recombination, differing from the standard one. I’ll show that a set of new parameters related with a more complicated ionization history of the Universe could play a significant role for the upcoming MAP and Planck data.

## 2 Big Bang and the general properties of the CMB physics

Our knowledge about the Universe is based on the experimental data and the well-developed theory, which we call the Bing Bang model: the inflation paradigm, baryogenesis, the theories of cosmological nucleosynthesis of the light chemical element, the formation of the CMB black body spectrum by Compton scattering of photons and electrons, the theories of hydrogen recombination and gravitational instability of the matter in an expanding Universe for the formation of large-scale structure of the Universe. These models serve as a background of the Big Bang theory and play an important role in the modern cosmology. Starting with a very hot and dense phase, the Universe expanded and cooled down. The black body spectra of the CMB and, in particular, the angular anisotropy and polarization preserve information about early epochs of cosmological evolution. When the temperature of the cosmic plasma dropped down to $`T3000K`$ the free electrons recombined with protons into neutral hydrogen atoms and primordial hydrogen-helium plasma became transparent to the CMB photons. We call the corresponding redshift $`z_r10^3`$ as the redshift of the “last scattering surface”, which is the epoch $`t_r`$ when the Thomson optical depth $`\tau _T1`$. The recombination ceased when the optical depth dropped down to $`\tau _T1`$ during the corresponding time interval $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_r`$ where $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_r/t_r|3/2\mathrm{\Delta }z_r/z_r|0.1`$.

The questions arise as how exactly the cosmological plasma became neutral and how exactly it became transparent to the CMB photons. The answers to these questions lie in the physics of the CMB anisotropy and polarization formation.

The angular anisotropy and polarization of the CMB radiation are related to primordial inhomogeneity of the cosmic plasma just at the epoch of the hydrogen recombination 111see the lecture notes by A. Lasenby, J. Smoot and A. Melchiorri in this proceeding. Before this epoch ($`z>z_r`$) the optical depth of the plasma had been extremely high, so any ripples in the CMB temperature distribution caused by the primordial adiabatic perturbations of the metric, density and velocity of the plasma had been practically erased. After the epoch of recombination the mater component in the Universe became transparent and the CMB photons travel through the space and time from the last scattering surface to the observer. In Fig.1 I show the image of the CMB anisotropy from a small path of the last scattering surface taken by the MAXIMA-1 balloon-borne experiment.

Actually, when we look at the last scattering surface, we see the processes of the structure formation just at the beginning. Small density and velocity perturbations are just traveling compressions and decompression of the photon-electrons gas similar to sound waves. These cosmological sound waves produce the ripples in the CMB map, which corresponds to the hot (white) and cold (black) spots in Fig.1.

The cosmological sound waves are quite special. Before recombination the sound speed had been close to $`1.7\times 10^4`$ km/s, but right after recombination it became 3 km/s! Such drastic transformation of the properties of the matter was described by Andre Sakharov in 1965 in connection with the matter density perturbations. The corresponding prediction by Sakharov is as follows. The amplitude of the perturbations after transition should preserve the modulation from the epoch before the transition should be preserved Because of the very high speed of sound the typical wavelength of the perturbations is close to the size of the horizon at the epoch of recombination. It corresponds to the scale of 300 Mpc at the present moment of the expansion. The ratio between the spatial scale of the fundamental mode, which is $``$ 300 Mpc, and the present horizon scale is exactly the angular measure of the CMB anisotropy perturbations, which is close to 30 arcmin.

In discussion which follows, I will use a few characteristics of the CMB anisotropy. Firstly, let me introduce the fluctuations of the temperature $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ in the spherical coordinate system with polar angle $`\theta `$ and azimuthal angle $`\varphi `$.

We can decompose $`\mathrm{\Delta }T(\theta ,\varphi )`$ as a function of $`\theta `$ and $`\varphi `$ with coefficients $`a_\mathrm{}m`$ on a sphere using spherical harmonics $`Y_\mathrm{}m`$,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T(\theta ,\varphi )=\underset{\mathrm{}}{}\underset{m=\mathrm{}}{\overset{m=\mathrm{}}{}}a_\mathrm{}mY_\mathrm{}m(\theta ,\varphi )$$
(1)
The coefficients $`a_\mathrm{}m`$ are connected with the amplitudes and the phases of initial metric, density and velocity perturbations, which are the raw material for galaxy formation. This means that the initial conditions of the galaxies formation trough the coefficients $`a_\mathrm{}m`$ are related to the $`\mathrm{\Delta }T(\theta ,\varphi )`$ distribution in the radio sky.

Using $`a_\mathrm{}m`$ we can define the power spectrum of the anisotropy and the perturbation of the temperature $`\mathrm{\Delta }T(\mathrm{})`$, which corresponds to the given value of the multiple number $`\mathrm{}`$.

$$a_\mathrm{}ma_\mathrm{}^{}m^{}^{}=C_{\mathrm{}}\delta _\mathrm{},\mathrm{}^{}\delta _{m,m^{}}$$
(2)
As one can see from Eq (2), for random Gaussian processes there are no correlations between different harmonics and the phases of the multipoles are uniformly distributed in the range between 0 and $`2\pi `$.

In Figure 2 I show the numerical calculations of the CMB power spectrum for various cosmological models, which are reproduced from W. Hu’s web site222http://background.uchicago.edu/ whu/. These two panels show the dependence of the CMB power spectrum on the baryonic density parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2`$ and on the vacuum density parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\lambda h^2`$.

As one can see from Fig.2 (a), the shape of the power spectrum looks like a set of peaks with fixed positions. For a flat universe the first peak corresponds to multiple number $`\mathrm{}200`$. The second one $`\mathrm{}400`$, the next one $`\mathrm{}600`$ and so on.

This is the manifestation of the sound waves in the power spectrum, which was predicted by Sakharov in 1965 and was widely discussed in the literature related to the formation of the CMB anisotropy and polarization power spectrum. In Fig.2 (b) the dependence of the position and the amplitudes of the CMB anisotropy power spectrum peaks have shown for the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$\- and open CDM cosmological models for the given values of baryonic density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2=0.0125`$. As one can see from this Figure, the CMB anisotropy power spectrum reflects directly all peculiarities of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmological model related with the geometry of the Universe at the redshifts $`z0.5`$.

So, taking the above-mentioned properties into account, we can conclude that all peaks of the CMB anisotropy power spectrum form the basis for a new era of the so-called “precision cosmology”. Namely, major attentions of the COBE, BOOMERANG, MAXIMA-1, DASI, VSA, CBI experiments focus on determination of the power spectrum of the CMB anisotropy and testing of the statistical properties of the signals. In addition, all experimental teams have reported on the best-fitting cosmological models, which result in the most probable values of the baryonic matter density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b`$, the density of the cold dark matter $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{cdm}`$, the density of the vacuum $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, possible tilt of the power spectrum of the adiabatic perturbation $`n_s`$, the optical depth of reionization $`\tau _r`$, the curvature parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }_K`$ and so on, using most probable value of the Hubble constant $`hH_0/(100\mathrm{k}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{sec}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1)0.650.70`$. It is necessary to note that these values of cosmological parameters are obtained from very time-consuming methods, which include as a rule 6 or 11 and more variables such as $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b,\mathrm{\Omega }_c,\mathrm{\Omega }_K\mathrm{}\tau _r,h`$ and so on (e.g. see Tegmark et al. 2001). These parameters describe the most general properties of the Universe starting from very early epoch and down to the present moment of the expansion.

An intriguing question is why we need to use 6, 11 or more parameters for determination for the most realistic cosmological model. The best explanation for high-dimensional space of the cosmological parameters has been suggested by Yu. N. Parijskij. Let us suppose that we have only one peak in the CMB power spectrum, i.e. the first peak at $`\mathrm{}200`$ (see Fig.2 a,b). For qualitative description of the peak we need three parameters: the amplitude of the peak, its width and location. For two peaks in the power spectrum, obviously, we need to introduce extra 3 parameters and for three peaks another 3 parameters and so on. From Fig.2 we clearly see that at the multipole range $`\mathrm{}1500`$ the number of peaks in the CMB power spectrum is $`N=5`$ and thus corresponding number of independent parameters should be 15. So, generally speaking, the space of the cosmological parameters should be high-dimensional because of the peak-like shape of the CMB anisotropy power spectrum.

Let me remind you very briefly of some general properties of the cosmological parameter determination from the CMB anisotropy data sets. The parameter dependence leads to the following definition of the CMB power spectrum for the initial adiabatic perturbations,

$$C_{\mathrm{}}=C(\mathrm{\Omega }_b,\mathrm{\Omega }_{dm},\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda },\mathrm{\Omega }_K,\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ,\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^m,n_s,n_t,r,\tau _r\mathrm{}\left[i\right])$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{dm}`$ is the dark matter density (including cold and warm components) scaled to the critical density of the matter $`\rho _c`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_K=1_j\mathrm{\Omega }_j`$ is the curvature parameter, which determines the flat, close or open model of the Universe, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu `$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu ^m`$ are the density of massless and massive neutrino, $`n_s`$ is the spectral index for adiabatic perturbations (e.g. $`n_s=1`$ for the Harrison-Zeldovich power spectrum), $`n_t`$ is the corresponding spectral index for the gravitational waves, $`r=C^t(\mathrm{}=2)/C^s(\mathrm{}=2)`$ is the ratio of the gravitational waves and scalar $`C_{\mathrm{}}`$ power spectrum at $`\mathrm{}=2`$, $`\tau _r`$ is the optical depth of the hydrogen-helium reionization caused by the first quasar and galaxy activity. The notation $`[i]`$ in Eq (3) is the main topic of my lecture, meaning that some additional parameters resulting from the history of hydrogen recombination could play a significant role in the transition of “the CMB power spectrum $``$ cosmological parameters”. Obviously, for the standard model of recombination we assume $`[i]=0`$, which means that we do not need any additional parameters in Eq (3). If the kinetics of hydrogen recombination is distorted, however, by any sources of ionization or have some peculiarities of the spatial distribution of baryonic fraction, then it is necessary to include a few new parameters to the standard scheme. The question is how many parameters can characterize the more complicated ionization history of hydrogen recombination at redshifts $`z10001500`$? In order to answer this question it is necessary to examine in details the “standard model” of hydrogen recombination.

## 3 The standard recombination: an approximate model

The recombination of free electrons with protons into neutral hydrogen atoms during the cosmological expansion means that atomic physics, and more specifically, the physics of hydrogen and helium atoms, contain some characteristics of the recombination process, which does not depend on the cosmology and can manifest themselves in a laboratory. Obviously, the corresponding atomic parameters are related with the structure of the electron energy levels in hydrogen atoms.333I will discuss the kinetics of hydrogen recombination as a mean process of the formation of the last scattering surface. The kinetics of the cosmological helium recombination is included in the standard RECFAST code (Seager, Sasselov and Scott 1999) and I send off the reader to that paper. Fortunately for the physics of the CMB anisotropy formation, the physics of the electronic transition rates in hydrogen is well known from theoretical as well as experimental point of view. The frequency $`\nu _{n,n^{^{}}}`$ of a photon emitted or absorbed in a transition between two levels of energy in hydrogen with principle quantum numbers $`n,n^{^{}}`$ is given by well-known equation from quantum mechanics

$$E=h\nu =E_nE_n^{^{}},$$
(4)
where $`h`$ is the Planck constant (not the dimensionless Hubble constant!), and $`E_n=Ryn^2`$, $`Ry=e^2/2a_0=13,6`$eV, $`a_0=\mathrm{}^2/me^2`$. To liberate a free electron from a neutral hydrogen atom one needs a photon at least the energy $`E=h\nu _{n,n^{^{}}\mathrm{}}=\chi _n`$, where $`\chi _n`$ is the ionization potential from the initial state $`n`$. For $`n=1`$ the corresponding potential is exactly $`I=Ry=13,6`$eV and $`\chi _n`$ decreases as $`n^2`$ for $`n1`$. But it is exactly what we have in the cosmology just before the hydrogen recombination!

As mentioned in the Introduction, the “hot” Big Bang model of the Universe indicates that the most widespread component in our Universe is the CMB photons, which has a perfect black-body spectrum and the corresponding number density of the photons $`n_\gamma 420\mathrm{c}\mathrm{m}^3`$ at the present time of the cosmological evolution. In comparison, the number density of baryons $`n_b2\times 10^7(\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2/0.02)`$ is significantly smaller than the CMB photons. The corresponding photon-baryon ratio $`s=n_\gamma /n_b2\times 10^9(\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2/0.02)^1`$ is an excellent measure how hot the Universe is. Taking into account the temperature $`T_0=2.728`$ from the COBE data for the black-body CMB spectrum (Bennet et al. 1996), we can find the number density of the $`Ly_\alpha `$ quanta ($`I_\alpha =10.2\mathrm{eV}`$) in the Wien regime of the spectrum $`n(E)`$ at the present time,

$$n_\alpha =_{I_\alpha }^{\mathrm{}}n(E)𝑑En_\gamma \mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{h\nu _\alpha }{kT_0}\right)$$
(5)
where $`I_\alpha =h\nu _\alpha `$ is the energy of the $`Ly_\alpha `$ quanta and $`k`$ is the Boltzmann constant. If we reverse the cosmological expansion and trace back in time the temperature of the black-body radiation increases and in term of the redshifts it corresponds to $`T(z)=T_0(1+z)`$. When the redshift $`z`$ is close to the redshift of the last scattering surface ($`z_r`$), then $`T(z_r)2700`$ K and the corresponding energy $`E=kT(z_r)0.3`$ eV. Thus, the number density of the $`Ly_\alpha `$ quanta at $`z=z_r`$ is $`n_\alpha (z_r)2\times 10^{15}n_\gamma `$ and increase rapidly for the higher redshifts and reach the number density of baryons at $`z1500`$. For the $`Ly_c`$ quanta with $`E=I=13.6\mathrm{eV}`$ the number density $`n_cn_\alpha \mathrm{exp}[(II_\alpha )/kT(z)]n_\alpha `$ at the redshifts $`z1500`$ and decreases rapidly when $`zz_r`$. So, taking properties of the electron transition in a hydrogen atom into account, one can conclude that photo-ionization of the neutral hydrogen atoms by the $`Ly_\alpha `$ and $`Ly_c`$ quanta from the CMB power spectra should by a one of the main process of the recombination kinetics.

One additional remark comes from the analysis of the photo-ionization cross-sections for resonant $`Ly_\alpha `$ and $`Ly_c`$ quanta with neutral hydrogen atoms. In the framework of the theory of the CMB anisotropy and polarization formation the last scattering surface is characterized by the Thomson cross-section $`\sigma _T=8\pi /3(e^2/mc^2)^26.65\times 10^{25}cm^2`$, where $`e`$ and $`m`$ are the charge and the mass of an electron, and the corresponding optical depth $`\tau _T\sigma _Tn_ec𝑑t`$. For the photo-ionization of neutral hydrogen atoms which forms during the epoch of hydrogen recombination the corresponding optical depth

$$\tau _{ph}(\nu )=\sigma _{ph}(\nu )n_{H_i}c𝑑t\frac{\sigma _{ph}(\nu )}{\sigma _T}x_{e,i}^1\tau _T|_{z=z_r}\tau _T|_{z=z_r}1$$
(6)
where $`n_{H_i}`$ is the number densities of excited hydrogen atoms at different energy levels of the electrons, $`\sigma _{ph}(\nu )`$ is the corresponding cross section of photo-ionization from the excited energy levels of the electrons to the continuum, $`c`$ is the speed of light and $`x_{e,i}=n_e/n_{H_i}`$. In the quantum theory of the spectral lines we have the following normalization of the photo-ionization cross sections (see for the reviews by Rybicki and Lightman 1979)

$$_0^{\mathrm{}}\sigma _{ph}(\nu )𝑑\nu =\frac{\pi e^2}{mc}f_{nn^{^{}}}$$
(7)
where $`f_{nn^{^{}}}=f_{nn^{^{}}}`$ is called the oscillator strength for the transition between states $`n`$ and $`n^{^{}}`$. For example, the $`Ly_\alpha `$ transition $`(n=1,n^{^{}}=2)`$ in hydrogen yields the $`f_{1,2}`$ value $`f_{1,2}=0.4162`$ (Rybicki and Lightman 1979). Thus, we can conclude that for the $`Ly_\alpha `$ transition the corresponding optical depth in the center of the line is approximately more that 10 orders of magnitude higher than the Thomson optical depth at the redshift $`z_r`$. For the bound- free transition for hydrogen corresponding cross-section is given by the formula ( Rybicki and Lightman,1979):

$$\sigma _{bf}=\left(\frac{64\pi ng}{3\sqrt{3}}\right)\alpha a_0^2\left(\frac{\omega _n}{\omega }\right)^3$$
(8)
where $`g`$ is the Gaunt factor, $`\alpha =e^2/\mathrm{}c=1/137`$ is the fine-structure constant, $`a_0=\mathrm{}^2/me^2`$ and $`h\omega _n=I_n`$, $`I_n=\alpha ^2mc^2/2n^2`$ is the ionization potential for the $`n`$ continuum transition. For $`Ly_c`$ quanta the corresponding cross-section is $`\sigma _I\alpha ^3\sigma _T2\times 10^6\sigma _T`$ and the optical depth is approximately 6 orders of magnitude higher than the Thomson optical depth at the moment of recombination. So, as one can see from the above- mentioned properties of the photo-ionization cross section, the CMB photons play an important role in the kinetics of hydrogen recombination in the Universe. Following Zeldovich, Kurt and Sunuyaev (1968) and Peebles (1968), let us discuss the quantitative model of this process during the epoch $`z<1500`$.

### 3.1  Approximate theory of hydrogen recombination

As it was mentioned above in the expanding Universe the free electrons recombine with protons into neutral hydrogen atoms when the temperature of the matter-photon fluid drops down to $`T30004000`$ K. As the first step of our investigation on the recombination process we have considered the distribution among the levels of a single atom in thermal equilibrium. We want to determine the distribution of an atomic species among its various stages of ionization, which is described by the well-known Saha equation. This equation describes the early stages of hydrogen recombination. Using the so-called three levels of the electron-energy model of hydrogen atom as shown in Fig.3, we can start to describe the transition of the electron from the ground level to the continuum in thermal equilibrium (Rybicki and Lightman 1979).

According to the Boltzmann law the differential number of ions at the ground level $`(N^+(v))`$ with the free electrons at the velocity range between $`v`$ and $`v+dv`$ is

$$\frac{N^+(v)}{N_0}=\frac{g}{g_0}\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{I+\frac{1}{2}mv^2}{kT}\right]$$
(9)
where $`N_0`$ and $`g_0`$ are the number and statistical weight of the hydrogen atoms at the ground state, $`I=13.6eV`$ is the ionization potential, $`g=g_0^+g_e`$ is the product of the statistical weight of the ion at the ground state $`(g_0^+)`$ and the differential electron statistical weight $`g_e=2d^3\stackrel{}{x}d^3\stackrel{}{p}/h^3`$. (Note that the factor 2 in $`g_e`$ reflects the two spin states of the electron.) The volume element $`d^3\stackrel{}{x}=n_e^1`$, where $`n_e`$ is the number density of the free electrons, and the volume element $`d^3\stackrel{}{p}`$ is equivalent to $`4\pi m^3v^2dv`$ assuming isotropic velocity distribution. Using Eq. (9) after integration over all $`v`$ we obtain

$$\frac{n_pn_e}{n_0}=2\frac{g_0^+}{g_0}\left(\frac{2\pi mkT}{h^2}\right)^3\mathrm{exp}(I/kT)$$
(10)
where $`n_p`$ is the number density of protons and $`n_0`$ is the number density of the hydrogen atoms at the ground level. As one can see from Eq. (10) the fraction of free electrons decreases very fast during the cosmological expansion because of the exponential factor $`(I/kT)1`$. However, I would like to put forward two important remarks while applying the Saha equation for the kinetics of cosmological hydrogen recombination. Firstly, it is necessary to note that during recombination the thermal equilibrium between black-body radiation and atoms has been affected by the deviation of the radiation spectrum from the Planckian form. Since recombination occurs for $`kTI`$ the number density of photons with $`h\nu =I`$ would be far smaller than the number density of electrons and protons. The range of the photon spectrum that is crucial for the recombination process actually changes substantially if recombining electrons proceed directly to the ground state. Secondly, it is necessary to take into account the cascading recombination process, which plays the most important role in the recombination kinetics and produce corresponding delay of hydrogen recombination relative to the “standard” fast Saha recombination kinetics. The importance of the cascading recombination process was pointed out by Zeldovich, Kurt and Sunuyaev (1968) and Peebles (1968). For the cascading recombination approximation we can neglect the direct recombination to the ground state but introduce the net recombination to the level ($`n,l`$),

$$\frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{n_e}{n_b}\right)=n^1\underset{n>1}{}\left(\alpha _{nl}n_e^2\beta _{nl}n_{nl}\right)$$
(11)
where $`\alpha _{nl}`$ is the recombination coefficient to the ($`n,l`$) level of energy, $`n_{nl}`$ is the number density of the excited hydrogen atoms, $`\beta _{nl}`$ is the rate of photo-ionization of a hydrogen atom at this level and $`n_b`$ is the number density of baryons at redshift $`z`$. Assuming that the process of recombination does not perturb significantly the black-body spectrum of the CMB at $`h\nu I`$ range, the ratio of $`\beta _{nl}`$ to $`\alpha _{nl}`$ is given by the Saha equation for $`n2`$,

$$\beta _c=\underset{n>1}{}(2l+1)\beta _{nl}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{I_\alpha I_n}{kT}\right)=\alpha _c\frac{\left(2\pi mkT\right)^{3/2}}{h^3}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{I_\alpha }{kT}\right),$$

where $`\alpha _c=_{n>1}\alpha _{nl}`$ and $`I_n`$ is the potential of ionization from the level $`n`$. In addition, it is necessary to take into account that in equilibrium the number density of atoms at the level $`n,l`$ satisfies the following

$$n_{nl}=n_{2s}(2l+1)\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{I_\alpha I_n}{kT}\right).$$
(12)
So, from Eq (11)-(12) we obtain the well-known relation for the number density of the free electrons (Peebles 1968),

$$n_b\frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{n_e}{n_b}\right)=\alpha _cn_e^2\beta _cG_\alpha n_{1s},$$
(13)
where $`G_\alpha =n_{2s}/n_{1s}`$ is the number of photons per mode in the $`Ly_\alpha `$ resonance line.

Let me describe briefly the evolution of the resonance $`Ly_\alpha `$ line at the epoch of hydrogen recombination (Zeldovich, Kurt and Sunuyaev 1968, Peebles 1968). One of the most important results from the $`Ly_\alpha `$ photo-ionization cross section is that the mean free time of the resonance recombination line of photons becomes very short, at the order $`30`$ seconds while the age of the Universe at the redshift $`z1500`$ is at the order of $`10^{12}`$ s. That means that the optical depth for the $`Ly_\alpha `$ photons at the center of the line is extremely high, at the order of $`10^{10}`$ and the radiation in the line is strongly coupled with the formed hydrogen atoms. On the other hand, the cosmological expansion of the Universe redshifted the $`Ly_\alpha `$ photons from the center of the line and decrease rapidly the cross section of photo-ionization. To obtain the magnitude of the redshift effect, we can use the approximate equation for the spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation (Peebles 1968),

$$n_b\frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{n_\alpha }{n_b}\right)=\nu _\alpha H(t)(n_{\nu _{\mathrm{max}}}n_{\nu _{\mathrm{min}}})+R(t),$$
(14)
where

$$n_\alpha =_{\nu _{\mathrm{min}}}^{\nu _{\mathrm{max}}}n(\nu )𝑑\nu $$
(15)
and $`H(t)`$ is the Hubble parameter, $`\nu _{\mathrm{min}}`$ and $`\nu _{\mathrm{max}}`$ are the minimal and maximal frequencies just below and above the center of the line, $`n(v)`$ is the spectral number density of the photons in the line, $`R(t)`$ is the net rate of production of the $`Ly_\alpha `$ photons per unit volume during $`2p1s`$ transition. In order of magnitude, taking Eq. (15) into account, we have $`n_\alpha n_{\nu _{\mathrm{min}}}\mathrm{\Delta }\nu `$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu `$ is the $`Ly_\alpha `$ line width and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu /\nu _\alpha 10^5`$. Thus, from Eq. (14) one can obtain (Peebles 1968)

$$n_{\nu _{\mathrm{min}}}=n_{\nu _{\mathrm{max}}}+R\nu _\alpha H^1(t)$$
(16)
Using dimensionless variable $`G=c^3n(\nu )/8\pi \nu ^2`$, we can change the last equation to the following form

$$G_\alpha =G_++R\lambda _\alpha ^3H^1(t)/8\pi ,$$
(17)
where $`G_+`$ corresponds to $`n(\nu _{\mathrm{max}})`$. Because of the intimate contact with the atoms the number of photons per mode satisfies the equation $`G_+=\mathrm{exp}[(I_\alpha I_n)/kT]`$ and for $`G_\alpha `$ in Eq. (15) we get

$$G_\alpha =\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{I_\alpha I_n}{kT}\right)+R\nu _\alpha H^1(t).$$
(18)
The last point of the approximate model of hydrogen recombination is related to the estimation of the net recombination $`R(t)`$, which defines the ionization fraction of the hydrogen. Thus

$$R(t)=\left[\alpha _cn_e^2\beta _cG_\alpha n_{1s}\right]\mathrm{\Lambda }_{2s,1s}\left[n_{2s}n_{1s}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{II_\alpha }{kT}\right)\right]$$
(19)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{2s,1s}=8.227\mathrm{sec}^1`$ is the decay rate from $`2s`$ state. The excess of recombination over photo ionization results in the production of the $`Ly_\alpha `$ quanta (the first term in Eq. (19)) or in a two-quantum decay of the meta-stable $`2s`$ level of energy of the hydrogen atom (the last term in Eq. (19)). So, after simple algebra from Eq. (14)-(19) we obtain the well-known equation for the free electron number density (Peebles 1968):

$$n_b\frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{n_e}{n_b}\right)=C\left[\alpha _cn_e^2\beta _cn_{1s}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{II_\alpha }{kT}\right)\right],$$
(20)
where

$$C=\frac{1+K\mathrm{\Lambda }_{2s,1s}n_{1s}}{1+K(\mathrm{\Lambda }_{2s,1s}+\beta _c)n_{1s}},$$
(21)
and $`K=\lambda _\alpha ^3H^1(t)/8\pi `$. It is necessary to note that the approximate model of hydrogen recombination assumes that the temperature of the plasma $`T_m`$ during the recombination process is equivalent to black-body radiation temperature and the contribution of the helium atoms is negligible. A more general and detailed model of recombination was developed by Seager, Sasselov and Scott (1999), which includes the Compton interactions between electrons and photons and the corresponding deviation $`T_m`$ and $`T_{cmb}`$, recombination of helium and ionization by the electrons. The qualitative theory of the hydrogen and helium recombination was summarize in the RECFAST program, which was incorporate in the CMBFAST code (Seljak and Zaldarriaga 1996) for calculations of the power spectrum of the CMB anisotropy and polarization for various cosmological models. Below we will use the modification of the the RECFAST and CMBFAST codes to investigate more complicated than “standard” recombination regimes.

## 4 Delayed and accelerated recombination

As it was mentioned in Introduction and Section 3, the standard model of hydrogen recombination assumes that at the epoch $`z1500`$ the production of the resonant $`Ly_\alpha `$ and $`Ly_c`$ photons is determined by the black-body spectra of the CMB and transitions of electrons into the neutral hydrogen atoms. Generally speaking, any decay of some relics of the cosmological evolution of matter in the Universe at the epoch of recombination are negligible. This assumption, however, needs to be proven by recent and future CMB experiments, especially by the Planck observation.

As it was mentioned in Introduction a lot of non-standard models have been developed during last few years especially for the upcoming Planck experiment, which is characterized by unprecedent accuracy of the anisotropy and polarization power spectrum determination . The aim of this section is to compare the possible manifestation of the more complicated ionization history of the Universe with the contemporary CMB anisotropy observational data (BOOMERANG, MAXIMA-1, CBI and VSA) in order to put constraints on some parameters of the models and to classify the models of hydrogen recombination, differing from the standard one.

The basis for classification of any models of delayed and accelerated recombination is related with the model proposed by Peebles, Seager and Hu (2000), in which two independent parameters $`\epsilon _\alpha `$ and $`\epsilon _i`$ are introduced as effectives of the non-thermal resonant $`Ly_\alpha `$ and ionized-photon production before, during and after the period $`z10^3`$,

$$\frac{dn_\alpha }{dt}=\epsilon _\alpha H(t)n_H,$$
(22)
and

$$\frac{dn_i}{dt}=\epsilon _iH(t)n_H,$$
(23)
where $`n_H`$ is the fraction of neutral hydrogen. In their model the parameters $`\epsilon _\alpha `$ and $`\epsilon _i`$ are assumed to be constant in time, which means that corresponding number density of the $`Ly_\alpha `$ and ionized-photon production per interval $`H^1`$ are $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_\alpha =H^1dn_\alpha /dt=\epsilon _\alpha n_H`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_i=H^1dn_i/dt=\epsilon _in_H`$. As one can see, if $`\epsilon _\alpha 1`$ and $`\epsilon _i1`$ then the corresponding distortions of the recombination kinetics should be small. It is natural to assume that the corresponding number density of free electrons produced by photo-ionization of the neutral hydrogen atoms is proportional to $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_i`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_\alpha `$ and corresponds to the electron ionization fraction $`x_e\mathrm{\Delta }n_i/n_H\epsilon _i`$ or $`x_e\mathrm{\Delta }n_\alpha /n_H\epsilon _\alpha `$ for different stages of hydrogen recombination. However, the concrete values and possible variation of the $`\epsilon _\alpha `$ and $`\epsilon _i`$ parameters in time depends on the energy injection spectra of the sources of the non-thermal resonant $`Ly_\alpha `$, ionized photons production and on the model of the source decay.

Let us suppose that all resonant and ionized photons are the result of some massive unstable particles decay (Doroshkevich and Naselsky 2002), which include primordial black hole evaporation. For such particles the number density decreases in time as

$$\frac{dn_X}{dt}+3H(t)n_X=\frac{n_X}{\tau _X(n_X,t)},$$
(24)
where $`n_X`$ is the number density of the $`X`$-particles, and $`\tau _X(n_X,t)`$ is the life time, which can be constant for the standard decay or as a function of cosmological time, if the production of the ionized and resonant quanta is related with annihilation of the $`x`$ particles. After normalization $`n_X=\stackrel{~}{n}_X\left(\frac{a_0}{a}\right)^3`$, where $`a_0`$ is the scale factor of the Universe at some moment $`t_0`$, we can transform Eq. (24) to the following form

$$\frac{d\stackrel{~}{n}_x}{dt}=\epsilon _x(t)H(t)n_H,$$
(25)
where

$$\epsilon _X=\left(H\tau _X\right)^1\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{tt_0}{\tau _X}\right)\left(\frac{\stackrel{~}{n}_{X,in}}{n_H}\right)$$
(26)
and $`\stackrel{~}{n}_{X,in}`$ is the initial number density of the $`X`$-particles at the moment $`t_0`$.

I would like to point out that Eq. (25) has a general character. Obviously, we can include to the function $`\epsilon _X(t)`$ all models of the particle decay and then $`\epsilon _\alpha `$ and $`\epsilon _i`$ should be proportional to $`\epsilon _X(t)`$. As the result, they are functions of time (or redshift $`z`$).

For illustration of the tight dependency $`\epsilon _\alpha `$, $`\epsilon _i`$ and $`\epsilon _X(t)`$ parameter, let me describe the model of the Super Heavy Dark Matter (SHDM) particle decay during the cosmological expansion. Such a model was discuss in connection with the origin of the Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECRs) in our Galaxy in the framework of so-called Top-Down scenario. As was suggested by Berezinsky, Karshelrie$`ß`$ and Vilenkin (1997), Kuzmin and Rubakov (1998), Birkel and Sarkar (1998), the formation of such UHECRs can be related to decays of the various kinds of SHDM particles with masses $`M_X10^{12}`$GeV. This model was widely discussed in connection with AGASA (Hayashida et al. 1994; Ave et al. 2000), Fly’s Eye (Yoshida and Dai 1998; Abu-Zayyad et al. 2002) 444see for details E. Loh’s lecture in this proceeding, Havera Park (Lawrence, Reid and Watson 1991) experiments.

### 4.1 Expected flux of high energy photons

As is commonly believed, decays of SHDM particles into the high energy protons, photons, electron-positron pairs and neutrinos occurs through the production of quark-antiquark pairs ($`xq,\overline{q}`$), which rapidly hadronize, generate two jets and transform the energy into hadrons ($`\omega _h`$5%) and pions ($`1\omega _h`$95%) (Blasi 1999). It can be expected that later on the energy is transformed mainly to high energy photons and neutrinos. This means that, for such decays of SHDM particles with $`10^{12}`$GeV$`<M_x<10^{19}`$ GeV, the UHECRs with energy $`E>10^{20}`$ eV are dominated by photons and neutrinos (Blasi 1999). This conclusion can be tested with further observations of the UHECR fluxes at $`E>10^{20}`$eV.

Probable energy losses of neutrinos are small (Bhattacharjee and Sigl 2000) , they are concentrated at the range $`EE_{inj}E_{\mathrm{GZK}}`$ and could be responsible only for relatively rare observed events. But the comparison of expected and observed fluxes of high energy photons restricts some properties of SHDM particles and the Top–Down model as a whole ( Berezinsky, Blasi and Vilenkin 1998). At high redshifts the interaction of high energy photons with $`EE_{inj}E_{\mathrm{GZK}}`$ with the CMB background ($`\gamma _{\mathrm{UHECR}}+\gamma _{\mathrm{CMB}}e^++e^{}`$)leads to formation of electromagnetic cascades (Greisen 1966; Zatsepin and Kuzmin 1966).

At small redshifts the efficiency of this interaction decreases and the evolution of such photons depends upon unknown factors such as the extragalactic magnetic field and properties of radio background.

The expected domination of products of decay of the x-particle by the high energy pions and photons follows from quite general arguments. The cumulative contribution of the photons is bigger then the cumulative contribution of the hadrons by a factor of $`\omega _h^1`$ 1. This means that, at least for the galactic component, the cumulative observed flux of UHECRs at energy $`EE_{\mathrm{GZK}}`$ is also dominated by galactic component of photons with $`EE_{inj}E_{\mathrm{GZK}}`$. The discrimination of high energy photon component of UHECRs can be considered as the crucial test for the Top–Down models.

Summarizing available information about the photon component of UHECRs, Bhattacharjee and Sigl (2000) estimate the spectrum of injected photons for a decay of a single $`X`$-particle as follows:

$$\frac{dN_{inj}}{dE_\gamma }=\frac{0.6(2\alpha )}{M_X}\frac{f_\pi }{0.9}\left(\frac{2E_\gamma }{M_X}\right)^\alpha ,E_\gamma \frac{M_X}{2}$$
(27)
where $`f_\pi `$ is the fraction of the total energy of the jet carried by pions (total pion fraction in terms of of number of particles), $`0<\alpha <2`$ is the power index of the injected spectrum, $`M_X`$ is the mass of the SHDM particles. For the photon path length $`l_\gamma 110`$Mpc at $`E_\gamma E_{\mathrm{GZK}}`$ in respect to the electron-positron pair creation on the extragalactic radio background (see Bhattacharjee and Sigl (2000); Protheroe and Biermann 1996) we get for the photon flux $`j_{inj}(E_\gamma )`$ at the observed energy $`E_\gamma `$:

$$j_{inj}(E_\gamma )\frac{1}{4\pi }l_\gamma (E_\gamma )\dot{n}_X\frac{dN_{inj}}{dE_\gamma }$$
(28)
where $`\dot{n}_X`$ is the decay rate of the $`X`$ particles. For the future calculation we will use the normalization of $`j_{inj}(E_\gamma )`$ on the observable UHECR flux which corresponds to normalization on the decay rate $`\dot{n}_X`$ at present time, $`t=t_u`$ (Bhattacharjee and Sigl 2000):

$$\dot{n}_{X,0}10^{46}\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1M_{16}^{1\alpha }\mathrm{\Theta }_X,$$

where

$$\mathrm{\Theta }_X\frac{0.5}{2\alpha }(\frac{0.9}{f_\pi })(\frac{10\mathrm{M}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{c}}{l_\gamma (E_{obs})})(2E_{16})^{\alpha 3/2}\times \left(\frac{E_{obs}^2j_{obs}(E_{obs})}{1\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{m}^2\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{sr}^1}\right)$$

and $`M_{16}=M_X/10^{16}`$GeV, $`E_{16}=E_{obs}/10^{16}`$GeV, $`E_{obs}`$ and $`j_{obs}(E_{obs})`$ are the observable range of the UHECR energy and flux, respectively. Note that normalization (4.1) does not depend on the nature of the $`x`$-particles.

An additional possibility for non-equilibrium high energy photon injection to primordial hydrogen-helium plasma at the epoch of recombination comes from the theory of primordial black hole evaporation (Naselsky 1978; Ivanov, Naselsky and Novikov 1994; Kotok and Naselsky 1998; Doroshkevich and Naselsky 2002) or relatively low massive particle decay $`M_X10^{12}`$ GeV (Scott, Rees and Sciama 1991; Adams, Sarkar and Sciama 1998). For primordial black holes with masses $`M_{\mathrm{pbh}}10^{13}`$ gram the corresponding life time is $`\tau _{\mathrm{pbh}}t_r`$ and they evaporate just at the epoch of hydrogen recombination by emitting high energy particles with black body spectra with effective temperature $`T_{\mathrm{pbh}}10^{13}10^{14}`$K and energy $`E_{\mathrm{pbh}}kT_{\mathrm{pbh}}110`$ GeV (Hawking 1975). As one can see, this range of energy injection is sufficiently smaller than for the SHDM particles with $`M_X10^{12}`$ GeV. Note that for the models from Scott, Rees and Sciama (1991) and Adams, Sarkar and Sciama (1998) the characteristic energy of injected photons from neutrino decay is of the order $`10100`$ eV, which is close to the $`Ly_cLy_\alpha `$ energy range. Taking the above-mentioned properties of the non-equilibrium photon injection into account it is natural to expect that practically all range of energy above $`Ly_cLy_\alpha `$ threshold should be very important for investigation of the non-standard recombination kinetics.

### 4.2 Electromagnetic cascades at the epoch of the hydrogen recombination.

The decays of $`X`$-particles cannot significantly distort the thermodynamic of the universe at high redshifts $`z10^3`$ but this injection of energy changes the kinetic of recombination at $`z10^3`$ that leads to observable distortions of the power spectra of CMB anisotropy and polarization. To evaluate these distortions we need firstly to follow the transformation of high energy injected particles to UV photons influenced directly the recombination process.

The electromagnetic cascades are initiated by the ultra high energy jets and composed by photons, protons, electron- positrons and neutrino. At high redshifts, the cascades develops very rapidly via interaction with the CMB photons and pair creation ($`\gamma _{\mathrm{UHECR}}+\gamma _{\mathrm{CMB}}e^++e^{}`$), proton-photon pair production ($`p_{\mathrm{UHECR}}+\gamma _{\mathrm{CMB}}p^{^{}}+\gamma {}_{}{}^{}+e^++e^{}`$), inverse Compton scattering ($`e_{\mathrm{UHECR}}^{}+\gamma _{\mathrm{CMB}}e^{^{}}+\gamma ^{^{}}`$), pair creation ($`e_{\mathrm{UHECR}}^{}+\gamma _{\mathrm{CMB}}e^{^{}}+e^{}+e^++\gamma ^{^{}}`$), and, for neutrino, electron- positron pair creation through the Z-resonance. As was shown by Berezinsky et al. (1990) and Protheroe et al. (1995), these processes result in the universal normalized spectrum of a cascade with a primary energy $`E_\gamma `$ which can be written as follows:

$$N_\gamma (E,E_\gamma )=F(E,E_\gamma )\{\begin{array}{cc}\sqrt{\frac{E}{E_a}}& EE_a\\ 1& E_aEE_c\\ 0& E_cE\end{array}$$
(29)
$$F(E,E_\gamma )=\frac{E_\gamma E^2}{2+\mathrm{ln}(E_c/E_a)},_0^{E_\gamma }EN_\gamma 𝑑E=E_\gamma $$

where $`E_c4.610^4(1+z)^1`$GeV, $`E_a=1.810^3(1+z)^1`$GeV. At the period of recombination $`z10^3`$ and for lesser redshifts both energies, $`E_a`$ and $`E_c`$ are larger then the limit of the electron-positron pair production $`E_{e^+,e^{}}=2m_e=1`$ MeV and the spectrum (29) describes both the energy distribution at $`EE_{e^+,e^{}}`$ and the injection of UV photons with $`EE_{e^+,e^{}}`$. However, the spectrum of these UV photons is distorted due to the interaction of photons with the hydrogen - helium plasma.

In the range of less energy of photons, $`E2m_e`$, and at higher redshifts, $`z10^4`$, when equilibrium concentrations of $`H_\mathrm{I}`$, $`He_\mathrm{I}`$ and $`He_{\mathrm{II}}`$ are small and their influence is negligible, the evolution of the spectrum of ultraviolet photons, $`N_{uv}(E,z)`$, occurs due to the injection of new UV photons and their redshift and Compton scattering. It is described by the transport equation (Berezinsky et al. 1990)

$`{\displaystyle \frac{N_{uv}}{z}}{\displaystyle \frac{3N_{uv}}{1+z}}+{\displaystyle \frac{}{E}}\left(N_{uv}{\displaystyle \frac{dE}{dz}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{Q(E,z)}{(1+z)H}}=0,`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{E}}{\displaystyle \frac{dE}{dz}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{1+z}}+{\displaystyle \frac{c\sigma _Tn_e}{(1+z)H(z)}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{E}{m_ec^2}}\right)={\displaystyle \frac{1+\beta _\gamma (E,z)}{1+z}}`$
$`Q(E,t)=\dot{n}_XN_\gamma (E,M_X)`$ (30)
where the Hubble parameter is

$$H(z)=H_0\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_m(1+z)^3+1\mathrm{\Omega }_m},$$
(31)
and $`n_e(1+z)^3`$ is the number density of electrons, so, $`\beta _\gamma (1+z)^{3/2}E`$. Here $`Q(E,t)`$ is considered as an external source of UV radiation.

The general solution of equation (30) is (Doroshkevich and Naselsky 2002):

$$N_{uv}(z)=_z^{z_{mx}}\frac{Q(x)}{H(x)}\frac{E^2(x)}{E^2(z)}\left(\frac{1+z}{1+x}\right)^4\frac{dx}{1+x},$$
(32)
$$E(x)=\frac{1+x}{1+z}E(z)\left(1\frac{2}{5}\beta _\gamma (E,z)\left[\left(\frac{1+x}{1+z}\right)^{5/2}1\right]\right)^1$$

where the maximal redshift, $`z_{mx}`$, in (32) is defined by the condition $`E(x)=2m_ec^2`$.

As is seen from (32), the Compton scattering dominates for $`E30`$keV, when

$$\beta _\gamma (E,z)=44\frac{E}{m_ec^2}\sqrt{\frac{0.3}{\mathrm{\Omega }_m}}\frac{h\mathrm{\Omega }_b}{0.02}\left(\frac{1+z}{10^3}\right)^{3/2}1,$$
(33)
$$N_{uv}(z)\frac{\dot{n}_X(z)N_\gamma (E,M_X)}{H(z)\beta _\gamma (E,z)}\frac{\sqrt{1+z}\mathrm{\Theta }_\tau (z)}{E^{5/2}},$$
(34)
For the most interesting energy range, $`E30`$keV, $`\beta _\gamma (E,z)1`$, we get again

$$N_{uv}(E(z),z)\frac{2}{3}\frac{\dot{n}_X(z)}{H(z)}N_\gamma (E,E_\gamma =M_X/2).$$
(35)
It is necessary to note that the UV photons energy spectra Eq. (35) reflect directly the simple idea that practically all energy of the SHDM relics transforms to the energy of the $`\gamma `$ quanta at the range $`E100`$ GeV (at $`z=0`$)(see Fig4.b) and than the soft part of the spectra forms due to electromagnetic cascades. At higher redshift, especially at $`z10^3`$ the electromagnetic cascades from the $`\gamma `$-range of the spectra are very effective for the UV photon production because of the high energy density of the CMB (12 orders of magnitude higher than the present energy density) and because of increasing of the mean energy of the CMB photons , which is in order magnitude equivalent to 1 eV.

### 4.3  Delay of the hydrogen recombination due to SHDM decay

Let me briefly discuss the relationship between initial spectra of the SHDM decay and corresponding parameters $`\epsilon _\alpha `$ and $`\epsilon _i`$ of the hydrogen excitation and ionization . As it was mentioned in the previous subsection, the spectra of UV photons can be normalized to the energy density of injection $`\dot{Q}(t)`$ from the SHDM decay as

$$N(E)\eta \frac{\dot{Q}}{E_a^2[2+\mathrm{ln}(E_c/E_a)]}\left(\frac{E}{E_a}\right)^{3/2},$$
(36)
where $`\eta `$ is the effectives of the energy transformation from the $`EM_X/2`$ range to the $`\gamma `$ range of the photons energy spectra. Let us normalize the energy density of injection $`\dot{Q}(t)`$ ($`\mathrm{eVcm}^3\mathrm{s}^1`$) to the present day value $`\dot{Q}(t_u)`$

$$\dot{Q}(t)=\omega (t)\dot{Q}(t_u)$$
(37)
where $`t_u`$ is the age of the Universe at $`z=0`$ and $`\omega (t)\epsilon _X`$ according to Eq. (24). Integration Eq. (36) over all energies of the photons corresponds to the net of the energy density injection $`\dot{ϵ}_\gamma =𝑑EEN(E)=\omega (t)\dot{Q}(t_u)`$. But for the energy range $`EI_\alpha `$ the net of the ionized UV photons is given by integral $`𝑑EN(E)`$:

$$\dot{n}_i\frac{\omega (t)\dot{Q}(t_u)}{I}\left(\frac{I}{E_a(z)}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}$$
(38)
Using normalization for the energy density $`\dot{ϵ}_\gamma H^1ϵ_{\mathrm{EGRET}}`$ to the EGRET energy density $`ϵ_{\mathrm{EGRET}}410^7\mathrm{eVcm}^3`$ (Sigl 2001) of the $`\gamma `$ quanta at the present moment of the cosmological expansion, we can estimate the function $`\omega (t)`$. Namely, assuming

$$\omega (t)t^{4p}(1+z)^{\frac{3}{2}(4p)}$$
(39)
we can find that

$$\epsilon _i\epsilon _\alpha \xi (z)\left(\frac{ϵ_{\mathrm{EGRET}}}{In_b(z=0)}\right)(1+z)^{\frac{3}{2}(1p)}(1+z)^{2(1\frac{3}{4}p)}$$
(40)
where $`\xi (z)=(I/E_a(z))^{1/2}3\times 10^6\sqrt{1+z}`$. The power index $`p=1`$ correspond the model involving release of $`x`$-particles from topological defects, such as ordinary cosmic strings, necklaces and magnetic monopoles (see for review by Sigl 2001). The model $`p=2`$ corresponds to the SHDM exponential decay (see Eq. (24)) with $`\tau _xt_U`$. From Eq.(40) one can see that for $`p=4/3`$ the $`\epsilon _i`$ and $`\epsilon _\alpha `$ parameters does not depend on the redshift, which is exactly the case of the model by Peebles, Seager and Hu (2000).

One additional possibility comes from the model with $`\tau _Xt_u`$. This model could be related with primordial black holes evaporation or all SHDM relics decay, for which the corresponding life time is less than the present age of the Universe. Note that for $`\tau _X0.1t_u`$ (and corresponding redshift $`z_X67`$ ) the SHDM relic decay before or just at the galaxy formation epoch and the observable flux of the UHECRs mostly should relate with extragalactic background of the particles, which is characterized by very small anisotropies. For such a model we need to modify Eq. (40) as $`\xi _{mod}(z)=\xi (z)\mathrm{\Theta }(z)`$ for $`zz_X`$, where

$$\mathrm{\Theta }(z_X)=\mathrm{exp}\left[(1+z_X)^{\frac{3}{2}}\right],$$
(41)
and $`z_X`$ corresponds to the $`\tau _X`$.

In Fig.5 I show the dependence of the $`\epsilon _i`$ parameter on the redshift $`z`$ for various models of the SHDM decay (for different $`p`$ and $`\mathrm{\Theta }(z_X)`$).

As one can see from Fig.5, some of the SHDM relics can distort the kinetics of hydrogen recombination quite significantly ($`\epsilon _\alpha ,\epsilon _i10^310^2`$ for $`z<1500`$), for some of the SHDM relics the perturbation of the ionization history of the Universe is small and practically unobservable. However, all energy injection during the epoch of hydrogen recombination would by partially absorbed by the hydrogen atoms and produce corresponding delay of recombination or ionization of the neutrals.

The question is we can have the acceleration of the hydrogen recombination and what we need to know about the properties of the cosmological plasma beyond the standard model?

### 4.4 Acceleration of recombination

In the framework of non-standard recombination models, it was shown that all peculiarities of the hydrogen photo-ionization kinetics can be described in terms of $`\epsilon _\alpha ,\epsilon _i`$ parameters, which correspond to additional non-equilibrium $`Ly_{alpha}`$ and $`Ly_c`$ photon injection. In the previous section it was shown that for different models of the SHDM particles decay both parameters $`\epsilon _\alpha ,\epsilon _i`$ are positive and hence the delay of hydrogen recombination occurs. In terms of the $`\epsilon _\alpha ,\epsilon _i`$ parameters any acceleration of recombination means that one or both of them are negative. However, any decay of the SHDM relics do not produce “negative” energy injection and, taking into account the black-body CMB photons, acceleration of the recombination means that we can remove some of the photons from interaction with the formed neutral hydrogen atoms, which is impossible. Does it mean that for given values of the cosmological parameters ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_b,\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$…etc.), which determines the general properties of the model of the Universe, we can only have the delay of hydrogen recombination? To answer this question, we need to focus on Eq. (20), in which the net of free electron number density decreases during recombination which is proportional to the electron and proton number density. The non-linear dependence of the ionization fraction on baryonic number density is the key to the construction of the accelerated model of recombination!

The basic idea of accelerated recombination is very transparent (Naselsky and Novikov 2002). Suppose that, instead of pure adiabatic model of initial metric, density and velocity perturbation of matter we have the mix between adiabatic and isocurvature (or isotemperature) perturbation. If at the very small mass scales of isocurvature perturbations, e.g. those comparable with $`10^210^5M_{}`$, the distribution of the baryons is very non-uniform like clouds, beyond which scale perturbations follow the standard adiabatic properties, then the hydrogen recombination inside the clouds goes faster than outside the clouds. This indicates that for adiabatic perturbations which produce anisotropies and polarization of the CMB, the hydrogen ionization differs from the standard one, which corresponds to the mean value of the baryonic matter density. Non-trivial is that such a modification of the ionization history of the hydrogen in the cloudy baryonic model can be described in terms of $`\epsilon _\alpha <0`$ and $`\epsilon _i>0`$ parameters as for the delayed recombination model (Naselsky and Novikov 2002). All of these delayed and accelerated recombination models could be very important for reconstruction of the best-fitting cosmological model parameters from the modern CMB observational data and can distort the optimal values.

## 5 Non-standard recombination and its manifestation in the CMB anisotropy and polarization power spectrum

For illustration of the introduced above classification of the hydrogen recombination regimes we will use two cosmological models with the following parameters. The Model 1: $`\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2=0.022,\mathrm{\Omega }_c=0.125,\mathrm{\Omega }_K=0,\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7,\tau _r=0.1,h=0.7,n_s=1,\epsilon _\alpha =\epsilon _i=0`$. This model has the best-fitting of the CBI observational data (Mason et al 2002). The Model 2: $`\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2=0.032,\mathrm{\Omega }_c=0.115,\mathrm{\Omega }_K=0,\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7,\tau _r=0.1,h=0.7,n_s=1,\epsilon _\alpha =\epsilon _i=0`$. This model differs from the previous one on the baryonic and CDM fraction densities and it is non-optimal according to the CBI data. Using RECFAST code we can find the differences in the ionization fraction of hydrogen plotted in Fig. 6.

Fig.7 is the plot of the ionization fraction of the hydrogen in the clumpy baryonic model (Model 3), which corresponds to the parameters of the Model 1, but instead of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2=0.022`$ we have to use the mean value of the baryon density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2=0.022`$, assuming that density contrast between inner and outer regions $`\xi =\rho _{in}/\rho _{out}=11`$, the fraction of volume in clouds $`f=0.1`$ and the mass fraction $`Z=\xi f/[1+(\xi 1)f]=0.5`$.

The mass spectrum of a clouds means to be close to $`\delta (MM_{cl})`$, where $`10^2M_{}<M_{cl}<10^6M_{}`$ . For this model the mean ionization fraction is related with ionization fractions inside $`x_{in}`$ and outside $`x_{out}`$ clouds as $`x_{\mathrm{mean}}=x_{in}Z+x_{out}(1Z)`$ (Naselsky and Novikov 2002). In Fig.8 we show the difference between $`x_{\mathrm{mean}}`$ and $`x_1`$ normalized to $`(x_1+x_{\mathrm{mean}})/2`$.

As one can see from Fig.8, at the range $`700<z<1500`$ we have acceleration of recombination while at the range $`z<700`$ we have delay of recombination. The last model, Model 4, which we would like to include in our analysis is the Model 2 plus additional sources of delay and ionization, corresponding to the following values of the $`\epsilon _\alpha ,\epsilon _i`$ parameters:

$`\epsilon _\alpha (x)`$ $`=`$ $`\alpha \times exp\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{1+z}{1+z_x}}\right)^{\frac{3}{2}}\right]\left({\displaystyle \frac{1+z}{1+z_x}}\right)^{\frac{3}{2}};`$
$`\epsilon _i(z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\beta }{\alpha }}\epsilon _\alpha (z)`$ (42)
where $`\alpha 0.3`$, $`\beta 0.04`$ and $`z_x10^3`$. As one can see from Eq(6) at $`z10^3`$ the variation of the $`\epsilon _\alpha ,\epsilon _i`$-parameters are very slow and $`\epsilon _\alpha \alpha `$, $`\epsilon _i\beta `$for comparison with the parameters by Peebles, Seager and Hu (2000). In Fig.9 I plot the ionization fraction in Model 4 in comparison with ionization fraction in the Model 1 and the Model 2. As one can see the delay of recombination in the Model 4 produce $`2030\%`$ deviation of the ionization fraction at the redshift $`z10^3`$ and very significant deviations at the redshift $`z<10^3`$.

It is worth noting that all the Models 1-4 clearly illustrate the different delayed and accelerated regimes, discussed at the beginning of the this section. The question is how sensitive the CMB anisotropy and polarization power spectrum on different models of ionization history of hydrogen and baryonic density? Below I will show that combination $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b,\epsilon _\alpha ,\epsilon _i`$ is very important for estimation of the correct value of the baryonic fraction density from the CMB data.

### 5.1 Anisotropy and polarization as a test on ionization regimes

In order to compare the CMB anisotropy and polarization power spectrum in the Models 1-4 we have to use modification of the CMBFAST code (Seljak and Zaldarriaga 1996), by taking into account more complicated ionization history of the plasma. All the models which include the late reionization correspond to the standard CMBFAST option for a given value of the optical depth $`\tau _r`$. This value of $`\tau _r`$ is related with the ionization fraction $`x=1`$ at the redshift of reionization $`z_r`$ as

$$z_{re}=13.6\left(\frac{\tau _r}{0.1}\right)^{2/3}\left(\frac{1Y_p}{0.76}\right)^{2/3}\times \left(\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2}{0.022}\right)^{2/3}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_ch^2}{0.125}\right)^{1/3}$$
(43)
where $`Y_p`$ is the helium mass fraction of the matter. In Fig.10 we plot the CMB power spectrum for the Models 1-4 in comparison with the BOOMERANG, MAXIMA-1, and CBI data at the multipole range $`\mathrm{}2000`$ in which the possible manifestation of the Sunuyaev-Zel’dovich effect is not important.

As one can see from Fig.10 all the models look very similar to each other. However, in the Table 1 we show the values of the $`\chi ^2`$-parameter for all the models. From the Table 1 we seen that the Model 3 with baryonic clouds has an excellent agreement with the CBI data while the Model 1 is characterized by the value of the $`\chi _1^2=2\chi _3^2`$. Note that the Model 1 is the best-fitting model for the CBI data without any assumption on more complicated ionization history of cosmological hydrogen recombination. The Model 4 corresponds to the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2`$ parameter 1.5 times bigger than the Model 1. However, this model also has an excellent agreement with all the CBI observational data.

From the practical point of view, the Models 1, 3 and 4 consistent with the CBI data and more complicated ionization history of the hydrogen recombination manifest themselves as new sources of degeneracy of the cosmological parameters, namely, the baryonic density of matter. This conclusion is very important for the upcoming MAP and Planck data. In order to characterize the differences between the models and to compare their with the sensitivity of the upcoming Planck experiment we plot in Fig.11 the functions

$`D_{1,3}(\mathrm{})=2\left[C_1(\mathrm{})C_3(\mathrm{})\right]/\left[C_1(\mathrm{})+C_3(\mathrm{})\right];`$
$`D_{2,4}(\mathrm{})=2\left[C_2(\mathrm{})C_2(\mathrm{})\right]/\left[C_2(\mathrm{})+C_2(\mathrm{})\right];`$ (44)
for the multipole range $`2<\mathrm{}<2500`$. Obviously, these functions $`D_{1,3}(\mathrm{})`$ and $`D_{2,4}(\mathrm{})`$ is necessary to compare with the errors of the $`C_{\mathrm{}}`$ extraction for the Planck mission.

As one can see from Fig. 11, the range of the $`D_{1,3}(\mathrm{})`$ and $`D_{2,4}(\mathrm{})`$ values is close to the $`5\%`$ . Note that it can easily drop down to $`12\%`$ using smaller values of the parameters of the non-standard ionization history $`\epsilon _\alpha ,\epsilon _i`$ and corresponding parameters $`\xi `$, $`Z`$, $`z_X`$, $`m`$ and so on. These parameters play a role of the “missing parameters” in the model of the CMB anisotropy formation and significantly increase the number of the standard parameters $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$,…$`\mathrm{\Omega }_K`$. It is well known that for analysis of the degeneracy of some of the cosmological parameters the polarization measurements are very useful. In Fig.7 we plot the polarization power spectrum $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_p^2(\mathrm{})=\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)/2\pi C_p(\mathrm{})`$ for the Models 1-4. As one can see from this Figure, the difference of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_p^2(\mathrm{})`$ is very small at the range $`\mathrm{}>200`$ and quite significant for the Model 1 and 2 relatively the Models 3 and 4 because of the bump at $`\mathrm{}510`$, which is related with reionization of the hydrogen at the epoch of formation of galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Some useful information can be obtained at the range $`20<\mathrm{}<200`$ in which the manifestation of the Model 4 is significant. This Model shows that the optical depth $`\tau _r=0.1`$ can be obtained without distortions of the low multipole part of the power spectrum at $`\mathrm{}510`$. However, for the Planck mission one of the most important source of uncertainties at the multipole range $`\mathrm{}200`$ is the the cosmic variance. The corresponding errors of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_p^2(\mathrm{})`$ estimation at this range is $`\delta C_p(\mathrm{})/C_p(\mathrm{})(f_{\mathrm{sky}}\mathrm{})^{1/2}9\left(\mathrm{}/200\right)^{1/2}\left(f_{\mathrm{sky}}/0.65\right)^{1/2}\%`$. 555We assume that instrumental noise and systematics should be close to the cosmic variance limit . For $`f_{\mathrm{sky}}/0.651`$ and $`\mathrm{}2000`$ the cosmic variance limit on $`\delta C(\mathrm{})/C(\mathrm{})`$ is $`3\%`$ at $`68\%`$ confidence level, which means that all the peculiarities of the anisotropy power spectra below this limit should be unobservable. For the CMB polarization, as it follows from Fig.8 all features of the power spectrum can be observed by the Planck and probably, the low multipole part of the power spectrum can be observed by the MAP mission. So future experiments for detection of polarization can be very useful for investigation of the ionization history of the cosmic plasma and possible distortions of the kinetics of hydrogen recombination by the different sources.

## 6 Conclusion

The precision of the measurements on the CMB anisotropy and polarization, especially being expected from the MAP and Planck missions, allows us to distinguish the cosmological models under consideration and to discuss $`1020\%`$ distortions of the standard recombination process occurring at redshift$`z10^3`$.

In my talk I have compared available data from observations of the CMB anisotropies with several cosmological models with different kinetics of hydrogen recombination, which is caused by possible external sources of the energy injection and possible small-scale clustering of the baryonic component in the clouds. It was shown that such a sources can produce the delay or acceleration of hydrogen recombination and increases the number of parameters used to fit observed power spectra of the CMB anisotropy and polarization.

The most interesting conclusion coming from the investigation of the non-standard models of hydrogen recombination is that the CMB polarization measurements will play an important role for the estimation of the “missing parameters” from the upcoming Planck data.

## Acknowledgment

I would like to thank Prof. Norma Sanchez for the invitation to participate this School. This paper was supported in part by Danmarks Grundforskningsfond through its support for the establishment of the Theoretical Astrophysics Center, and by grants RFBR 17625.

I am grateful to L.-Y. Chiang, A. Doroshkevich, I. Novikov and A. A. Starobinsky for discussions and help during the preparation of this article.

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text:
# Evidence for Nodal Quasiparticles in the Non-magnetic Superconductor YNi2B2C via Field-angle-dependent Heat Capacity

(Dec 24, 2002)

## Abstract

Field-angle dependent heat capacity of the non-magnetic borocarbide superconductor YNi2B2C reveals a clear fourfold oscillation, the first observation of its kind. The observed angular variations were analyzed as a function of magnetic field angle, field intensity and temperature to provide its origin. The quantitative agreement between experiment and theory strongly suggests that we are directly observing nodal quasiparticles generated along $`<100>`$ by the Doppler effect. The results demonstrate that field-angle heat capacity can be a powerful tool in probing the momentum-space gap structure in unconventional superconductors such as high Tc cuprates, heavy fermion superconductors, etc.

Most superconductors behave “conventionally;” electronic excitations are suppressed by the BCS energy gap causing the electronic heat capacity, for example, to be exponentially small at temperatures well below the superconducting transition. Recently, a number of superconductors, cuprates and heavy-fermion metals among them, have been found to be “unconventional” in that they exhibit gap-zero (or nodal) points or lines in momentum space. Electronic excitations–nodal quasiparticles (nqp)–are then observed at low temperatures, giving rise to power-law rather than exponential, behavior. Unlike gapless superconductivity, which can occur in conventional superconductors, the Fermi momenta of these quasiparticles are restricted to nodal regions of the Fermi surface, giving a strong directional dependence to various physical properties. While pioneering work by Salamon and coworkers Salamon et al. (1995); Yu et al. (1995) and by subsequent experimenters Aubin et al. (1997); Izawa et al. (2002) demonstrated the directionality of thermally excited nqp’s via the thermal conductivity, direct detection has proven elusive.

The rare earth borocarbide superconductors RNi2B2C (R=Y, Lu, Tm, Er, Ho, and Dy) had been generally thought to exhibit isotropic s-wave pairing via electron-phonon coupling Carter (1994); Mattheis (1994); Michor et al. (1995); Gonnelli et al. (2000); Manolo and Schachinger (2001), but there is growing evidence that the gap function is highly anisotropic or has a nodal structure on the momentum surface Nohara et al. (1997); Boaknin et al. (2001); Yang et al. (2000); Izawa et al. (2001, 2002); Maki et al. (2002). In specific heat measurements, a power law behavior was observed in the temperature dependence and the electronic coefficient $`\gamma (H),`$ to the extent it can be extracted, follows a square-root field dependence Nohara et al. (1997); Volovik (1993). Low temperature thermal conductivity measurements showed low energy excitations that also indicate unconventional superconductivity Boaknin et al. (2001). Recently, Izawa and coworkers reported a field-directional-angle dependence of the thermal conductivity in YNi2B2C that suggested point nodes along $`<100>`$ directions Izawa et al. (2002). However, their interpretation is not definitive because the highly anisotropic nature of the Fermi surface and nonlocality could lead to anisotropic macroscopic phenomena even within the ab-plane Metlushko et al. (1997). Angular specific heat measurements, however, are insensitive to the Fermi surface topology and reflect the gap anisotropy through the Doppler energy shift Vekhter et al. (1999). We report here the first observation of Doppler-induced angular dependence of the electronic heat capacity in the non-magnetic borocarbide superconductor YNi2B2C.

In order to study the elusive angular variation in the low temperature specific heat Moler et al. (1994); Wang et al. (2001), we built a probe specifically designed to look at the DOS variation with field angle. The probe was designed to fit into a Quantum Design Physical Properties Measurement System with a 7 T transverse magnet. The heat capacity of YNi2B2C was measured by ac calorimetry in which the sample was heated by an electronically modulated laser pulse and the induced ac temperature was measured by chromel-gold/iron (0.07%) thermocouple. In order to account for the magnetic field dependence of the thermocouple wire, the ac signal from a non-magnetic dummy sample was measured vs magnetic field in the temperature range of interest. As the heat capacity is field independent, any change with field arises from the thermocouple wire and was used to correct the data. The details of the ac technique can be found elsewhere Park et al. (2002).

The single crystal YNi2B2C was grown by the high temperature flux method using Ni2B as a solvent. The details are described elsewhere Cho et al. (1995); Mun et al. (1996). The inset of the Fig. 1 shows the superconducting transition at 0 T. The sharp thermodynamic transition ($`\mathrm{\Delta }T/T_c0.02`$) indicates that the sample is homogeneous.

The main graph of Fig. 1 shows the field dependence of the heat capacity at 2.5 K. The sample was zero-field cooled to 2.5 K and a magnetic field was applied along the $`(100)`$ direction. The open circles describe the heat capacity with increasing field and the crosses, with decreasing field. There is a deviation between the two below 1 T, which indicates that flux pinning is important at low magnetic fields. The system enters into the normal state above 5.2 T along this direction and the lower critical field is less than 0.1 T. The heat capacity with increasing magnetic field was fitted by $`C_0+b`$ $`(HH_0)^{1/2}`$ ($`\mathrm{𝐝𝐚𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐝}\mathrm{𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞}`$). The excellent square-root fit up to the upper critical field indicates that YNi2B2C is a superconductor with an unconventional pairing symmetry. In an intermediate field range, $`H_{c1}HH_{c2}`$, the square root field dependence comes mostly from nqp’s induced by the Doppler effect; the core-state contribution becomes important as the field approaches $`H_{c2}`$ Volovik (1993); Ichioka et al. (1999).

The upper panel of Fig. 2 shows the field-directional angular dependence of the total heat capacity at 2 K in 1 T. The field angle $`\alpha `$ was measured with respect to the $`a`$-axis. The transverse magnetic field was rotated within the basal plane of YNi2B2C by increments of $`3^{}`$ by a computer controlled stepping motor. Repositioning the sample by $`33^{}`$ relative to the thermocouples and apparatus shifts the 4-fold pattern, but not the 2-fold contribution, by that angle. The total heat capacity consists of constant, 2-fold, and 4-fold contributions: $`C_{total}(\alpha )=C_0+C_2(\alpha )+C_4(\alpha )`$. The field-independent constant $`C_0`$ is due to nonmagnetic contributions such as the lattice heat capacity and thermally excited nqp’s, and is determined experimentally in C vs H data. The 2-fold contribution $`C_2(\alpha )`$ comes from our experimental setup and has a functional form of $`c_2\mathrm{cos}2\alpha `$. The Au/Fe thermocouple wire is a major source of this contribution but misalignment of the basal plane of the sample against the field direction could also lead to the 2-fold component because of the anisotropy between in-field ab-plane and c-axis heat capacities. The dashed line in the upper panel of the Fig. 2 is $`C_2(\alpha )`$; the 2-fold signal is about 48 $`\%`$ of the 4-fold component at 1 T and increases with magnetic field up to 55 $`\%`$ at 4 T. The circles in the lower panel of the Fig. 2 describe the 4-fold part $`C_4(\alpha )`$, which clearly reveals the angular variation.

In the mixed state of an unconventional superconductor, the supercurrent flows around a vortex lead to a Doppler energy shift, $`\delta \omega 𝐯_s𝐤_F`$, where $`𝐯_s`$ is the velocity of the superfluid and $`𝐤_F`$ is the Fermi momentum of nodal quasiparticles. When the field direction is normal to the plane containing nodes, the DOS is the average over the whole Fermi surface, leading to a square-root field dependence Volovik (1993). When the field is in the nodal plane, however, the Doppler shift has a field-direction dependence as well, $`\delta \omega \frac{E_h}{\rho }\mathrm{sin}\beta \mathrm{sin}(\varphi \alpha )`$ Vekhter et al. (1999). Here $`\varphi `$ is an azimuthal angle of the gap node and $`\beta `$ is a vortex current winding angle. E$`{}_{h}{}^{}=\frac{a\mathrm{}v_F}{2}\sqrt{\pi H/\mathrm{\Phi }_0}`$ is the energy scale associated with the Doppler effect. The geometrical constant $`a`$ is order of unity, $`v_F`$ is the Fermi velocity, and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ is the flux quantum. The variable $`\rho =r/R`$, where $`r`$ is the distance from the vortex core and $`2R`$ is the intervortex distance. Working in the 2D limit, Vekhter $`et.al.`$ calculated the DOS , $`N(N_1+N_2)/2`$, for an in-plane magnetic field when $`\omega ,E_h\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ and for four nodes at angles $`\alpha _n`$ from orthogonal axes in a plane :

$$\frac{N_i(\omega ,h,\alpha )}{N_0}=\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{\omega }{\mathrm{\Delta }_0}(1+\frac{1}{2x^2})\hfill & (x=\omega /E_i1)\hfill \\ \frac{E_i}{\pi \mathrm{\Delta }_0x}[(1+2x^2)\mathrm{arcsin}x+3x\sqrt{1x^2}]\hfill & (x1),\hfill \end{array}$$
(1)
where i = 1,2, $`E_1=E_h|\mathrm{sin}(\alpha _n\alpha )|`$ and $`E_2=E_h|\mathrm{cos}(\alpha _n\alpha )|`$. $`N_0`$ is the normal-state density of states. The directional dependence of the Doppler effect, therefore, leads to the oscillation of the DOS where it has minima along nodes and maxima along antinodes. At T = 0 K, the oscillation is cusped with a contrast of $`1/\sqrt{2}`$ between the minima and the maxima and is independent of the magnetic field. At a finite temperature, however, the sharp contrast is washed out and the DOS oscillation now depends on the magnetic field.

As seen in Fig. 2, our data are well described by the cusped function $`|\mathrm{sin}2\alpha |`$ which will be used in the analysis of the 4-fold variation. To make a quantitative analysis, we fit our data to $`C_4(h,\alpha )=c_4(1+\mathrm{\Gamma }|\mathrm{sin}2\alpha |)`$. The coefficient $`c_4`$ and the angular contrast $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ were treated as field dependent fitting parameters. The solid line in the lower panel of Fig. 2 shows the fit with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=0.05`$ in 1 T. The sharp minima along $`<100>`$ indicate that there exist gap minima or nodal structures along those directions. That the nodal positions are at $`<100>`$ is consistent with the angular thermal conductivity measurement Izawa et al. (2002).

The contrast $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ depends on the gap geometry and dimensionality of the superconductor. The Vekhter et al. model above assumes the Fermi momentum of nqp’s to be restricted to the nodal plane. Recent band calculations show that YNi2B2C has a 3D electronic structure in spite of its layered structure Mattheis (1994). A more realistic calculation, therefore, is to allow nqp Fermi momentum out of the nodal planes, which decreases the amplitude of the angular variation. Following Won et al. Won and Maki (2001), we use a modulated cylindrical Fermi surface and account for the 3D effect by replacing the Doppler related energies E1 and E2 by $`E_1^{3D}=E_h[\mathrm{sin}^2(\alpha _n\alpha )+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ]^{1/2}`$ and $`E_2^{3D}=E_h[\mathrm{cos}^2(\alpha _n\alpha )+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ]^{1/2}`$ respectively and integrate the DOS over polar angle $`\theta `$:

$$N(w,h,\alpha )=\frac{1}{2\pi }_0^{2\pi }\frac{1}{2}[N_1(w,h,\alpha ,\theta )+N_2(w,h,\alpha ,\theta )]𝑑\theta \text{.}$$
(2)
The heat capacity ratio, $`C(2K,h,\alpha )/C(2K,h,0)`$, calculated from the DOS, is displayed as a 3D surface vs magnetic field-angle $`\alpha `$ (x-axis) and $`H`$ (y-axis) in Fig. 3(a). In Fig. 3(b), we show the experimentally obtained data sets after subtraction of the background contributions. Since the in-plane oscillation is due only to the Doppler effect, $`C_4(2K,h,\alpha )/C_4(2K,h,0)`$ corresponds to the theory. We used 0.6, 1, 1.5, and 2 T data sets to construct the contour both in numerical and experimental plots. The Doppler energy scale $`E_h`$ was adjusted to get a best fit, giving the Fermi velocity of $`v_F=\sqrt{v_av_c}=1.3\times 10^7`$ cm/s which is comparable to other reported values Kogan et al. (1997). We used the geometrical constant $`a=1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }=1.76k_BT_c`$. Note that the angle contrast between experiment and theory are in good agreement suggesting that we are directly observing Doppler-shift generated nqp’s. The periodicity of the peaks is $`\pi /2`$ and the oscillations grow with increasing field because of the increased Doppler energy.

Fig. 4 compares the contrast between node and antinode, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(2K,h)=[C(2K,h,\pi /4)C(2K,h,0)]/C(2K,h,0)`$ from experiment ($`\mathrm{𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐧}\mathrm{𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬}`$) with numerical values ($`\mathrm{𝐝𝐚𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐝}\mathrm{𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞}`$). Above $`h=0.5`$, the data deviates from the theoretical prediction. One source of deviation is the Zeeman energy splitting $`\mu H`$, where $`\mu `$ is Bohr magneton, discussed recently by Whelan and Carbotte Whelan and Carbotte (2000). At a critical field $`H_c`$, Zeeman and Doppler energy scales become comparable and the DOS variation with field angle vanishes. It is unlikely, however, that the deviation comes from the effect because the critical field is $`10^2`$ T. A more likely possibility is that the deviation is evidence that the core-state contribution to the electronic specific heat becomes significant in the high field regime. When we include the core states, the parameter $`C_4`$ consists of the core and the nodal contributions : $`C_4(\alpha )=C_{core}+C_{node}(\alpha )`$. Since the oscillation anisotropy $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ measures the amplitude of the 4-fold pattern against the nodal part only, we need to subtract the core part from the $`C_4`$, resulting in an increased anisotropy in our data. In order for a quantitative analysis, it is essential to distinguish the contributions from the core states and the extended states.

The inset of the Fig. 4 shows the contrast $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ vs temperature in 1 T. The basal plane of the sample was misaligned by $`26^{}`$ from the field direction, which produced a larger 2-fold contribution as was expected due to the heat capacity anisotropy between ab-plane and c-axis. The temperature dependence of the anisotropy was compared with the 3D nqp model that was used in the above analysis. The dashed line is the estimated anisotropy with the same Doppler energy scale with $`v_F=1.3\times 10^7`$ cm/sec. It explains the temperature dependence of the oscillation amplitude very well, corroborating that the nodal quasiparticles are Doppler shifted.

Before concluding this report, we want to discuss the possible pairing symmetries of YNi2B2C. Observation of the four-fold angular variation in our heat capacity measurement limits the candidates to those with gap minima or nodes with singlet pairing states such as anisotropic s-wave, d-wave or mixtures of two or more order parameters. Recently, Izawa et al. reported a clear fourfold pattern in the c-axis thermal conductivity at 0.27 K, which sets the gap-anisotropy ratio to be much higher than 100 Izawa et al. (2002). One can still argue for gap minima, but a more natural explanation will be the presence of nodes in momentum space. We note that the field-angle heat capacity will have 4-fold pattern for both d-wave and anisotropic s-wave gap with nodes. Considering the significance of the pairing symmetry to understand the superconductivity in YNi2B2C and further to understand the interplay of magnetism and superconductivity in RNi2B2C (R = Tm, Er, Ho, and Dy), other measurements such as phase sensitive $`\pi `$ junction SQUID or tunneling measurements are required to distinguish those anisotropic order parameters

In summary, we have reported the first direct evidence for a variation of the density of states of nodal quasiparticles due to a field-induced Doppler energy shift through a fourfold field-angle oscillation in the heat capacity. The angular variation, together with the $`\sqrt{H}`$ variation of the heat capacity at 2.5 K, strongly suggests that the gap function is extremely anisotropic or, more likely, that YNi2B2C is an unconventional superconductor. The magnetic field-angle, field-intensity and temperature dependence of the heat capacity are in quantitative agreement with a model in which the fourfold pattern arises from Doppler-enhanced, fully 3D nodal quasiparticles with momenta in $`<100>`$ directions.

This project was supported in part by NSF Grant No. DMR 99-72087 and at Pohang by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Korea through the Creative Research Initiative Program. X-ray measurements were carried out in the Center for Microanalysis of Materials, University of Illinois, which is partially supported by the U.S Department of Energy under grant DEFG02-91-ER45439. We thank H. Yanagihara and C. D. Benson for help in building the probe. T. Park thanks N. Goldenfeld for stimulating comments and discussions.


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# Symmetry Considerations for the Detection of Second-Harmonic Generation in Cuprates in the Pseudogap phase.

## I Introduction

Feibig et al.  have discussed the conditions for second harmonic generation proportional to the Time-reversal breaking order parameter for the case of magnetoelectric symmetry, i.e. for the case that Time-reversal Symmetry R is broken and so is Inversion I but their product RI is preserved. Following earlier suggestions , ARPES experiments with circularly polarized photons  have detected such a phase in the so-called pseudogap phase in the phase diagram of a high temperature superconducting compound of the Copper-Oxide (Cu-O) family. Time-reversal is broken due to circulating currents in specific patterns within the unit cell with translational symmetry preserved. If this discovery is correct, it togather with the extensive evidence for Quantum Critical properties in the normal phase  around the doping- density for the highest $`T_c`$ implies that the basic framework for the theory of the Cuprates is in place. It is therefore very important to verify the discovery by independent experiments. Accordingly, we work out here the symmetry considerations for magneto-electric induced second harmonic generation in the Cuprates.

Many terms in the multipole susceptibility contributes to the second harmonic generation (SHG). The relevant contributions for the processes discussed here come from the magnetic-dipole, $`M_k(2\omega )\chi _{ijk}^m(\omega ,\omega ,2\omega )E_i(\omega )E_j(\omega )`$, and the electric-dipole, $`E_k(2\omega )\chi _{ijk}^e(\omega ,\omega ,2\omega )E_i(\omega )E_j(\omega )`$. While the former is generally present in the symmetry of the cuprate compounds, the latter occurs in the predicted pseudogap phase with $`\chi _{ijk}^e`$ transforming as an odd tensor under time-reversal. The intereference effects due to the simultaneous presence of the two-time-reversal odd tensors $`\chi _{ijk}^m`$ and $`\chi _{ijk}^e`$ are responsible for the effects discussed here.

## II Symmetry of the normal Phase

Most $`CuO`$ compounds possess a centre of symmetry in the unit-cell. We consider the body-centered tetragonal crystals with symmetry group $`4/mmm`$($`D_{4h}`$), denoting the presence of a four-fold axis and a mirror plane orthogonal to this axis and two other mirror planes or orthorhombic crystals with symmetry group $`mmm`$ ($`D_{2h}`$), (three orthogonal mirror planes only). Due to the centre of inversion, the third rank polar tensor $`\chi _{ijk}^e`$ arising from electric- dipole effects is zero but the third rank axial tensor $`\chi _{ijk}^m`$ arising from magnetic-dipole effects is non-zero. In other words a term in the Free-energy $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ of the form

$$\mathrm{\Phi }=\chi _{ijk}^mE_iE_jH_k$$
(1)
exists. Correspondingly a magnetization for applied electric fields

$$M_k=\chi _{ijk}^mE_iE_j$$
(2)
is non-zero.

We specify the tensors in this paper using the following co-ordinates: The c axis of the crystal coincides with the $`\widehat{z}`$ direction, a and b crystalline axis (those along the nearest neighbor Cu-Cu vector) are along the $`(\widehat{x}+\widehat{y})/\sqrt{2}`$ and $`(\widehat{x}\widehat{y})/\sqrt{2}`$ directions. For the $`4/mmm`$ group, three independent components of $`\chi _{ijk}^m`$ are non-zero . The vector M takes the form:

$$𝐌=\left(\begin{array}{c}\chi _1^mE_yE_z\\ \chi _1^mE_zE_x\\ 0\end{array}\right)$$
(3)
$`\chi _1^m(\chi _{xzy}^m+\chi _{zxy}^m)`$ (4)
For the $`mmm`$ group, six independent elements of $`\chi _{ijk}^m`$ exist and all three cartesian components of $`𝐌`$ are bilinear in $`E^{}s`$. We present detailed results for the $`4/mmm`$ crystalline symmetry. Very similar conclusions hold for the $`mmm`$ crystalline symmetry.

## III Time-Reversal Breaking State

Two different phases breaking time-reversal are shown to be possible in the pseudogap phase (, ). The current patterns in these phases in the Cu-O planes are shown in Fig. (1).

One called the $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{II}`$ phase has the symmetry $`\underset{¯}{m}mm`$ (Fig. 1 b). This group is in the Magnetoelectric class, where both time-reversal ($`R`$) and inversion ($`I`$) are broken but their product is preserved. The other possible phase $`\mathrm{\Theta }_I`$ (Fig. 1 a) preserves inversion while breaking Time-reversal. It has the symmetry $`4/mm\underset{¯}{m}`$. So the effects discussed here do not occur in such a phase.

As will be clear from Fig. (1 b), the point group $`\underset{¯}{m}mm`$ has the following elements: the identity, two-fold axis rotation around $`\widehat{y}`$ ($`C_y`$), the reflections in the $`xy`$ and $`yz`$ planes ($`\sigma _z`$ and $`\sigma _x`$), $`RI`$, $`R\sigma _y`$, $`RC_x`$ and $`RC_z`$.

In the group $`\underset{¯}{m}mm`$, axial tensors of third rank which are invariant under time-reversal $`\chi _{ijk}^{m,(i)}`$ are allowed . The independent components of $`𝐌`$ are

$$𝐌=\left(\begin{array}{c}\chi _x^mE_yE_z\\ \chi _y^mE_xE_z\\ \chi _z^mE_xE_y\end{array}\right).$$
(5)
where $`\chi _{jki}^m+\chi _{kji}^m=\chi _i^m`$ and $`i,j,k`$ run over $`x,y,z`$. But more importantly, polar-tensors of odd-rank $`\chi _{ijk}^{e(c)}`$, which change sign under time-reversal are also allowed. So a Polarization vector of the form

$$𝐏=\left(\begin{array}{c}\chi _1^{e(c)}E_xE_y\\ \chi _{zzy}^{e(c)}E_z^2+\chi _{xxy}^{e(c)}E_x^2+\chi _{yyy}^{e(c)}E_y^2\\ \chi _2^{e(c)}E_zE_y\end{array}\right)$$
(6)
is allowed. Here $`\chi _1^{e(c)}=\chi _{yxx}^{e(c)}+\chi _{xyx}^{e(c)}`$ and $`\chi _2^{e(c)}=\chi _{yzz}^{e(c)}+\chi _{zyz}^{e(c)}`$. These $`\chi ^{}s`$ are expected to be proportional to the order parameter $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{II}`$.

From these we can construct the relevant part of the Poynting vector $`𝐒`$:

$`𝐒={\displaystyle \frac{^2𝐏}{t^2}}+\times {\displaystyle \frac{𝐌}{t}}`$ (7)
The SHG intensity is $`I|S|^2`$. As shown below, interesting effects arise in experimental geometries in which both $`\chi ^{e(c)}`$ and $`\chi ^m`$ are used and interfere. Then effects linear in the magnetoelectric order parameter are observable. If light is propogated in the sample along any of the axes, $`\times 𝐌=0`$. Then only the electric-dipole susceptibility contributes to the SHG and $`I|\chi ^e|^2`$ which is in turn proportional only to the square of the order parameter.

We fix the axes with respect to the crystal as in Fig. (2). For an arbitrary direction of incidence, Figure 2 shows the triad form by the propagation vector $`𝐪`$ (specified by the polar angle $`\theta `$ and the azimuthal angle $`\varphi `$), and the components of the polarization along the orthogonal directions $`\widehat{e}_{xy}`$ in the x-y plane and $`\widehat{e}_{qz}`$ in the q-z plane. To maximize the second term in Eq. (7) we chose a polar incidence angle $`\theta =\pi /4`$.

For light linearly polarized along the direction $`𝐄=E\widehat{e}_{qz}`$,

$$𝐒=E^2\omega \left(\begin{array}{c}\omega \mathrm{sin}\varphi s_1^e\\ \omega \mathrm{cos}\varphi s_2^e|𝐪|\mathrm{sin}\varphi \mathrm{cos}\varphi (\chi _x^m+\chi _y^m+\chi _z^m)/(2\sqrt{2})\\ \omega \mathrm{sin}\varphi s_3^e|𝐪|(\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi \chi _y^m+\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi \chi _x^m)/2\end{array}\right)$$
(8)
where,

$`s_1^e`$ $`=`$ $`(\mathrm{cos}\varphi (\chi _1^{e(c)}\chi _2^{e(c)})\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi \chi _{xxy}^{e(c)}\mathrm{sin}\varphi ^2\chi _{yyy}^{e(c)}\chi _{zzy}^{e(c)})/(2\sqrt{2})`$ (9)
$`s_2^e`$ $`=`$ $`(\chi _{zzy}^{e(c)}+\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi \chi _{xxy}^{e(c)}+\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi (\chi _{yyy}^{e(c)}\chi _1^{e(c)}))/2`$ (10)
$`s_3^e`$ $`=`$ $`(\mathrm{cos}\varphi (\chi _1^{e(c)}+\chi _2^{e(c)})\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi \chi _{xxy}^{e(c)}\mathrm{sin}\varphi ^2\chi _{yyy}^{e(c)}\chi _{zzy}^{e(c)})/(2\sqrt{2})`$ (11)
The component are given in the basis $`(\widehat{𝐪},\widehat{e}_{xy},\widehat{e}_{qz})`$.

$`I`$ $``$ $`E^4\omega ^2[\omega ^2(\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi (|s_1^e|^2+|s_3^e|^2)+\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi |s_2^e|^2)`$ (12)
$`+`$ $`|𝐪|^2(|\mathrm{sin}\varphi \mathrm{cos}\varphi (\chi _x^m+\chi _y^m+\chi _z^m)|^2/8+|\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi \chi _y^m+\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi \chi _x^m|^2)`$ (13)
$``$ $`\omega |𝐪|\mathrm{sin}\varphi (\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi \mathrm{}s_2^e(\chi _x^m+\chi _y^m+\chi _z^m)^{}/2\sqrt{2}+\mathrm{}s_3^e(\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi \chi _y^m+\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi \chi _x^m)^{})/2]`$ (14)
The $`\chi `$’s defined below are complex and $`\chi ^{}`$ denotes complex conjugation. The last term in Eq. (10) is linear in both $`\chi ^m`$ and $`\chi ^e`$ and is therefore proportional to the order parameter.

For an incident light linearly polarized, $`𝐄=E\widehat{e}_{xy}`$,

$$𝐒=E^2\omega \left(\begin{array}{c}\omega \mathrm{sin}\varphi s_1^e\\ \omega \mathrm{cos}\varphi s_2^e+|𝐪|\mathrm{sin}\varphi \mathrm{cos}\varphi \chi _z^m/\sqrt{2}\\ \omega \mathrm{sin}\varphi s_1^e\end{array}\right)$$
(15)
where

$`s_1^e`$ $`=`$ $`(\mathrm{sin}\varphi \mathrm{cos}\varphi \chi _1^{e(c)}\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi \chi _{yyy}^{e(c)}\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi \chi _{xxy}^{e(c)})/\sqrt{2}`$ (16)
$`s_2^e`$ $`=`$ $`(\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi (\chi _1^{e(c)}+\chi _{xxy}^{e(c)})+\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi \chi _{yyy}^{e(c)}`$ (17)
It is interesting to consider circularly polarized light with right $`E_+=1/\sqrt{2}(E_{xy}+iE_{zq})`$ and left $`E_{}=1/\sqrt{2}(E_{xy}iE_{zq})`$ polarizations and evaluate the intensity $`I|𝐒|^2`$ for each case. This gives

$`I`$ $``$ $`|E_\pm |^4\omega ^2\left(\omega ^2|\psi (\varphi )^e|^2+|𝐪|^2|\psi (\varphi )^m|^2\pm \mathrm{cos}(\varphi )Re(i\omega |𝐪|\psi _{int}(\varphi )^e(\psi _{int}(\varphi )^m)^{})\right)`$ (18)
Again the last term is the interesting term as it is linear in both $`\chi ^m`$ and $`\chi ^e`$ and is therefore proportional to the order parameter. Its sign is changed on reversing the polarization of the light or by reversing time (i.e. by reversing the domains or reversing the direction of propagation for a fixed domain i.e. changing $`\varphi `$ to $`\pi +\varphi `$). For $`\mathrm{cos}\varphi =\pm 1`$, that is when $`𝐪`$ belongs to the broken symmetry plane $`\widehat{y}`$, the difference between both circular polarization is maximized. For this case,

$`|\psi (0)^e|^2`$ $`=`$ $`|\chi _2^{e(c)}|^2+|\chi _1^{e(c)}|^2+|\chi _{yyy}^{e(c)}|^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}|\chi _{xxy}^{e(c)}+\chi _{zzy}^{e(c)}|^2`$ (19)
$`2|\psi (0)^m|^2`$ $`=`$ $`|\chi _y^m|^2+|\chi _x^m+\chi _z^m|^2`$ (20)
$`\psi _{int}(\pi /2)^e(\chi _{int}(\pi /2)^m)^{}`$ $`=`$ $`(\chi _{xxy}^{e(c)}+\chi _{zzy}^{e(c)}2\chi _{yyy}^{e(c)})(\chi _z^m+\chi _x^m)^{}+(\chi _1^{e(c)}+\chi _3^{e(c)})(\chi _2^m)^{}`$ (21)
In summary we have determined the SHG intensities, as a function of polarization and direccion of the incident light, for different group symmetries corresponding to the normal and time-reversal breaking symmetry states. In all the states there is a contribution to the SHG coming from the magnetic-dipole terms but the electric-dipole contribution appears only when the inversion and time-reversal are broken with their product preserved, as in the $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{II}`$ phase. The interference of these two terms produce linear terms in both $`\chi ^m`$ and $`\chi ^e`$ and therefore proportional to the order parameter. This term change sign reversing the domains $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{II}`$ to $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{II}`$ or changing the direction of incident light by the operation $`𝐪\sigma _x\sigma _y𝐪`$ (which has the effect of changing$`\varphi `$ to $`\varphi +\pi `$). The interference term also changes sign on changing from left to right circularly polarized light.

The presence of many different $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{II}`$ domains within the spot size of the incident beam will blur this effect. ARPES experiments  indicate domains to be of O(100 microns).

The proposed experiment are a rather thorough test of the symmetries of the predicted phase because they rely on broken R and $`\sigma _y`$ (or $`\sigma _x)`$) but their product preserved below the pseudogap temperature in the cuprates. Breaking reflection symmetry alone would not produce the predicted effects in Second-harmonic generation, while the ARPES experiment is in principle compatible  with breaking some reflection symmetries alone. Some other experiments using resonant x-ray absorption and diffraction have also been proposed ().

Acknowledgments: We wish to thank Professor Harry Tom for discussion of the feasibility of experiments and Professor J. Orenstein who asked the questions which led to this investigation.