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# A cut-and-paste approach to contact topology

## 1. Convex Surfaces

Unless otherwise stated, $`M`$ will denote a compact orientable 3-dimensional manifold and may have nonempty boundary.

###### Definition 1.

A (positive) contact structure, $`\xi `$ on $`M`$, is a smooth 2-plane bundle $`\xi _pTM`$ such that there exists a $`1`$form $`\alpha `$, satisfying

1. $`\mathrm{ker}_p(\alpha )=\xi _p`$ for all $`pM`$ and
2. $`\alpha d\alpha >0`$.

###### Example 1.

Figure 1 shows a family of planes in $`^3`$ that is invariant under rotation about the $`z`$-axis or translation in the $`z`$-direction. The indicated line $`L`$ is Legendrian, that is, $`T_xL\xi _x`$ for all $`xL`$. Note the planes twist slowly to the left as you move along L in either direction. This example can be made more explicit by taking $`\xi `$ to be the kernel of $`\alpha =rd\theta +dz`$ and checking that it is a contact structure.

The next definition and many of the results in the section are due to Giroux, .

###### Definition 2.

A surface $`S(M,\xi )`$ is convex if there exists vector field $`\stackrel{}{v}`$ supported in a neighborhood of $`S`$ and transverse to $`S`$ such that flowing in the $`\stackrel{}{v}`$ direction preserves the contact planes. If $`S\mathrm{}`$, we also require that $`S`$ be Legendrian. Such a $`\stackrel{}{v}`$ is called a contact vector field for $`\xi `$.

###### Example 2.

If $`\xi `$ is the contact structure of Example 1, it follows that any horizontal plane is convex by considering the constant vector field $`\stackrel{}{v}=\frac{}{z}`$. Indeed it follows that any surface in $`^3`$ transverse to the vector field $`\frac{}{z}`$ is convex.

Roughly, $`S`$ is convex if and only if $`S`$ has a product neighborhood. Convexity is a global condition; all smooth surfaces are locally convex.

###### Definition 3.

If $`S(M,\xi )`$ is convex, the dividing set is denoted $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ and is defined to be $`\{xS\stackrel{}{v}(x)\xi _x\}`$ .

Intuition: If we think of the vector field $`\stackrel{}{v}`$ as vertical or perpendicular to $`S`$, then $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ are those points whose contact planes are perpendicular to $`S`$.

###### Definition 4.

The induced (singular) foliation $`_S`$ on $`S`$ is defined by integrating the line field $`\xi _pT_pS`$ on $`S`$.

Throughout this paper all manifolds and submanifolds are oriented. Our contact structures are positive, thus the contact planes inherit a transverse orientation. Orientations on $`M`$, $`S`$, and $`\xi `$ allow us to orient the leaves of $`_S`$. Comparing these orientations leads to two ways of thinking about dividing sets:

1. The dividing set $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ divides $`S`$ into regions where the contact planes are right side up or upside down relative to $`S`$ and as shown in Figure 2.
2. With respect to the induced foliation on $`S`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ divides $`S`$ into source and sink regions as shown in Figure 3.

###### Example 3.

Figure 4 shows the induced foliation and dividing set on a small round sphere about the origin of Example 1. Contact structures are locally homogeneous by Pfaff’s Theorem. It follows that there exist small spheres like this about every point of any contact structure.

###### Proposition 1.

The dividing set $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ is a 1-dimensional submanifold of $`S`$ transverse to $`_S`$.

###### Proof.

Choose coordinates $`xS`$ and $`t`$ in the $`\stackrel{}{v}`$ direction. Then the 1-form defining $`\xi `$ may be written $`\alpha =\beta (x)+f(x)dt`$ where $`\beta (x)`$ is a 1-form on $`S`$, and $`f`$ is a function on $`S`$. Since $`\mathrm{ker}\alpha =\xi `$ we have:

1. $`\alpha _x\left(\frac{}{t}\right)=0`$ if and only if $`f(x)=0`$, and therefore $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S=f^1(0)`$.
2. $`0\alpha d\alpha =(\beta +fdt)(d\beta +dfdt)=\beta d\beta +\beta dfdt+fdtd\beta =\beta dfdt+fdtd\beta `$. Therefore, if $`f(x)=0`$, then $`\beta dfdt0`$, and in particular $`df0`$. It now follows that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S=f^1(0)`$ is a submanifold of $`S`$.
3. Let $`\stackrel{}{w}`$ be tangent to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$. Then $`dt(\stackrel{}{w})=df(\stackrel{}{w})=0`$, so $`\beta dfdt0`$ implies that $`\beta (\stackrel{}{w})0`$, that is, $`\stackrel{}{w}ker\beta =T_S`$. It now follows that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ is transverse to the induced foliation on $`S`$.

The next several results will be used throughout the paper.

###### Proposition 2.

The isotopy class of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ does not depend on the choice of the contact vector field $`\stackrel{}{v}`$. ∎

###### Theorem 1 (Existence of convex surfaces).

Every closed surface or compact surface with Legendrian boundary can be approximated by a convex surface.

Theorem 1 was proved by Giroux  for closed surfaces and by Honda for surfaces with boundary . Convex surfaces with Legendrian boundary were first used by Kanda . Theorem 1 follows from

###### Proposition 3.

If $`S`$ is Legendrian and the induced foliation, $`_S`$, is Morse-Smale, that is,

1. $`_S`$ has a finite number of closed leaves and Morse type singularities,
2. there are no saddle-saddle connections,
3. the holonomy about closed leaves is linear and either attracting or repelling,

then $`S`$ is convex. ∎

###### Example 4.

Proposition 3 gives sufficient, but not necessary conditions for a surface to be convex. Figure 6 shows a portion of convex surface whose induced foliation has a circle’s worth of singularties. The circle of singularities is called a Legendrian divide. The contact structure hinted at in the figure is invariant under translation in the vertical direction or parallel to the Legendrian divide. Note that a Legendrian divide is not a dividing curve.

Figure 7 shows a product neighborhood of the Legendrian divide and the effect of a slight perturbation of the original surface on the induced foliation.

This example hints at a remarkable theorem about the possible induced foliations that can occur on perturbations of a convex surface. Roughly, the Giroux Flexibility Theorem states that we can force the induced foliations to be whatever we like, within reason. The statement of the theorem will make more sense after reading the definitions which follow it.

###### Theorem 2 (Giroux Flexibility Theorem ).

Let $`S(M,\xi )`$ be a convex surface with dividing set $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$, and let $``$ be an arbitrary singular foliation on $`S`$ divided by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$, then there exists an isotopy of $`S`$ fixing $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ (and keeping $`S`$ transverse to $`\stackrel{}{v}`$) such that at the end of the isotopy, $``$ is the induced foliation on $`S`$.

###### Definition 5.

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ divides $``$ if $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ cuts $`S`$ into a maximal number of sink and source regions, that is, regions in which the induced foliation either points in at every boundary component or out at every component of each region.

###### Example 5.

Figure 8 shows three foliations. The first and last are divided by the indicated curves, but the middle example is not; it is not cut into a maximal number of sink and source regions as the third example shows. Another example to which the Giroux Flexibility Theorem can be applied is to replace the indicated foliation on the annular region between the two dividing curves of the third example with a Legendrian divide.

###### Definition 6.

$`(M,\xi )`$ is tight if there does not exist an embedded disk $`DM`$ such that $`D`$ is tangent to $`\xi `$ along its boundary (i. e., $`T_xD=\xi _x`$ for all $`xD`$). $`(M,\xi )`$ is called overtwisted if it is not tight.

Overtwisted contact structures are classified by their underlying 2-plane bundles . The notion of tightness is analogous to tautness or non-existence of Reeb components in foliation theory or incompressibility of surfaces. We shall see that tight contact structures reflect the underlying topology of the 3-manifolds which carry them.

Figure 9 shows an overtwisted disk that would live in the contact structure described in Example 1 if the contact planes were allowed to rotate too quickly along rays leaving the origin.

###### Proposition 4 (Giroux ).

If $`S(M,\xi )`$ is convex, a product neighborhood of $`S`$ is tight if and only if one of the following is satisfied:

1. $`S=S^2`$, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ is connected
2. $`SS^2`$, and no component of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ is null-homotopic in $`S`$.

###### Sketch.

$`()`$ If either (1) or (2) is false, use the Giroux Flexibility Theorem to realize a null-homotopic Legendrian divide, as discussed in Example 5. The disk in $`S`$ bounded by the Legendrian divide will be an overtwisted disk.

$`()`$ We need a starting point and gluing theorems. That is, until this point, we have not even stated that there are any tight contact structures on any manifold. The next theorem will address this. Given simple examples of tight contact structures we require gluing theorems to produce more complicated examples. This paper will eventually describe several gluing theorems. Another strategy, used by Giroux, is to produce models in which the desired $`S`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ exist and must be tight. ∎

###### Theorem 3.

There exist a tight contact structure on $`B^3`$, moreover, two tight contact structures which induced the same foliations on $`B^3`$ are diffeomorphic. ∎

The existence portion of the theorem is due to Bennequin , and the uniqueness portion is due to Eliashberg . In light of the Giroux Flexibility Theorem, we will paraphrase Theorem 3 by saying that there is a unique tight contact structure on $`B^3`$.

Convex surfaces are required to have Legendrian boundary. Therefore to decompose manifolds with convex boundaries along convex surfaces, we will need to know which curves on a convex surface $`S`$ can be “made Legendrian”. That is, we need to know which curves are contained in the leaves of some foliation $``$ divided by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$. $`S`$ can be perturbed so that they become Legendrian. The next definition and theorem of Honda’s  exactly answers this question.

###### Definition 7.

A properly embedded 1-submanifold $`C`$ of a convex surface $`S`$ is non-isolating if

1. $`C`$ is transverse to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ and
2. the closure of every component of $`S\backslash (\mathrm{\Gamma }_SC)`$ intersects $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$.

###### Theorem 4 (Legendrian Realization Principle).

If $`C`$ is non-isolating then $`C`$ can be made Legendrian.

###### Sketch.

The non-isolating condition guarantees that $`C`$ can be extended to a foliation divided by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$. Then use Giroux Flexibility to realize this foliation on $`S`$. ∎

###### Example 6.

Of the curves shown in Figure 10, only $`\beta `$ and $`\gamma `$ are non-isolating. Notice that any curve, such as $`\beta `$, which intersects $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ is non-isolating. It is not too hard to extend, say $`\beta `$, to a singular foliation on $`S`$ divided by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$, however $`\beta `$ will end up passing through singularities, that is, it will not be a smooth curve on $`S`$. Note also that in the definition of non-isolating, $`C`$ is not necessarily connected or closed.

## 2. Preview

At this point we have enough of the foundational tools in place to sketch, in general terms, some of the issues and techniques involved in studying contact structures from a cut-and-paste point of view.

Classification: Given a 3-manifold $`M`$ and a collection of curves $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ contained in $`M`$, how many tight contact structures, up to equivalence, are there on $`M`$ with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_M=\mathrm{\Gamma }`$? Equivalence might be either diffeomorphism or isotopy taking one contact structure to another.

To be specific, consider the case of a solid torus with four dividing curves on its boundary shown in Figure 11.

Decomposition: How many “sensible” ways are there to decompose such an $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$?

Continuing with the solid torus example, Figure 11 suggests that there are just two possible decompositions, thus, there are at most two tight contact structures carried by $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$.

Gluing: Which of the decompositions into tight pieces can be glued to form a tight union?

Unlike many situations in 3-dimensional topology, it is very difficult to give general conditions under which the union of tight pieces is tight. The problem is that a manifold can contain a large overtwisted disk, but when it is chopped into small pieces, none of the pieces may contain overtwisted disks themselves.

It turns out that regluing either of the decompositions shown in Figure 11 gives a tight contact structure. A priori, we do not know that these two contact structures are different. By gluing we can conclude only that $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ carries at least one tight contact structure.

Invariants: Of the various ways of gluing into a tight union, which result in non-isotopic contact structures?

In our example, an Euler charactistic type invariant shows that the two gluings result in different contact structures. It follows that $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ carries exactly two tight contact structures.

## 3. Convex Decompositions

A convex decomposition can be viewed in two ways. First, you can start with a contact structure on a 3-manifold $`M`$ and keep splitting $`M`$ along convex surfaces until the pieces are balls. Alternatively, you can start with $`M`$ and a collection of curves $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ on $`M`$ that you hope will end up being dividing curves for a contact structure that you are trying to build, and then split along surfaces which you hope will end up being convex. We need to see how actual convex surfaces intersect so that this structure can be correctly modelled in the definition of a convex decomposition.

###### Example 7.

The kernel of $`\alpha _k=\mathrm{sin}(2\pi kz)dx+\mathrm{cos}(2\pi kz)dy`$ defines a contact structure on $`^3`$ shown in Figure 12. In this example, the contact planes all contain the $`z`$-axis, that is, any vertical line is Legendrian. The foliation induced on horizontal planes is a linear foliation with slope changing as the height of the plane increases. The vector field given by $`\frac{}{r}`$ in cylindrical coordinates is a contact vector field, thus a cylinder at constant distance from the $`z`$-axis is convex. The dividing curves on this cylinder start on the $`x`$-axis and spiral upwards at a rate depending on $`k`$. Figure 12 also shows the tangencies of the contact planes and the cylinder as long dashed lines starting on the $`y`$-axis,.

By restricting to the cylinder about the $`z`$-axis and identifying top and bottom, $`\alpha _k`$ also defines a contact structure on $`S^1\times D^2`$. The key features of this contact structure are:

1. $`T=(S^1\times D^2)`$ is convex
2. $`\mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Gamma }_T=2`$
3. $`\text{slope}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_T)=\frac{1}{k}`$

The next theorem may be paraphrased by saying that Legendrian curves, such as the quotient of the $`z`$-axis in the previous example, have standard neighborhoods.

###### Theorem 5 (Kanda , Makar-Limanov ).

There is a unique tight contact structure on $`S^1\times D^2`$ such that (1), (2), and (3) hold. ∎

When we start with a manifold with convex boundary and cut it along a convex surface, the cutting surface, by definition of convexity, intersects the boundary in a Legendrian curve. The next example is a portion of the region shown in Figure 12. From it we see how the dividing curves on a pair of intersecting surfaces are related near their Legendrian curve of intersection.

###### Example 8.

In Example 7 the $`xz`$-plane is convex with respect to the contact vector field $`\frac{}{y}`$ and similarly the $`yz`$-plane is convex with respect to $`\frac{}{x}`$. Figure 13 shows portions of these planes, labelled $`F`$ and $`G`$ and their dividing curves. Notice that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_F`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_G`$ are horizontal lines starting on the $`z`$-axis and ending at a point of tangency of a contact plane and the vertical cylinder.

From this we see that for general intersecting convex surfaces $`F`$ and $`G`$, the endpoints of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_F`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_G`$ alternate along curves of $`FG`$. Further examination of Figure 13 shows that if the corner of the wedge $`W`$ subtended by $`F`$ and $`G`$ is smoothed, the manifold produced has convex boundary and the dividing curves of $`F`$ and $`G`$ are joined by turning to the right (when viewed from the outside of $`W`$). The “turn to the right” rule that is forced on us in the presence of a positive contact structure serves as the model for defining the orientation conventions in convex decompositions.

Figure 14 shows three views of $`W`$. The first shows $`W`$ before rounding corners, the second is after rounding corners. The last picture shows $`W`$ without the corner rounded, but it shows the effect on the dividing curves of corner rounding. Most of the figures in this paper are drawn in this fashion.

###### Definition 8.

$`(M,\gamma )`$ is a sutured manifold if:

1. $`\gamma M`$ is a union annuli and tori,
2. $`(M)\backslash \gamma `$ is a disjoint union of two subsurfaces $`R_+(\gamma )`$ and $`R_{}(\gamma )`$, and
3. crossing an annular suture takes you from $`R_\pm (\gamma )`$ to $`R_{}(\gamma )`$.

Gabai  defined sutured manifolds to study taut foliations. We will primarily be concerned with that case that all sutures are annuli. Figure 15 shows two views of a solid ball with a single annular suture. The first view shows a manifold with corners, as it should be drawn. The second shows how sutures will be drawn; the manifold appears smooth, and the sutures are very skinny.

###### Definition 9.

If $`S`$ is an oriented properly embedded surface in $`(M,\gamma )`$, $`(M,\gamma )\stackrel{S}{}(M^{},\gamma ^{})`$ is defined by $`M^{}=M\backslash S`$ and introducing sutures as needed to separate the positively and negatively oriented portions of $`(M\backslash S)`$ as shown in Figure 16.

###### Definition 10.

A convex structure is a pair $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ such that:

1. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a disjoint union of curves in $`M`$,
2. $`M`$ split along $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the disjoint union of two subsurfaces, $`R_+(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ and $`R_{}(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$, and
3. crossing a dividing curve takes you from $`R_\pm (\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ to $`R_{}(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$.

Also assume each component of $`M`$ has dividing curves on it.

A sutured manifold $`(M,\gamma )`$ is a manifold with corners. Convex structures $`(M,\gamma )`$ are smooth. Figure 17 shows portions of a sutured manifold near a suture and a convex structure near a dividing curve. Notice that the 2-planes along each arc $`\alpha `$ turn over as $`\alpha `$ is traversed, but they do so in different fashions.

Of course we hope that $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ will carry an actual tight contact structure, just as Gabai would like $`(M,\gamma )`$ to carry a taut foliation; however there is no a priori reason that it will. When discussing a surface with curves on it, such as $`(S,\sigma )`$ in the next definition, there is no need to distinguish between an “abstract” convex surface and an actual convex surface, for a contact structure is uniquely determined in a (product) neighborhood of $`S`$ by the dividing curve configuration $`\sigma `$.

###### Definition 11.

Let $`(S,\sigma )`$ be a convex surface in $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ such that $`S`$ is non-isolating in $`M`$, and the endpoints of $`\sigma `$ alternate with points of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }S`$ along $`S`$. Define $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })\stackrel{(S,\gamma )}{}(M^{},\mathrm{\Gamma }^{})`$ by $`M^{}=M\backslash S`$ and by adding new portions of dividing curves to $`(\sigma \mathrm{\Gamma })\backslash S`$ using the “turn to the right” rule shown in Figure 18.

A sutured manifold with annular sutures $`(M,\gamma )`$ naturally determines a convex structure $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ by replacing each annulus of $`\gamma `$ by its core. To be able to use Gabai’s existence theorems for sutured manifold decompositions in our setting we must be able to start with a sutured manifold splitting (the top row of the following diagram) and then produce a convex surface, $`(S,\sigma )`$, such that the diagram commutes. We discuss how this can be done through a series of examples.

$$\begin{array}{ccc}(M,\gamma )& \stackrel{S}{}& (M^{},\gamma ^{})\\ & & \\ (M,\mathrm{\Gamma })& \stackrel{(S,\sigma )}{}& (M^{},\mathrm{\Gamma }^{})\end{array}$$

###### Example 9.

Figure 19 shows how to introduce boundary-parallel dividing curves, $`\sigma `$, so that the diagram commutes. This technique works, provided that every component of $`S`$ has nonempty intersection with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

###### Definition 12.

A convex surface $`(S,\sigma )`$ has boundary-parallel dividing curves if $`S`$ is nonempty, every component of $`S`$ intersects $`\sigma `$, and $`\sigma `$ is collection of arcs each of which bounds a half disk that contains a portion of $`S`$ but no other arcs of $`\sigma `$.

###### Example 10.

Now consider the possibility that $`S\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{}`$. Such an $`S`$ might have isolating boundary, that is, it might not be possible to make it Legendrian and hence $`S`$ convex. Figure 20 shows first a sutured manifold splitting along a surface $`S`$ with $`S\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{}`$. The second two portions of the figure show two possible ways of introducing intersections between $`S`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and of adding boundary compressible $`\sigma `$ to $`S`$.

There are two key features in this example. First, the strategy of introducing intersections can only work if there are dividing curves on the same component of $`M`$ as $`S`$ – this will show up in the definition of “sutured manifold with annular sutures” below. And second, only one of the perturbations of $`S`$ makes the splitting diagram commute.

Figure 21 is similar to Figure 20 in that $`S\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{}`$, but in this case there are multiple portions of $`S`$, each with its own orientation preference for creating a pair of intersections with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, and they can not all be satisfied simultaneously. Rather than describe how to get around this, we just point out that Gabai confronted a similar situation in developing sutured manifold theory. He introduced a notion of “well-groomed” sutured decompositions, that is, he showed that splittings could be assumed to have coherently oriented boundary components, and for such splittings we can produce a commutative splitting diagram using the technique of Example 10.

###### Theorem 6.

Let $`(M,\gamma )`$ be an irreducible sutured manifold with annular sutures, and let $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ be the corresponding convex structure. The following are equivalent.

1. $`(M,\gamma )`$ is taut.
2. $`(M,\gamma )`$ has a sutured manifold decomposition.
3. $`(M,\gamma )`$ carries a taut foliation.
4. $`(M,\gamma )`$ carries a universally tight contact structure.
5. $`(M,\gamma )`$ carries a tight contact structure.

###### Definition 13.

A sutured manifold has annular sutures if $`M`$ is nonempty, every boundary component contains at least one annular suture, and if there are no toroidal sutures.

$`(M,\gamma )`$ is taut if $`R_+(\gamma )`$ and $`R_{}(\gamma )`$ are Thurston norm minimizing in their homology class in $`H_2(M,\gamma )`$.

A sutured manifold decomposition of $`M`$ is a sequence of splittings

$$(M,\gamma )\stackrel{S_1}{}\mathrm{}\stackrel{S_m}{}(B^3,S^1\times I)$$

where $`(B^3,S^1\times I)`$ denotes the sutured manifold shown in Figure 15.

A foliation is taut if every leaf intersects a closed transversal.

A contact structure is universally tight if $`(\stackrel{~}{M},\stackrel{~}{\xi })`$ is tight.

Thurston  proved (3) implies (1). Gabai  proved (1) implies (2) and (2) implies (3). Eliashberg and Thurston  showed (3) implies (4). It is immediate that (4) implies (5). All of these results apply without the additional assumption of annular sutures. Since $`S^3`$ carries a tight contact structure but can not support a taut foliation, some additional hypothesis is necessary for (5) to imply (1).

The techniques of (5) implies (1) will not be used in the rest of the paper, so we will instead sketch a direct proof of (2) implies (4) that has the advantages of making the importance and utility of universal tightness clear. The proof introduces a gluing strategy that will be used repeatedly.

###### Proof of (2) implies (4).

First replace the given sutured manifold decomposition with a corresponding convex decomposition

$$(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })\stackrel{(S_1,\sigma _1)}{}\mathrm{}\stackrel{(S_m,\sigma _m)}{}(B^3,S^1)$$

By Theorem 3, $`(B^3,S^1)`$ carries a (universally) tight contact structure. By construction, the surfaces $`(S_i,\sigma _i)`$ have boundary-parallel dividing curves (see Definition 12) thus this portion of the theorem follows from the next gluing theorem. ∎

###### Theorem 7.

(Colin ) Let $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })\stackrel{(S,\sigma )}{}(M^{},\mathrm{\Gamma }^{})`$. If $`M`$ is irreducible, $`S`$ has boundary compressible dividing curves, and $`(M^{},\mathrm{\Gamma }^{})`$ carries a universally tight contact structure then so does $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$.

###### Sketch.

We will illustrate key ideas of our interpretation  of Colin’s gluing theorem with examples. The proof strategy is to:

1. Suppose the contact structure on $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ obtained by gluing $`(M^{},\mathrm{\Gamma }^{})`$ along $`(S,\sigma )`$ is overtwisted, and let $`D`$ be an overtwisted disk.
2. In small steps isotop $`S`$ to $`S^{}`$ and eventually off $`D`$.
3. While isotoping $`S`$, make sure that $`M\backslash S^{}`$ stays universally tight.

This strategy gives a contradiction once $`S^{}D=\mathrm{}`$, for $`M\backslash S^{}`$ is both tight and contains the overtwisted disk $`D`$.

In small steps refers to a fundamental idea due to Honda . That is, any isotopy of a convex surface $`S`$ can be expressed as a sequence of bypasses or their inverses.

###### Definition 14.

A bypass consists of:

1. a Legendrian arc $`\alpha `$ connecting 3 dividing curves in $`S`$.
2. a Legendrian arc $`\beta `$ joining $`\alpha `$
3. a convex half disk in $`M\backslash S`$ with boundary equal to $`\alpha \beta `$ which contains a single dividing curve.

Figure 23 shows the effect on $`\sigma `$ of isotoping $`S`$ across a bypass. Notice that the “turn to the right” rule for dividing curves going around corners looks more like a “turn to the left” rule when it is viewed from inside the manifold.

###### Example 11.

The global effect on the dividing curves of a bypass move depends very much on how the local picture sits with respect to the entire surface and dividing curve set. Figure 24 shows an example in which the arc of attachment connects two parallel dividing curves to a third. Isotoping $`S`$ across this bypass has the effect of removing two dividing curves from $`S`$.

Continuing with the gluing theorem, we now consider some examples of bypasses that $`S`$ might have to be isotoped through while moving $`S`$ off of $`D`$. Hopefully universal tightness of $`M\backslash S^{}`$ follows from universal tightness of $`M\backslash S`$ in each case.

###### Example 12.

Notice that the dividing curves in Figure 25 are boundary-parallel. If such a bypass were to exist in $`M`$, then, as shown, $`S^{}`$ would contain a null-homotopic dividing curve. Proposition 4 implies the existence of an overtwisted disk near $`S^{}`$. Since $`S^{}`$ may be thought of as living in the complement of $`S`$, and we are assuming $`M\backslash S`$ is universally tight, the bypass drawn in Figure 25 can not exist.

###### Example 13.

Figure 26 shows a similar-looking bypass that has a very different effect on the dividing curves of $`\sigma `$. Up to isotopy, the dividing curves are unchanged. Though we omit the proof here (see ), it is a consequence of the uniqueness of tight contact structures on a ball that $`S`$ and $`S^{}`$ cobound a contact product. It follows that $`M\backslash S`$ and $`M\backslash S^{}`$ are contactomorphic, hence both are universally tight.

###### Example 14.

Figure 27 is the most mysterious of these examples. Such a bypass may or may not exist, and there is no reason for $`M\backslash S^{}`$ to be tight if we only assume tightness of $`M\backslash S`$. However, $`\alpha `$ represents a nontrivial element of $`\pi _1(S)`$ or $`\pi _1(M)`$, and any cover $`\stackrel{~}{M\backslash S}`$ is still tight (by universal tightness). If we lift to the right cover, $`\alpha `$ is unwound, and this example becomes the same as the previous example. Thus the proof strategy may be continued in this and subsequent covers.

There are several other types of bypass configurations to check, but this pattern repeats itself. Bypasses are of three types. Those which can not exist. Those which cause no trouble if they do exist, and all of the rest. The typical situation is that troublesome bypasses can be dealt with in the right cover. This is the point and power of the assumption of universal tightness. ∎

## 4. Tori

###### Example 15.

Let $`\alpha _k=\mathrm{sin}(2k\pi z)dx+\mathrm{cos}(2k\pi z)dy`$ as in Example 7. Restricting $`\alpha _k`$ to the cube $`[0,1]\times [0,1]\times [0,1]`$ and identifying the front with the back face and the left with the right face defines a contact structure on $`T\times I`$. Neither $`T\times \{0\}`$ nor $`T\times \{1\}`$ is convex. Perturbing $`T\times \{0\}`$ and $`T\times \{1\}`$ so that they are convex gives the contact structure $`\xi _k`$ on $`T\times I`$ shown in Figure 28. A vertical annulus, such as the one shown on the front face, will be convex and have $`2k`$ closed dividing curves.

The next theorem gives a very general, but rough, classification theorem for tight contact structures.

###### Theorem 8.

If $`M`$ is irreducible, then $`M`$ carries finitely many tight (or universally tight) contact structures if and only if $`M`$ is atoroidal.

The if direction is due to Colin, Honda, and Giroux , and the only if direction is due to Colin  and Honda, Kazez, and Matić .

###### Proof.

We will explain the following portions of the proof of finiteness direction:

1. There is a finite collection of branched surfaces in $`M`$ which carry every tight contact structure.
2. If a branched surface carries infinitely many tight contact structures then it carries tori.

Proof of (1).

* Pick a triangulation $`\tau `$ of $`M`$, and isotop it until $`\tau ^1`$ is a collection of Legendrian arcs.
* Isotop $`\tau ^2`$ relative to $`\tau ^1`$ so that each face is convex.
* Isotop $`\tau `$ to remove interior $``$-parallel dividing curves. Figure 29 shows how to pry a two cell open along an edge to effect a bypass move and accomplish this.
* For each $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau ^3`$, group the dividing curves in $`\mathrm{\Delta }^3`$ so that, except for a bounded number of dividing curves near the vertices, they are contained in at most $`5`$ prisms $`P_i`$. See Figure 30.
* Use Giroux Flexibility to force the foliation induced by $`\xi `$ on each $`_vP_i`$ to be a union of vertical arcs and on $`_hP_i`$ to be a fixed non-singular foliation.
* By the uniqueness of tight contact structures on $`B^3`$ we may assume all vertical arcs in $`P_i`$ are Legendrian.
* The union over $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau ^3`$ is naturally a neighborhood $`N(B)`$ of a branched surface $`B`$, and by construction there are only finitely many such $`B`$.
* Each component of $`\mathrm{\Delta }^3N(B)`$ is a polygonal ball. The number of such polygonal balls is bounded, and the possible dividing curve configurations on the boundary faces of each polygonal ball is also bounded. Thus $`\xi `$ is defined by $`\xi N(B)`$ up to finitely many choices.

Proof of (2).

Suppose two contact structures $`\xi _0,\xi _1`$ are carried by $`B`$. By construction the foliations induced on $`_hN(B)`$ agree, thus $`\xi _1`$ is defined by $`\xi _0`$ and a finite set of integer weights on the sectors of $`B`$ which describe the twisting of the planes of $`\xi _1`$ relative to the planes of $`\xi _0`$ along vertical Legendrian arcs of $`N(B)`$.

An infinite collection of contact structures all carried by one branched surface give an infinite collection of weights. Since the contact structures are all positive, there is a lower bound, perhaps negative, on these weights. It follows that there must be a non-negative collection of integer weights on $`B`$. In the standard way, these non-negative weights can be used to piece together a surface in $`N(B)`$ that is transverse to the vertical Legendrian arcs. The induced foliation on such a surface has no singularities, thus the surface is either a torus or a Klein bottle.

We draw two conclusions from this portion of the argument.

* Changing weights along a torus doesn’t change the homotopy class of the 2-plane bundle, thus it follows that only finitely many 2-plane bundles support tight contact structures.
* The only way to produce infinitely many contact structures on a given space is to insert $`\xi _k`$, as defined in Example 15, in a neighborhood of a torus.

With this in mind we sketch some of the remaining steps in the infinitely many portion of the theorem.

1. A toroidal manifold has a universally tight contact structure.
2. Inserting $`\xi _k`$ near the torus preserves universal tightness
3. and changes the contact structure.

Proof of (3).

We will assume $`M=T`$. This is just one gluing theorem away from full generality. The sutured manifold $`(M,T)`$, where $`T`$ is a toroidal suture, is automatically taut, and by Gabai’s theorem it has a sutured manifold decomposition. For simplicity, assume the first splitting surface $`S`$ intersects $`T`$ in a single curve, and say $`(M,T)\stackrel{S}{}(M^{},\gamma ^{})`$.

We would like to consider the corresponding convex decomposition, but first we must fix the toroidal suture. Pick two parallel curves on $`T`$ dual to $`ST`$ and define them to be $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Figure 31 shows how we can force the usual correspondence between the sutured manifold decomposition on the first row and the convex structure on on the second row. It is particularly important to note that $`(S,\sigma )`$ has boundary-parallel dividing curves. Since $`(M^{},\gamma ^{})`$ has a sutured manifold decomposition, $`(M^{},\mathrm{\Gamma }^{})`$ carries a universally tight contact structure. By Theorem 7 $`(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ does also.

The technique of adding a pair of parallel dividing curves to a boundary component with no sutures can be used in other settings as well.

Proof of (4).

Continuing with the same $`M,S`$, and $`T`$, we need to show that the contact structure on $`M(T\times I)`$ obtained by gluing the structure built in (3) and $`\xi _k`$ is universally tight. Gluing along $`T`$ is beyond the scope of Theorem 7. Instead we will compare

$$(M,\mathrm{\Gamma })\stackrel{(S,\sigma )}{}(M\backslash S,\mathrm{\Gamma }^{})$$

and

$$M\xi _k\stackrel{SA}{}(M\backslash S)(T\times I\backslash A)$$

where $`S`$ is the first decomposing surface, and $`A`$ is an annulus extending $`S`$ that is used to keep track of the $`k`$ twists in $`\xi _k`$.

The first row of Figure 32 shows two views of $`M\backslash S`$ near $`T\backslash S`$. In the first 3-dimensional picture, a pair of dividing curves becomes a single dividing curve after corner rounding. In the second, the same neighborhood is expressed as a product with $`S^1`$, and the single dividing curve is shown as a point. The second row of the figure gives a similar view of $`(M\backslash S)(T\times I\backslash A)`$ in the case $`k=1`$. The product with $`S^1`$ view also shows a convex surface transverse to the $`S^1`$ direction that detects the twisting along $`\xi _k`$.

We now show that our contact structure $`(M\backslash S)(T\times I\backslash A)`$ is tight. This will be done by finding an embedded copy of this space in the tight space $`M\backslash S`$, and then using the obvious (but useful!) fact that a subset of a tight space is tight. Here is how this is done.

The curve $`C`$ parallel to $`S`$ shown in Figure 33 is isolating. Pass to a cover, without changing notation, in which the number of boundary components of $`S`$ is increased, and then $`C`$ becomes non-isolating. Then use flexibility to make $`C`$ a Legendrian divide. Figure 34 shows a product with $`S^1`$ view of $`M\backslash S`$ near $`T\backslash S`$. The region shown is the product of a convex disk and $`S^1`$. This disk is shown with part of two dividing curves that end on the two points of intersection with $`C`$, and these two points of $`C`$ are shown as hollow dots.

Figure 35 shows $`(M\backslash S)(T\times I\backslash A)`$. Finally, Figure 36 shows a larger version of $`(M\backslash S)`$ than Figure 34. The shaded subset of Figure 36 is contact isomorphic to $`(M\backslash S)(T\times I\backslash A)`$ and is necessarily (universally) tight.

Next we show the contact structure on $`M(T\times I)`$ is tight. This will require a gluing theorem along $`SA`$, which unlike $`S`$, does not have boundary-parallel dividing curves. Figure 37 shows $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{SA}`$.

We will use the same gluing strategy:

* Assume the union along $`SA`$ is overtwisted.
* Isotop, via bypasses, $`SA`$ off of the overtwisted disk, and
* argue that the split manifold stays tight during (b).

There is an important change in perspective though. From the point of view of $`SA`$, performing an isotopy in (b) is equivalent to digging a bypass out of one side of $`SA`$ and adding it to the other side. We prove (c) by showing that there are no troublesome bypasses that can be dug from either side of $`SA`$ in $`M(T\times I)`$.

We have discussed bypasses which involve only boundary compressible dividing curves in the proof of Theorem 7, so now we consider the existence of a bypass involving the closed dividing curves on $`SA`$.

###### Example 16.

Figure 38 shows a bypass attached along a dotted curve $`\alpha `$ connecting three different dividing curves on the boundary of $`(MT\times I)\backslash (SA)`$. Figure 35 showed the same space, but it showed a convex disk with a different set of dividing curves. Certainly this bypass, if it exists, is not a subset of that convex disk. Indeed the bypass itself may be very large and reach out of the portion of the manifold shown in either of these figures.

###### Proposition 5.

The bypass shown in Figure 38 can not exist.

###### Proof.

Consider the space obtained by adding the product of a bypass attached along $`\alpha `$ and $`S^1`$ that is shown in Figure 39. The null-homotopic dividing curve that is created implies the contact structure is overtwisted.

The opposite conclusion is reached if we add the same set and consider its relationship to the convex disk that we know is contained in $`(MT\times I)\backslash (SA)`$. The union is shown in Figure 40. We see that this space must be tight, for it too is a “fold along $`C`$”, that is, it too can be found as a subset of $`M\backslash S`$. This completes the proof of the Proposition and hence Step (4). ∎

Proof of (5).

We will only give the idea behind the technique used in producing invariants that distinguish the various contact structures on $`M(T\times I)`$. Let $`F`$ be a properly embedded convex surface which intersects the boundary component $`T\times \{1\}`$ of $`M(T\times I)`$, and let $`\delta `$ be a homotopically essential arc in $`F`$ which starts and ends on $`T\times \{1\}`$. The minimum of $`\mathrm{\#}|\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }_F|`$ over all such $`\delta `$ and $`F`$ is an invariant which tends to infinity as the twisting, that is, the $`k`$ in $`\xi _k`$, is increased.

## 5. Surface bundles

We will give a classification of tight contact structures on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ such that

* $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is a closed surface with genus at least two, and the dividing curves on each component of $`(\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I)`$ are a pair of parallel non-separating curves.

###### Example 17.

In Figure 41, notice that on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_1`$, $`\chi (R_+)=\chi (\mathrm{\Sigma }_1)`$ and $`\chi (R_{})=0`$. This is analogous to the product foliation on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ in the sense that the contact 2-planes have outward pointing normal vectors everywhere on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_1`$, at least as measured by Euler charactertistic. This structure is a special case of an extremal contact structure.

###### Definition 15.

A contact structure on a surface bundle with fibre $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is extremal if the Euler class of the 2-plane bundle, $`e(\xi )`$, satisfies $`e(\xi )(\mathrm{\Sigma })=\pm \chi (\mathrm{\Sigma })`$. Equivalently, if $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is convex either $`\chi (R_+)=\chi (\mathrm{\Sigma })`$ or $`\chi (R_{})=\chi (\mathrm{\Sigma })`$.

###### Theorem 9.

 There are exactly 4 (universally) tight non-product contact structures satisfying (\*). They correspond to a choice of dividing curve on each of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_1`$.

This theorem will be used to prove the following theorems.

###### Theorem 10.

Let $`\phi `$ be a pseudo-Anosov map of a closed surface $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ . There is a unique extremal, tight (or universally tight) contact structure on $`(\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I)/(\phi (x),1)(x,0)`$.

###### Theorem 11.

(Gabai-Eliashberg-Thurston Theorem) If $`M`$ is Haken and $`H_2(M)0`$, then $`M`$ carries a universally tight contact structure.

Theorem 11 follows from Gabai’s work  on the existence of taut foliations and Eliashberg and Thurston’s perturbation technique  for producing universally tight contact structures from taut foliations. The proof we give  is a direct construction which has the advantage of helping us discover new gluing theorems.

###### Sketch of Theorem 9.

We concentrate only on the dividing curve configuration shown in Figure 41. What the proof strategy lacks in subtlety it makes up in directness. We start by decomposing $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ along a vertical annulus $`\gamma \times I`$ whose boundary components are shown in Figure 42 and analyze all possible dividing curve configurations.

Figure 43 shows $`\gamma \times I`$ cut by a vertical arc into a rectangle, and it lists all possible dividing curve configurations such that the boundary components of $`\gamma \times I`$ intesect the dividing curves twice each.

We will show how Type $`II_2^+`$ can be reduced to Type $`II_0^+`$, that is, if we start with a convex annulus of Type $`II_2^+`$, we can find another convex annulus of Type $`II_0^+`$. This case is fairly typical of the type of arguments we use to prove this classification theorem.

Figure 43(A) shows the result of splitting $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ along an an annulus of Type $`II_2^+`$, and Figure 43(B) shows the dividing curves on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\backslash \sigma \times \{0\}`$. After rounding the corners and gathering the dividing curves on the two vertical annuli of $`(M\backslash \sigma )\times I`$, the result is shown in Figure 43(C). Cut this along a convex rectangle $`\delta \times I`$, and again we must consider all possible dividing curve configurations on a splitting convex surface.

Suppose first that the dividing curve configuration on $`\delta \times I`$ has a boundary-parallel component whose half disk contains the point labelled 2 in $`\delta \times I`$. (Figure 43(D) shows a different configuration.) This would imply the existence of a bypass with arc of attachment running from 1 to 3. Consider how this bypass is situated relative to $`\sigma \times I`$ – it crosses two parallel dividing curves and ends on a third curve in Figure 43(A). But a quick computation (Example 11) shows that the effect of pushing $`\sigma \times I`$ across such a bypass removes both closed dividing curves from $`\sigma \times I`$, that is, it produces a Type $`II_0^+`$ annulus that we had promised to find.

The same logic shows that if any dividing curve is boundary-parallel and centered on the point 3, 4, or 5, a Type $`II_0^+`$ can be shown to exist. We are left with the dividing curve configuration of Figure 43(D). The result of cutting along $`\delta \times I`$ and rounding corners is shown in Figures 43(E,F).

###### Lemma 1.

There must exist a bypass along the arc of attachment shown in Figure 43(E).

###### Sketch of lemma.

If such a bypass exists exists then pushing the vertical annulus of Figure 43(E) through it produces three dividing curves rather than just the one shown in Figure 43(F). One step in a complete proof is arguing that there is a vertical annulus with three dividing curves near the given vertical annulus. This is very similar to the part of the proof of tightness in the toroidal case, shown in Figure 36, in which a more complicated space was shown to exist inside a manifold with a single dividing curve on a vertical annulus in its boundary. In short, the annulus is shown to exist by a folding argument along an isolating curve that is shown to exist near the original annulus. This more complicated annulus implies the existence of the desired bypass. ∎

Pushing $`\delta \times I`$ through this bypass produces a new dividing curve configuration on $`\delta \times I`$ which has boundary-parallel dividing curves centered on the points labelled 3 and 4. As above, this allows us to modify $`\gamma \times I`$ and produce an annulus of Type $`II_0^+`$.

The rest of the proof of Theorem 9 requires:

1. Many other similar reductions.
2. Existence of the four types of contact structures must be shown.
3. Uniqueness of these contact structures must be established.

We will show the existence and uniqueness of Type $`II_0^+`$ tight contact contact structures. Figure 44(A, B) shows $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ cut along $`\gamma \times I`$. Notice that the dividing curves on $`\gamma \times I`$ are boundary-parallel. The result of rounding corners and the next splitting surface is shown in Figure 44(C). Since $`\delta \times I`$ intersects only two dividing curves, there is no choice for the diving curve set on $`\delta \times I`$, it must be the single boundary-parallel arc shown in Figure 44(D). The result of cutting along $`\delta \times I`$ and rounding corners is shown in Figure 44(E,F). And now the pattern continues, $`ϵ\times I`$ intersects dividing curves just twice, and continuing in this fashion we produce a convex decomposition in which all splitting surfaces have boundary-parallel dividing curves, and there is always a unique choice of tight dividing curves.

Thus (2), in this case, follows from Theorem 7, and (3) follows from the forced choice of dividing curves along the way.

It is worth emphasizing that a convex decomposition determines the contact structure near $`M`$, near the splitting surfaces, and by uniqueness on all of the resulting $`B^3`$’s, that is, a convex decomposition determines the contact structure at every point of $`M`$.

This completes the sketch of Theorem 9. ∎

The statement of Theorem 9 refers to a choice of dividing curves. This choice can be described explicitly using the notion of a straddled dividing curve.

###### Definition 16.

A dividing curve in $`(\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I)`$ is straddled if there exists a dual convex annulus with a boundary-parallel dividing curve centered on it.

We record a couple of consequences of Theorem 9 that will be used in applications.

###### Corollary 1 (Addition).

Let $`\xi _1`$ and $`\xi _2`$ be tight, non-product contact structures on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times [0,1]`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times [1,2]`$, respectively, that agree on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times \{1\}`$. Then $`\xi _1\xi _2`$ is tight if and only if no dividing curve on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times \{1\}`$ is straddled in both $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times [0,1]`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times [1,2]`$. ∎

###### Corollary 2 (Freedom of Choice).

Let $`\xi `$ be a non-product tight contact structure on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$, and let $`\alpha _1`$ and $`\alpha _2`$ be a pair of parallel, non-separating curves on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. Then there exists a convex embedding of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ in $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ that is isotopic to the inclusion of a boundary component, such that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{\Sigma }=\alpha _1\alpha _2`$. ∎

The next proposition is self-evident and very useful .

###### Proposition 6 (Imbalance Principle).

Let $`S^1\times [0,1]`$ be a properly embedded convex annulus in $`M`$ such that $`S^1\times \{0\}`$ intersects fewer dividing curves than $`S^1\times \{1\}`$. Then $`S^1\times [0,1]`$ contains a bypass centered on a dividing curve intersecing $`S^1\times \{1\}`$. ∎

###### Sketch of Theorem 10.

* Given a surface bundle with pseudo-Anosov holonomy $`\phi `$, pick a fibre, isotop it until it is convex, and cut the bundle along the fibre. The dividing curves on each boundary component consist of a family of parallel pairs of curves.
* If there are more than one pair of parallel curves on either boundary component, then since $`\phi `$ is pseudo-Anosov, there exists an imbalance annulus.
* Isotoping the fibre through the bypass guaranteed by the Imbalance Principle reduces the number of dividing curves. Continue until there is just a single pair on each boundary component.
* By Freedom of Choice a new fibre can be chosen with a fixed pair of non-separating dividing curves.
* Splitting the bundle along this fibre reduces an arbitrary bundle to one of the four standard forms given in Theorem 9. Of the four possible straddlings, two are ruled out because of the tightness of the gluing that recreates the original surface bundle. The other two are related by another application of Freedom of Choice.

###### Sketch of Theorem 11.

By Theorem 6 we may assume $`M`$ is a closed manifold. Let $`\mathrm{\Sigma }M`$ be a Thurston norm minimizing surface corresponding to a non-zero element of $`H_2(M)`$ and split $`M`$ along $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$.

The sutured manifold $`M\backslash \mathrm{\Sigma }`$ has no sutures, but it does have a sutured manifold decomposition. Let the first splitting surface be $`S`$, and we shall assume that $`S`$ intersects each copy of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ in a single closed curve as shown in Figure 45. Make $`M\backslash \mathrm{\Sigma }`$ a convex structure by adding a pair of parallel dividing curves dual to $`S`$ on each boundary component. Make $`S`$ a convex surface by adding boundary compressible dividing curves $`\sigma `$ straddling a component of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, the dividing set on the boundary of $`M\backslash \mathrm{\Sigma }`$, on each copy of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. If the right curves are straddled, splitting the sutured manifold $`M\backslash \mathrm{\Sigma }`$ along $`S`$ will correspond to the convex splitting defined by $`(S,\sigma )`$. The remaining steps of the convex decomposition are directly inherited from the sutured manifold decomposition.

This convex decomposition of $`(M\backslash \mathrm{\Sigma },\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is by surfaces all of whose dividing curves are boundary-parallel. Thus by Theorem 7, there is a tight contact structure on $`M\backslash \mathrm{\Sigma }`$. Moreover, by construction, one dividing curve on each boundary component of $`M\backslash \mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is straddled by a dividing curve on $`S`$.

By Theorem 9 there are four choices of tight contact structure on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ that could be used to attach to $`M\backslash \mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and produce a tight contact structure on $`M`$. It should seem very plausible, and it is true, that a curve straddled on both sides gives rise to an overtwisted disk. Thus we insert the unique, non-product, contact structure on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ that gives $`(M\backslash \mathrm{\Sigma })\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ a chance of being tight.

We are two gluing theorems away from a complete proof of tightness on $`M`$; we must glue along each of the boundary components of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$. As we have seen, the general form of these gluing proofs is:

1. Given an overtwisted disk in $`M`$, push $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ off it using bypasses while keeping $`M\backslash \mathrm{\Sigma }`$ tight.
2. Analyze which bypasses exist on one component of $`M\backslash \mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and which can be added to the other component while preserving tightness.

Rather than do this in generality, consider the local version of this that is shown in Figure 46. On the left are two dividing curves one of which is straddled. On the right are the two dividing curves about to be identified with the curves on the left. Also shown are two bypasses. The first, $`B_1`$, is known to exist by construction, thus if it is removed and added to the other side tightness must be shown to be preserved. The second, $`B_2`$, if added to the left would produce an overtwisted disk, thus, as part of a sufficient gluing theorem, these must be shown not to exist. These local gluing results follow from the next lemma.

###### Lemma 2.

Let $`\gamma _u`$ and $`\gamma _s`$ be a pair of parallel dividing curves on $`M`$, and assume $`\gamma _s`$ is straddled and the contact structure on $`M`$ is tight. Then adding a bypass to $`M`$ across $`\gamma _u`$ will produce a tight contact structure.

Since adding a bypass to $`M`$ across $`\gamma _s`$ produces an overtwisted structure, it follows that $`\gamma _u`$ is not straddled.

###### Proof.

Figure 47 shows a neighborhood $`A\times I`$ of an annular neighborhood $`A`$ of $`\gamma _s`$ and $`\gamma _u`$ in $`M`$. It also shows the arc of attachment $`\alpha `$ which straddles $`\gamma _s`$ and the arc of attachment $`\beta `$ to which a bypass is being added. The annulus parallel and below $`A`$ shows the result of removing the bypass attached along $`\alpha `$, and the annulus above $`A`$ shows the result of adding a bypass along $`\beta `$. The figure on the right shows the dividing curves on the boundary $`A\times I`$.

At least on the boundary, the figure on the right looks like a product contact structure on $`A\times I`$, and indeed it is. Since the attaching curves, $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$, are disjoint, the contact structure on $`A`$ can be built by first attaching a bypass to the bottom annulus along $`\beta `$ and then attaching a bypass along $`\alpha `$. From this point of view, the isotopy class of the dividing curves remains unchanged after adding each bypass (see also Example 13), and thus the contact structure is a product. It now follows that adding a bypass across $`\beta `$ is the same as removing a bypass in $`M`$ attached along $`\alpha `$, and this operation preserves tightness.

## 6. Open Questions

There are two fundamental classes of open questions:

1. Which $`M^3`$ carry tight contact structures?
2. What are the topological implications of carrying a tight contact structure?

The central existence question, particularly from the point of view developed in this paper, is the question of whether or not Haken homology spheres $`M`$ always carry tight contact structures.

In such a manifold, every surface $`\mathrm{\Sigma }M`$ must separate. In particular if there is a tight contact structure $`\xi `$ on $`M`$, then $`e(\xi )(\mathrm{\Sigma })=0`$. This means that if $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is convex, then $`\chi (R_+)=\chi (R_{})`$. This is exactly opposite to the extremal case when $`\chi (R_+)=\chi (\mathrm{\Sigma })`$ and $`\chi (R_{})=0`$.

Presumably constructing contact structures will involve:

* Classification of such structures on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ and
* new gluing theorems.

###### Example 18.

Perhaps the simplest example of this sort of classification question on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ is shown in Figure 49. Preliminary work of Cofer  shows there is exactly one tight, non-product, contact structure with these dividing curves. This example has the bizarre property that if you add any non-trivial bypass, it becomes overtwisted. It follows that it does not occur as a subset of any tight contact structure on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times I`$ other than itself, and it may not show up in any tight closed 3-manifold.

Very little is known about (2), implications of carrying a tight contact structure, so we will describe results that have been obtained in lamination theory, that perhaps have analogues in contact topology.

###### Definition 17.

A lamination of $`M^3`$ is a disjoint union of surfaces which are locally homeomorphic to the product of $`D^2`$ and a closed subset of $`I`$.

A lamination is essential if the leaves are incompressible, the complementary regions are irreducible, and there are no folded leaves.

A lamination is genuine if it is essential and some complementary region is not a product of a boundary leaf and $`I`$.

Figure 50 shows, in order, a folded leaf, a complementary region that is a product of a boundary leaf and $`I`$, and a complementary region that is not such a product.

###### Definition 18.

The Euler characteristic of a surface with cusped boundary is defined to be the usual Euler characteristic of the underlying space minus half of the number of cusps.

The cross-sections of the complementary regions shown in Figure 50 are a disk with one cusp ($`\chi =1/2)`$, a disk with two cusps ($`\chi =0`$), and a disk with three cusps ($`\chi =1/2`$). The definition of essential consists of bans on various types of positive Euler characteristic, while the notion of a genuine lamination postulates the existence of some negative Euler characteristic in $`M`$. We shall see that atoroidal manifolds are group negatively curved (Theorem 13). It is not clear what additional structure should be made for contact structures that might make the this theorem apply in that setting as well.

By the JSJ decomposition theorem, there is a unique $`I`$bundle structure $``$ on the ends of each complementary region. Thus each complementary region decomposes as the union of a $``$ and the guts $`𝒢`$ as shown in Figure 51.

The key features of this decomposition are:

* $`𝒢`$ is compact.
* By maximality of $``$, $`𝒢`$ has no product disks, that is, there are no non-trivial rectangles in $`𝒢`$ with sides that alternately consist of $`I`$-bundle fibres of $``$ and arcs in leaves of the lamination.
* An essential lamination is genuine if and only if $`𝒢\mathrm{}`$.
* $`𝒢`$ is a finite union of annuli $`𝒜`$. The union of the cores of these annuli are a link denoted $`L`$.

###### Definition 19.

$`M`$ is group negatively curved if there exists a constant $`C`$ such that for every null-homotopic curve, $`f:S^1M`$, there exists an extension of $`f`$ to a disk $`D`$ such that

$$\text{area}(f(D))<C\text{length}(f(D)).$$

$`M`$ is group negatively curved with respect to a link $`L`$ in $`M`$ if there exists a constant $`C`$ such that for every null-homotopic curve $`f:S^1M`$, there exists an extension of $`f`$ to a disk $`D`$ such that

$$\text{area}(f(D))<C(\text{length}(f(D))+\text{wr}(f(D),L)).$$

The wrapping number $`\text{wr}(f(D),L)`$ is a geometric linking number and is defined to be the minimum, taken over all disks $`E`$ with $`E=f(D)`$ of the number of points of intersection of $`E`$ with $`L`$.

The inequality in the definition of group negatively curved with respect to a link $`L`$ in $`M`$ is equivalent to the existence of a constant such that at least one of the two inequalities is satisfied:

$$\text{area}(f(D))<2C\text{length}(f(D))$$

or

$$\text{area}(f(D))<2C\text{wr}(f(D),L).$$

We will need the following remarkable theorem.

###### Theorem 12.

(Gabai’s Ubiquity Theorem ) If $`M`$ is closed, irreducible, and atoroidal, and if $`LB^3`$, then $`M`$ is group negatively curved with respect to $`L`$. ∎

###### Theorem 13.

 If $`M`$ is atoroidal and contains a genuine lamination $`\lambda `$, then $`M`$ is group negatively curved.

Before applying Gabai’s Ubiquity Theorem to the proof of this, we will need the following lemma which says that to prove an isoperimetric inequality for all null-homotopic curves, it is enough to prove the inequality on a “dense” subset.

###### Lemma 3.

Let $`A`$ be the set of all null-homotopic curves $`g:S^1M`$, and let $`S`$ be a subset of $`A`$. If

* all $`fS`$ satisfy an isoperimetric inequality,
* each $`gA`$ is approximated by an $`fS`$ by a small area homotopy, and
* $`\text{length}(f)`$ is not drastically longer than $`\text{length}(g)`$,

then all $`gA`$ satisfy an isoperimetric inequality.

###### Proof.

This follows by piecing together the homotopies shown in Figure 52.

###### Sketch of Theorem 13.

To apply this lemma think of $`𝒢`$ as a big, fat subset of $`M`$. Then to show $`M`$ is group negatively curved, it is enough to prove an isoperimetric inequality for the set of null-homotopic curves $`f:S^1M`$ such that

1. $`f`$ is transverse to $`\lambda `$.
2. Each component of $`f^1(𝒢)`$ has length greater than some constant $`\epsilon `$.

In other words, short bits of $`f^1(𝒢)`$ can be efficiently removed as in Figure 53.

Given such a null-homotopic $`f:S^1M`$, there is, by Theorem 12, a disk of null-homotopy, $`D`$, such that

$$\text{area}(f(D))<2C|f(D)L|.$$

Thus it will be enough to show that for some constant $`C^{}`$

$$2C|f(D)L|<C^{}\text{length}(f(D)).$$

Figure 54 shows $`f^1(D)`$. The figure shows $`f^1(𝒢)`$ as shaded, and $`f^1()`$ as white. Since we are only trying to give a sketch of the main ideas, we will think of $`f`$ as an embedding.

Figure 55 shows regions that might occur as subsets of $`f^1(D)`$. The first region, a null-homotopic circle, can be removed by choosing a new map of $`DM`$ since leaves of $`\lambda `$ are incompressible. The second region, a folded leaf, can not occur in an essential lamination. And finally the third region, a half disk mapped into $`𝒢`$ does occur, and thus we arrive at

Conclusion 1. Regions of $`f^1(D)`$ with positive Euler characteristic contribute at least $`\epsilon `$ to the length $`f(D)`$.

Figure 56 shows typical regions of $`f^1(D)`$ which contain points of $`f^1(L)`$. The first figure, a cusped triangle, has negative Euler characteristic. The second region shown has Euler characteristic zero and is a product disk in $`𝒢`$. This can not exist by the definition of $`𝒢`$. The third region also has Euler characteristic zero, but it contains an arc that is mapped into $`𝒢`$, thus it contributes at least $`\epsilon `$ to length$`(f(D))`$. After removing the middle regions that can not exist we reach

Conclusion 2. Points of $`f^1(L)`$ either show up in regions of negative negative Euler chacateristic or they contribute at least $`\epsilon `$ to length$`(f(D))`$.

We can now complete the proof. We have a disk $`D`$ such that

$$\text{area}(f(D))<2C|f(D)L|,$$

thus a large area disk gives many points of $`f^1(L)`$. By Conclusion 2, these points either directly contribute to the length of $`f(D)`$, or they show up in regions of negative Euler characteristic. But $`\chi (D)=1`$, thus the existence of regions with negative Euler characteristic implies the existence of regions with positive Euler characteristic. By Conclusion 1, these in turn contribute even more to the length of $`f(D)`$. Thus we conclude

$$\text{area}(f(D))<2C|f(D)L|<C^{}\text{length}(f(D)).$$

A key feature of this proof that doesn’t have an obvious analogue in contact topology is the crude notion of length given by pulling back $`𝒢`$ to $`D`$.

We would like to end up by pointing out that there are not clear connections between tight contact structures on $`M`$ and the fundamental group of $`M`$. For instance, it is not known if a homotopy 3-sphere supports a tight contact structure whether it must be $`S^3`$.

By way of contrast, there are many $`\pi _1(M)`$ actions that can be constructed from foliations and laminations. The leaf space is the quotient of the universal cover by leaves and complementary regions. The quotient is an order tree, and there is always an action of $`\pi _1(M)`$ on it.

Bestvina and Mess  show that if $`M`$ is group negatively curved then there is an action of $`\pi _1(M)`$ on $`S^2`$. This can be applied to the manifolds of Theorem 13, and indeed by Calegari’s work , there are far more manifolds in this collection than originally realized.

Palmeira’s Theorem  is generalized to laminations in , and it follows that the universal cover $`(\stackrel{~}{M},\stackrel{~}{\lambda })`$ is always homeomorphic to a product $`(^2,\kappa )\times `$ where $`\kappa `$ is a lamination of the plane. Calegari and Dunfield  point out that $`(^2,\kappa )`$ can be thought of as $`(^2,\kappa )`$ and from this they can sometimes produce an action on $`S_{\mathrm{}}^1`$.

Calegari and Dunfield  have more general results. They generalize Thurston’s work on the universal circle, and using Candel’s theorem , they identify leaves of $`\lambda `$ with $`^2`$, and they identify all $`S_{\mathrm{}}^1`$’s coming from the $`^2`$’s to get a $`\pi _1(M)`$ action on $`S_{\text{univ}}^1`$. This works for taut foliations and some genuine laminations.

Acknowledgements. This article is based on a series of talks given at the Tokyo Institue of Technology from June 3–7, 2002. I would like to thank Professor Matsumoto for inviting me and Professor Kojima for hosting my visit. I would particularly like to thank Ko Honda for his lectures during an informal seminar at the University of Georgia that introduced me to his point of view in contact topology and for suggesting many improvements to this paper.


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# The LARI Method for ISO-CAM/PHOT Data Reduction and Analysis

## 1 Introduction

All data gathered by the ISO satellite, and particularly those from the its two cameras, ISO-CAM and ISO-PHOT (hereafter simply CAM and PHOT), are very difficult to reduce, both due to the strong transient behaviour of the cryogenically cooled detectors, e.g. after a change in the incident flux (\[Coulais et al. 2000\]), and to the frequent and severe cosmic ray impacts yielding qualitatively different effects (known as common glitches, faders, dippers, drop-outs and others, \[Claret et al. 1998\]).

While it was variously demonstrated that it is possible, at least to a certain extent, to satisfactorily describe the satellite’s different detectors’ behaviour adopting some physical model, the large number of readouts involved in raster observations and the peculiar nature and strength of noise patterns also require efficient and robust algorithms to be developed so as to make the actual data reduction undertaking feasible in a nearly-automatic way.

A number of data reduction methods has thus been developed and tested, mostly on CAM deep fields (e.g. the PRETI method by \[Starck et al. 1999\] and the Triple Beam Switch method by \[Désert et al. 1999\]). Unfortunately, such methods proved useless for all PHOT data or on CAM shallower fields, leading to a high number of false detections and severe incompleteness. Besides, these methods suffered from the lack of an efficient way to interactively check the quality of the data reduction when needed.

The LARI method, originally developed as an answer to the problems posed by the reduction of the observatons carried out as part of the ELAIS survey (\[Oliver et al. 2000\]) and first presented in \[Lari et al. 2001\], has been devised to overcome these difficulties and provide a fully-interactive technique for the reduction and analysis of CAM/PHOT raster observations at all flux levels, particularly suited for the detection of faint sources and thus for the full exploitation of the scientific potential of the ISO archive.

## 2 The Model

The LARI method describes the sequence of readouts, or time history, of each pixel of CAM/PHOT detectors in terms of a mathematical model for the charge release towards the contacts. Such a model is based on the assumption of the existence, in each pixel, of two charge reservoirs, a short-lived one $`Q_b`$ (breve) and a long-lived one $`Q_l`$ (lunga), evolving independently with a different time constant and fed by both the photon flux and the cosmic rays. Such a model is fully conservative, and thus the observed signal $`S`$ is related to the incident photon flux $`I`$ and to the accumulated charges $`Q_b`$ and $`Q_l`$ by the

$$S=I\frac{\mathrm{d}Q_{tot}}{\mathrm{d}t}=I\frac{\mathrm{d}Q_b}{\mathrm{d}t}\frac{\mathrm{d}Q_l}{\mathrm{d}t},$$
(1)
where the evolution of these two quantities is governed by the same differential equation, albeit with a different efficiency $`e_i`$ and time constant $`a_i`$

$$\frac{\mathrm{d}Q_i}{\mathrm{d}t}=e_iIa_iQ_i^2\mathrm{where}i=b,l,$$
(2)
so that

$$S=(1e_be_l)I+a_bQ_b^2+a_lQ_l^2.$$
(3)
The values of the parameters $`e_i`$ and $`a_i`$ are estimated from the data and are constant for a given detector, apart from the scaling of $`a_i`$ for the exposure time and the average signal level along the pixel time history, which is governed by the

$$a_i=\frac{t}{t_0}\sqrt{\frac{S}{S_0}}a_{i,0},$$
(4)
where $`a_{i,0}`$ is the value of $`a_i`$ relative to a reference exposure time $`t_0`$ and average signal level $`S_0`$. The model for the charge release, however, is exactly the same for CAM and PHOT detectors.

In practice, an additive offset signal attributable to thermal dark current (which is not accounted for in CIA/PIA pipeline dark current subtraction), is added to both $`S`$ and $`I`$ in the equation above when it is estimated to be important, i.e. when the deepest dippers’ depth exceeds 10% of the background level.

The glitches (i.e. the effects of cosmic ray impacts on time history) are identified through filtering of the time history and modelled as discontinuities in the charge release, leaving as free parameters the charges at the beginning of the time history and at the peaks of glitches.

Iteration of the fitting procedure is interrupted when either a satisfactory data-model rms deviation is achieved or the maximum number of allowed iterations is reached. In Figure 1 it is shown how a successful fit is thus able to recover useful information (specifically, source fluxes) from otherwise troublesome parts of the pixel time history.

## 3 The Method

The reduction pipeline consists of the following steps:

* PHOT ramps’ linearization (following \[Rodighiero et al. 2001\]) and data smoothing (i.e. median averaging over a suitable number of readouts)
* Standard CIA/PIA raster structure and data-reduction-dedicated liscio structure building
* Dark current subtraction, stabilization (or global, as opposed to local, see below) background level estimation, bright sources’ and glitches’ identification
* Time history fitting procedure and interactive ”repair” on fitting failures
* Interactive checks on sources detected in time history
* Flat-fielding, mapping (i.e. projection of fluxes measured along the pixel time histories onto a sky map), and source extraction (using DAOPHOT’s find, particularly suited for the detection of point-like sources, as implemented in IDL Astronomy User’s Library)
* Interactive checks on sources detected on sky maps and back-projected on pixel time histories
* Source flux autosimulation

The fitting procedure describes the time history of individual pixels according to the mathematical model seen in Section 2, allowing the determination of the breve and lunga charge levels, the local background (i.e. the signal to be expected on the basis of the previously accumulated charges if only the stabilization background flux were hitting the detector) and the flux excess ascribable to potential sources at any given readout).

The so-called autosimulation procedure for source flux estimation accounts for mapping effects in the determination of the total flux of detected sources through the following steps:

* First guess of source total flux, based on its observed peak flux on the map
* Back-projection of source from sky map on pixel time histories, i.e. construction of theoretical pixel time histories
* Projection of theoretical pixel time histories onto a sky map, i.e. construction of a theoretical sky map
* Determination of theoretical peak flux on theroretical sky map
* Source firts-guess total flux correction based on observed / theoretical peak flux ratio

Other factors affecting the source flux estimates, namely those arising from the detectors’ transient behaviour and possible systematic deviations from nominal sensitivities as well as from the reduction technique, are then evaluated through simulations and absolute flux calibration.

Once the reduction of all rasters of interest has been completed according to the recipe above, one can determine the necessary corrections to nominal astrometry (e.g. performing a cross-correlation analysis between the list of detected sources and a suitable external catalogue) and project nearby or repeated fields onto a common mosaic sky map, on which source extraction, autosimulation and interactive checks can furtherly be performed so as to increase the quality of the reduction through cross-checks of detected sources on different rasters, thus partly overcoming the severe problems at their boundaries.

## 4 The Software

The method relies on CIA (\[Ott et al. 2001\]) and PIA (\[Gabriel and Acosta-Pulido 1999\]) for basic raw data reading and manipulation and on home-made IDL routines for the data reduction proper. The massive necessary amount of interactive analysis is carried out with an easy-to-use graphical user interface, a screenshot of which is shown in Figure 2, which allows any kind of visual check and interactive “repair” which may be necessary.

## 5 Results / Work in Progress

All parameters indicating the goodness of the reduction (reliability, completeness, astrometric and photometric accuracy) are heavily dependent on the adopted observing parameters as well as on the thresholds chosen in the interactive “repair”, and thus can only be evaluated through simulations.

While the catalogue resulting from the reduction of the first portion of ELAIS 15 $`\mu `$m data (\[Lari et al. 2001\]) is successfully being used for different purposes (see e.g. \[Gruppioni et al. 2002\] and \[Matute et al. 2002\]), and the reduction of several different fields has already been completed, simulations and accurate photometric calibration are still being carried out, so that it is not presently possible to show detailed results. A list of the different projects being carried out includes:

* ELAIS 15 $`\mu `$m and 90 $`\mu `$m fields (\[Vaccari et al. 2002\])
* Lockman Hole Shallow (LHS) and Deep (LHD) 15 $`\mu `$m and 90 $`\mu `$m fields (\[Fadda et al. 2002\] and \[Rodighiero et al. 2002\], see also Figure 3)
* Hubble Deep Field North and South (HDFs) 7 $`\mu `$m and 15 $`\mu `$m fields
* A few nearby galaxy cluster 7 $`\mu `$m and 15 $`\mu `$m fields

while highlights from the expected results can thus be summarized:

* A catalogue of around 2000 15 $`\mu `$m sources in the 0.3-100 mJy flux range from LHS and ELAIS fields
* Catalogues of the uttermost quality in smaller, cosmologically relevant fields such as the LHD and the HDFs
* Flux-level-dependent photometric calibration based on predicted stellar fluxes (CAM) or on internal/external calibrators’ reduction (PHOT)
* Unambiguous comparison of LARI fluxes with those obtained with different methods, e.g. on HDFs

## 6 Conclusions

Originated as an answer to the problems posed by the ELAIS data reduction, the LARI method has evolved into a complete and well-tested system for ISO-CAM/PHOT data reduction and analysis, especially designed for the detection of faint sources and the interactive check of detected sources. Raster observations carried out with ISO-CAM LW detector at 7 and 15 $`\mu `$m and with ISO-PHOT C100 detector at 90 $`\mu `$m have been successfully reduced, while tests are foreseen to apply the method to other ISO detectors, to ISO-PHOT C200 in particular.

Interactive by its very nature, the method both allows ISO-CAM/PHOT data reduction at all flux levels from scratch and to check the quality of any independent data reduction undertaking, thus leading to extremely reliable and complete source catalogues. It is thus believed that the LARI method can prove a very efficient tool in providing the community with long-awaited agreed-upon results from ISO extragalactic surveys, possibly the ultimate legacy of the ISO mission.

###### Acknowledgements.

This paper is based on observations with ISO, an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA Member States (especially the PI countries: France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom) and with the participation of ISAS and NASA. The ISOCAM data presented in this paper were analysed using CIA, a joint development by the ESA Astrophysics Division and the ISOCAM Consortium. The ISOCAM Consortium is led by the ISOCAM PI, C. Cesarsky. The ISOPHOT data presented in this paper were reduced using PIA, which is a joint development by the ESA Astrophysics Division and the ISOPHOT Consortium with the collaboration of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC). Contributing ISOPHOT Consortium institutes are DIAS, RAL, AIP, MPIK, and MPIA. This work was partly supported by the ”POE” EC TMR Network Programme (HPRN-CT-2000-00138).