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# Supersymmetry without Grassmann Variables

## 1 Introduction

Supersymmetry usually is formulated in terms of anti-commuting numbers called Grassmann variables. In these formulations supersymmetry transformations $`T(\xi )`$ are represented by exponentials $`T(\xi )=\mathrm{exp}(\xi Q+\overline{Q}\overline{\xi })`$ of the supercharges $`Q_a`$ multiplied by the components $`\xi ^a`$ of a Grassmann spinor . But since the Hilbert space $``$ of quantum mechanics is a vector space over the complex numbers, and not over a field containing Grassmann variables, the image $`T(\xi )|\psi `$ of any state $`|\psi `$ not annihilated by the fermionic generators $`Q_a`$ will lie outside of $``$. One may include states of the form $`T(\xi )|\psi `$ either by enlarging the Hilbert space $``$ or by expressing the transformations of supersymmetry as unitary transformations on $``$. The latter course is the subject of this article.

Inasmuch as supersymmetric quantum field theories are merely ordinary quantum field theories with particular fields and parameters, it is clear that one can discuss supersymmetry without the use of Grassmann variables. Moreover if $`z^a`$ is a complex spinor, then the operator $`G(z)=zQ+\overline{Q}\overline{z}`$ is hermitian, $`G(z)^{}=G(z)`$, and the operator $`U(z)=\mathrm{exp}(iG(z))`$ is unitary, $`U(z)^{}=U(z)^1`$. But the image $`U(z)|\psi `$ of any state $`|\psi `$ not annihilated by the fermionic generators $`Q_a`$ must be a superposition of states of even and odd fermion number. It is generally believed, however, that such states are unphysical because under a rotation of $`2\pi `$ around any axis, they change by more than an overall phase . If this superselection rule is true, then the state $`U(z)|\psi `$ lies outside of the physical Hilbert space $``$, and we gain very little by considering the unitary operator $`U(z)`$.

But this superselection rule is true or false according to whether the Lorentz group of nature is $`SL(2,C)/Z_2`$ or $`SL(2,C)`$, and its validity can be settled only by experiment because the consequences of $`SL(2,C)`$ are the same as those of $`SL(2,C)/Z_2`$ except for the absence of superselection rules . Andreev  has suggested how this rule may be tested by experiments on mesoscopic metal particles at low temperatures. Efforts to perform such experiments are in progress.

It may make sense therefore to resolve some of the technical problems that arise when one tries to represent the transformations of supersymmetry by unitary operators. The case of the chiral multiplet will be considered in this paper.

## 2 Unitary Supersymmetry Transformations

In what follows it will be shown how to implement supersymmetry transformations on the chiral multiplet by means of unitary operators without Grassmann variables. The supersymmetry transformations generated by the operator $`𝒢(\xi )=\xi Q+\overline{Q}\overline{\xi }`$, in which $`\xi ^a`$ is a Grassmann variable and $`Q_a`$ a supercharge, will be recalled, and the transformations induced by the generator $`G(z)=zQ+\overline{Q}\overline{z}`$, where $`z`$ is a complex number, will be discussed. It will be shown that these transformations are a symmetry of the theory because the change in the action density is a divergence of a current. The Noether procedure will then be used to show that the fermionic generators of this symmetry are the usual supercharges $`Q_a`$, which satisfy the algebra of supersymmetry. Thus the unitary operator $`U(z)=\mathrm{exp}[iG(z)]`$ represents a supersymmetry transformation.

The action density for the chiral multiplet with superpotential $`W(A)`$ is

$$=\frac{i}{2}_n\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^n\psi \frac{i}{2}\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^n_n\psi _n\overline{A}^nA|W^{}|^2\frac{1}{2}W^{\prime \prime }\psi \psi \frac{1}{2}\overline{W}^{\prime \prime }\overline{\psi }\overline{\psi }$$
(1)
in which $`W^{}=W(A)/A`$. The supercharges $`Q_a`$ are

$$Q_a=\sqrt{2}d^3x\left(\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\overline{\sigma }^{0\dot{b}c}\psi _c_m\overline{A}i\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^0\overline{\psi }^{\dot{b}}\overline{W}^{}\right).$$
(2)
In a mixed notation they are

$`Q_a`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle d^3x\left(\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\psi _b_m\overline{A}i\overline{\psi }^{\dot{a}}\overline{W}^{}\right)}`$ (3)
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle d^3x\left(\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\psi _b_m\overline{A}i\epsilon ^{\dot{a}\dot{b}}\overline{\psi }_{\dot{b}}\overline{W}^{}\right)}`$ (4)
or more simply

$$Q=\sqrt{2}d^3x\left[\left(_0\overline{A}\stackrel{}{\sigma }\overline{A}\right)\psi \overline{W}^{}\sigma ^2\overline{\psi }\right].$$
(5)
In the usual formalism with Grassmann variables $`\xi ^a`$, the “bosonic” operator

$$𝒢(\xi )=\xi Q+\overline{Q}\overline{\xi }$$
(6)
generates in the fields $`A(x)`$ and $`\psi (x)`$ the changes

$`\delta _\xi A(x)[i𝒢(\xi ),A(x)]`$ $`=`$ $`i\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle d^3y\xi ^a\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\psi _b(y)[A(x),_m\overline{A}(y)]}`$ (7)
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle d^3y\xi ^a\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^0\psi _b(y)\delta (\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{y})}`$
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}\xi ^a\psi _a(x)=\sqrt{2}\xi \psi ,`$
and

$`\delta _\xi \psi _a(x)`$ $``$ $`[i𝒢(\xi ),\psi _a(x)]`$ (8)
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle d^3y[\psi _a(x),\xi ^b\epsilon ^{\dot{b}\dot{c}}\overline{\psi }_{\dot{c}}(y)\overline{W}^{}+i\overline{\psi }_{\dot{c}}(y)\sigma _{c\dot{b}}^m\overline{\xi }^{\dot{b}}_mA(y)]}`$
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}\left(\xi ^b\epsilon ^{\dot{b}\dot{a}}\overline{W}^{}+i\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\overline{\xi }^{\dot{b}}_mA(x)\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}\left(\xi ^b\epsilon _{ba}\overline{W}^{}+i\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\overline{\xi }^{\dot{b}}_mA(x)\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}i\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\overline{\xi }^{\dot{b}}_mA(x)\sqrt{2}\xi _a\overline{W}^{},`$
which is the usual result if we use $`\overline{W}^{}=F`$, where $`F`$ is the auxiliary field.

Exponentials of the generator $`𝒢(\xi )=\xi Q+\overline{Q}\overline{\xi }`$ are not unitary operators because they involve Grassmann variables. Can one avoid these anti-commuting variables? Let us consider using generators $`G(z)`$ that are complex linear forms in the supercharges $`Q`$ and $`\overline{Q}`$

$$G(z)=zQ+\overline{Q}\overline{z}$$
(9)
where $`z^a`$ is a complex spinor. Now the change in the field $`A(x)`$ is

$`dA(x)[iG(z),A(x)]`$ $`=`$ $`i\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle d^3yz^a\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\psi _b(y)[_m\overline{A}(y),A(x)]}`$ (10)
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle d^3yz^a\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^0\psi _b(y)\delta (\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{y})}`$
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}z^a\psi _a(x)=\sqrt{2}z^a\psi _a,`$
which is the same as (7) except that the Grassmann spinor $`\xi `$ has been replaced by the complex spinor $`z`$. The conjugate change is

$$d\overline{A}=\sqrt{2}\overline{\psi }_{\dot{a}}\overline{z}^{\dot{a}}.$$
(11)
This procedure will not work, however, for the Fermi field $`\psi `$. Instead we must write $`d\psi `$ as an anti-commutator. There are several ways of doing this, but if we want $`d\psi `$ to be the adjoint of $`d\overline{\psi }`$, then we can not have a single rule for the change in the product of two spinor fields irrespective of whether they transform like $`\psi `$ or like $`\overline{\chi }`$. We choose to have $`d\psi `$ be the adjoint of $`d\overline{\psi }`$, and so we shall have four different rules for the change in the product of two spinor fields. We define

$`d\psi _a(x)`$ $``$ $`\{iG(z),\psi _a(x)\}`$ (12)
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle d^3y\{z^b\epsilon ^{\dot{b}\dot{c}}\overline{\psi }_{\dot{c}}(y)\overline{W}^{}+i\overline{\psi }_{\dot{c}}(y)\sigma _{c\dot{b}}^m\overline{z}^{\dot{b}}_mA(y),\psi _a(x)\}}`$
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}\left(z^b\epsilon ^{\dot{b}\dot{a}}\overline{W}^{}+i\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\overline{z}^{\dot{b}}_mA(x)\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}\left(z^b\epsilon _{ba}\overline{W}^{}+i\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\overline{z}^{\dot{b}}_mA(x)\right)`$
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}i\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\overline{z}^{\dot{b}}_mA(x)+\sqrt{2}z_a\overline{W}^{}.`$
The change in the conjugate $`\overline{\psi }`$ is the conjugate of the change in $`\psi `$

$`d\overline{\psi }_{\dot{a}}`$ $``$ $`\{iG(z),\overline{\psi }_{\dot{a}}\}=\left(\{iG(z),\psi _a(x)\}\right)^{}=(d\psi _a)^{}`$ (13)
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}iz^b\sigma _{b\dot{a}}^m_m\overline{A}+\sqrt{2}\overline{z}_{\dot{a}}W^{}.`$
Although these formulas differ from expression (8) for $`\delta \psi `$ and its conjugate for $`\delta \overline{\psi }`$ by the signs of their second terms, and of course by the replacement of a Grassmann spinor $`\xi `$ by a complex one $`z`$, we shall see that these sign differences are appropriate and that supersymmetry can be implemented by unitary transformations acting on the states and physical operators of the theory.

The key point is that the physical operators of the theory contain even powers of the Fermi fields. Thus the change in the generic product $`\psi \chi `$ of two Fermi fields is

$`d(\psi \chi )`$ $`=`$ $`[iG(z),\psi \chi ]`$ (14)
$`=`$ $`iG(z)\psi \chi \psi \chi iG(z)`$
$`=`$ $`iG(z)\psi \chi +\psi iG(z)\chi \psi iG(z)\chi \psi \chi iG(z)`$
$`=`$ $`\{iG(z),\psi \}\chi \psi \{iG(z),\chi \}`$
$`=`$ $`d\psi \chi +\psi d\chi ,`$
in which the spinor indices, which may be different, are suppressed. It is easy to see that the other three rules are:

$`d(\overline{\psi }\overline{\chi })=[iG(z),\overline{\psi }\overline{\chi }]`$ $`=`$ $`d\overline{\psi }\overline{\chi }\overline{\psi }d\overline{\chi }`$ (15)
$`d(\overline{\psi }\chi )=[iG(z),\overline{\psi }\chi ]`$ $`=`$ $`d\overline{\psi }\chi +\overline{\psi }d\chi `$ (16)
$`d(\psi \overline{\chi })=[iG(z),\psi \overline{\chi }]`$ $`=`$ $`d\psi \overline{\chi }\psi d\overline{\chi }.`$ (17)
Let us now consider the effect of these transformations on the chiral action density (1). The change in $``$ due to the changes $`dA`$ and $`d\psi `$ and their conjugates is

$`d=[iG(z),]={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}_nd\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^n\psi +{\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}_n\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^nd\psi {\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}d\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^n_n\psi {\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^n_nd\psi `$ (18)
$`_nd\overline{A}^nA_n\overline{A}^ndA\overline{W}^{}W^{\prime \prime }dAW^{}\overline{W}^{\prime \prime }d\overline{A}`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}W^{\prime \prime \prime }dA\psi \psi {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\overline{W}^{\prime \prime \prime }d\overline{A}\overline{\psi }\overline{\psi }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}W^{\prime \prime }d\psi \psi {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}W^{\prime \prime }\psi d\psi `$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\overline{W}^{\prime \prime }d\overline{\psi }\overline{\psi }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\overline{W}^{\prime \prime }\overline{\psi }d\overline{\psi }.`$
The part of $`d`$ that depends upon $`z`$ is

$`d_z`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}_n(\sqrt{2}iz\sigma ^m_m\overline{A})\overline{\sigma }^n\psi +{\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}_n\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^n(\sqrt{2}z\overline{W}^{})`$ (19)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}(\sqrt{2}iz\sigma ^m_m\overline{A})\overline{\sigma }^n_n\psi {\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^n_n(\sqrt{2}z\overline{W}^{})`$
$`_n\overline{A}^n(\sqrt{2}z\psi )\overline{W}^{}W^{\prime \prime }(\sqrt{2}z\psi )`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}W^{\prime \prime \prime }(\sqrt{2}z\psi )\psi \psi +{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}W^{\prime \prime }(\sqrt{2}z\overline{W}^{})\psi {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}W^{\prime \prime }\psi (\sqrt{2}z\overline{W}^{})`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\overline{W}^{\prime \prime }(\sqrt{2}iz\sigma ^m_m\overline{A})\overline{\psi }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\overline{W}^{\prime \prime }\overline{\psi }(\sqrt{2}iz\sigma ^m_m\overline{A}).`$
Because Fermi fields at equal times anti-commute, the term proportional to $`W^{\prime \prime \prime }`$ vanishes. The two terms proportional to $`\overline{W}^{}W^{\prime \prime }`$ cancel. The last two terms may be written as

$$\frac{i}{\sqrt{2}}\overline{\psi }^{\dot{a}}\sigma _{b\dot{a}}^mz^b_m\overline{W}^{}=\frac{i}{\sqrt{2}}\overline{\psi }_{\dot{c}}\epsilon ^{\dot{a}\dot{c}}\sigma _{b\dot{a}}^m\epsilon ^{bd}z_d_m\overline{W}^{}=\frac{i}{\sqrt{2}}\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^mz_m\overline{W}^{}$$
(20)
and as

$$\frac{i}{\sqrt{2}}\overline{\psi }_{\dot{a}}z^b\sigma _{b\dot{c}}^m\epsilon ^{\dot{a}\dot{c}}_m\overline{W}^{}=\frac{i}{\sqrt{2}}\overline{\psi }_{\dot{a}}\epsilon ^{\dot{a}\dot{c}}\epsilon ^{bd}\sigma _{b\dot{c}}^mz_d_m\overline{W}^{}=\frac{i}{\sqrt{2}}\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^mz_m\overline{W}^{}.$$
(21)
So the change $`d_z`$ in the action density is

$`d_z`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}z\sigma ^m\overline{\sigma }^n\psi _n_m\overline{A}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}z\sigma ^m\overline{\sigma }^n_n\psi _m\overline{A}`$ (22)
$`\sqrt{2}z^n\psi _n\overline{A}+{\displaystyle \frac{i}{\sqrt{2}}}_n\left(\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^nz\overline{W}^{}\right).`$
We may write this change $`d_z`$ as the total divergence

$$d_z=_nK_z^n$$
(23)
of the current

$$K_z^n=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}z\sigma ^m\overline{\sigma }^n_m\overline{A}\sqrt{2}z\psi ^n\overline{A}+\frac{i}{\sqrt{2}}\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^nz\overline{W}^{},$$
(24)
which shows that the action is invariant under the unitary transformation

$$U(z)=e^{iG(z)}$$
(25)
at least for infinitesimal values of the complex spinor $`z`$.

The Noether current associated with the susy transformation (1013) of the action density (1) is

$`J^n`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}d\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^n\psi {\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^nd\psi d\overline{A}^nA^n\overline{A}dA`$ (26)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\left(i\sqrt{2}z\sigma ^m_m\overline{A}+\sqrt{2}\overline{z}W^{}\right)\overline{\sigma }^n\psi {\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^n\left(i\sqrt{2}\sigma ^m\overline{z}_mA+\sqrt{2}z\overline{W}^{}\right)`$
$`\sqrt{2}\overline{z}\overline{\psi }^nA^n\overline{A}\sqrt{2}z\psi .`$
The part depending on $`z`$ is

$$J_z^n=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}z\sigma ^m\overline{\sigma }^n\psi _m\overline{A}\frac{i}{\sqrt{2}}\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^nz\overline{W}^{}\sqrt{2}z\psi ^n\overline{A}.$$
(27)
The Noether current $`J^n`$ satisfies

$$d=_nJ^n,$$
(28)
and so the difference $`J^nK^n`$ of the two currents

$$S^n=J^nK^n$$
(29)
is conserved

$$_nS^n=0.$$
(30)
The current $`S^n`$ is the supercurrent of the Lagrange density $``$. The part $`S_z^n`$ that depends upon $`z`$ is simply

$$S_z^n=\sqrt{2}z\sigma ^m\overline{\sigma }^n\psi _m\overline{A}i\sqrt{2}\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^nz\overline{W}^{}.$$
(31)
Thus the quantity $`zQ`$ is

$$zQ=d^3xS_z^0=d^3x\sqrt{2}z\sigma ^m\overline{\sigma }^0\psi _m\overline{A}i\sqrt{2}\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^nz\overline{W}^{},$$
(32)
and so by the identity $`\overline{\psi }\overline{\sigma }^0x=z\sigma ^0\overline{\psi }`$, the supercharges $`Q_a`$ are

$`Q_a`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle d^3x\left(\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^m\overline{\sigma }^{0\dot{b}c}\psi _c_m\overline{A}i\sigma _{a\dot{b}}^0\overline{\psi }^{\dot{b}}\overline{W}^{}\right)}.`$ (33)
These supercharges, which generate the unitary supersymmetry transformations (25) and (1013), are the same as the those (5) that generate the Grassmann supersymmetry transformations (78).

We have seen that the action density (1) is invariant under the unitary transformation (25) which is an exponential of an imaginary linear form in the supercharges (2), that the induced complex supersymmetry transformations (1013) differ somewhat from the usual supersymmetry transformations (78), and that the supercharges derived by the Noether technique (1833) from the complex supersymmetry transformations (1013) are the same as the conventional supercharges (2).

It is straightforward to generalize this argument to the general chiral theory consisting of $`N`$ multiplets $`A_i,\psi _i,F_i`$ interacting through an arbitrary analytic superpotential $`W(A_1,\mathrm{},A_N)`$. In fact when appropriately generalized, the rules (917) should apply to any supersymmetric field theory. Unitary operators without Grassmann variables can implement supersymmetry transformations upon the action and upon other operators that involve even powers of Fermi fields.

###### Acknowledgments.

I should like to thank A. F. Andreev and M. Serna for interesting conversations.


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# Parity Problem With A Cellular Automaton Solution

## Abstract

The parity of a bit string of length $`N`$ is a global quantity that can be efficiently compute using a global counter in $`\text{O}(N)`$ time. But is it possible to find the parity using cellular automata with a set of local rule tables without using any global counter? Here, we report a way to solve this problem using a number of $`r=1`$ binary, uniform, parallel and deterministic cellular automata applied in succession for a total of $`\text{O}(N^2)`$ time.

Cellular automaton (CA) is a simple local interaction model used to study the evolution and self-organization of various physical and biological systems . And at the same time, CA can also be viewed as a restrictive model of parallel computation without common global memory. In fact, recently there is an increasing interest in using CA to perform certain computational tasks . It is therefore natural to ask if CA can be used to perform a task that depends on the global information of an input state.

An example of this kind is called the density classification problem (DCP). In this problem, we are given an one dimensional array of bit string in periodic boundary conditions. We are required to apply some CA rules so as to evolve the state to all zero if the number of zeros in the input state is greater than that of ones. Similarly, we have to evolve the state to all one if the number of zeros in the input state is less than that of ones.

After a number of fail attempts, Land and Belew proved that no single CA can solve the DCP without making some mistake . And yet later on, Capcarrere *et al.* argued that a single CA rule can solve the DCP provided that we modify both the required output of the automaton and the boundary conditions used . Nonetheless, we do not completely agree with their approach for we have to scan through the states of the entire final bit string, in general, before knowing the answer. This requires either global memories or a table that scales with the system size in the read out; hence it somehow defeats the purpose of restricting ourselves to the use of CA in the first place. (In contrast, the read out in the original DCP can be determined by looking at any one or two bits in the final string.) Although DCP cannot be solved using one CA rule, Fukś showed that this can be done by applying two CA rules in succession. More precisely, he found a solution to the DCP by applying the CA rule 184 a fixed number of times depending only on the string length and then followed by the CA rule 232 a fixed number of times again depending only on the string length . A number of related problems depending on the global density of a string have also found to have CA solutions .

Another challenge for CA is the parity problem (PP), namely, to evolve a given input bit string $`\sigma `$ using a sequence of CA rules to all $`P_\sigma `$s where $`P_\sigma `$ is the parity of $`\sigma `$. (Then the parity of the input bit string can be determined by looking at any one of the final bit string.) This problem appears to be much harder than the DCP because the output is altered simply by a flip in any one of the input bits. In fact, Sipper proved that no single $`r=1`$ CA rule can solve the PP with fixed boundary conditions .

In this letter, we show that PP can be solved by applying a number of $`r=1`$ CA rules in succession. The term CA in this letter shall mean a local synchronous uniform deterministic binary CA rule with parallel update in periodic boundary conditions. That is, the state of each bit in the next time step depends deterministically only on the state of its finite neighborhood. The states of all sites are updated in parallel and the rule table of the CA is covariant under translation along the bit string. Besides, we restrict ourselves to consider only those sequence of CAs that solves the PP exactly without making any misclassification.

To have a feeling of the difficulty of this problem, two remarks are in place. First, except for the boundary conditions, relaxing any of the above conditions makes the PP trivial. For example, applying the CA rule 60 first to the 2nd bit, then the 3rd bit and so on till the last bit in the bit string, the value of the last bit is the parity of our input string. Second, one set of local CA rules is not sufficient to solve the PP for input string of *any* length. The reason is simple: if such a set could solve the PP, it would evolve an odd parity bit string $`\sigma `$ to all one. The uniformity condition implies that this set would evolve the concatenated even parity bit string $`\sigma \sigma `$ to all one as well. But this is absurd.

Thus, we need to invoke more than one CA rules to solve the PP. In fact, all we need is a few $`r=1`$ CA rules reported below in Wolfram’s notations .

* $`R_{222}`$ is the Wolfram elementary CA rule 222.

$`R_{222}`$:    000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111  0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

This rule replaces the two ending zeros of a string of zeros by ones, if the number of zeros in the string is more than two. Since we are using periodic boundary conditions, the (global) parity of the configuration does not change although locally parity does change. If we apply the rule $`N/2`$ times, then there will be no more consecutive zeros.
* $`R_{132}`$ is similar to $`R_{222}`$, but it replaces the ending ones by zeros. It also conserves parity.

$`R_{132}`$:    000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111  0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
* $`R_{76}`$ will flip a configuration of all ones to all zeros.

$`R_{76}`$:    000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111  0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
* $`R_{254}`$ preserves the configuration of all zeros. In fact, careful application of $`R_{254}`$ together with $`R_{76}`$ will put our result to the desired form.

$`R_{254}`$:    000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111  0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
* $`R_{184}`$ is the so-called traffic rule. It tries to move an one to the right if the site at right is a zero.

$`R_{184}`$:    000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111  0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
* $`R_{252}`$ is an auxiliary rule to change a zero right of an one to one.

$`R_{252}`$:    000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111  0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1

Let $`\sigma `$ be an arbitrary input bit string of length $`N`$, and $`P_\sigma `$ its parity. We write $`R\sigma `$ the resulting configuration after the rule $`R`$ is applied to $`\sigma `$ once, for any CA rule $`R`$.

*Theorem*. Let

$$\sigma _1\left(R_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}\right)^{\frac{N}{2}}\sigma ,$$
(1)
which means that we apply $`R_{222}`$ to $`\sigma `$ $`N/2`$ times, then apply $`R_{132}`$ $`N/2`$ times and back to $`R_{222}`$ and so on. The total number of time steps is $`2N/2^2`$.
(a) If $`N`$ is odd, then

$$\sigma _1=\{\begin{array}{cc}0^N\hfill & \text{if }P_\sigma =0\text{,}\hfill \\ 1^N\hfill & \text{if }P_\sigma =1\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(2)
where $`0^N`$ denotes a string of $`N`$ consecutive zeros, that is, the state at all the sites is zero; and similarly for $`1^N`$. Total number of time steps is $`(N1)^2/2`$.
(b) If $`N=2q`$, where $`q`$ is odd, then

$$\sigma _1=\{\begin{array}{cc}0^N\text{ or }1^N\hfill & \text{if }P_\sigma =0\text{,}\hfill \\ \text{other than }0^N\text{ and }1^N\hfill & \text{if }P_\sigma =1\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(3)
Applying the CA rules $`SR_{254}^{}{}_{}{}^{N/2}R_{76}`$, we can transform $`\sigma _1`$ to the form given in (a).

$$S\sigma _1=\{\begin{array}{cc}0^N\hfill & \text{if }P_\sigma =0\text{,}\hfill \\ 1^N\hfill & \text{if }P_\sigma =1\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4)
The total number of time steps is $`(N^2/2+N/2+1)`$.
(c) If $`N=2^mq`$, where $`m2`$ and $`q`$ is odd, let

$$TR_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{184}R_{252}$$
(5)
and

$$\sigma _2T^{m1}\sigma _1,$$
(6)
then

$$\sigma _2=\{\begin{array}{cc}0^N\text{ or }1^N\hfill & \text{if }P_\sigma =0\text{,}\hfill \\ \text{other than }0^N\text{ and }1^N\hfill & \text{if }P_\sigma =1\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(7)
Similar to (b), $`S\sigma _2`$ is either all zeros or all ones, depending on whether $`P_\sigma `$ is even or odd. The total number of steps is $`N^2/2+(m1)(N+2)+N/2+1`$.

*Remark*. If we are allowed to change the lattice size, then we do not need (b) and (c) of the Theorem to solve the parity classification problem. Suppose we are given a bit string with even length. To find out the parity of the number of ones in it, we just concatenate a single zero bit to the bit string. The resultant bit string will be in odd length and hence we are back to (a) of the Theorem.

The following two Lemmas are required to prove this Theorem.

*Lemma 1*. For any $`N`$, $`\sigma _1`$ could only be one of the following three forms: $`0^N`$, $`1^N`$ or $`(10^{2l1})^k`$, where $`l,k1`$ are integers, $`2lk=N`$ and $`P_\sigma =k(mod2)`$. (The notation $`(10^{2l1})^k`$ means, for example if $`l=2`$ and $`k=3`$, the bit string $`100010001000`$.)

*Proof*. It is obvious that both $`0^N`$ and $`1^N`$ are fixed points of $`R_{222}`$, $`R_{132}`$. Thus, in the rest of this proof, we shall only consider configurations $`\sigma `$ with both zeros and ones.

As we have discussed above, for any configuration $`\sigma `$, the string $`R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}\sigma `$ has no consecutive zeros. Thus, its general form will look like

$$R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}\sigma =\mathrm{}101^{n_1}01^{n_2}01\mathrm{},$$
(8)
where the numbers of ones between two zeros $`n_i`$ are greater than or equal one. (The trivial configuration $`1^N`$ is also possible.)

Since $`R_{132}`$ replaces the ending ones by zeros, if any of the $`n_i`$ is even, the corresponding string of ones will be completely annihilated after applying $`R_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}`$. For example,

$`R_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}(\mathrm{}0101111010\mathrm{})`$ $`=`$ $`R_{132}(\mathrm{}0100110010\mathrm{})`$ (9)
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{}0100000010\mathrm{}.`$ (10)
This example also shows that after a single pass of $`RR_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}`$, we cannot conclude that the number of zeros between two ones is odd. However, we can conclude that if there is a string of even number of zeros between two ones, after a single pass of $`R`$, the number of zeros in that string will increase by at least two. Thus, $`R^{\frac{N}{2}}\sigma `$ must be of the form

$$\mathrm{}10^{2n_1^{}+1}10^{2n_2^{}+1}1\mathrm{},$$
(11)
where $`n_i^{}`$ are non-negative integers (or the trivial cases $`0^N`$ or $`1^N`$).

We still need to show that the $`n_i^{}`$ are all equal. This can be illustrated by an example, consider the case $`N=8`$,

$`R_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}(10100000)`$ (12)
$`=`$ $`R_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}(10111011)`$ (13)
$`=`$ $`(00010001).`$ (14)
We see that the numbers of zeros between the ones tend to equalize, from one and five zeros to three zeros in this example. More precisely, $`R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}(10^{2n_1^{}+1}10^{2n_2^{}+1}1\mathrm{})`$ equals $`01^{n_1^{}+n_2^{}+1}01^{n_2^{}+n_3^{}+1}0\mathrm{}`$ up to a translation. So, after applying $`R`$ for sufficiently long time, the resultant string will be in the form $`1^N`$, $`0^N`$ or Eq. (11). Since the first two cases are fixed points of $`R`$, we only need to focus on the third case. If the resultant string is in the third form, then it is easy to check that the total number of ones does not increase after each application of $`R`$. Hence, eventually the number of ones in the string will stay constant under repeated application of $`R`$. And this happens if and only if $`n_i^{}`$ are all even or all odd. In this case,

$`R(10^{2n_1^{}+1}10^{2n_2^{}+1}1\mathrm{})`$ (15)
$`=`$ $`10^{1+n_2^{}+(n_1^{}+n_3^{})/2}10^{1+n_3^{}+(n_2^{}+n_4^{})/2}1\mathrm{}`$ (16)
up to a translation. Hence, the repeated application of $`R`$ equalizes the number of zeros between the ones; and a configuration in the form $`\left(10^{2n+1}\right)^l`$ is a fixed point of $`R`$. Finally, it is straight forward to check that at most $`\frac{N}{2}`$ applications of $`R`$ is enough to bring a bit string to the fixed points of the form $`0^N`$, $`1^N`$ or $`(10^{2l1})^k`$. (One of the worst cases is the configuration $`1(10)^{(N1)/2}`$ for $`N`$ odd.)

Since $`R_{132}`$ and $`R_{222}`$ conserve parity, $`k(mod2)`$ is equal to the parity of $`(10^{2l1})^k`$, which is just $`P_\sigma `$. This completes the proof of Lemma 1. $`\mathrm{}`$

*Lemma 2*. With the notations of the Theorem, we have

$`T\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}^N`$ $`=`$ $`0^N`$ (17)
$`T\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}^N`$ $`=`$ $`1^N`$ (18)
$`T(10^{2l1})^k`$ $`=`$ $`\{\begin{array}{cc}(10^{l1})^{2k}\hfill & \text{if }l\text{ is even,}\hfill \\ 1^N\hfill & \text{if }l=1\text{,}\hfill \\ 0^N\hfill & \text{if }l3\text{ is odd,}\hfill \end{array}`$ (22)
where $`k1`$.

*Proof*. Eq. (17) and Eq. (18) are trivial. For Eq. (22), we consider two cases. If $`l2`$,

$`T(10^{2l1})^k`$ $`=`$ $`\left(R_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{184}R_{252}\right)(10^{2l1})^k`$ (23)
$`=`$ $`\left(R_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{184}\right)(110^{2l2})^k`$ (24)
$`=`$ $`\left(R_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}\right)(1010^{2l3})^k`$ (25)
$`=`$ $`\{\begin{array}{cc}(10^{l1}10^{l1})^k\hfill & \text{if }l\text{ is even,}\hfill \\ (0^{2l})^k\hfill & \text{if }l\text{ is odd.}\hfill \end{array}`$ (28)
If $`l=1`$,

$`T(10)^k`$ $`=`$ $`\left(R_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{184}R_{252}\right)(10)^k`$ (29)
$`=`$ $`\left(R_{132}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{222}^{}{}_{}{}^{\frac{N}{2}}R_{184}\right)\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}^N`$ (30)
$`=`$ $`1^N.`$ (31)
This concludes the proof of Lemma 2. $`\mathrm{}`$

*Proof of the Theorem*. (a) If $`N`$ is odd, among the three forms provided by Lemma 1, $`(10^{2l1})^k`$ cannot be reached. Since parity is conserved, the final configuration can only be $`0^N`$ or $`1^N`$ according to the initial parity.

(b) If $`N=2q`$, parity of $`0^N`$ and $`1^N`$ are even, but the parity of $`(10^{2l1})^k`$ must be odd because $`k`$ is odd. Thus, we have proved Eq. (3). Now, by flipping the all ones to all zeros and changing all other configurations to all ones by the rules $`S`$, we put the final configuration to a form similar to (a).

(c) If $`P_\sigma =1`$, then $`P_\sigma =1=k(mod2)`$ and $`l=2^{m1}q^{}`$ where $`q^{}`$ is odd. By Lemma 2, we have

$`T^{m1}(10^{2l1})^k=T^{m1}(10^{2^mq^{}1})^k`$ (32)
$`=`$ $`T^{m2}(10^{2^{m1}q^{}1})^{2k}`$ (33)
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{}`$ (34)
$`=`$ $`(10^{2q^{}1})^{2^{m1}k}.`$ (35)
If $`P_\sigma =0`$, then $`l=2^{m^{}1}q^{}`$ where $`m^{}<m`$ and $`q^{}`$ is odd. The above equation does not reach the last line and $`T^{m1}(10^{2l1})^k`$ is $`0^N`$ or $`1^N`$. This completes the proof of the Theorem. $`\mathrm{}`$

To summarize, we show that it is impossible for any single set of CA rules to correctly compute the parity of a bit string. But surprisingly, we find a CA solution to the PP using a sequence of $`r=1`$ CAs. For an input bit string of length $`N`$, the worst case run time scales as $`\text{O}(N^2)`$. However, we have no idea if the present method has the shortest worst case run time or not. And since the PP is equivalent to the computation of the sum of a given bit string modulo two, our result implies that CA can be used to count the number of ones in a bit string modulo two. In other words, if we denote the number of ones in a bit string $`\sigma `$ by $`\mathrm{\#}\sigma `$, then one can use a sequence of CAs to compute the least significant bit of $`\mathrm{\#}\sigma `$ written in binary notation. Besides, the CA solution of the DCP for a bit string $`2^n1`$ long can then be regarded as a way to compute the most significant bit of $`\mathrm{\#}\sigma `$. Therefore, it is instructive to investigate the possibility of using CAs to compute any given bit of $`\mathrm{\#}\sigma `$ and hence to count the number of ones in a bit string provided that we have $`\text{O}(\mathrm{log}N)`$ copies. Along a similar line of thought, it is also worthwhile to look for CA solutions to the problem of addition over a finite ring or field.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work is supported in part by the Hong Kong SAR Government RGC grant HKU 7098/00P. H.F.C. is also supported in part by the Outstanding Young Researcher Award of the University of Hong Kong.


text:
# Supernova Remnants in Molecular Clouds

## Introduction

Massive stars are born in molecular clouds and those with masses $`>8M_{}`$ end their lives as supernovae after $`<3\times 10^7`$ years. This age is less than the typical age of molecular clouds so that the supernovae may explode in the vicinity of molecular cloud material. Early studies of the interaction assumed that the supernovae interacted directly with molecular cloud material, with density $`n_H=10^410^5`$ cm-3 S80 ,WMS80 . At these high densities, the supernova remnant evolves on a timescale of 10’s of years during which it is a luminous infrared source.

Such sources have not been clearly observed. However, supernova remnant interaction with molecular gas has been observed, starting with the remnant IC 443 deN79b . Continued observations have shown IC 443 to be one of the best cases of molecular cloud line emission vD93 . The emission appears to be associated with shock interaction with dense clumps, as expected in a molecular cloud; the point of view adopted here involves the expansion of the supernova remnant shell in the interclump medium of a cloud with some collisions with clumps C99 .

## The Supernova Surroundings

A crucial point for the evolution of supernova remnants in molecular clouds is the clumpy structure of these clouds. The basic picture that has emerged is of dense clumps with most of the mass embedded in a lower density interclump medium. Blitz B93  notes some properties of typical Giant Molecular Clouds: total mass $`10^5M_{}`$, diameter $`45`$ pc, H2 density in clumps of $`10^3`$ cm-3, interclump gas density in the range $`525`$ H atoms cm-3, and clump filling factor of $`28`$%. The clumps have an approximate power law mass spectrum, such that there are more small clumps, but most of the mass is in the large clumps. There have been recent attempts to model the clump properties in terms of MHD (magnetohydrodynamic) turbulence V00 ; W00 . In this case, the clumps may be transitory features in the molecular cloud.

If the dense clumps are confined by the interclump pressure, a pressure $`p/k10^5`$ K cm-3 is needed B93 . Even if the clumps are features in a fluctuating velocity field and are not necessarily confined, a comparable pressure is needed to support the clouds against gravitational collapse. The thermal pressure in the interclump gas is clearly too small and magnetic fields are a plausible pressure source. Studies of the polarization of the light from stars behind molecular clouds implies that the interclump magnetic field does have a uniform component H93 . Setting $`B_o^2/8\pi `$ equal to the above pressure yields $`B_o=19p_5^{1/2}\mu `$G, where $`B_o`$ is the uniform field component and $`p_5`$ is $`p/k`$ in units of $`10^5`$ K cm-3. However, a uniform magnetic field would not provide support along the magnetic field and would not explain the large line widths observed in clouds. An analysis of the polarization and Zeeman effect in the dark cloud L204 shows consistency with equal contributions to the pressure from a uniform field and a fluctuating, nonuniform component H93 . The uniform component is then $`B_o=13p_5^{1/2}\mu `$G. The magnetic field strength deduced in L204 is consistent with this value.

The molecular cloud can be influenced by stellar mass loss and photoionization by the progenitor star before the supernova. The effect of these processes can be to remove molecular gas from the vicinity of the central star. Draine and Woods DW91  found that stars with initial mass $`<20M_{}`$ in clouds of density $`n_H>10^2`$ cm-3 would have such a small effect that the surroundings could be treated as homogeneous in discussing the blast wave evolution. For a $`25M_{}`$ star, they found the presupernova effects to be small provided $`n_H>10^3`$ cm-3. In an interclump medium with $`n_H10`$ cm-3, Chevalier C99  found that stars with mass $`<12M_{}`$ would clear a region with radius $`<5`$ pc around the star because of the effects of photoionization and winds. The high pressure of the molecular cloud plays a role in limiting the effects of the progenitor star. If the massive star has a significant velocity ($`5\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$), the star can move into a region of undisturbed cloud material and the progenitor star effects are lessened DW91 . On the other hand, massive stars tend to form in clusters and the immediate environment of a star could be affected by nearby, more massive stars. In a sparse cluster, it is still possible for a massive star to interact with its natal cloud material.

## The Case of IC 443

The remnant IC 443 shows many of the features that characterize molecular cloud interaction. The remnant appears to be interacting with a relatively low mass molecular cloud ($`<10^4M_{}`$) that is primarily in front of the remnant C77 . This low mass suggests that there were few or no massive stars which would be likely to disrupt the cloud with their photoionizing fluxes and winds. A lower mass Type II supernova could thus interact directly with the molecular cloud. I take the distance to the remnant to be 1.5 kpc FK80 .

The morphology of the remnant is a shell in the molecular cloud region, with an apparent “break-out” region to the southwest (see AA94  for an X-ray image and C97  for a radio image). I consider the shell part of the remnant to be interacting with the molecular cloud. Fesen and Kirshner FK80  found that the spectra of the optical filaments in this region imply an electron density for the \[S II\] emitting region of $`<100`$ to 500 cm-3 and shock velocities in the range $`65100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. If the magnetic field does not limit the compression at a temperature $`10^4`$ K, the preshock density implied by the higher density filaments is $`1020`$ cm-3. The filaments with a lower density may have their compression limited by the magnetic field. These observations point to a radiative phase of evolution for the remnant in the interclump medium of the molecular cloud. The cooling shock front is expected to build up a shell of HI C74 . For an ambient density of $`15`$ cm-3 and a radius of 7.4 pc, the total swept-up mass is $`1000M_{}`$ for a half-sphere. HI observations suggest that there is $`1000M_{}`$ of shocked HI in the northeast shell part of the remnant, with velocities up to $`110\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ GH79 . These results are in quantitative accord with expectations for a $`10^{51}`$ erg supernova in a medium with $`n_o=15`$ cm-3 C99 ; C74 , if account is taken of the fact that some energy has been released in the blow-out region.

In a restricted region across the central, eastern part of IC 443, a rich spectrum of molecular emission has been observed vD93 ; R95b . A set of spectroscopically distinct CO clumps has been labelled A–G deN79b ; H86 , although the H2 emission indicates that the clumps are associated through a filamentary molecular structure B90 . These clumps, with sizes $``$1 pc, have masses of $`3.941.6M_{}`$ as deduced from 12CO lines D92 . The corresponding densities, $`n_H<500`$ cm-3, are low but should be regarded as lower limits because the 12CO emission is assumed to be optically thin. Also, there is likely to be density structure within individual clumps. Analysis of absorption in one place yielded a preshock density of $`n(\mathrm{H}_2)3,000`$ cm-3 vD93 . The properties of these clumps are consistent with those seen in quiescent molecular clouds. High spatial resolution is possible in the H2 infrared lines, which show clumps down to a scale of 1′′ ($`2\times 10^{16}`$ cm$`=0.007`$ pc at a distance of 1.5 kpc) but not smaller R95b . The emission has a knotty appearance that is unlike the filamentary appearance of the optical emission in IC 443 and the H2 emission in the Cygnus Loop R95b . This type of structure is consistent with the possible fractal structure of molecular clumps W00 .

The 2MASS survey has provided a $`K_s`$ band image of IC 443 that is likely to be dominated by shocked H2 emission RJ00 . The image clearly shows a ridge of emission passing from the south to the central part of the remnant. The $`J`$ and $`H`$ band images with the 2MASS survey show emission from the northeast part of the remnant, which is likely to be \[Fe II\] emission from the $`100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ shock wave. Observations of the \[O I\] 63 $`\mu `$m line with ISO (Infrared Space Observatory) show that it is particularly strong in the northeast shell region RJ00 , which implies that it is also from the $`100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ shock. This is consistent with expectations that most of the \[O I\] 63 $`\mu `$m line luminosity should be from the shock front in the interclump medium C99 .

The interpretation of the molecular line strengths is still controversial, but the emission is most consistent with that from a partially dissociating $`J`$(jump)-type shock vD93 ; R95b ; B90 ; R95a . The required shock velocity, $`2530\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, is consistent with the velocities observed in the strongest emission. The dissociated H2 can be observed as a high column density of shocked HI at the positions of the clumps BS86 . Following C99 , I interpret the clump shock as being driven by the radiative shell in the interclump region (Fig. 1); this can generate a pressure in the interaction region significantly above that expected for ram pressure equilibrium. For a clump shock velocity $`v=2530\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and a radiative shell velocity $`v_{rs}=100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, the ratio of clump density to shell density $`\rho _{cl}/\rho _{rs}`$ is in the range $`5.49.0`$. The density ratio can vary significantly with relatively little effect on the shock velocity. The clump shock velocity is consistent with shell density $`n_{rs}=500`$ cm-3 and preshock clump density $`n_{cl}=3000`$ cm-3, which are plausible values. The ratio of postshock pressure in the clump to that in the interclump medium (with $`n_o=15`$ cm-3) is 18.

The column density through the radiative shell is $`N_Hn_oR/310^{20}`$ cm-2. For $`n_{cl}=3000`$ cm-3, the column density through the clumps is $`10^{22}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{pc}}`$ cm-2, where $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{pc}}`$ is the path length through the clump in pc. The larger observed clumps are thus expected to be passed over by the radiative shell and left in the interior of the remnant. For clumps with a size $`<0.02`$ pc, the shock front breaks out of the clump first and there is the possibility of further acceleration by the radiative shell. The initial shock front through the clump may not dissociate molecules, which are then accelerated by the shell. Low column densities of high velocity molecular gas can be produced in this way. High velocity molecular gas has been observed in IC 443 at the edge of one of the clumps T94 .

Cesarsky et al. Ce99  have observed H2 rotational lines lines from clump G with ISO. They find that the line fluxes are consistent with a shock velocity $`30\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, a preshock density $`10^4`$ cm-3, and an evolutionary time of $`1,0002,000`$ years. At constant velocity, the shock has penetrated $`0.030.06`$ pc into the clump. This result is consistent with the clump interaction scenario.

Another important diagnostic of the molecular interaction is the OH 1720 MHz maser line, which Claussen et al. C97  find to be associated with clump G in IC 443. Lockett et al. L99  examined the pumping of the maser and found that the emission implies temperatures of $`50125`$ K and densities $`10^5`$ cm-3; the shock must be $`C`$-type. An important aspect of the OH maser observations is that it is possible to estimate the line-of sight magnetic field from the Zeeman effect. Although they do not have a result for IC 443, Claussen et al. C97  find $`B_{||}0.2`$ mG for the maser spots in W28 and W44. This field strength is compatible with the field strength expected in the radiative shells of the supernova remnants C99 .

In addition to the molecular line emission, IC 443 is a source of nonthermal continuum emission. At low frequencies, the power law radio spectrum is likely to be explained by synchrotron emission. The observed spectral index, $`F_\nu \nu ^{0.36}`$ EM85 , implies a particle energy spectrum of the form $`N(E)E^{1.72}`$. Duin and van der Laan D75  explained the radio emission by the shock compression of the ambient magnetic field and relativistic electrons. First order Fermi accleration should be included and is consistent with the observations if ambient cosmic rays are accelerated C99 ; BC82 . In the shock acceleration of ambient particles, the particle spectrum is maintained in the postshock region if the particle spectrum is flatter that $`N(E)E^2`$. Chevalier C99  argued that the relatively flat spectrum may be consistent with the Galactic cosmic ray electron spectrum, which is observed to be flat at low energies, perhaps because of Coulomb losses in the interstellar medium.

If particles are injected into first order shock acceleration at a low energy, the spectrum tends to $`N(E)E^2`$ in the postshock region in the test particle limit. However, Ostrowski O99  found that second order Fermi acceleration in the turbulent medium near the shock could give rise to a relatively flat spectrum, as observed in IC 443. In another calculation including shock acceleration of electrons from a thermal pool, Bykov et al. B00  found that the combination of nonlinear effects on the shock compression and free-free absorption of the radiation could give rise to the observed spectrum (Fig. 2).

An additional constraint on nonthermal particles comes from the $`\gamma `$-ray detection of IC 443 by the EGRET experiment on CGRO (Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory) E96 , although the poor spatial resolution of the CGRO still leaves some doubt about the detection. Assuming that the detection is correct, the emission mechanisms that might contribute to the radiation are electron bremsstrahlung, pion decays, and inverse Compton radiation G98 . A number of studies have fit the $`\gamma `$-ray spectrum of IC 443 with these processes S97 ; B99 , but they have assumed adiabatic shock wave dynamics. In view of the strong evidence for radiative shocks in IC 443, Bykov et al. B00  studied electron injection and acceleration in the context of radiative shock waves in a relatively dense medium. A model with injection of electrons from the thermal pool could approximately fit the observations, with bremsstrahlung being the dominant radiation mechanism (see Fig. 2). As can be seen in Fig. 2, the upper limit on TeV $`\gamma `$-rays from the Whipple Observatory Bu98  places an important constraint on the high energy part of the particle spectrum.

The continuum radio image of IC 443 C97  shows that although there is some correlation with the molecular emission RJ00 , the shocked molecular clumps do not stand out as sources of radio synchrotron emission. In hard X-ray observations with ASCA, Keohane et al. K97  found two emission regions in IC 443, which have also been found in BeppoSAX observations BB00 . Recent observations with Chandra show that the brighter source is likely to be a pulsar wind nebula Cl00 , as indicated by earlier observations C99 . The other source may be associated with the molecular interaction along the southeast rim of the remnant. Keohane et al. K97  suggested that the emission could be synchrotron emission from shock accelerated electrons, but the slow shock velocity in the radiative shock model makes such an interpretation unlikely C99 . Bykov et al. B00  suggested that the emission could be bremsstrahlung from electrons accelerated in ionizing shock waves in relatively dense gas. The evidence for $`C`$-shocks giving rise to OH maser emission implies non-ionizing shock waves, but different conditions could prevail in different clumps. The prediction is that the shock waves in the interclump gas can produce bremsstrahlung $`\gamma `$-ray emission, while the shock waves in the clump gas can in some cases produce hard X-ray emission.

The radio emission from IC 443 is relatively highly polarized for a supernova remnant, indicating a preferred direction for the magnetic field in the shell K72 . The field direction agrees with that in the ambient cloud, as determined by the polarization of starlight. This is consistent with an ordered magnetic field in the cloud, as mentioned for molecular cloud support in the previous section.

The ordered field observed in radio emission refers to the field in the swept up radiative shell. However, there may also be a uniform component to the magnetic field in the hot interior of the radiative remnant, which would allow heat conduction to operate in the interior. IC 443 is observed to have a relatively isothermal interior with $`T10^7`$ K P88 . An isothermal interior with enhanced central X-ray emission is a characteristic of a number of remnants that are interacting with molecular gas. Shelton et al. S99  have discussed a conduction model for the remnant W44, which is a member of this class. They find that the model X-ray emission distribution profile is close to that observed, although it is not as centrally concentrated.

## Discussion and Future Prospects

After a period of neglect, the study of supernova remnants interacting with molecular material has entered a phase of more intense study. In addition to IC 443, a number of remnants have come in for study. One reason for the increase is the re-discovery of the OH 1720 MHz maser line emission as a signpost of molecular clump interaction. Although initial observations were made more than 30 years ago GR68 , it was not until after the recent observations by Frail et al. FGS94  that the importance of the emission for remnant studies was realized. Surveys of remnants Fr96 ; Gr97  have yielded 17 remnants with the OH maser line emission out of 160 observed. In addition, Koralesky et al. Ko98  made VLA observations searching for maser emission toward 20 remnants and found shock excited emission in 3 of them. When remnants with OH maser emission are observed in the CO line, molecular clumps have been observed in a number of cases. Frail and Mitchell FM98  found CO clumps associated with the OH emission in W28, W44, 3C 391 and Reynoso and Mangum RM00  found such clumps in three other remnants.

Another source of progress has been the availability of infrared observations, especially recently with ISO. ISO has been instrumental in detecting atomic fine structure lines, molecular lines, and dust continuum emission from remnants that appear to be interacting with molecular gas RR96 ; RR98 ; RR00 . Of particular interest is the study by Reach and Rho RR00  of emission from W28, W44, and 3C 391. They found evidence for interaction with a clumpy medium in which higher pressures were attained at higher densities, as discussed for IC 443. This situation can be explained by a dense radiative shell interacting with molecular clumps. More recently, the 2MASS survey has provided near-infrared imaging of the sky. The 2MASS $`K_s`$ band image of IC 443 is likely to be dominated by shocked H2 emission RJ00 . The detection of supernova remnants in this band thus provides a good indication that molecular interaction is taking place. The advent of the future NASA infrared observatories SOFIA and SIRTF will allow more complete studies of the density structure in shocked molecular clouds.

Reach and Rho RR99  suggest that the mass of compressed gas in the shocked clump in 3C 391 is sufficiently high that self-gravity is significant and that it could eventually form one or more stars. Star formation in shocked supernova clumps cannot be directly verified because the clump collapse time is considerably longer than the age of the supernova remnants. By the time stars have formed, it is difficult to unambiguously discern a supernova trigger. One reason for interest in supernova triggered star formation has been the evidence for extinct radioactivities in the early solar system and this has stimulated computer simulations of the process FB96 ; VC99 . The observations of supernova remnants in molecular clouds can be useful in providing realistic initial conditions for such simulations.

In cases where massive stars form in a dense cluster, the combined effects of the photoionizing radiation and winds can effectively clear molecular cloud material from the immediate vicinity of the stars. However, observations of the Trapezium cluster in Orion have shown the presence of small, dense gaseous regions, which O’Dell et al. O93  have identified as proplyds (protoplanetary disks). The eventual supernova explosion of one of the massive stars interacts with the disk material; nearby disks are disrupted, but ones farther out can survive C00 . These interactions may have observable consequences in supernova remnants.

The study of supernova remnants in molecular clouds has attracted renewed attention in the past few years and can be expected to blossom with the advent of new observatories and space missions, such as the ALMA millimeter array, the SOFIA and SIRTF infrared observatories, and the GLAST $`\gamma `$-ray mission. These observatories will make possible the detailed study of molecular shock waves and $`\gamma `$-ray emission from relativistic particles. The shock waves in molecular clouds provide an important probe of molecular cloud structure, which remains uncertain. A combination of hydrodynamic studies with emission calculations will be useful in elucidating this area.

## acknowledgments

This work was supported in part by NASA grants NAG5-8232 and NAG5-8088.