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# The Clustering of Hot and Cold IRAS Galaxies: The Redshift Space Correlation Function

## 1 Introduction

The relation between the distribution of galaxies and the distribution of mass is now one of the most important problems in large-scale structure. Empirically, it has been found that different galaxy types have different clustering amplitudes and hence that galaxies are biased tracers of the mass distribution. Evidently, we need to understand the physical mechanisms responsible for these biases if we are to establish the connection between galaxy tracers and the mass. This problem can be understood in terms of two related questions: (i) How does the clustering of a galaxy sample depend on the properties of the galaxies? and (ii) How do the properties of galaxies depend on their local environment?

Many ideas have been put forward as to how the environment may modify galaxy properties, from schematic ideas concerning feedback in the formation process (White & Rees 1978; Dekel & Rees 1987) to hydrodynamical simulations of galaxy formation incorporating cooling and dissipation (e.g. Katz & Gunn 1991; Navarro & White 1993; Pearce et al. 1999). Over the next few years we can expect major advances in hydrodynamic simulations employing parallel computers and there is a real prospect of understanding the relationship between galaxy morphologies and environment within the context of specific theories of cosmological fluctuations. We can hope that such numerical simulations will eventually be able to provide detailed predictions of the spatial distribution of galaxies as a function of their stellar content, rotation velocity, star-formation rate, and morphological type.

The simplest bias schemes are those based on the statistics of high density peaks (Kaiser 1984, Mo & White 1996). Since the optical magnitude of a galaxy is correlated to the depth of the potential via the Tully Fisher relation for spirals and $`D_n\sigma `$ relation for ellipticals, this would suggest that the brightest galaxies will be more strongly correlated than fainter galaxies. Realistic galaxy formation models rely on feedback mechanisms to limit star-formation, either acting internally within each galaxy or involving interactions with other galaxies and the intergalactic medium. So galaxies in regions of high local galaxy density are likely to have a reduced star-formation rate (SFR). Indeed this is confirmed by the observation that later-type optical galaxies, which have higher SFRs, have a much lower clustering amplitude than earlier galaxy types (e.g. Rosenberg, Salzer & Moody 1994; Loveday et al. 1995; Loveday, Tresse & Maddox 1999).

Galaxies with a high SFR tend to be bright in the far infra-red (FIR) because of the thermal emission from dust heated by young stars. Thus the observations that IRAS galaxies (selected on their $`60\mu `$m flux) tend to avoid rich galaxy clusters, and have a lower clustering amplitude are consistent with this general picture. In this paper we divide the PSCz sample of IRAS galaxies into subsamples based on their FIR colour. Since the galaxies with warmer FIR colours are those with higher SFR, we can further test the dependence on star-formation rate. Mann, Saunders & Taylor (1996) selected warm and cool sub-samples of IRAS galaxies from the QDOT survey based on their 60$`\mu m`$/100$`\mu m`$ flux ratio, and found marginal evidence that warmer galaxies are more strongly clustered than cooler galaxies, the opposite to what is expected from the morphology density relation. However they did not consider the result very significant compared to the expected cosmic variance.

Using optical galaxy samples, a number of authors have found indications of changes of the clustering amplitude with galaxy luminosity, (e.g. Valls-Gabaud, Alimi & Blanchard 1989; Park et al. 1994; Moore et al. 1994; Loveday et al. 1995; Benoist et al. 1996) but the samples are small and the observed amplitude shifts do not have a high statistical significance. The expected luminosity dependence for IRAS galaxy samples is less clear, since the FIR luminosity of a galaxy is likely to depend on both the mass of its dark halo and its specific SFR. If the FIR luminosity is correlated to the halo mass, then brighter galaxies should have a higher clustering amplitude. On the other hand, a high SFR will make a galaxy more luminous, and galaxies with a high star-formation rate tend to have weaker clustering. It is not easy to predict which of these is the dominant effect. Observationally Szapudi et al. (2000) and Beisbart & Kerscher (2000) have used mark correlation functions with volume limited sub-samples to examine the luminosity dependence of clustering in the PSCz survey. Over the narrow range of luminosities they consider they concluded that there is no significant luminosity dependence.

In this paper we investigate clustering amplitude for different sub-samples of galaxies from the PSCz survey. We begin by summarizing the relevant aspects of the PSCz survey and describe various sub-samples that we will study here. In Section 3 we show our methods and in Section 4 we give our results for the whole sample and consider how the amplitude of the redshift space autocorrelation function depends on the colour and luminosity selection of the galaxies. Finally, we discuss our conclusions in Section 5.

## 2 The PSC Redshift survey

### 2.1 Description

Galaxies for the PSCz were selected from the IRAS Point Source Catalogue (Beichman et al. 1988) by positional, identificational flux and colour criteria designed to accept almost all galaxies while keeping contamination by Galactic sources to an acceptable level. The significant differences compared with the QDOT survey (Lawrence et al. 1999), were that the colour criteria were relaxed to avoid excluding previously uncatalogued galaxies with unusual (especially cool) colours and the sky coverage is increased to 84 per cent by including areas of high cirrus contamination. These changes increase the contamination of the galaxy catalogue from local galactic sources (stars, planetary nebulae, cirrus etc) but ensure the sample has a higher completeness. The contaminating Galactic sources were excluded by a combination of IRAS and optical properties (from sky survey plates), and where necessary spectroscopy. Redshifts were taken from all available published or unpublished sources; principally Huchra’s ZCAT, the LEDA database, the 1.2Jy and QDOT surveys. Also 4500 new redshifts were taken on the Isaac Newton Telescope, the Anglo-Australian Telescope, the Cerro-Tololo 1.5-m and Cananea 2.1-m telescopes. In total the catalogue contains 14677 redshifts and the median redshift is $`0.028`$. The uniformity and completeness of the catalogue are discussed by Saunders et al. (2000).

The redshift distribution of the galaxies is shown in Figure 1. It can be seen that the peak of the distribution is near $`z=0.02`$, and there is a tail which extends out to beyond $`z=0.1`$. This tail means that there are over 1200 galaxies in the survey with a redshift $`>`$ 0.08.

For our present analysis, only galaxies with a redshift $`>`$ 0.004, corresponding to a recession velocity of 1200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ were selected, so that local effects and the velocity uncertainties of around 120 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ were less significant.

### 2.2 Sub-samples

#### 2.2.1 Colour sub-samples

In order to investigate the dependence of clustering on the temperature of the galaxies, we used the addscan $`60\mu m`$ and $`100\mu m`$ fluxes ($`f_{60}`$ and $`f_{100}`$) to sub-divide the parent redshift catalogue into three sub-samples: hot galaxies, with $`f_{100}/f_{60}<1.7`$ ; warm galaxies, with $`1.7<f_{100}/f_{60}<2.3`$; and cold galaxies, with $`f_{100}/f_{60}>2.3`$. These boundaries correspond to blackbody temperatures of around 31 and 28K, and were chosen to give roughly equal numbers in each sub-sample. The actual numbers of galaxies in the sub-samples were 4452, 4388 and 4107 respectively. The mean $`f_{100}/f_{60}`$ colour ratios for the hot, warm and cold sub-samples were 1.31, 1.98 and 2.91 respectively, corresponding to black-body temperatures of about 34K, 30K and 26.5K respectively. The mean for the whole catalogue is 2.05, corresponding to a black-body temperature of around 29.5K.

The redshift distributions for the sub-samples are plotted in Figure 1(a) and it can be seen that the cooler samples tend to peak at a slightly lower redshift than the hotter samples. This reflects the correlation between colour and absolute luminosity as plotted in Figure 2: cooler galaxies tend to be fainter, and so are only seen nearby. Nevertheless, these differences in redshift distributions are smaller than the difference for luminosity selected sub-samples, as discussed in the next section.

The angular distribution of these sub-samples are plotted in Figure 3. It can be seen that these samples show no obvious gradients as a function of position on the sky, and also that the cooler sample appears to be more strongly clustered. Figure 4 shows the projection of the galaxies on to a plane along the celestial equator. Again the cooler sample appears more clustered than the warmer samples. Though apparently quite significant, these visual impressions should be treated with caution. The cooler sample is shallower than the warmer samples, so the angular clustering would be stronger, even if the samples had the same spatial clustering. Also the cool sample has a higher space density than the warmer samples, and this may enhance the visual appearance of clustering.

#### 2.2.2 Absolute luminosity sub-samples

The parent sample was also divided into sub-samples of absolute luminosity at $`60\mu m`$: faint galaxies, with $`\mathrm{log}_{10}(L_{60})<9.6`$; and bright galaxies with $`\mathrm{log}_{10}(L_{60})>9.6`$, where $`L_{60}=4\pi d^2f_{60}`$ and $`d`$ is the luminosity distance to the galaxy (we assumed $`\mathrm{\Omega }=1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ to determine the geometry, but at the distances considered here, cosmological effects are negligible.) The units of $`L_{60}`$ are $`L_{}h^2.`$222$`h`$ is the Hubble constant in units of $`100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$  Note that the usual definition of an ultra-luminous IRAS galaxy corresponds to $`\mathrm{log}_{10}(L_{60})\mathrm{}>11.4`$ (Soifer et al 1987), and so the lower limit of our brighter sample is a factor of $``$ 60 fainter than ultra-luminous galaxy samples.

The bright sample has a higher mean redshift, and hence covers a much larger volume, but the galaxies are a more dilute sampling of the density field and so a larger number is needed to give a similar number of small separation pairs. Hence the faint and bright samples were chosen to have 4719 and 8228 galaxies respectively.

The redshift distribution for these sub-samples is shown in Figure 1(b). Since the parent sample is flux limited, the low luminosity galaxies have a sharply defined upper redshift limit corresponding to the distance where the observed flux equals the flux limit. For the more luminous galaxies, the clustering signal is dominated by the volume at higher redshifts. This means that the clustering measurements for the two samples come from almost independent volumes, and so cosmic variance introduces a large uncertainty in the comparison. The clustering measurements for colour selected sub-samples are less affected by cosmic variance because they cover very similar volumes, and so their comparison should be more reliable.

#### 2.2.3 Volume limited sub-samples

The cosmic variance between the luminosity sub-samples can be partly overcome by using volume limited sub-samples. To do this, the parent catalogue was split into sub-samples limited by distance and also by absolute luminosity. Galaxies within a sphere of radius $`x`$, centred on us, are included only if their absolute luminosity ($`L_{60}`$) is greater than $`4\pi x^2f_{min}`$, where $`f_{min}`$ is the flux-limit of the survey or sample (0.6 Jy for the full PSCz survey). Without galaxy evolution these samples will be homogeneous. Unfortunately the numbers of galaxies in these samples, shown in Table 3, are rather small.

IRAS galaxies are known to show very rapid evolution (Saunders et al 1990), and this could introduce a radial gradient in space density in the volume-limited samples. Figure 5 shows the galaxy number density as a function of radius, normalised so that the maximum radius of the volume is 1, for the samples with radius 100, 150, 200 and 300$`h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. No significant gradients are apparent, and so we assume a constant density in our clustering estimates. These sub-samples allow another test for a luminosity trend in the clustering as the larger volumes are limited to brighter galaxies than the smaller volumes. Note that the different volumes have a significant fraction of galaxies in common, so that the results for different volume scales are not completely independent.

### 2.3 PSCz mock catalogues

Large N-body simulations from Cole et al. (1998) were used to create mock PSCz surveys. The simulations used the $`AP^3M`$ code of Couchman (1991) loaded with $`192^3`$ particles of mass $`1.64\times 10^{12}\mathrm{\Omega }_0h^1M_{}`$ in a box with a co-moving size of $`345.6h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. More details can be found in Cole et al. (1998). For this analysis three different cosmological models have been considered. They are a spatially flat low density universe model ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }CDM`$) with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=0.25`$, a spatially flat universe model ($`SCDM\mathrm{\Gamma }_{0.25}`$) with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=1.0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=0.25`$, and finally a spatially flat universe model ($`SCDM_{cobe}`$) with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=1.0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=0.5`$, normalised to match the amplitude of the COBE data. For pure CDM-type models the shape parameter, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Omega }h`$.

The galaxy catalogues were extracted from the numerical simulations by first identifying a population of objects with similar properties to the Local Group (LG). Then an observer is placed by considering the observational constraints of peculiar velocity, local overdensity and shear. All points within a sphere of $`120h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ radius around the observer are included, and the frame is rotated so that the motion of the observer is the same as the LG peculiar velocity. Note that this sphere radius is less than the size of the PSCz survey. A luminosity was randomly assigned to each galaxy in the mock realizations to mimic the corresponding observational properties. The PSCz density is reproduced by using the PSCz selection function to reject points and also to randomly assign a flux to each point. Unsurveyed regions are rejected using the PSCz mask to give the same sky coverage as the real catalogue. Each mass point is associated with a galaxy so the linear bias parameter, $`b=1.0`$. Lastly the bias against early-type galaxies in the original IRAS survey is introduced by rejecting an appropriate fraction of galaxies in clusters the cores of clusters, which is meant to reproduce Dressler’s morphology-density relation (Dressler 1980). The resulting mock surveys have approximately the same correlation function, redshift distribution and flux distribution as the real PSCz sample.

We calculated the correlation function for the 10 realizations of each model, and used the standard deviation about the mean of $`s_0`$ and $`\gamma `$ to estimate of the uncertainties in these measurements for the real sample. These catalogues can also be split into the same bright and faint sub-samples as the real catalogue. Again, the standard deviation between the realizations gives an estimate of the uncertainty on the measurements for the real data, and so allows more reliable estimates of the significance level of any variations seen in the real data. Colours can be included in the mocks by considering Figure 2, which we modelled as a linear relation between $`\mathrm{log}_{10}(f_{100}/f_{60})`$ and $`\mathrm{log}_{10}(L_{60})`$ with a Gaussian dispersion about the mean. Each galaxy can then be assigned a colour according to its luminosity, $`\mathrm{log}_{10}(f_{100}/f_{60})=A\mathrm{log}_{10}(L_{60})+B+C`$, where $`A=0.117`$, $`B=1.427`$ and $`C`$ is a random number selected from a Gaussian distribution with variance of 0.2. Then colour sub-samples can be selected and tested in the same way as the real data. Since the luminosities were assigned at random to the mock galaxies, and the colours are based on the luminosities, the clustering in the mocks is independent of luminosity and colour.

## 3 Methods for estimating the redshift space autocorrelation function $`\xi `$

There has been considerable interest in analysing the best way to estimate the autocorrelation function from redshift surveys (e.g. Landy & Szalay 1993; Vogeley & Szalay 1996; Hamilton 1997a,b). Reliable and unbiased estimates can be obtained by cross-correlating the real data with an artificial unclustered catalogue which has the same selection functions in angle on the sky and in redshift. We create this catalogue by generating random positions uniformly over the sky, and rejecting positions behind the mask which defines the boundaries of the real data. For each position we then assign a redshift from a distribution which matches the observed data.

We investigated several methods to generate the redshift distribution for the random catalogues: random shuffling of the positions on the sky relative to the redshifts; random shuffling followed by adding a further random velocity from a Gaussian distribution with $`\sigma =500,1000`$ or $`1500\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$; and generating a random redshift distribution to match an analytic fit to the selection function (Saunders et al. 2000). For the full catalogue we found that random shuffling with $`1000\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ smoothing and the analytic fit gave indistinguishable results for $`\xi `$. Rather than calculating a best fit selection function for each sub-sample we simply generated appropriate sub-samples using the $`1000\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ smoothed randomized distribution. For each random catalogue we generated 12 times the number of random points as real galaxies for the whole sample, and 20 times as many for the sub-samples.

### 3.1 Flux limited sample methods

The estimate of $`\xi (s)`$ we used (Landy & Szalay 1993) is given by

$$\xi (s)=\frac{DD2DR+RR}{RR},$$
(1)
where $`DD`$ is the weighted sum over galaxy pairs with separation $`s`$ in redshift space; $`RR`$ is the weighted sum of pairs with the same separation in the random catalogue; and $`DR`$ is the weighted sum of galaxy-random pairs. In each of these sums, the pairs at separation $`s`$ are weighted by a factor

$$w_{ij}=\frac{1}{(1+4\pi n(z_i)J_3(s))(1+4\pi n(z_j)J_3(s))},$$
(2)
where $`n(z_i)`$ is the space density of observed galaxies at the redshift $`z_i`$ for galaxy $`i`$, and $`J_3(s)=_0^s\xi (r)r^2𝑑r`$ (Efstathiou 1988).

To calculate $`\xi (s)`$ we first calculated $`\xi (s)`$ with a standard pair weighting of the sample and fitted a power law to the results for $`1<s<10h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. We then recalculated the correlation function using $`J_3`$ from this best fit power law, truncated so that the maximum $`J_3`$ is 1500. It was found that only one iteration was needed to produce a stable result with a consistent $`J_3`$ and $`\xi `$. The calculation of $`\xi (s)`$ is relatively insensitive to the precise form of the $`J_3`$ weighting employed. We then fit the final correlation function with a power law of the form:

$$\xi (s)=\left(\frac{s}{s_0}\right)^\gamma .$$
(3)
We calculate the correlation function for mock catalogues in the same way as for the real sample.

### 3.2 Volume limited sub-sample methods

For the volume-limited sub-samples a different technique was used to estimate the correlation functions. Following the method of Croft et al. (1997), we used a maximum likelihood approach that assumes that each distinct galaxy pair is an independent object. This technique uses the fact that $`1+\xi (s)`$ can be considered as the probability distribution for galaxy pairs as a function of separation. Thus a power law $`\xi `$ can be fitted directly to the galaxy pair distribution without the need to specify arbitrary bins of pair separation. The resulting power law parameters tend to be more robust than fitting to a binned version of $`\xi `$, especially for small samples. The homogeneity of volume limited samples means that simple unit pair weighting yields the best results.

If galaxy pairs were independent, the calculated likelihood contours would directly provide 1-$`\sigma `$ uncertainties in the best-fit parameters, equivalent to the Poisson error in the pair counts. Since galaxy pairs are correlated, the effective number of pairs is reduced, and so the uncertainties are increased by a factor $`(1+4\pi nJ_3)`$. These corrected Poisson estimates still do not allow for any uncertainty introduced by the variance in mean density on the scale of sample size. We used a simple approach to include this effect, by considering the variance in the mean density within the sample volume, $`\mathrm{var}(\delta n/n)=3J_3/R^3`$, where $`R`$ is the radius of the volume. This introduces an uncertainty in $`\xi `$, which we add in quadrature to the corrected Poisson estimates.

For volumes with radius $`R100h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ we have also analysed the ten $`\mathrm{\Lambda }CDM`$ mock catalogues using the same method. The $`\mathrm{\Lambda }CDM`$ model was chosen because its clustering amplitude is the closest match to the observed amplitude. The standard deviation between results provides an independent estimate of the uncertainties in $`s_0`$ for each sample. For the volumes we consider (with radius $`R50h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$) the value of $`J_3`$ is roughly constant, and we find that the two methods agree to $``$10% if we choose $`J_3=1500`$. For volumes with radius $`R>100h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ the mock catalogues are too small, and so we have to rely on the analytical approximation to estimate the uncertainties.

## 4 Results

### 4.1 Full sample

Our estimate of $`\xi (s)`$ for the full sample is shown in Figure 6. The power law fit gives $`s_0=4.77\pm 0.20`$ and $`\gamma =1.30\pm 0.04`$. The errors are estimated from the standard deviation between the ten realizations of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }CDM`$ mock catalogues. We calculated the value of $`J_3`$ and found it to be $`1500\pm 400`$ at a scale of $`75h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. The error on the $`J_3`$ result is from the standard deviation of the mock realization results.

### 4.2 Colour sub-samples

Our estimates of the redshift-space correlation functions for the three colour sub-samples are shown in Figure 7. The error bar for each point shows the standard deviation between 10 realizations of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }CDM`$ mock catalogues. It is clear that over the range $`1<s<10h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ the amplitude of $`\xi `$(s) is higher by about a factor of 1.5 for the cooler sub-sample. Fitting a power law to the data over the range of $`1<s<10h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ gives parameters as shown in Table 1, clearly confirming the increase in clustering amplitude for cooler galaxies. Figure 8 shows $`\chi ^2`$ contours for the hot and cold sub-sample, and suggests that trend is significant at about the $`2\sigma `$ level.

Since the best-fit $`s_0`$ and $`\gamma `$ are correlated, we have also fitted the data using a fixed value for $`\gamma `$, set to the best fit value for the full sample, $`\gamma =1.30`$. The resulting $`s_0`$ values for the three different colour sub-samples are listed in Table 1 and plotted as a function of mean colour in Figure 9. The trend of increasing $`s_0`$ for warmer galaxies is clearly apparent at about the $`3\sigma `$ level. A simple linear regression to the points yields

$$\mathrm{log}_{10}(s_0)=0.24\mathrm{log}_{10}(\frac{f_{100}}{f_{60}})+0.61.$$
(4)
Analyzing colour selected sub-samples from the mock catalogues shows no significant difference in amplitude between the hot and cold sub-samples. This is as expected since we assigned the colours at random, but the measurements provide an important check that there are no subtle biases in our algorithms.

### 4.3 Luminosity sub-samples

The estimates for the two luminosity sub-samples are shown in Figure 10. The error bars are derived from the scatter between ten realizations of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }CDM`$ mock galaxy catalogues. It is clear that there is very little difference between the two sub-samples. The power law fit parameters are shown in Table 2. These parameters show no significant difference when the errors are taken into account.

For all mock catalogues we found no difference between the results for the faint and bright sub-samples within the errors. This is as expected since we assigned the luminosities at random, but the measurements provide an important check that there are no subtle biases in our algorithms.

### 4.4 Volume limited sub-samples

Our results from the volume limited sub-samples are shown in Table 3 and displayed in Figure 11. Although there is clearly a hint of a trend of reducing amplitude with scale, it can be seen that the error bars are too large to say that this is a statistically significant relation.

The minimum absolute luminosity in the volume limited samples increases with the radius of the volume, so the mean luminosity also increases. Figure 12 explicitly shows the clustering amplitude as a function of the mean luminosity in the volume limited samples.

## 5 Conclusions and discussion

We detect a colour dependence in the clustering of PSCz galaxies: the cooler galaxies are more strongly clustered than the hotter galaxies. Although the significance level of amplitude variations is not high, this does not mean that the effects are small: the clustering amplitude differs by a factor of 1.5 between the warm and cool sub-samples. We do not detect any significant variation in clustering for luminosity selected subsamples. Volume limited sub-samples show a slight trend corresponding to a weaker clustering for brighter galaxies, but the uncertainties mean it is not significant.

Our results are different to those of Mann, Saunders & Taylor (1996) who found marginal evidence that warmer galaxies are more strongly clustered than cooler galaxies. The main reason for the difference is simply the factor of 6 increase in number of galaxies in our sample, which dramatically reduces the uncertainties in our clustering estimates. The uncertainties on the earlier measurements encompass our results, so there is actually no discrepancy.

The variation of clustering with FIR colour that we find in the PSCz is consistent with the variation with star-formation rate indicated by H$`\alpha `$ and O\[II\] emission lines in the SAPM survey (Loveday et al. 1999). Loveday et al. split the SAPM survey into three samples with low, medium and high H$`\alpha `$ equivalent widths (EW), and estimate $`s_0`$ for the samples to be 8.7, 5.5 and 4.6 $`h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ respectively. A similar split into low, medium and high O\[II\] EW samples gives $`s_0`$ values of 8.6, 4.9 and 4.1 $`h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ respectively. The low EW samples are early type galaxies, which do not appear in IRAS samples. The medium and high EW samples are actively star-forming galaxies, which are more similar to IRAS samples. The clustering amplitude of the medium and high EW galaxies is very similar to that of the IRAS galaxies, suggesting that they do indeed trace a similar population. Furthermore, the change in $`s_0`$ between the medium and high SAPM emission-line galaxies is very similar to the change between cold and hot PSCz galaxies as seen in Figure 9.

The luminosity dependence is a more complex effect, because the FIR luminosity of a galaxy depends on both the mass of dust, and the recent star-formation rate. If the dust mass is correlated with the halo mass, then more luminous galaxies will, on average, be in more massive halos, which are expected to have a higher clustering amplitude. On the other hand, a high star-formation rate will make a galaxy more luminous, and galaxies with a high star-formation rate tend to be less clustered. It is not obvious which will be the dominant effect.

Given the correlation between colour and luminosity seen in Figure 2 we can infer the luminosity dependence from the colour dependence seen in Figure 9. From Figure 2 we find $`\mathrm{log}_{10}(\frac{f_{100}}{f_{60}})=0.117\mathrm{log}_{10}(L_{60})+1.427`$, and so together with equation 4 we would expect $`\mathrm{log}_{10}(s_0)=0.028\mathrm{log}_{10}(L_{60})+0.95`$. This relation is plotted as the dashed line on Figure 12, and it can be seen that it is consistent with the data points. The luminosity variation seen in optical galaxy samples is approximately of the form $`\mathrm{log}_{10}(s_0)=4.37(0.7+0.3\frac{L}{L^{}})`$ (Benoist et al. 1996). The dotted line shows this with $`L^{}=3.6\times 10^9L_{}`$ (Springel & White 1998). This is clearly inconsistent with the trend seen in the PSCz sample.

The small decrease in clustering that we find for more luminous galaxies is consistent with the colour dependence effect alone, with no evidence for an increase in clustering for more luminous galaxies. If the standard picture of high-peak biasing is correct, we conclude that there is a very weak correlation between the FIR luminosity of a galaxy and the mass of it’s dark-matter halo. However, models which allow a variable number of galaxies per dark halo, and include scatter about the mean mass-luminosity relation lead to a very weak luminosity dependence of clustering (Somerville et al. 1999).

Finally we note that our present analysis has been restricted to the redshift space correlation functions. This means that any differences in the velocity distributions of the different sub-samples of galaxies will affect the amplitude of $`\xi (s)`$, particularly on small scales where the velocity separations are comparable to the random peculiar velocities. We consider these effects in a future paper.

## Acknowledgements

We would like thank everyone who has contributed to the construction of the PSCz survey, and also the referee (Andrew Hamilton) for suggesting many useful improvements to the original draft.

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text:
# Quantum Phase Transitions

## 1 Introduction

The recent years have seen a renewal of interest in the study of quantum phase transitions (QPT) motivated by experiments in cuprate superconductors, heavy fermion compounds, organic conductors and related systems (Santa Barbara Proceedings 1996, Sachdev 1999). By definition a quantum phase transition is a phase transition which occurs at zero temperature when a non-thermal parameter $`g`$ like pressure, chemical composition or magnetic field is tuned to a critical value. The transition is characterized by quantum fluctuations even in the ground state due to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. It is usually accompanied by a drastic change in the behavior of the correlation functions.

In these lectures, we will focus on the quantum phase transitions of second order. The associated fluctuations are characterized by two different quantities that are respectively the energy scale $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and the correlation length $`\xi `$. In the case when the energy spectrum has a gap, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ measures the difference of energy between the ground state and the lowest excited level. If the spectrum is gapless, one can still define $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ as a pseudo-gap, splitting the lower-energy and the higher-energy parts in the density fluctuation spectrum. Generally speaking $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ vanishes at the transition which occurs at a critical value $`g_c`$ of a dimensionless parameter $`g`$

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\left|gg_c\right|^{z\nu }$$
(1)
where $`z\nu `$ is a critical exponent which takes a universal value independent of the microscopic details of the hamiltonian describing the system. One will denote by $`\mathrm{\Delta }_+`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{}`$ the values of the gap respectively above and below $`g_c`$. Apart from an eventual constant of proportionality, both quantities are characterized by the same critical exponent $`z\nu `$.

The other scale is provided by the correlation length $`\xi `$. It is defined as the length scale characterizing the exponential decay of the equal-time correlation function $`M(𝐫,t)M(\mathrm{𝟎},t)`$ in the disordered phase at $`T=0`$. The length scale $`\xi `$ diverges at the quantum critical point (QCP) defined at $`T=0`$ and $`g=g_c`$ according to

$$\xi ^1\left|gg_c\right|^\nu $$
(2)
Putting together the vanishing of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and the diverging of $`\xi `$ at the transition, one can write

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\xi ^z$$
(3)
where z is the dynamic exponent. Those critical exponents are all defined at $`T=0`$ and g$`g_c`$. However, they are also relevant at finite temperature and $`gg_c`$.

Figure 1 displays the schematic phase diagram$`(T,g)`$ that can be derived. The full line is the line of phase transitions separating the long-range ordered and the disordered phases. The dotted line corresponds to the Ginzburg temperature $`T_{G\text{ }}`$below which classical fluctuations are important. In the classical critical region, an effective classical theory applies. The regime $`I`$ is the quantum disordered regime driven by quantum fluctuations as resulting from the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Oppositely only thermal fluctuations are relevant in the regime $`III`$ above $`T_{G\text{ }}`$. Finally, the regime $`II`$ is the quantum critical regime characterized by a rich interplay of effects driven by both quantum and thermal fluctuations.

## 2 Experimental examples

We will mention some recent experimental studies of second-order quantum phase transitions.

(i) $`LiHoF_4`$

In the insulator $`LiHoF_4`$, the $`Ho`$ ions fluctuate between two spin states depending whether the spins are parallel or antiparallel to a particular crystalline axis. At zero temperature, applying an external magnetic field perpendicular to the magnetic axis makes the system go from a ferromagnetic ground state to a quantum paramagnetic state in which long-range ferromagnetic order is destroyed due to quantum tunneling between the two spin states (Bitko et al, 1996). The quantum critical point is reached at a critical value $`H_C`$ of the magnetic field. Raising the temperature also destroys the long-range magnetic order driving the system to a high-temperature magnetically disordered state. Note that the latter state, the thermal paramagnet is fundamentally different in nature from the quantum paramagnet formed at zero temperature.

(ii) Heavy fermion compounds

One of the most striking properties of heavy fermion compounds discovered these last years is the existence of a quantum phase transition driven by chemical composition change, pressure or magnetic field. For example, $`CeCu_{6x}Au_x`$ (von Lohneysen et al, 1994) and $`Ce_{1x}La_xRu_2Si_2`$ (Raymond et al, 1997) present a transition from a magnetically disordered phase to a long-range antiferromagnetic order respectively at $`x_C=0.1`$ and $`x_C=0.08`$. We will mention other sytems as $`CeIn_3`$, $`CePd_2Si_2`$ (Mathur et al, 1998), $`CeNi_2Ge_2`$ (Steglich, 1996) and $`U_{1x}Y_xPd_3`$ (Seaman et al, 1991) exhibiting the same behavior. Once a long-range magnetic order is set up, the effect of a pressure or a magnetic field is to drive the system back to a magnetically disordered phase. Remarkably while far from the quantum critical point, the magnetically disordered phase is a Fermi liquid with large effective masses associated with the formation of heavy quasiparticles, there are some indications that the thermal properties of the system in the disordered phase close to the quantum critical point differ from that of a Fermi liquid (Santa Barbara Proceedings, 1996 and Coleman, 1999). Typically in $`CeCu_{5.9}Au_{0.1}`$ (von Lohneysen et al, 1994), the specific heat $`C`$ depends on $`T`$ as $`C/Tln(T/T_0)`$, the magnetic susceptibility as $`\chi 1\alpha \sqrt{T}`$, and the $`T`$-dependent part of the resistivity as $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho T`$ instead of $`C/T\chi Const`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho T^2`$ in the Fermi liquid state. The origin of this non-Fermi liquid (NFL) behavior is presently a problem of considerable debate.

An important element in the knowledge of the quantum critical point has been recently brought by inelastic neutron scattering (INS) experiments performed on a $`CeCu_{5.9}Au_{0.1}`$ single-crystal. The dynamical spin susceptibility $`\chi \mathrm{"}(𝐪,\omega )`$ near the magnetic instability wavevector $`𝐐`$ has been found to obey an anomalous $`\omega /T`$ scaling law as a function of temperature

$$\chi \mathrm{"}(𝐐,\omega )T^\alpha g(\omega /T)$$
(4)
with $`\alpha `$ of order $`0.75`$. Moreover, such a $`\omega `$ and $`T`$ dependence stands over the entire Brillouin zone revealing in the bulk susceptibility too. This fact strongly suggests that the spin dynamics are critical not only at large length scales but also at atomic length scales contrary to what happens in the traditional itinerant magnetism picture. We will come back to this point at the end of the paper.

Let us focus now on the general problem of quantum phase transitions between a Fermi liquid and a magnetically ordered phase. This is still a largely controversial topic in which many aspects are not fully understood. Details of the topology of the Fermi surface often matters introducing important nesting effects and Kohn anomalies in the spin susceptibility when the magnetic wavevector spans the Fermi surface. For reasons of simplicity, we will not consider those effects of nesting.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In section $`3`$, we show how one can integrate out the fermion fields to derive an effective bosonic model associated with the fluctuations of the ordering fields. The resulting effective action exhibits a dynamic exponent $`z`$ equal to $`3`$ in the vicinity of a ferromagnetic critical point and $`2`$ for the antiferromagnetic case. In section $`4`$, we give simple arguments based on an expansion to first order in the effective interaction $`u`$ to determine an upper-critical dimension $`D_C=4`$ (where $`D=d+z`$ and $`d`$ is the spatial dimension) below which first order fluctuations diverge and mean-field description is no longer valid. Section $`5`$ exposes an alternative tricritical crossover approach valid at $`D<D_C`$ in the large-$`N`$ limit. Section $`5`$ gives a short presentation of pertubative renormalization group (RG) approaches and their links to self-consistent renormalized spin fluctuation (SCR-SF) theories to understand the quantum-classical crossover in the vicinity of the quantum critical point. Section $`6`$ generalizes the approach to the Kondo lattice model which is believed to describe the heavy-fermion situation Finally, we quote some recent inelastic neutron scattering experiments performed on heavy-fermions leading to unusual scaling law in $`\omega /T`$ for the dynamical spin susceptibility which reveals critical local modes beyond the itinerant magnetism picture inherent to pertubative RG and SCR-SF approaches. We mention new attempts to describe this local quantum critical point.

## 3 Derivation of an effective bosonic theory

We start from the Hubbard hamiltonian which represents the archetypal model for correlated electron system. For a single nondegenerate band of electrons of spin $`1/2`$, the hamiltonian is

$$H=\underset{k\sigma }{}\epsilon _kc_{k\sigma }^{}c_{k\sigma }+U\underset{i}{}n_in_i$$
(5)
where the last term the Coulomb repulsion term expressed in Wannier representation, $`\epsilon _k=[_\delta t_{ij}\mathrm{exp}(i𝐤.\delta )]/z`$, tij is the overlap integrals between neighboring sites and $`z`$ the coordination number. The hamiltonian is characterized by a competition between the kinetic term and the Coulomb interaction $`U`$ which generally induces a quantum phase transition from a Fermi liquid to a magnetically ordered state at a critical value of $`U/t`$.

By integrating out the fermion fields, we will first show how from the Hubbard hamiltonian, we can derive an effective bosonic theory in terms of the fluctuations of the ordering fields $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{i\text{ }}`$associated with the magnetizations. Following (Hertz and Klenin, 1974), we decompose the proof into the following steps. The calculations are performed in the magnetically-disordered phase.

First let us write the Coulomb term as a function of charge and spin density variables

$$U\underset{i}{}n_in_i=\frac{U}{4}\underset{i}{}(n_i+n_i)^2\frac{U}{4}\underset{i}{}(n_in_i)^2$$
(6)
where $`(n_in_i)/2=\mathrm{\Phi }_i^z`$ is the $`z`$-magnetization. Note that one can extend the writing to all three directions $`x`$, $`y`$ and $`z`$ in order to preserve the spin rotation invariance.

Let us consider the functional integral of the partition function

$$Z=𝒟c_{i\sigma }\mathrm{exp}\left[_0^\beta (\tau )𝑑\tau \right]$$
(7)
$`(\tau )={\displaystyle \underset{i\sigma }{}}c_{i\sigma }^{}_\tau c_{i\sigma }+H(\tau )`$

and perform a Hubbard-Stratonovich transformation on the Coulomb interaction term. Using the identity

$$𝑑\mathrm{\Phi }_i^z(\tau )\mathrm{exp}\left[_0^\beta (\mathrm{\Phi }_i^z(\tau )\sqrt{U}c_{i\sigma _1}^{}\tau _{\sigma _1\sigma _2}^zc_{i\sigma _2})(\mathrm{\Phi }_i^z(\tau )\sqrt{U}c_{i\sigma _3}^{}\tau _{\sigma _3\sigma _4}^zc_{i\sigma _4})𝑑\tau \right]=1$$
(8)
in which the summation on the spin indices $`\sigma _i`$ are implicit and $`\tau ^i`$ represent the Pauli matrices, we find

$$Z=Z_0𝒟c_{i\sigma }𝑑\mathrm{\Phi }_i^z(\tau )\mathrm{exp}\left[_0^\beta (\mathrm{\Phi }_i^z(\tau )\mathrm{\Phi }_i^z(\tau )\sqrt{U}\mathrm{\Phi }_i^z(\tau )c_{i\sigma }^{}\tau _{\sigma \sigma ^{}}^zc_{i\sigma ^{}})𝑑\tau \right]$$
(9)
Integrating out the grassmannian variables $`c_{i\sigma }`$, we get

$$Z=Z_0𝑑\mathrm{\Phi }_i^z(\tau )\mathrm{exp}[S_{eff}(\mathrm{\Phi }_i)]$$
(10)
$`S_{eff}(\mathrm{\Phi }_i)={\displaystyle _0^\beta }{\displaystyle _0^\beta }\left[\mathrm{\Phi }_i^z(\tau )\mathrm{\Phi }_i^z(\tau )\delta (\tau \tau ^{})Tr\mathrm{ln}\left(1\sqrt{U}\mathrm{\Phi }_i(\tau )G_0^{ij}(\tau \tau ^{})\right)\right]𝑑\tau 𝑑\tau ^{}`$

where $`G_0`$ is the bare Green function of electrons at $`U=0`$.

Expanding the $`Trln`$ term up to the second and fourth order in $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, we have

$`S_{eff}(\mathrm{\Phi }_i)`$ $`=`$ $`\beta V{\displaystyle \underset{q,i\omega _\nu }{}}(1U\chi __0(q,i\omega _\nu ))\mathrm{\Phi }(q,i\omega _\nu )\mathrm{\Phi }(q,i\omega _\nu )`$ (12)
$`+u\beta V^4{\displaystyle \underset{q_i,i\omega _i}{}}\mathrm{\Phi }(q_1,i\omega _1)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_2,i\omega _2)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_3,i\omega _3)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_1q_2q_3,i\omega _1i\omega _2i\omega _3)`$
where $`\chi __0(q,i\omega _\nu )`$ is the bare dynamical susceptibility and $`u`$ an effective interaction assumed to be local.

Close to a ferromagnetic phase transition, we can use the Lindhard expansion of $`\chi __0(q,\omega )`$ around $`q=\omega =0`$

$$\chi __0(q,i\omega _\nu )=\chi __0(0,0)b\frac{q^2}{k_F^2}+ia\frac{\omega }{\mathrm{\Gamma }_q}$$
(13)
where $`k_F`$ is the Fermi wavevector, $`a`$ and $`b`$ are constants and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_q=qv_F`$ is the relaxation rate which vanishes in the $`q0`$ limit. Note that this vanishing is imposed by some symmetry arguments due to the fact that the fluctuations of the order parameter are conserved in the ferromagnetic case. Hence one can draw the effective bosonic action in the ferromagnetic case

$`S_{eff}(\mathrm{\Phi }_i)`$ $`=`$ $`\beta V{\displaystyle \underset{q,i\omega _\nu }{}}(\delta +q^2+\left|\omega _\nu \right|/q)\mathrm{\Phi }(q,i\omega _\nu )\mathrm{\Phi }(q,i\omega _\nu )`$ (15)
$`+u\beta V^4{\displaystyle \underset{q_i,i\omega _i}{}}\mathrm{\Phi }(q_1,i\omega _1)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_2,i\omega _2)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_3,i\omega _3)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_1q_2q_3,i\omega _1i\omega _2i\omega _3)`$
where $`\delta =1U\chi __0(q,i\omega _\nu )`$ called the Stoner factor measures the distance to the magnetic instability.

The result can be generalized to the case of an antiferromagnetic instability. In this case if we denote by $`q`$ the deviation to the antiferromagnetic wavevector $`Q=(\pi ,\pi ,\pi )`$, the expansion expressed in Eq. (13) is still valid around $`Q`$. However since the fluctuations are not conserved in the antiferromagnetic case, the relaxation rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_q`$ is now $`q`$-independent. The first term of Eq (15) is modified in the following way

$$S_{eff}^{(2)}(\mathrm{\Phi }_i)=\beta V\underset{q,i\omega _\nu }{}(\delta +q^2+\left|\omega _\nu \right|)\mathrm{\Phi }(q,i\omega _\nu )\mathrm{\Phi }(q,i\omega _\nu )$$
(16)
The justification of the expansion of the $`Trln`$ term in Eq.(10) up to the second and fourth order in $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ lies in the fact that $`\mathrm{\Phi }_i`$ representing the fluctuations of the magnetization are expected to be small in the magnetically-disordered phase close to the quantum critical point. However, the expansion would not stand within the long-range ordered state where the determination of the finite magnetization $`M_0`$ which $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ can be expanded about ($`\mathrm{\Phi }=M_0+\delta \mathrm{\Phi }`$) requires to minimize the full expression of the free energy including all orders and not stop to the fourth order. This is precisely what the equivalent of the gap equation for the magnetization does.

## 4 Pertubation theory in u : existence of an upper-critical dimension

In the effective bosonic theory presented in the previous section, $`q`$ and $`\omega `$ do not appear at the same order. They may do so in some different models. For convenience in this section, we will only consider the case when $`\omega `$ appears at the 2nd order too and use the relastivistic notation $`Q^2=q^2+\omega ^2`$. We will show the upper-critical dimension to be equal to $`4`$ for $`D=d+1`$ as a result of diverging critical fluctuations when $`D<4`$. The result will be generalized later on when a dynamic exponent $`z`$ instead of $`1`$ makes $`D`$ change to $`d+z`$ keeping the same value of $`4`$ for the upper-critical dimension. In the realistic notations, the effective action writes

$`S_{eff}(\mathrm{\Phi }_i)`$ $`=`$ $`\beta V{\displaystyle \underset{q,i\omega _\nu }{}}(\delta +Q^2)\mathrm{\Phi }(Q)\mathrm{\Phi }(Q)`$ (18)
$`+u\beta V^4{\displaystyle \underset{q_i,i\omega _i}{}}\mathrm{\Phi }(Q_1)\mathrm{\Phi }(Q_2)\mathrm{\Phi }(Q_3)\mathrm{\Phi }(Q_1Q_2Q_3)`$
At zero temperature and to zeroth order in $`u`$, the spin susceptibility $`\chi (Q)`$ related to the correlation function in $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is given by

$$[\chi ^{(0)}(Q)]^1=Q^2+\delta $$
(19)
The uniform static susceptibility $`\chi ^{(0)}(0)`$ diverges at $`\delta _c^{(0)}=0`$. $`\delta `$ plays the role of a tuning parameter and the quantum phase transition takes place at $`\delta _c^{(0)}=0`$.

To first order in u, the result is changed in the following way

$$[\chi (Q)]^1=Q^2+\delta +\frac{u}{2}\frac{d^DQ}{(2\pi )^D}\frac{1}{Q^2+\delta }$$
(20)
where $`D=d+1`$ and $`d`$ is the spatial dimension. The critical value of $`\delta `$ is given by

$$\delta _c=\frac{u}{2}\frac{d^DQ}{(2\pi )^D}\frac{1}{Q^2+\delta _c}$$
(21)
Denoting $`s=\delta \delta _c`$ which measures the deviation of the system from the QCP

$$[\chi (Q)]^1=Q^2+s+\frac{u}{2}\frac{d^DQ}{(2\pi )^D}\left[\frac{1}{Q^2+\delta }\frac{1}{Q^2}\right]$$
(22)
For $`D>4`$, the integrand diverges in the $`Q\mathrm{}`$ limit and one needs to introduce a cut-off $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ for $`Q`$. One can then perform an expansion in s

$$[\chi (Q)]^1=Q^2+s[1c_1u\mathrm{\Lambda }^{D4}]$$
(23)
where $`c_1`$ is a nonuniversal constant depending on the nature of the cut-off. $`\chi (0)`$ diverges in the $`s0`$ limit. Mean-field critical properties still apply with small first order corrections.

For $`D<4`$, the integrand now converges in the $`Q\mathrm{}`$ limit. Therefore under the condition $`u\mathrm{\Lambda }^{D4}`$, one can put $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{}`$ in the integral. To first order in $`u`$

$$[\chi (Q)]^1=Q^2+s\left[1\frac{1}{2}\frac{2\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{4D}{2}\right)}{\left(D2\right)(4\pi )^{D/2}}\frac{u}{s^{(4D)/2}}\right]$$
(24)
As small as $`u`$ is, the correction to the mean-field result is important. It even diverges in the $`s0`$ limit. One can then deduce an upper-critical value for the dimension $`D_C=4`$. At $`D<D_C`$ mean-field results are not correct and a more sophisticated resummation of the pertubation expansion is required. For this purpose, we now present a large N theory introducing a tricritical crossover function which allows to do that.

## 5 Large-N theory and tricritical crossovers

For $`D<4`$, Eq. (24) established at first order in $`u`$ suggests that $`[\chi (Q)]^1`$ can be expressed as

$$[\chi (Q)]^1=s\psi _D(q,v)$$
(25)
where we have denoted by $`q=Q/s^{1/2}`$ and $`v=u/s^{(4D)/2}`$ and introduced $`\psi _D[q,v]`$ as a universal function called the tricritical crossover function (Brézin and Zinn-Justin, 1985 and Sachdev, 1999). To first order in $`u`$, $`\psi _D(q,v)`$ can be identified with

$$\psi _D(q,v)=q^2+1\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{4D}{2}\right)}{\left(D2\right)(4\pi )^{D/2}}v+𝒪(v^2)$$
(26)
If we assume that we can put $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{}`$ in all the higher-order terms in $`u`$, we can expect $`[\chi (Q)]^1`$ to take the form expressed in Eq. (25).

We now explain how in the large $`N`$ limit $`\psi _D(q,v)`$ can be determined at any order in $`v`$. To do that, we first extend the previous descriptions to any value of the degeneracy of the Hubbard-Stratonovich parameter $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\alpha `$, $`\alpha =1,2\mathrm{}N`$ and let $`N`$ go to $`\mathrm{}`$ at the end of the calculation. Performing a Hubbard-Stratonovich transformation on the the $`\mathrm{\Phi }^4`$-term, one gets in the large-N limit

$$[\chi (Q)]^1=Q^2+\delta +u\frac{N+2}{6}\mathrm{\Phi }^2$$
(27)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }^2`$ is self-consistently determined as in the self-consistent one-loop approximation according to

$$\mathrm{\Phi }^2=\frac{d^DQ}{(2\pi )^D}\frac{1}{Q^2+\delta +u\frac{N+2}{6}\mathrm{\Phi }^2}$$
(28)
Hence $`\delta _C`$ is defined by

$$\delta _C+u\frac{N+2}{6}\mathrm{\Phi }^2|_{\delta =\delta _C}=0$$
(29)
and

$$[\chi (Q)]^1=Q^2+(\delta \delta _C)+u\frac{N+2}{6}[\mathrm{\Phi }^2\mathrm{\Phi }^2|_{\delta =\delta _C}]$$
(30)
The critical crossover function $`\psi _D(q,v)`$ can be identified with

$$\psi _D(q,v)=q^2+\pi _D(v)$$
(31)
where the function $`\pi _D(v)`$ is solution of the following nonlinear equation

$$\pi _D(v)+Nv\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{4D}{2}\right)}{3\left(D2\right)(4\pi )^{D/2}}\left[\pi _D(v)\right]^{(D2)/2}=1$$
(32)
In the $`v\mathrm{}`$ limit, $`\pi _D(v)v^{2/(D2)}`$ and $`[\chi (0)]^1`$ behaves as $`s^{D/(D2)}`$ at small $`s`$. The latter result on $`[\chi (0)]^1`$ settles the difficulties arising from the diverging correction term obtained to first order in u when $`D<D_C`$.

## 6
Pertubative renormalization group

We send the reader to a number of very good reviews existing in the litterature on this sophistical and powerful approach. We will simply try to clear out the essential points involved in the method. Let us start again from the effective action derived in section 4

$`S_{eff}(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{q,\omega }{}}(\delta +q^2+\left|\omega \right|/q)\text{ }\left|\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )\right|^2`$ (34)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{_2}}u{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta 𝒩}}{\displaystyle \underset{q_i,\omega _i}{}}\mathrm{\Phi }(q_1,\omega _1)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_2,\omega _2)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_3,\omega _3)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_1q_2q_3,\omega _1\omega _2\omega _3)`$
where $`𝒩`$ is the number of sites and $`\beta `$ is the inverse temperature. The general idea of the renormalization group approach is to get rid of the short-range and short-time details of the fluctuations of the order parameter to derive a renormalized effective action in which the different parameters are rescaled. As shown in Figure 2 the aim is then to eliminate out the contribution to $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )`$ from the outer-shell with large values of $`q`$ and $`\omega `$. We also define the complementary inner-shell characterized by small values of $`q`$ and $`\omega `$. Following Hertz’ paper (Hertz, 1976), we show how to derive the scaling equations along two steps : first keeping the inner-shell contribution only, and then adding the remaining contribution of the outer-shell. This provides us with two scaling equations for $`\delta `$ and $`u`$, respectively the Stoner factor and the effective interaction. We will mention how later on, Millis showed how it is crucial to consider an additional scaling equation for temperature.

$`(i)`$ eliminating out the outer-shell within the inner shell contribution to $`S_{eff}`$.

First, let us remove the outer-shell contribution to $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )`$. Since $`q`$ and $`\omega `$ appears in the quadratic term of $`S_{eff}(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ at different orders, an anisotropic scaling procedure is required. The outer-shell is defined by

$`\mathrm{exp}(l)`$ $`<`$ $`q<1`$ (35)
$`\mathrm{exp}(zl)`$ $`<`$ $`\omega <1`$ (36)
where $`l`$ is infinitesimal and $`z`$ will be proved later on to coincide with the dynamic exponent. Retaining the contribution to $`S_{eff}(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ of the inner-shell only with small $`q`$ and $`\omega `$ values, one gets to the second order

$$S_{eff}^{(2)}(\mathrm{\Phi })=\frac{1}{2}\beta 𝒩_0^{\mathrm{exp}(l)}\frac{d^dq}{(2\pi )^d}_0^{\mathrm{exp}(zl)}\frac{d\omega }{2\pi }(\delta ^{}+q^2+\left|\omega \right|/q)\text{ }\left|\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )\right|^2$$
(37)
The change from $`\delta `$ to $`\delta ^{}`$ is of order $`l`$.

Next step consists in rescaling the variables $`q`$ and $`\omega `$ in the following way

$`q^{}`$ $`=`$ $`q\mathrm{exp}(l)`$ (38)
$`\omega ^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\omega \mathrm{exp}(zl)`$ (39)
With this change of variables, we have

$`S_{eff}^{(2)}(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\beta 𝒩\mathrm{exp}\left[(d+z)l\right]{\displaystyle _0^1}{\displaystyle \frac{d^dq^{}}{(2\pi )^d}}{\displaystyle _0^1}{\displaystyle \frac{d\omega ^{}}{2\pi }}(\delta ^{}+q^2\mathrm{exp}(2l)+\left|\omega ^{}\right|/q^{}\mathrm{exp}\left[(z1)l\right])`$ (41)
$`\left|\mathrm{\Phi }(q^{}\mathrm{exp}(l),\omega ^{}\mathrm{exp}(zl))\right|^2`$
The fields $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )`$ are then rescaled so that the terms in $`q^2`$ and $`\left|\omega ^{}\right|/q^{}`$ in $`S_{eff}^{(2)}(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ are unchanged. Thanks to the anisotropic scaling procedure introduced earlier, we are allowed to do that as soon as we choose $`z`$ equal to the dynamic exponent $`3`$ in the ferromagnetic case. Introducing the scaling

$$\mathrm{\Phi }^{}(q^{},\omega ^{})=\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )\mathrm{exp}\left[(d+z+2)l/2\right]$$
(42)
one gets

$$S_{eff}^{(2)}(\mathrm{\Phi })=\frac{1}{2}\beta 𝒩_0^1\frac{d^dq^{}}{(2\pi )^d}_0^1\frac{d\omega ^{}}{2\pi }(\mathrm{exp}(2l)\delta ^{}+q^2+\left|\omega ^{}\right|/q^{})\left|\mathrm{\Phi }(q^{},\omega ^{})\right|^2$$
(43)
We can see from this expression that the initial form of $`S_{eff}^{(2)}(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ is recovered provided that $`\mathrm{exp}(2l)\delta ^{}=\delta `$. This gives us the first part of the scaling equation for $`\delta `$

$$\frac{d\delta }{dl}=2\delta $$
(44)
In the same way, the effective action to the $`4`$th order in $`u`$ can be expressed as

$`S_{eff}^{(4)}(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{_4}}(\beta 𝒩)^2u^{}\mathrm{exp}\left[3(d+z)l\right]\mathrm{exp}\left[4(d+z+2)l/2\right]{\displaystyle _0^1}{\displaystyle \frac{d^dq_i^{}}{(2\pi )^d}}{\displaystyle _0^1}{\displaystyle \frac{d\omega _i^{}}{2\pi }}`$ (46)
$`\mathrm{\Phi }(q_1,\omega _1)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_2,\omega _2)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_3,\omega _3)\mathrm{\Phi }(q_1q_2q_3,\omega _1\omega _2\omega _3)`$
where the summation $`_{i=1,2,3}`$ on the subscript $`i`$ is implicit. In order to keep the quartic term unchanged, one needs to transform $`u`$ according to

$$u^{}\mathrm{exp}(\epsilon l)=u$$
(47)
with $`\epsilon =4(d+z)`$ enabling us to write the second scaling equation for $`u`$

$$\frac{du}{dl}=\epsilon u$$
(48)
As for $`\delta `$, we will show in $`(ii)`$ that the latter scaling equation should be laced with a second term in the righthand side to be complete. Before ending up with $`(i)`$, let us point out that the scaling equation (48) provides an alternative way to define the upper-critical dimension for $`D=d+z`$ generalizing to any $`z`$ the result previously obtained in section 4. The spatial dimension is increased by the dynamic exponent $`z`$ equal to $`3`$ in the ferromagnetic case and to $`2`$ in the antiferromagnetic case. Above the upper-critical dimension found to be $`D_C=4`$, $`\epsilon `$ has a negative sign and $`u`$ is rescaled to zero. We are then left with the quadratic term of $`S_{eff}`$ only and the system reaches a gaussian fixed point. Oppositely below $`D_C=4`$, $`\epsilon `$ has a positive sign. The interaction is relevant and a non-gaussian fixed point is reached.

$`(ii)`$ incorporating the remaining contribution of the outer-shell to $`S_{eff}`$.

The last step consists in considering the missing contribution with large values of $`q`$ and $`\omega `$. If one denotes by $`_{q,\omega }^{}`$ and $`_{q,\omega }^\mathrm{"}`$ respectively the summation over the inner- and the outer-shells, the corresponding correction to $`S_{eff}^{(4)}(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ is

$`S_{eff}^{(4)}(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{u}{4\beta 𝒩}}{\displaystyle \underset{q,\omega }{}}\text{ }^\mathrm{"}{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}}\mathrm{\Phi }(q_i,\omega _i)\delta \left({\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}}q_i\right)\delta \left({\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}}\omega _i\right)`$ (50)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{3u}{2\beta 𝒩}}{\displaystyle \underset{q,\omega }{}}\text{ }^\mathrm{"}\left|\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )\right|^2{\displaystyle \underset{q,\omega }{}}\text{ }^{^{}}\left|\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )\right|^2`$
The two terms in the righthand side of the last equation corresponds to the interaction of one particle in the outer-shell with one particle respectively in the outer-shell and in the inner one. Part of the action which is quadratic as $`_{q,\omega }`$ $`{}_{}{}^{}|\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )|^2`$ can be resummed. The final expression for $`S_{eff}`$ including all contributions from the inner- and the outer-shell up to the $`4`$th order is

$`S_{eff}^{(2)}(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{q,\omega }{}}\text{ }^\mathrm{"}(\delta +q^2+\left|\omega \right|/q)\left|\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )\right|^2`$ (53)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{u}{4\beta 𝒩}}{\displaystyle \underset{q,\omega }{}}\text{ }^\mathrm{"}{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}}\mathrm{\Phi }(q_i,\omega _i)\delta \left({\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}}q_i\right)\delta \left({\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}}\omega _i\right)`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{q,\omega }{}}\text{ }^{}\mathrm{ln}[\delta +q^2+\left|\omega \right|/q+{\displaystyle \frac{3u}{\beta N}}{\displaystyle \underset{q,\omega }{}}\text{ }^\mathrm{"}\left|\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )\right|^2]`$
Expanding the $`ln`$ term up to the 4th order in $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\omega )`$ enables us to get the additional part of the scaling equations. Putting it together with the truncated part of the scaling equations obtained in step $`(i)`$, one can write the complete scaling equations for $`\delta `$ and $`u`$

$$\frac{d\delta }{dl}=2\delta +\frac{3u}{\beta 𝒩}\underset{q,\omega }{}\text{ }^{^{}}(\delta +q^2+\left|\omega \right|/q)^1$$
(54)
$$\frac{du}{dl}=\epsilon u\frac{9u^2}{\beta 𝒩}\underset{q,\omega }{}\text{ }^{^{}}(\delta +q^2+\left|\omega \right|/q)^2$$
(55)
These two equations constitute the whole set of renormalization group equations derived by Hertz. The crossover temperature $`T_I`$ separating the quantum to the classical regime is then defined in the following way. At the end of the scaling procedure, the quantum regime is reached if only the $`\nu =0`$ term contributes in the Matsubara frequency sum of Eqs. (54, 55). Later on, Millis (Millis, 1993) corrected Hertz’ paper and showed that the temperature should be rescaled as well as $`\delta `$ and $`u`$ adding a third renormalization group equation for temperature

$$\frac{dT}{dl}=zT$$
(56)
Then the criterion used to differenciate the quantum from the classical regime is slightly different. It depends on how the temperature $`T^{}`$ at the end of the scaling procedure compares to an energy cut-off $`\omega ^{}`$.

We will now give a physical interpretation to $`T_I`$ in terms of the spectrum of spin excitations as schematized in Figure 3 (). The shaded region corresponds to the Lindhard continuum of electron-hole pair excitations. It is defined by a finite value of the imaginary part of the bare dynamical susceptibility. The collective mode obtained from the poles of the inverse renormalized susceptibility is a damped magnon as reported in Figure 3. In the ferromagnetic case, the dispersion of the collective mode changes from a $`q`$ to a $`q^3`$ dependence at a characteristic value of the wavevector $`q^{}=\xi ^1\sqrt{\delta }`$. The energy-scale $`\omega ^{}`$ corresponds to the energy of the collective mode on the scale of the magnetic length $`\xi `$. The regime is either quantum or classical depending whether $`T^{}`$ is found to be smaller or larger than $`\omega ^{}`$. The two regimes are characterized by different temperature behaviors of the physical quantities as for instance the magnetic correlation length $`\xi `$ and the coefficient $`\gamma `$ of the linear temperature dependence of the specific heat. Above a second crossover temperature $`T_{II}`$, all the relevant modes contributing to Eqs.(54) and (55) have energies much less that $`k_BT`$ and the physical quantities are driven by the temperature only. The results obtained by Millis are similar to those reported in Figure 4 and only depend on the spatial dimension $`d`$ and on the dynamic exponent $`z`$.

Note that an alternative approach to the magnetic phase transitions in the Hubbard model has been developed in (Moriya and Kawabata, 1973) based on a self-consistent renormalized theory of spin fluctuations (SCR-SF). It leads to results very similar to those obtained by the pertubative renormalization group. Comparisons between the two approaches can be found in (Millis, 1993).

## 7 Heavy-Fermions and the Kondo lattice model

The model that is believed to describe the physics of heavy fermions is the Kondo lattice model where impurity spins distributed on the sites of a periodic lattice interact with the spin of local conduction electrons via a Kondo coupling $`J_K`$. The main features of the model result from the competition between two energy scales (Doniach, 1977): the Kondo temperature $`T_K`$ corresponding to the binding energy at zero temperature of the singlet formed by the impurity spin screened by the spin of the conduction electrons; and the Ruderman-Kittel Kasuya-Yosida -RKKY- interactions among neighboring spins mediated by the conduction electrons. The latter one favors the formation of a long-range magnetic order while the former one blocks it by Kondo screening. The consequence is the existence of a quantum critical point at a critical value of $`J_K`$ below which a long-range magnetic order occurs. In the case when the total number of conduction electrons is less than one per site, all phases are in a metallic state.

The large $`N`$ expansions (Millis, 1987) which have been carried out for these models (where $`N`$ simultaneously represents the degeneracy of the conduction electrons and of the spin channels) are known to give a good description of the Kondo effect but fail to account for the spin-fluctuations since the RKKY interactions only appear at the order $`1/N^2`$. With the aim to describe the critical phenomena around the quantum critical point of the heavy-fermion systems, it has been recently proposed (Lavagna and Pépin, 1999 and 2000) a self-consistent one-loop approximation for the $`S=1/2`$ Kondo lattice model ($`N=2`$) that enlarges the standard $`1/N`$ expansion theories up on the spin-fluctuation effects in complete analogy with the self-consistent renormalized theory of spin fluctuations (SCR-SF) developed for the Hubbard model. It results a quantum-classical crossover at finite temperature depending whether the temperature is lower or higher than the characteristic energy scale of the damped collective mode existing in the vicinity of the magnetic instability. We refer to the paper (Lavagna and Pépin, 2000) for the discussion of the related phase diagram at $`d=2`$ and $`d=3`$ with the predictions of a series of crossovers in the vicinity of the quantum critical point as reported in figure 4.

## 8 Conclusion

To conclude, we will say that the pertubative renormalization group (RG) approach and the related self-consistent renormalized spin fluctuation (SCR-SF) theory by eliminating the short-range details of the fluctuations of the order parameter, assume that the low-energy excitations are spatially extended and by essence do not take into account the critical local nature of the modes at the atomic length scale. As we mentioned at the end of section 2, there exist stong indications now based on INS experiments in heavy-fermions, that the magnetic excitations are critically local around the quantum critical point. This feature seems to be a characteristics of most of the strongly-correlated electron systems including high $`T_C`$ superconductors. The existence of critical local modes is related to the formation of local moments in the ordered phase in contrast to the itinerant magnetism picture that is described by pertubative RG and SCR-SF theories. Note that a scaling law in $`\omega /T`$ of the dynamical spin susceptibility has been obtained theoretically in the case of spin systems as for the random two-dimensional Heisenberg antiferromagnetic model (Sachdev, 1992). There is an urgent need to develop theories to describe this type of local quantum critical point in itinerant systems. In this perspective, we will mention two recent attempts to do that : on the one hand, calculations based on the dynamical mean field theory (Si et al, 1999) which have recently lead to scaling law in $`\omega /T`$ for the dynamical spin susceptibility in agreement with experimental observations; on the other hand supersymmetric approaches (Pépin and Lavagna, 1997 and P. Coleman, Pépin, Tsvelik, 2000) based on a mixed fermionic-bosonic representation of the spin.which has the advantage of capturing both the quasiparticle and the local moment features via respectively the fermionic and bosonic degrees of freedom.

Acknowlegements : I am grateful to Zsolt Gulácsi for giving me the opportunity to give these lectures. I would like to thank Nick Bernhoeft, Andrey Chubukov, Piers Coleman, Mucio Continentino, Jacques Flouquet, Gilbert Lonzarich, Catherine Pépin, Stéphane Raymond, Louis-Pierre Regnault, Almut Schröder and Hilbert von Löhneysen for helpful discussions.

$`^\text{ }`$Also Part of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)

References

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N.D. Mathur, F.M. Grosche, S.R. Julian, I.R. Walker, D.M. Freye, R.K.W. Haselwimmer and G.G. Lonzarich, Nature 394, 39 (1998) and references therein

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A.J. Millis, Phys.Rev. B 48, 7183 (1993)

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C. Pépin and M. Lavagna, Phys. Rev. B 59, 2591 (1999)

C. Pépin and M. Lavagna, Z. Phys. B 103, 259 (1997); C. Pépin and M. Lavagna, Phys. Rev. B 59, 12180 (1999)

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S. Sachdev, Quantum Phase Transitions ed. by Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1999)

For reviews see the Proceedings of the ITP Conference in Non-Fermi Liquid Behavior in Metals, Santa Barbara, US, 17-21 June 1996, eds P. Coleman, B. Maple and A.J. Millis, J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 8, no.48 (1996)

A. Schröder, G. Aeppli, E. Bucher, R. Ramazashvili and P. Coleman, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80, 5623 (1998)

A. Schröder, G. Aeppli, R. Coldea, M. Adams, O. Stockert, H. von Löhneysen, E. Bucher, R. Ramazashvili and P. Coleman, Nature 407, 351 (2000)

C.L. Seaman, M.B. Maple, B.W. Lee, S. Ghamaty, M.S. Torikachvili, J.-S. Kang, L.-Z. Liu, J. Allen and D.L. Cox, Phys.Rev.Lett. 67, 2882 (1991)

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F. Steglich, B. Buschinger, P. Gegenwart, M. Lohmann, R. Helfrich; C. Langhammer, P. Hellmann, L. Donnevert, S. Thomas, A. Link, C. Geiber, M. Lang, G. Sparn and W. Assmus, J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 8, 9909 (1996)

H. von Löhneysen, A. Schröder, M. Sieck and T. Trappmann, Phys.Rev.Lett. 72, 3262 (1994); H. von Löhneysen, J.Phys.Cond.Matt. 8, 9689 (1996) and references therein

Figure captions

Figure 1 : Schematic phase diagram as a function of temperature $`T`$ and dimensionless coupling $`g`$. The full line $`T_C`$ is the line of phase transitions separating the long-range ordered and disordered phases. The upper dotted line is the Ginzburg temperature. An effective classical theory apply in the region located between the two dotted lines surrounding $`T_C`$. Regime I is the quantum disordered regime characterized by quantum fluctuations. Regime III is the thermally disordered regime in which all the physical quantities are driven by temperature only. Regime II is the intermediate quantum critical regime in which both quantum and classical fluctuations are relevant. The arrows below the graph indicate how $`g`$ can be tuned by a chemical composition change $`x`$ or pressure $`P`$.

Figure 2 : Illustration on the scaling procedure in $`q`$ and $`\omega `$. The shaded region represents the outer-shell contribution associated with the sum $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\mathrm{"}`$ over the $`q`$ and $`\omega `$ variables. The complementary inner-shell contribution corresponds to the sum $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$ over $`q`$ and $`\omega `$.

Figure 3 : Continuum of electron hole pair excitations. The dotted line represents the damped collective mode exhibiting a change in the dispersion at a characteristic energy $`\omega ^{}`$ and wavevector $`\xi ^1\sqrt{\delta }`$. The energyscale $`\omega ^{}`$ defines the crossover temperature $`T_I`$ separating the quantum from the classical regime.

Figure 4 : Phase diagram in the plane $`(T,I)`$ for dimension $`d`$ equal to $`3`$ and $`z=2`$ for the Kondo lattice model (Lavagna and Pépin, 2000). The shaded region represents the long-range antiferromagnetic phase bordered by the Néel temperature $`T_N`$. The unshaded region marks the magnetically-disordered regimes $`I,`$ $`II`$ and $`III`$ associated with different behaviors of the system. Regime $`I`$ is the quantum regime in which the energy of the relevant mode on the scale of $`\xi `$ is much greater than $`k_BT`$. Regime $`II`$ and $`III`$ are both classical regimes in which the thermal effects are important since the fluctuations on the scale of $`\xi `$ have energy much smaller than $`k_BT`$. In Regime $`II`$, $`\xi `$ is still controlled by $`(1I)`$ but the staggered spin susceptibility is sensitive to the thermal fluctuations. In Regime $`III`$, both $`\xi `$ and $`\chi _Q^{^{}}`$ are controlled by the temperature.


text:
# Relativistic velocity singularities

## I Introduction

The relativistic and non-relativistic fluid equations must necessarily provide identical descriptions of fluid motion in the non-relativistic regime suggesting that density and gradient singularities present in the non-relativistic regime must also be appear in the relativistic equations. In particular, density singularities $`\rho \mathrm{}`$ feature in the relativistic gravitationally collapse of a non-rotating zero pressure dust cloud Weinberg\_72 , as well as in non-relativistic compressive systems such as shock tunnels where growing pressures burst thick metal diaphragms Glass\_94 , in the hand-held Diamond-Anvil generating 2 million atmospheres of pressure Jayaraman\_83\_65 , in cavitation generating energy densities sufficient to pit steel Young\_89 , in sonoluminescence generating temperatures in excess of 100,000 degrees Weninger\_97\_17 ; Barber\_97\_65 ; Lohse\_97\_13 , in explosive compression of magnetic fields generating fields up to 1,000T Hill\_97\_48 ; Hill\_97\_20  and in supernovae collapse experiments where inertial confinement generates temperatures in excess of 100 million degrees Remington\_97\_19 . Of course, in the non-relativistic regime fluid parameters do not literally become singular—the approximations deriving the non-relativistic equations break down long before that point.

Similarly, gradient singularities appear within both the relativistic and non-relativistic fluid equations to generate shock waves within relativistic jets Duncan\_94\_11 ; Marti\_95\_10 , in non-relativistic supersonic flows Glass\_74 ; Zucrow\_76 ; Glass\_94 ; Warsi\_93 , and interestingly, within trombones Hirschberg\_96\_17 .

Singular points present within the fluid equations can potentially drive not only density and gradient singular solutions, but also finite time velocity singularities. In the non-relativistic regime, velocity singularities $`v\mathrm{}`$ have been exhibited in fissioning fluid drops Shi\_94\_21 ; Kadanoff\_97\_11 ; Cohen\_99\_11 ; Zhang\_99\_11 , thin-films evaporating or pinched to zero thickness Goldstein\_93\_30 ; Eggers\_00\_19 , and curvature collapse and jet eruption from fluid surfaces Zeff\_00\_40 . These systems typically feature a free fluid surface of microscopic scale in one dimension and macroscopic scale in other dimensions. This scale disparity allows surface tension to dominate other forces in the microscopic dimensions allowing self-similar solutions where essentially, fluid is evacuated across some macroscopic distance on infinitesimal timescales generating a singular velocity solution. These systems can be considerably simplified and scaled up in size by replacing the free fluid surface by a flat moving boundary which forces fluid evacuation over macroscopic distances on infinitesimal timescales to again generate singular velocities. The validity of this approach was experimentally confirmed in Ref. Gagen\_99\_12 .

More generally, it is possible that similar singular source terms might support finite time current singularities in magnetohydrodynamic models of magnetic reconnection Kerr\_99\_11 , and that unexplained car tire noise might result from nonlinearities present in such driven collapse systems Gagen\_99\_79 . Additionally, velocity singularities appear at boundary layer separation points Warsi\_93 , while examinations of non-relativistic fluid singularities and the hydrodynamic blow-up problem appear in Pumir\_92\_15 ; Ng\_96\_15 ; Pelz\_97\_16 ; Pelz\_97\_49 ; Grauer\_98\_41 ; Greene\_00\_79 ; Temam\_00 ; Pelz\_01\_29 .

To date, there has been no examination of the potential for singular points within the relativistic equations to drive “relativistic velocity singularities” $`vc`$, where here, $`c`$ is the speed of light recently termed “Einstein’s constant” Brecher\_2000 . Existing schemes to accelerate particles to near light speed do not exploit velocity singularities and typically rely on density singularities where essentially, “fireballs” accelerate particles as when coalescing neutron stars source gamma ray bursts Eichler\_89\_12 , asymmetric (or turbulent) supernovae collapse driving bullets of core material through overlying stellar layers Hughes\_00\_L1 ; Umeda\_00\_L8 , and high intensity table-top lasers drive particle acceleration Gahn\_02\_98 . Other proposed mechanisms employ gradual particle acceleration over macroscopic distances and include shock wave surfing mechanisms generating cosmic ray particle energies up to $`10^{20}`$eV Longair\_94 , and magnetohydrodynamic acceleration of polar jets from accretion disks Blandford\_82\_88 ; Meier\_97\_35 .

In contrast to these approaches, this paper examines whether singular points within the relativistic fluid equations can be exploited to generate near relativistic flows. The intractable nature of the problem requires excessive simplification and, as in the non-relativistic case Gagen\_99\_12 , we exploit driven boundaries to force the relativistic fluid evacuation over macroscopic distances on infinitesimal timescales, and demonstrate in the appropriate limit that singular points within the relativistic fluid equations can drive fluid velocities to the limit $`vc`$.

## II Relativistic velocity singularities

Our initial examination of relativistic velocity singularities requires scaling up non-relativistic fluid evacuation systems to relativistic speeds. To this end, consider a perfect fluid column travelling at near relativistic speeds hitting an incompressible surface and generating an outflow as shown in Fig. 1(a). The impacting fluid column acts as a compressive piston as shown in Fig. 1(b) so that as the piston closes, entrapped fluid must evacuate over macroscopic distances on ever shrinking timescales (assuming the fluid remains relatively uncompressed.) This crude model suffices to allow the approximate solution of the fluid expulsion speed in horizontal directions.

For simplicity we ignore gravity so fluid motion is entirely governed by the relevant conservation equations, and consider a flat space-time with metric $`\eta _{\alpha \beta }=\eta ^{\alpha \beta }=\mathrm{diag}(1,1,1,1)`$ where primed coordinates $`x^\alpha =(t^{},x^{},y^{},z^{})`$ give the contravarient fluid velocity vector as $`U^\alpha =(\gamma ,\gamma 𝐯^{})`$ with $`𝐯^{}=(v_x^{},v_y^{},v_z^{})`$ and $`\gamma =1/\sqrt{1v^2}`$ in geometrized units setting the speed of light to unity. (Greek indices run over values 0 — 4 while Latin indices vary from 1—3.)

A perfect gas has particle flux and energy-momentum tensor

$`N^\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`nU^\alpha `$
$`T^{\alpha \beta }`$ $`=`$ $`\eta ^{\alpha \beta }p+\left(p+\rho \right)U^\alpha U^\beta `$ (1)
where $`n`$, $`p`$ and $`\rho `$ are the momentarily comoving frame particle number density, pressure and energy density respectively Misner\_73 . Conservation equations are $`N_{}^{\mu }{}_{;\mu }{}^{}=0`$ and $`T_{}^{\mu \nu }{}_{;\mu }{}^{}=0`$ giving

$`D^{}\left(\gamma n\right)`$ $`=`$ $`0`$
$`D^{}\left[\gamma ^2(p+\rho )\right]_t^{}p`$ $`=`$ $`0`$
$`D^{}\left[\gamma ^2(p+\rho )𝐯^{}\right]+^{}p`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (2)
with $`D^{}=_t^{}+^{}.𝐯^{}`$ and $`^{}=(_x^{},_y^{},_z^{})`$. These equations give respectively, particle number conservation, mass continuity and momentum conservation.

The presence of a moving boundary (the descending piston) complicates analysis and it is useful to use time dependent computational space coordinates in which the descending piston is rendered stationary. If the piston is at height $`d_0`$ at time $`t=0`$, then its subsequent height can be written $`y^{}(t^{})=f(t^{})d_0`$ in terms of a monotonically decreasing function $`f(t^{})`$ with $`f(0)=1`$. Full closure occurs in the limit $`f0`$, and the piston’s vertical velocity is $`v_y(t^{})=\dot{f}(t^{})d_0`$. The transformation to unprimed computational space coordinates is then

$$x^\alpha =\left(\begin{array}{c}t\hfill \\ x\hfill \\ \chi \hfill \\ z\hfill \end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}t^{}\hfill \\ x^{}\hfill \\ y^{}/f(t^{})\hfill \\ z^{}\hfill \end{array}\right),$$
(3)
so effectively, vertical compression in physical space $`\mathrm{\Delta }y^{}0`$ corresponds to a constant separation in computational coordinates, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi `$ constant. The vertical compression is fully captured in the function $`f(t)=f(t^{})`$, and its effects can be assessed by tracking this function in governing equations.

The new coordinates determine a new metric $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ and proper time $`d\tau ^2=g_{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu `$

$`d\tau ^2`$ $`=`$ $`\left[\left(\dot{f}\chi \right)^21\right]dt^2+2f\dot{f}\chi dtd\chi `$ (4)
$`+dx^2+f^2d\chi ^2+dz^2,`$
while the non-zero affine connections are

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{tt}^\chi =\frac{\ddot{f}}{f}\chi ;\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\chi t}^\chi =\mathrm{\Gamma }_{t\chi }^\chi =\frac{\dot{f}}{f}.$$
(5)
As required for a flat spacetime, the metric tensor $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ has three positive and one negative eigenvalue and the Ricci tensor is zero everywhere. The transformed contravariant velocity vector is $`U^\alpha =[\gamma ,\gamma (v_x,v_\chi ,v_z)]`$ with

$$v_\chi =\frac{\left(v_y^{}\dot{f}\chi \right)}{f}.$$
(6)
Then, as required, the piston velocity is $`v_\chi =0`$ as $`v_y^{}=\dot{f}\chi (\dot{f}d_0)`$.

In the new coordinates, the particle flux and energy-momentum tensors become

$`N^\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`nU^\alpha `$
$`T^{\alpha \beta }`$ $`=`$ $`g^{\alpha \beta }p+\left(p+\rho \right)U^\alpha U^\beta `$ (7)
so the conservation equations $`N_{}^{\mu }{}_{;\mu }{}^{}=0`$ and $`T_{}^{\mu \nu }{}_{;\mu }{}^{}=0`$ give

$`D\left(f\gamma n\right)`$ $`=`$ $`0`$
$`D\left(f\gamma ^2(p+\rho )\right)_t(fp)`$ $`=`$ $`\dot{f}_\chi (\chi p)`$
$`D\left(f\gamma ^2(p+\rho )𝐯\right)+\left(fp\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{c}0\hfill \\ A\hfill \\ 0\hfill \end{array}\right),`$ (11)
with

$`A`$ $`=`$ $`\ddot{f}\chi T^{tt}2\dot{f}T^{t\chi }_t\left(\dot{f}\chi p\right)`$ (12)
$`_\chi \left[fp\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{f^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{f}^2\chi ^2}{f^2}}1\right)\right],`$
and $`D=_t+.𝐯`$, $`=(_x,_\chi ,_z)`$, and

$`T^{tt}`$ $`=`$ $`\gamma ^2(p+\rho )p`$
$`T^{t\chi }`$ $`=`$ $`\gamma ^2(p+\rho )v_\chi +{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{f}}{f}}\chi p.`$ (13)
These equations give respectively, particle number conservation, mass continuity and momentum conservation as can be seen by taking the limit $`f=1`$ and $`\dot{f}=0`$.

An understanding of the physics embodied in Eqs. (II) and (II) can be obtained by considering solutions in two exactly solvable physical limits. The first considers a stationary piston with the fluid in equilibrium. In this case, Eq. (II) is solved by setting fluid velocity $`𝐯^{}=0`$, and number density, pressure and density everywhere constant. Eq. (II) reduces to Eq. (II) in the case $`f=1`$, while for $`f1`$, Eq. (II) is solved by setting $`𝐯=(0,\dot{f}\chi /f,0)`$, and again, uniform number density, pressure and density. The second case considers a collisionless relativistic dust with $`p=0`$ (as some equation of state must be specified), and treats a closed piston lacking horizontal flows $`v_x^{}=v_z^{}=0`$ with the piston descending at a constant velocity ($`\ddot{f}=0`$). The dust at height $`y`$ has initial vertical velocity at time $`t=0`$ of $`v_y^{}=\dot{f}y`$ and these dust elements preserve this velocity for all times as pressure is zero. For later times $`t`$ at fixed height $`y`$, the fluid velocity increases as $`v_y^{}=\dot{f}y/f`$. Eq. (II) is then solved by $`𝐯^{}=(0,\dot{f}y/f,0)`$ and everywhere uniformly increasing number density $`\gamma n(t)=c_1/f`$ and fluid density $`\gamma ^2\rho (t)=c_2/f`$ for constants $`c_1`$ and $`c_2`$. Conversely, the moving coordinate system tracks the initial dust elements leading to a constant velocity $`𝐯=(0,0,0)`$ which together with uniformly increasing number density $`\gamma n(t)=c_1/f`$ and fluid density $`\gamma ^2\rho (t)=c_2/f`$ solves Eq. (II).

We now turn to consider the role of the squeezing parameter $`f(t)`$ in Eq. (II) which is linked everywhere on the left-hand-side (LHS) with $`\gamma `$. As is well known, the singularity $`\gamma \mathrm{}`$ ensures that all fluid velocities remain less than the speed of light, $`v<c`$. Then, the countervailing linkage between this singularity and the zero asymptote of the squeezing parameter $`f0`$ suggests a minimization of the effects of the combined terms $`f\gamma `$ and $`f\gamma ^2`$.

The physical meaning of the squeezing parameter $`f`$ can be seen in more detail using the injection form of the relativistic fluid equations

$`D\left(\gamma n\right)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{f}\gamma n}{f}}`$
$`D\left[\gamma ^2(p+\rho )\right]_tp`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{f}}{f}}_\chi (\chi p)`$ (14)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{f}}{f}}\left(\gamma ^2(p+\rho )p\right)`$
$`D\left[\gamma ^2(p+\rho )𝐯\right]+p`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{c}0\hfill \\ A/f\hfill \\ 0\hfill \end{array}\right){\displaystyle \frac{\dot{f}\gamma ^2(p+\rho )}{f}}\left(\begin{array}{c}v_x\hfill \\ v_\chi \hfill \\ v_z\hfill \end{array}\right).`$ (21)
The left hand sides (LHS) here are identical to those of Eq. (II) while the right hand sides (RHS) represent sources injecting matter and momentum, including into the horizontal directions $`x`$ and $`z`$. (Similar equations are used to describe rockets employing real injection systems to generate high speed expelled flows Zucrow\_76 .) The injection sources are dominated in the relativistic large $`\gamma `$ regime by terms proportional to the ratio $`\dot{f}/f`$ and either $`\gamma `$ or $`\gamma ^2`$. Then, as long as $`\dot{f}0`$, the respective limits $`\gamma \mathrm{}`$ and $`f0`$ reinforce each other to inject (potentially) infinite mass and momentum in finite time to drive a horizontal relativistic velocity singularity.

A very approximate analysis of the velocity and energy of the horizontal expelled jet can be performed but solutions are suggestive only. Consider the case where again the moving coordinate system approximately tracks the descending fluid so $`v_\chi 0`$, though now, the increasing pressure drives a near relativistic horizontal velocity $`v_x`$ constituting an expelled jet. (Symmetry allows ignoring the $`z`$ direction.) Fluid velocities are then $`(v_x,0,0)`$. In the large $`\gamma `$ limit each of the above conservation equations gives the time rate of change of the expulsion velocity as

$`_tv_x`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{.𝐯\gamma n+\gamma \dot{n}}{n\gamma ^3v_x}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{f}}{f\gamma ^2v_x}}`$
$`_tv_x`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{.𝐯\gamma ^2R+\gamma ^2\dot{R}}{2\gamma ^4Rv_x}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{f}(Rp)}{2fR\gamma ^2v_x}}`$
$`_tv_x`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{.𝐯\gamma ^2Rv_x+_xp}{\gamma ^2R(1+2\gamma ^2v_x^2)}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{f}v_x}{f(1+2\gamma ^2v_x^2)}}`$ (22)
where $`R=\gamma ^2(p+\rho )`$ and the top line results from the conservation of particle number, the second line from the conservation of mass and the third line stems from the conservation of momentum in the $`x`$ direction. The asymptotic form of each of these equations in the large $`\gamma `$ limit is approximately

$$_tv_xO\left(\frac{1}{\gamma ^2}\right)\frac{\dot{f}}{f\gamma ^2v_x}$$
(23)
and this form is used for further discussion. The first term on the RHS is independent of $`f`$ and, in the absence of squeezing ($`\dot{f}=0`$), necessarily goes to zero so that $`_tv_x0`$ as $`\gamma \mathrm{}`$ ensuring $`v<c`$. The second term reflects squeezing effects and is positive ($`\dot{f}<0`$) and the linkage between the limits $`f0`$ and $`\gamma \mathrm{}`$ offsets the effect of $`\gamma `$. This equation can be integrated by ignoring the small first term with initial conditions $`f(t_0)=1`$ and $`v_x(t_0)=v_0`$ giving

$$v_x^2(t)=1f^2\left(1v_0^2\right),$$
(24)
or equivalently

$$\gamma ^2(t)=\frac{\gamma _0^2}{f^2}.$$
(25)
It is of interest to consider the non-physical mathematical limit $`f0`$ for some finite time $`T>t_0`$ representing full closure so $`f(T)=0`$. This limit gives

$$v_x(T)=1,$$
(26)
a light speed jet. It is of course impossible for any material fluid to reach light speed though squeezed system might be able to exploit relativistic velocity singularity source terms to approach this ideal using singular mass and momentum injection source terms proportional to $`\dot{f}\gamma ^2/f`$.

Particle energy within the expelled jet is then

$$E\gamma (t)\frac{1}{f}\mathrm{},$$
(27)
though this result is suggestive only.

## III Non-relativistic velocity singularities

For completeness, details of the non-relativistic velocity singularity created by asymmetrically compressing a fluid are given. (See Ref. Gagen\_99\_12  for more details.) The conservative form of the inviscid and dimensionless Euler equations with zero conductivity are derived from the the relativistic equations (II) after taking the small velocity limit $`\gamma 1`$, $`pO(\rho v^2)`$, and $`p+\rho \rho `$, so now $`\rho `$ and $`p`$ become the usual fluid density and pressure. The use of time-dependent coordinates \[Eq. (3)\] gives the Energy-Momentum tensor for a perfect gas as

$`T^{00}`$ $`=`$ $`\rho `$
$`T^{0j}`$ $`=`$ $`\rho v^j`$
$`T^{ij}`$ $`=`$ $`\rho v^iv^j+\mathrm{diag}(p,p/f^2,p).`$ (28)
Here, the diagonal pressure terms in the vertical direction are scaled by a factor $`1/f^2`$ over those in horizontal directions so that the limit $`f0`$ creates the large pressure gradients driving the horizontal velocity singularity. Conservation of the energy-momentum tensor $`T_{}^{\mu \nu }{}_{;\mu }{}^{}=0`$ then gives the modified Euler equations

$$_tU+_xF+_\chi G=0$$
(29)
$$\begin{array}{cc}U=\left(\begin{array}{c}f\rho \\ f\rho v_x\\ f\rho v_y\end{array}\right)& F=\left(\begin{array}{c}f\rho v_x\\ f\left(\rho v_x^2+\rho ^\gamma /\gamma \right)\\ f\rho v_xv_y\end{array}\right)\hfill \\ G=\left(\begin{array}{c}f\rho v_\chi \\ f\rho v_xv_\chi \\ f\rho v_yv_\chi +\rho ^\gamma /\gamma \end{array}\right)& \end{array}.$$

Here $`v_\chi =(v_y\dot{f}\chi )/f`$ and we show mass continuity (top line) and momentum conservation in the $`x`$ and $`y`$ directions. (Symmetry constrains fluid motions to this plane.) Adiabatic perfect gases with $`p=\rho ^\gamma `$ ($`\gamma =1.4`$) are considered and all variables are dimensionless with dimensioned (primed) variables being given by $`x^{}=xL`$, $`v^{}=va_0`$, $`p^{}=pp_0`$, $`\rho ^{}=\rho \rho _0`$ and $`t^{}=tL/a_0`$ with $`L`$ being some convenient length parameter and $`a_0^2=\gamma p_0/\rho _0`$ giving the local speed of sound.

Analytic solutions can be obtained in the low velocity limit $`v_x1`$ (allowing $`v_x^20`$), and by assuming linear squeezing $`f(t)=1t/T`$ for some closure time $`T`$, with fluid elements possessing velocity $`v_y=\dot{f}\chi `$ tracked by the time dependent coordinates giving $`v_\chi =0`$. The analytic solution for an incompressible fluid with $`\rho =1`$ (to give the maximum expulsion velocity) is then

$$v_x(x,t)=\frac{\dot{f}x}{f}$$
(30)
displaying a velocity singularity as $`f0`$. This solution is strictly valid only while $`v_x<0.3`$ where an unconfined compressible fluid remains approximately uncompressed. Experiments demonstrate that this solution provides a reasonable approximation to the expulsion velocity into the supersonic regime Gagen\_99\_12 .

## IV Conclusion

This paper uses a preliminary and necessarily crude analysis to establish that relativistic velocity singularities can appear in relativistic hydrodynamic equations. Velocity singularities provide such an elegant and simple means of sourcing near light speed relativistic jets that it would be surprising if this mechanism was not accessed in some astrophysical systems.