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# Higgs and SUSY Higgs bosons at future linear collider 1footnote 11footnote 1 Talk given at Linear Collider Workshop 2000 - LCWS 2000, October 24 -28, 2000, Fermilab.

## Introduction

Exploring the Higgs sector is one of main motivations for constructing an $`e^+e^{}`$ linear collider (LC). At the future LC with the center of mass energy of 300 - 500 GeV, we can expect to produce $`10^4`$ \- $`10^5`$ Higgs bosons with an integrated luminosity of 100 -1000 fb-1 if the Higgs boson mass is 100 -200 GeV. For such a relatively light Higgs boson, LC can play a role of a Higgs factory and provide qualitatively different information from hadron machines, even when the Higgs particle is discovered at Tevatron or LHC experiment before the start of the LC experiment.

The purpose of the Higgs factory is to study various properties of the Higgs particle. From the production cross section in the $`e^+e^{}Z^{}ZH`$ process the Higgs coupling to two gauge bosons can be deduced. This coupling constant is closely related to the mass-generation mechanism of the gauge boson, because both the Higgs-two-gauge-boson coupling and the gauge-boson mass term originate from the same term in the standard model (SM) Lagrangian. By measuring this coupling constant, we can test whether or not the discovered scalar particle really plays a role of the Higgs boson associated with the electroweak symmetry breaking. Measurement of the Higgs boson coupling to fermions is important to understand the fermion mass generation mechanism. Eventually, we would like to reconstruct the Higgs potential itself by measuring three-point as well as four-point Higgs boson self-coupling constants. These are fundamental questions of particle physics, and the $`e^+e^{}`$ LC is an ideal place to answer these questions.

In the Higgs and SUSY Higgs session of this workshop, most of contributions are related to the above questions. Firstly, how well can various coupling constants be determined in the future $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$ colliders ? With expected accuracy on those coupling measurements, is it possible to distinguish various models such as the minimal SM, the two Higgs doublet model (2HDM) and the minimal supersymmetric standard model (MSSM)? Within a specific model, for example in the MSSM, how well would various supersymmetric (SUSY) parameters be determined? Since the first question was mainly addressed by the experimental summary talk of this session batt01 , more theoretical aspects are discussed here. In the following, a short introduction to theoretical considerations on the Higgs boson mass is given first, and then the MSSM Higgs sector and the measurement of anomalous $`ZZH`$ and $`Z\gamma H`$ coupling constants are discussed. Finally, the Higgs physics at a $`\gamma \gamma `$ collider is briefly mentioned.

## Higgs Boson Mass

The most fundamental parameter of the Higgs sector is the mass of the Higgs boson. Because the role of the Higgs field is to give masses to elementary particles through electroweak symmetry breaking, the mass of the Higgs boson itself reflects the self-interaction of the Higgs field. In the minimal SM with one Higgs doublet field, the Higgs boson mass $`(m_H)`$ is given by $`m_H=\sqrt{2\lambda }v`$, where $`\lambda `$ is the self-coupling constant of the Higgs potential, $`V=\mu ^2|H|^2+\lambda |H|^4`$, and $`v246`$ GeV. This formula implies that the mass of the Higgs boson is closely related to the strength of interaction responsible for the electroweak symmetry breaking and its determination provides us an important clue on the possible mechanism of the electroweak symmetry breaking.

More precisely, we can derive theoretical upper and lower bounds of the Higgs boson mass, if we take a particular model. In the minimal SM, the allowed range is 135 GeV $`m_h`$ 180 GeV, if we require that the theory is valid up to the Planck scale, $`M_{pl}10^{19}`$ GeV. The self coupling constant $`\lambda `$ blows up below the Planck scale for a larger Higgs boson mass than the upper-bound, whereas $`\lambda `$ turns to a negative value and the vacuum stability is not guaranteed if the Higgs boson mass is less than the lower-bound. Similar upper and lower bounds can be obtained for the 2HDM kane99  and the Zee model of neutrino mass generation zee00  as a function of the cutoff scale. In these cases the allowed range of the mass for the lightest CP-even Higgs boson is 100 GeV $`m_h`$ 180 GeV for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=10^{19}`$ GeV in the decoupling case where only one SM-like Higgs boson is light compared to other physical state of the Higgs particles. The mass bounds of the lightest CP-even Higgs boson in the 2HDM are shown in Figure 1.

In the MSSM, the upper-bound on the the lightest CP-even Higgs boson mass $`(m_h)`$ is determined without reference to the cut-off scale of the theory. This is because the self-coupling of the Higgs field is completely determined by the gauge coupling constants at the tree level. Taking into account the top and stop one-loop corrections, $`m_h`$ is given by

$$m_h^2m_Z^2\mathrm{cos}^22\beta +\frac{3}{2\pi ^2}\frac{m_t^4}{v^2}ln\frac{m_{stop}^2}{m_{t}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}},$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{tan}\beta <H_2^0>/<H_1^0>`$ is the ratio of the vacuum expectation values of two Higgs fieldsokad91 . In the above expression, we have assumed that the left- and right-handed stop squarks have the same mass and there is no mixing among two states. In the literature more precise calculation is available, and it is concluded that $`m_h`$ is bounded by about 130 GeV, even if we take the stop mass to be a few TeV. Because the expected mass range is somewhat lower than that derived under assumption that the minimal SM is valid up to the Planck scale, the discovery of the Higgs boson around 120 GeV would be a strong indication of the MSSM.

In extended versions of SUSY model, the upper-bound of the lightest CP-even Higgs boson can be determined only if we require that any of dimensionless coupling constants of the model does not blow up below some cut-off scale. For the SUSY model with an extra gauge singlet Higgs field, the bound is about 150 GeV, which is a slightly larger than the upper-bound for the MSSM case. Because there is a new tree level contribution to the Higgs mass formula, the maximum value corresponds to a lower value of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, which is quite different from the MSSM case where the Higgs mass becomes larger for large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. In Ref.espi98  the upper-bound of the lightest CP-even Higgs boson was calculated for SUSY models with gauge-singlet or gauge-triplet Higgs field and the maximal possible value was studied in those extensions of the MSSM. It was concluded that the mass bound can be as large as 210 GeV for a specific type model with a triplet-Higgs field for a stop mass of 1 TeV. The mass bound was also studied for the SUSY model with extra matter fields. In this model the upper-bound becomes larger due to loop corrections of extra matter multiplets. If the extra fields have $`\overline{5}+10+5+\overline{10}`$ representations in SU(5) GUT symmetry, the maximum value of the lightest CP-even Higgs boson mass becomes 180 GeV for the case that the squark mass is 1 TeV moro92 .

### Detectability of at least one Higgs boson at LC

Because the above upper-bound of the lightest CP-even Higgs boson is at most about 200 GeV, at least one of the Higgs boson is kinematically accessible in any type of SUSY models for the $`e^+e^{}`$ LC with $`\sqrt{s}=`$ 500 GeV. It is, however, important to know whether such a Higgs boson can be discovered for reasonable integrated luminosity, because the production cross section and decay modes depends on details of models. In the MSSM, it was shown that at least one of two CP-even Higgs bosons can be detectable through $`e^+e^{}Zh_i`$ process with relatively low integrated luminosity $`(10`$fb$`{}_{}{}^{1})`$. In the model with a singlet Higgs field there are three CP-even Higgs bosons, and if the lightest one becomes singlet-dominated, its mass bound alone does not guarantee the discovery of the Higgs boson because its coupling to gauge bosons is very suppressed. Even in such a case we can show that at least one Higgs boson with a sizable SM Higgs component exists below or around the upper-bound of the lightest CP-even Higgs boson. In fact, we can calculate a minimal production cross section which means that at least one of three CP-even Higgs bosons has a larger production cross section than that value in the $`e^+e^{}Zh_i`$ process. The minimal cross section turns out to be one third of the SM Higgs production cross section evaluated at the upper-bound value. This production cross section is typically 20 - 50 fb for $`\sqrt{s}=`$ 300 - 500 GeV and large enough to guarantee the discovery of at least one Higgs boson independently of its decay modeskamo94 . Furthermore, in more general SUSY models with arbitrary number of the Higgs fields, it was shown that the Higgs signal is observable at $`e^+e^{}`$ LC with $`\sqrt{s}=`$ 500 GeV and integrated luminosity of 500 fb-1 espi99 . This is true even if the Higgs bosons decay to invisible modes because we can measure a recoil mass distribution at the LC experiment.

### Precision electroweak measurements v.s. the Higgs boson mass

Since present electroweak measurements are precise enough to be sensitive to virtual loop effects, a useful constraint on the Higgs boson mass is obtained in the minimal SM. Taking account of the direct measurement of the $`W`$ boson and top quark mass in addition to various electroweak data at LEP and SLD experiments, the 95 % upper bound on the SM Higgs boson mass is about 210 GeVlepwg . This value means that the Higgs boson is detectable in the future LC with $`\sqrt{s}=`$ 500 GeV. Because this bound is obtained within the minimal SM, it is very interesting whether or not this kind of bound can be derived in other models.

In general 2HDM, unlike the MSSM case, we cannot derive useful mass bound if we do not consider the condition on the validity of the theory up to some cut-off scale. The question whether we can conclude that at least one of Higgs boson will be discovered at LC based on present knowledge of the electroweak measurements was considered in Ref. guni00  and it was shown that the following four conditions could be satisfied simultaneously: (1) The light Higgs boson (CP-even $`(h)`$ or CP-odd $`(A)`$) has no $`ZZ/WW`$ couplings. (2) The heavy CP-even Higgs boson $`(H)`$ is too heavy to be produced at LC with $`\sqrt{s}=`$ 500 - 800 GeV. (3) The production cross section for $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ or $`b\overline{b}h`$ ($`t\overline{t}A`$ or $`b\overline{b}A`$) are not large enough for discovery in these modes even with extremely large integrated luminosity (2500 fb-1). (4) These parameters are still reasonably consistent with the present electroweak precision test. Although no direct signal on the Higgs sector is expected in this particular parameter space, we can distinguish this model if we improve the electroweak measurement including the $`W`$ boson mass determination at the Giga-Z option of the LC experimentguni00 ; pesk01 .

## MSSM Higgs sector

In the MSSM, physical Higgs states are CP-even Higgs bosons $`(h,H)`$, a CP-odd Higgs boson $`(A)`$ and a pair of charged Higgs bosons $`(H^\pm `$). At the tree level, the Higgs potential is parametrized by three mass parameters in addition to gauge coupling constants. It is known that the radiative corrections, mainly due to top and stop loop diagrams, can give important modification to the Higgs potential, so that the lightest CP-even boson mass receives a large radiative correction. Three dimensionful parameters can be taken as two vacuum expectation values, in other words $`v`$ and $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, and one of Higgs boson masses, which is usually taken as the CP-odd Higgs boson mass $`(m_A)`$. In addition, the Higgs sector depends on the top and the stop masses through the radiative correction. More precisely, the parameters appearing in the formula of the radiative correction are not just one stop mass, but two stop masses, trilinear coupling constant for stop sector $`(A_t)`$, the higgsino mass parameter $`\mu `$, and sbottom masses, etc. (If we use more precise formula, we need to specify more input parameters.) Once these parameters are specified, we can calculate the mass and the mixing of the Higgs sector. The Higgs mixing parameter $`\alpha `$ is defined by $`ReH_1^0=(v\mathrm{cos}\beta h\mathrm{sin}\alpha +H\mathrm{cos}\alpha )/\sqrt{2}`$, $`ReH_2^0=(v\mathrm{sin}\beta +h\mathrm{cos}\alpha +H\mathrm{sin}\alpha )/\sqrt{2}`$, where $`H_1^0`$ and $`H_2^0`$ are neutral component of two Higgs doublet fields. $`\alpha `$ is a function of independent parameters ($`m_A,\mathrm{tan}\beta ,m_t,m_{stop}`$, etc).

The masses of the CP-even and the CP-odd Higgs bosons as well as the charged Higgs bosons are shown as a function of $`m_A`$ in Fig. 2. It is important to distinguish two regions in this figure. Namely, when $`m_A`$ is much larger than 150 GeV, $`H,A`$ and $`H^\pm `$ states become approximately degenerate and the mass of $`h`$ approaches to its upper-bound value for each $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. This limit is called the decoupling limit. In this limit, $`h`$ has properties similar to the SM Higgs boson, and the coupling of the heavy Higgs bosons to two gauge-boson states is suppressed. On the other hand, if $`m_A`$ is less than 150 GeV, the lightest CP-even Higgs boson has a sizable components of the SM Higgs field and the other doublet field. Since LEP experiments have already excluded a significant portion of the parameter space, it is quite possible that the Higgs boson will be found in the decoupling region. If we discover only one Higgs boson at either Tevatron or LHC experiments in the mass region consistent with the MSSM, precise measurements of the Higgs particle’s properties are important to distinguish this from the SM Higgs boson, especially in the decoupling and near-decoupling regions. The future LC is the most suitable place to perform such precise measurements. In the following subsections, we discuss various ways to distinguish the MSSM from other models through measurements with respect to the Higgs sector.

### Non-minimality of the Higgs sector

In the production of the light Higgs boson, the number of the Higgs signals provide important information on the model behind the Higgs sector. Because the main decay mode of the light Higgs boson is $`hb\overline{b}`$, $`\sigma (e^+e^{}Zh)B(hb\overline{b})`$ is a quantity expected to be measured precisely. In Fig. 3, the MSSM parameter region where $`\sigma (e^+e^{}Zh)B(hb\overline{b})`$ differs from the SM prediction by 6% is shown for $`m_t=`$175 GeV and $`m_{stop}=`$ 1 TeV. Because the statistical accuracy of this quantity at the first stage of the future LC experiment is expected to reach a few % level, the deviation will be clear within this parameter region. The contour extends to the line corresponding to $`m_A=500`$ GeV. In this figure two other lines are drawn . One corresponds to the case in which the total width of the Higgs boson is larger than 200 MeV, so that the recoil mass distribution in the $`e^+e^{}Zhl^+l^{}h`$ provides the direct measurement of this quantity. The other line is the limit where the charged Higgs boson pair production is observable at the LC with $`\sqrt{s}=`$ 500 GeV.

### Higgs boson branching ratios v.s. the heavy Higgs boson mass

It was pointed out that the following ratio of the branching ratios

$$R_{cc+gg/bb}=\frac{B(hc\overline{c})+B(hgg)}{B(hb\overline{b})}$$
(2)
is a sensitive probe to $`m_A`$kamo96 . In the MSSM, the Higgs sector is the same as type II 2HDM at the tree level, so that the up(down)-type Yukawa coupling constant is associated with $`H_2`$ $`(H_1)`$, and $`B(hc\overline{c})`$ ($`B(hb\overline{b})`$) is proportional to $`\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha /\mathrm{sin}^2\beta `$ $`(\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha /\mathrm{cos}^2\beta )`$. Because $`hgg`$ is induced predominantly by the internal top quark loop, the dependence on the angles is the same as the $`hc\overline{c}`$ mode. As a result, $`R_{cc+gg/bb}`$ is proportional to $`1/(\mathrm{tan}\beta \mathrm{tan}\alpha )^2`$. Taking into account the top and the stop loop corrections to the Higgs potential, we can relate these angles to other input parameters and derive the following approximate formula.

$$R_{cc+gg/bb}\left(\frac{m_A^2m_h^2}{m_A^2+m_Z^2}\right)^2R_{cc+gg/bb}(SM),$$
(3)
where $`R_{cc+gg/bb}(SM)`$ is the same ratio evaluated in the SM. In Fig.4, $`R_{cc+gg/bb}(SM)`$ is shown for $`m_h=`$ 120 GeV. ($`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is solved for each $`m_A`$ to give this Higgs boson mass.) This figure shows that the above formula is actually a very good approximation and the ratio is almost independent of other parameters like $`m_{stop}`$ and $`A_t`$. The expected statistical error for 100 fb-1 is also shownnaka96 . We can see that this quantity is useful to constrain the mass scale of the heavy Higgs bosons.

Although the lightest CP-even Higgs boson is likely to be discovered in the LHC experiment, whether or not other Higgs states $`(H,A,H^\pm )`$ can be found depends on the SUSY parameters. There is a large portion of the parameter space with $`m_A200`$ GeV and $`2\mathrm{tan}\beta 10`$ where only one lightest CP-even Higgs boson will be discovered. If this is the case, it would be very important that possible range of the heavy Higgs boson mass could be inferred from branching ratio measurements at the first stage LC experiment with $`\sqrt{s}=`$ 300 - 500 GeV, so that we can set the target energy of the second stage LC experiment.

### SUSY loop correction to bottom Yukawa coupling at large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$

When $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is as large as 50, SUSY loop corrections generate important contribution to the bottom-Higgs Yukawa couplingbabu99 . Including one-loop induced coupling the top and bottom Yukawa couplings with the neutral Higgs fields are given by

$$L_{Yukawa}=y_t\overline{t_L}t_RH_2^0+y_b\overline{b_L}b_RH_1^0+ϵ_by_b\overline{b_L}b_RH_2^0+h.c.$$
(4)
The $`ϵ_b`$ term is induced by loop diagrams with internal sbottom-gluino and stop-chargino. Thus the Higgs sector becomes effectively general-type 2HDM, not restricted to the type-II model. The bottom mass is expressed by

$$m_b=y_b(1+ϵ_b\mathrm{tan}\beta )\frac{v}{\sqrt{2}}\mathrm{cos}\beta .$$
(5)
Although $`ϵ_b`$ is typically $`O(10^2)`$, the correction to $`m_b`$ enters with a combination of $`ϵ_b\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ which can be close to $`O(1)`$ for a large value of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. Precise calculation of various branching ratios was presented taking account of these correctionsweig00 . For example, the ratio of $`B(h\tau ^+\tau ^{})`$ and $`B(hb\overline{b})`$ is modified to

$$R_{\tau \tau /bb}\frac{B(h\tau ^+\tau ^{})}{B(hb\overline{b})}=\left(\frac{1+ϵ_b\mathrm{tan}\beta }{1ϵ_b/\mathrm{tan}\alpha }\right)^2R_{\tau \tau /bb}(SM),$$
(6)
where $`R_{\tau \tau /bb}(SM)`$ is the same ratio evaluated in the SM. $`R_{\tau \tau /bb}`$ is the same as $`R_{\tau \tau /bb}(SM)`$ if the SUSY loop effect to the $`b\overline{b}H_2^0`$ vertex is negligible. We also notice that in the decoupling limit with $`m_A\mathrm{}`$, $`\mathrm{tan}\alpha `$ is approaching to $`1/\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, so that the ratio reduces to the SM prediction. This is because the properties of the lightest CP-even Higgs boson become similar to those of the SM Higgs boson, independent of how the two Higgs doublet fields couple to the fermions. In actual evaluation, however, the approach to the asymptotic form is slow for large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, so that sizable deviation from the SM prediction may be observed.

The SUSY vertex correction also modifies the previous discussion on constraining $`m_A`$ from $`R_{cc+gg/bb}`$. This problem was investigated and it was shown that the effect on $`R_{cc+gg/bb}`$ is within a few % for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =`$ 10, although the uncertainty is too large for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =`$ 50 kiyo01 . This means that for the parameter space where the LHC experiment would not find the heavy Higgs boson, $`R_{cc+gg/bb}`$ can still give important clue on the heavy Higgs mass scale. The theoretical uncertainty to the branching ratio from input parameters such as $`\alpha _s,m_b`$ and $`m_c`$ was also studied, and the error is about 8% for $`R_{cc+gg/bb}(SM)`$ and $`R_{\tau \tau /bb}(SM)`$ if we know $`\alpha _s`$ within 2%, the $`\overline{MS}`$ running quark masses, $`m_b(m_b)`$ within 3% and $`m_c(m_c)`$ within 5%. The mass determination at this level from lattice gauge theory is very important for Higgs physics.

Once we measure $`B(hb\overline{b})`$, $`B(hc\overline{c})`$ and $`B(h\tau ^+\tau ^{})`$ with enough precision, we can determine the correction factor $`\mathrm{\Delta }_bϵ_b\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ loga00 . If x(y) is defined as $`B(hb\overline{b})/B(h\tau ^+\tau ^{})`$ ($`B(hc\overline{c})/B(h\tau ^+\tau ^{})`$) normalized by the corresponding SM values, we get $`\mathrm{\Delta }_b=(1\sqrt{x})/(\sqrt{x}\sqrt{y}).`$ Determination of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_b`$ is very interesting because non-zero value provides a hint for the SUSY loop effect on the vertex correction.

The vertex correction also modifies the production and the decay of the heavy Higgs bosonskold00 . Main effects on the coupling of heavy Higgs boson to the fermions is due to the correction to the relation between the bottom mass and the original bottom Yukawa coupling constant shown in Eq.(5). In SO(10)-like GUT model with Yukawa unification, for example, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_b`$ should be -25% to -18% and the bottom coupling constants to $`A`$ and $`H`$ become effectively larger by the same amount. As a result, the production cross sections of $`e^+e^{}Ab\overline{b}`$, $`Hb\overline{b}`$ below the threshold of the $`A`$ $`H`$ associated production is increased, and the $`\tau ^+\tau ^{}`$ and $`c\overline{c}`$ branching ratios of the heavy Higgs boson are suppressed.

### Determination of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ from heavy Higgs boson process

In SUSY models $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is a very important parameter. Although it is defined as a ratio of two vacuum expectation values, this parameter appears in various couplings of the MSSM Lagrangian. The consistency check of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ determined in the Higgs sector, the chargino-neutralino sector as well as the squark-slepton sector will be interesting because these relationships result from SUSY invariance.

In the MSSM, the possible range of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is 1 - 70 from the requirement that the Yukawa coupling constants do not blow up below the Planck scale. The range of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta 2`$ is excluded from the LEP II Higgs boson search for reasonable values of stop masses and mixing parameters. Direct determination of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is a challenging task for future LC experiment.

One of best ways to determine $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is to study heavy Higgs boson production and decays, because the branching ratios and production cross sections depend on $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ significantly. For the branching ratios, $`A,Ht\overline{t}`$ and $`H^{}b\overline{t}`$ are dominant for small $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ as long as these modes are kinematically allowed, whereas $`A,Hb\overline{b},\tau ^+\tau ^{}`$ and $`H^{}\tau \overline{\nu }`$ becomes important for larger values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. For the production processes, $`e^+e^{}b\overline{b}A`$, $`b\overline{b}H`$ and $`e^+e^{}t\overline{b}H^{}`$ are enhanced for large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. The question to what extent $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ can be determined at future LC was addressed in Ref. feng97 . It was concluded that $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ would be well constrained in the intermediate values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ $`(3\mathrm{tan}\beta 10)`$. In addition, $`e^+e^{}t\overline{b}H^{}`$ production cross section is enhanced for a large value of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta (50)`$.

In this workshop, a new analysis was reported where systematic study was performed using $`e^+e^{}Hb\overline{b},Ht\overline{t}`$, $`Ab\overline{b}`$, $`At\overline{t}`$ process at LC with $`\sqrt{s}=5001000`$ GeVjian00 . Within the MSSM scenario, $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ will be well constrained for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta 10`$. Typical error is $`\pm 2`$ for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =3`$ and $`\pm 4`$ for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =10`$. If $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is determined from the Higgs sector we can use this value as an input parameter for various other SUSY processes such as chargino production and stau decays, so that we can perform quantitative tests of SUSY Lagrangian.

### Single charged Higgs boson production

Main production process of the charged Higgs boson at LC is $`e^+e^{}H^+H^{}`$, so that the mass reach is kinematically restricted to $`\sqrt{s}/2`$. A single charged Higgs boson production is potentially important because the search for a heavier charged Higgs boson is possible.

For this purpose, a systematic investigation of single charged Higgs boson production processes at $`e^+e^{}`$ LC has been donekane00 . Production cross sections for 14 processes were calculated in the MSSM. These are $`e^+e^{}\tau ^+\nu H^{}`$, $`t\overline{b}H^{}`$, $`W^+H^{}`$, $`e^+\nu H^{}`$, $`Z^0W^+H^{}`$, $`hW^+H^{}`$, $`HW^+H^{}`$, $`AW^+H^{}`$, $`e^+e^{}W^+H^{}`$, $`\nu \overline{\nu }W^+H^{}`$, $`e^+\nu Z^0H^{}`$, $`e^+\nu hH^{}`$, $`e^+\nu HH^{}`$, and $`e^+\nu AH^{}`$. Among these processes, $`e^+e^{}W^+H^{}`$, $`e^+\nu H^{}`$ are one-loop induced processes. Generally, the production cross sections are very suppressed $`(<10^2`$fb$`{}_{}{}^{1})`$ below the $`H^+H^{}`$ pair production threshold, but the two processes are found to be promising. Namely, $`e^+e^{}\tau ^+\nu H^{}`$ for large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ case and $`e^+e^{}W^+H^{}`$ for small $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ case have production cross sections of $`0.011`$fb-1 for $`\sqrt{s}=500`$ GeV, and therefore may be observable with integrated luminosity of 500 fb-1.

## Anomalous coupling measurement

At $`e^+e^{}`$ LC experiment, a great number of light Higgs bosons are expected to be produced through the $`e^+e^{}ZHf\overline{f}H`$ process. We can put constraints on anomalous coupling constants for the $`ZZH`$ and $`Z\gamma H`$ vertexes, because these coupling constants generate additional contribution to the $`ZH`$ production process through interference with the SM process kamo00 . Up to dimension-five operators these anomalous couplings are given by

$`L_{eff}`$ $`=`$ $`(1+a_z){\displaystyle \frac{g_Zm_Z}{2}}HZ_\mu Z^\mu `$ (7)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{g_Z}{m_Z}}{\displaystyle \underset{V=\gamma ,Z}{}}[b_VHZ_{\mu \nu }Z^{\mu \nu }+c_V(_\mu Z_\nu _\nu Z_\mu )V^{\mu \nu }+\stackrel{~}{b}_VHZ_{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{V}^{\mu \nu }]`$
where $`V_\mu =A_\mu `$ or $`Z_\mu `$ and $`V_{\mu \nu }=_\mu V_\nu _\nu V_\mu ,\stackrel{~}{V}_{\mu \nu }=ϵ_{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }V^{\alpha \beta }`$. For $`\sqrt{s}=500`$ GeV and integrated luminosity of 300 fb-1, expected constraints on these coupling constants were studied for $`m_H=`$115 GeV. In particular, effects of helicity measurements of $`\tau `$ lepton ($`ϵ_\tau =50`$%), charge identification of the bottom quark ($`ϵ_b=60`$%) as well as beam polarization ($`|P_e^{}|`$ = 80 %, $`|P_{e^+}|`$ = 45 %) were investigated. These options turns out to be useful to improve the measurements of anomalous coupling constants. With these options the above parameters can be constrained to the level of $`10^4`$. In particular, the improvement is significant for the $`Z\gamma H`$ coupling measurement. This is because the interference term between the SM amplitude and the amplitude with the $`Z\gamma H`$ couplings is suppressed without these options due to the almost axial-vector nature of the $`e^+e^{}Z`$ coupling in the SM.

## Photon-photon collider

In the photon-photon option of the LC experiment, we can directly measure $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(H\gamma \gamma )B(Hb\overline{b})`$ by the s-channel Higgs boson production process. Assuming that $`B(Hb\overline{b})`$ will be already precisely known from the $`e^+e^{}`$ LC experiment, we can obtain the two photon partial width of the Higgs boson. Combined with the information on $`B(H\gamma \gamma )`$, the total decay width will be derived. Because $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(H\gamma \gamma )`$ is induced by heavy particle loops, accurate determination of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(H\gamma \gamma )`$ is very interesting as a possible window to new physics.

In order to estimate the accuracy, we have to evaluate rates of the signal and background processes in the SM. In this workshop, recent developments on the radiative corrections for these processes were reported yako00 ; mell00 . In the SM background process, $`e^+e^{}b\overline{b}`$, the Born cross section for $`J_z=0`$ channel is suppressed by $`m_b^2/s`$ compared to that for $`J_z=\pm 2`$ channel, so that we can use polarization of initial photons to suppress the background. On the other hand, there is a large QCD correction to this process and careful treatment of higher order corrections is necessary. The radiative corrections to the SM signal and background processes are under control and it was reported that the measurement of two photon decay width with a statistical accuracy of 1.4% would be possible for a Higgs boson mass of 115 GeV using the TESLA parametersmell00 .

One example of possible role in identifying a new physics from the two photon partial width of the Higgs boson was discussedginz01 . In 2HDM, it may be possible that only a light Higgs boson is found at LHC and $`e^+e^{}`$ LC experiments and its couplings to gauge boson and fermions are found to be consistent with the SM Higgs boson within the expected accuracy of these experiments. Even in such a situation, the deviation of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(H\gamma \gamma )`$ from the SM value can be as large as 10%, so that the two-photon decay width measurement may be able to provide the first hint for non-mimimality of the Higgs sector.

## Summary

We have discussed various examples in which studies of the Higgs sector at future LC experiment provide signals of physics beyond the SM. If in fact a light Higgs boson is found at Tevatron, LHC or LC experiments, the role of LC will be the Higgs factory. By precise determination of production cross section and branching fractions, we can test whether the observed particle corresponds to the SM Higgs boson or the MSSM Higgs boson. Within the MSSM we can put a constraint on the SUSY parameters. If kinematically allowed, heavy charged and neutral Higgs bosons may be produced, and their properties are useful to identify models. The photon-photon option is also useful to search for new physics through loop effects in the two photon decay width of the Higgs boson. These measurements are important to establish or distinguish various candidates of models such as the minimal SM, MSSM, 2HDM or some other possibilities which may be highlighted in future.

This work was supported by the Grant-in-Aid of the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Government of Japan (No. 09640381), Priority area “Supersymmetry and Unified Theory of Elementary Particles” (No. 707), and “Physics of CP Violation” (No. 09246105).


text:
# 3-D ionization structure (in stereoscopic view) of Planetary Nebulae: the case of NGC 1501

## 1 Introduction

The planetary nebula (PN) phase (common to most of intermediate and low mass stars in their late evolution; Iben, 1984; Vassiliadis & Wood, 1993; Schönberner, 1997) is characterized by an extreme variety of morphologies: disks, butterflies, point-symmetric or multiple shells, hourglasses etc. (Greig, 1972; Balick, 1987; Schwarz et al., 1992; Manchado et al., 1996).

Different mechanisms, acting before, during and after the nebula ejection, can contribute to generating the observed shapes. These include the mass-loss history, stellar rotation and/or precession, magnetic fields, duplicity of the central star, wind interactions, hydrodynamical processes, ionization and recombination (Tylenda, 1986; Morris, 1987; Pascoli, 1992; Dwarkadas & Balick, 1998; Garcia-Segura et al., 1999).

In order to disentangle the physical processes forming and shaping a PN, the first - and most difficult - observational step is the nebula de-projection, i. e. the recovery of the ionized gas 3-D structure. In this paper, which is the result of a long-standing effort (Sabbadin, 1984, Sabbadin et al., 1985, 1987, 2000a, 2000b), we obtain the spatial distribution of the PN matter by means of high resolution spectroscopy.

As a test case we selected NGC 1501 for which we have already presented a partial tomographic analysis (Sabbadin et al. 2000b, hereafter P1). In P1, long-slit echellograms at four position angles gave the radial density profile, the mean electron temperature and turbulence and a rough 3-D model. The accurate spatial reconstruction was deferred to a more complete spectroscopic coverage.

Recently we have observed NGC 1501 at four additional position angles and developed a rendering procedure which integrates the tomographic slices and rebuilds the detailed spatial distribution of the ionized gas.

This work, in many respect the logical continuation of P1, is structured as follows: the nebula and the observational material are introduced in Sect. 2; in Sect. 3 we illustrate the reduction procedure, in particular, how to derive the electron density profile from the H$`\alpha `$ flux of the zero-velocity pixel column; Sect. 4 contains the tomographic maps and Sect. 5 describes and analyses the spatial model; a general discussion is presented in Sect. 6 and conclusions are drawn in Sect. 7.

## 2 The nebula and the observational material

The high excitation PN NGC 1501 (PNG144.5+06.5, Acker et al., 1992) is “a mass of irregular condensations, with some big holes” (Minkowski, 1968) “bearing a resemblance to the convolutions of the brain” (Pease, 1917).

The literature-based data for the whole system (nebula + exciting star) are summarized in Table 1.

$`\lambda `$$`\lambda `$4500-8000 Å, spatially resolved spectra of NGC 1501 (including flat field, Th-Ar calibration and spectrophotometric standard) were secured with the Echelle spectrograph attached to the Cassegrain focus of the 1.82m Asiago (Italy) telescope and equipped with a Thompson 1024x1024 pixels CCD (spatial scale=0.79 arcsec pix-1; spectral scale=9.0 km s-1 pix-1).

Eight position angles were covered in two observing runs (the slit positions are shown in Fig. 1 superimposed on a broad-band R frame of the nebula):

Run 1) P.A. = 10o, 55o, 100o and 145o on December 1998 (non photometric nights; seeing 1.4 - 1.7 arcsec; spectral resolution 13.5 km s-1; spectra used in P1);

Run 2) P.A. = 30o, 80o, 125o and 170o on December 1999 (photometric nights; seeing 1.2 - 1.4 arcsec; spectral resolution 12.0 km s-1).

In all cases the exposure time was 1800 seconds.

A detailed description of the spectroscopic characteristics of NGC 1501 is given in P1. In short: it is a high ionization, density bounded PN; stratification effects are negligible; the position-velocity maps can be fitted by a triaxial ellipsoid deformed by several hemispheric bubbles protruding from the central figure; the main emission occurs in a narrow shell whose density profile is steep outwards and flatter inwards.

We believe that a general observational note is appropriate here, concerning the common employment by most authors of an interference filter when obtaining echelle spectra of PNe (to isolate a single order containing one or more interesting emissions, like H$`\alpha `$ \+ \[NII\], and to avoid the superposition of orders). No filter was used in our observations, for the following reasons:

PNe present a discrete spectrum and the superposition of lines belonging to different orders is quite improbable (even with a slit covering several orders);

the introduction of an interference filter, reducing the spectral range from several hundred Å to a few dozen Å, drastically limits the number of usable emissions per frame;

a careful reduction procedure allows us to take into account all the possible sources of inaccuracy (line curvature, order tilting, optical distorsions, spectral sensitivity, CCD cosmetics) over the whole frame, thus obtaining the flux and wavelength calibrated, spatially resolved structure of all emissions present in the echellogram (some dozens in the case of the brightest PNe, representing the main ionic species).

## 3 Reduction procedure: the radial electron density ($`Ne`$) profile from the H$`\alpha `$ absolute flux in the zero-velocity pixel column

The spectral reduction process was the same as described in P1, but for the absolute calibration of the radial $`Ne`$ profile. Due to night sky variability, in P1 we were forced to obtain the electron density of NGC 1501 by comparison with NGC 40 (both nebulae observed on the same nights and with the same instrumental setup). This was unnecessary for “run 2”, since the sky was photometric and the proper nebular flux calibration was performed using the spectrophotometric standard.

Thus, the starting point is the classical expression

$$4\pi D^2F(H\alpha )=h\nu _{3,2}_0^R\alpha _{3,2}N(H^+)Neϵ4\pi r^2𝑑r$$
(1)
where:

D is the distance, $`F(H\alpha )`$ is the H$`\alpha `$ flux corrected for extinction, $`\nu _{3,2}`$ is the H$`\alpha `$ frequency, $`\alpha _{3,2}`$ is the H$`\alpha `$ recombination coefficient, $`N(H^+)`$ is the ionized hydrogen density and $`ϵ`$ is the filling factor, representing the fraction of the nebular volume which is filled by matter at density $`Ne`$.

We restrict the integration to the portion of the nebula identified by the zero-velocity pixel column (corresponding to the gas which is expanding perpendicularly to the line of sight).

The H$`\alpha `$ flux (Fl) in each pixel of the zero-velocity column, corrected for interstellar absorption and instrument resolution (for details see Sabbadin et al. 2000a), is given by:

$$4\pi D^2F_l=4\pi j_{H\alpha }N(H^+)NeV_lϵ_l[\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1]$$
(2)
where:

\- $`j_{H\alpha }`$ is the H$`\alpha `$ emission coefficient for the case B of Baker & Menzel (1938); for typical nebular densities its dependence on $`Te`$ is obtained by interpolation of Brocklehurst (1971) data: $`4\pi j_{H\alpha }=h\nu _{3,2}\alpha _{3,2}=0.20\times 10^{20}Te^{0.94}`$;

\- $`V_l`$ is the “local nebular volume” defined as $`V_l=A\times \mathrm{\Delta }r`$, $`A`$ being the pixel area and $`\mathrm{\Delta }r=R\times (\mathrm{\Delta }V/V_{\mathrm{exp}})`$ the radial thickness of the zero-velocity pixel column;

\- $`ϵ_l`$ is the “local filling factor”, indicating the fraction of the local nebular volume, $`V_l`$, which is actually filled by matter with density $`Ne`$.

The radial electron density profiles of NGC 1501 derived from eq. (2) at the four position angles of “run 2” are shown in Fig. 2 (assuming $`Te=11500^{}`$K, $`Ne=1.15`$ $`N(\mathrm{H}^+`$), $`c(\mathrm{H}\beta )=1.05`$, $`D=1.30`$ Kpc and, in first approximation, $`ϵ_l`$=1). Their complex structure confirms (at least qualitatively) the results already obtained in P1; in particular, the main nebula consists of a thin shell presenting large inwards tails whose extent is anti-correlated to the height of the density peak.

A quantitative $`Ne_{\mathrm{run1}}Ne_{\mathrm{run2}}`$ comparison can be performed only at the intersection of the eight slit positions, i. e. at the apparent stellar position; this needs the accurate tomographic reconstruction illustrated in the next Section.

## 4 Tomography

The tomographic analysis of PNe, originally introduced and applied to plate spectra by Sabbadin (1984) and Sabbadin et al. (1985, 1987), has been recently extended and refined by Sabbadin et al. (2000a, b). Its application to the H$`\alpha `$ emission of “run 2” spectra allows us to derive the electron density maps shown in Figure 3. Following P1, we adopted a linear distance-velocity relation, an electron temperature of $`11500^{}`$K, a turbulence of 18 km s-1 and a radius of the shell peak at the position of the central star (in radial direction) of 20 arcsec.

The maps of Fig. 3, combined with the similar maps of Fig. 5 of P1, give the spatial $`Ne`$ distribution in the eight nebular slices covered by the spectroscopic slit. NGC 1501 being a high ionization, density bounded PN, the $`N(\mathrm{H}^+)`$ and $`N(\mathrm{O}^{++})`$ tomographic maps coincide with the $`Ne`$ ones (but for a scaling factor of 1.15 and $`3.8\times 10^3`$, respectively; see P1).

The comparison of the electron densities in the nebular regions common to the eight position angles (i. e. at the apparent stellar position) gives a very satisfactory agreement (to within $`\pm `$3%) between $`Ne_{\mathrm{run1}}`$ and $`Ne_{\mathrm{run2}}`$, confirming the validity of the “escamotage procedure” adopted in P1. Our satisfaction is mitigated by the consideration that, in any case, the inaccuracy in the absolute $`Ne`$ calibration based on eq. (2) is of the order of 10%, mainly due to the uncertainty in the distance of the nebula.

The only direct $`Ne`$ determination in NGC 1501 using diagnostic line ratios dates from Aller & Epps (1976). These authors analysed at low spectral resolution a small region located at a distance of 20 arcsec from the central star (in PA$`=125^o`$) and derived $`I(6717)/I(6731)=0.78`$, corresponding to $`Ne=1200\mathrm{cm}^3`$ (for $`Te=11500^{}`$K). From the tomographic map at PA$`=125^o`$ (Fig. 3) we obtain, at a distance of 20 arcsec in the E-SE sector, density peaks of 950-970 cm-3, i.e. our $`Ne(SB)`$ ($`SB`$ stands for “surface brightness”) is 20% lower than the corresponding \[SII\] electron density reported by Aller & Epps (1976).

Possible causes of this discrepancy are (in order of importance):

small-scale density fluctuations. We adopted a local filling factor $`ϵ_l=1`$; actually, the surface brightness method (cf. eq. (2)) gives $`Ne\times ϵ_l^{1/2}`$. On the other hand, the \[SII\] line intensity ratio measures the true electron density of the brightest (i. e. densest) nebular regions; thus the $`Ne(SB)/Ne([\mathrm{SII}]`$) ratio would indicate a local filling factor $`ϵ_l0.66`$ in the main shell of NGC 1501;

distance inaccuracy. From eq. (2) we have that $`Ne(SB)(1/D)^{1/2}`$; to obtain $`Ne(SB)=Ne([\mathrm{SII}])`$ we need $`D_{\mathrm{NGC1501}}=0.83`$ Kpc (assuming $`ϵ_l=1`$). This value is lower than any of the estimates reported in the literature (see Table 1);

ionization. NGC 1501 being a high ionization PN, S+ is localized in the outer parts of the densest regions, where the shadowing of the UV stellar flux decreases the gas ionization. Thus, the H+ and S+ spatial distributions are partially decoupled. The effects of ionization on the $`Ne(SB)/Ne([\mathrm{SII}])`$ ratio are generally modest; they become important in the case of a radial density profile which is multi-peaked, very asymmetric and strongly variable in direction;

measurement uncertainty connected to the weakness of low ionization emissions. A symptom of the difficulties encountered by Aller and Epps (1976) comes from the non-detection of the \[SII\] red doublet at a second position close to the nebular edge (25 arcsec from the nucleus, in PA$`=223^{}`$), which is noticeably brighter than the first one. For this second position (intermediate between our PA$`=30^{}`$ and PA$`=55^{}`$) we derive electron density peaks of $`10501150\mathrm{cm}^3`$. Note that these $`Ne(SB)`$ values are only 10% higher than those obtained for the first position, indicating that the large flux observed in position 2 is mainly due to projection effects (i.e. thickness of the emitting layer).

Most likely, to explain the $`Ne(SB)Ne([\mathrm{SII}])`$ discrepancy, we must look for a suitable combination of all the factors listed above. New, valuable information will come out of the detailed spatial reconstruction of the nebular structure, as performed in the next Section.

## 5 3-D spatial reconstruction

### 5.1 Methodology

Each tomographic map of NGC 1501 can be regarded as an image $`Ne(x,x^{})`$, where $`x`$ is the distance from the plane of the sky crossing the central star and $`x^{}`$ is measured along the slit. In order to recover the spatial electron density distribution $`Ne(x,y,z)`$, a suitable reference system is defined: we adopted $`x`$ pointing toward the Observer, $`y`$ toward East and $`z`$ toward North.

A data-cube of a given size $`N\times N\times N`$ is initialized, filled with the raw data and re-mapped into cylindrical coordinates $`(x,r,\alpha )`$, where:

$$r=\sqrt{(}y^2+z^2);\alpha =\mathrm{arctan}(\frac{y}{z}).$$
(3)
Once we have defined the pixel size $`p`$, we can fill up the $`n`$ planes related to the spectrograms as:

$$Ne(x,r,\alpha )=Ne_i(\frac{x}{p},\frac{x^{}}{p}).$$
(4)
Interpolation between the $`n`$ observed planes is made in a linear fashion along the cylindrical coordinates. In other words, the data for $`\alpha >\alpha _i`$ and $`\alpha <\alpha _{i+1}`$ are given by:

$$Ne(x,r,\alpha )=Ne_i(\frac{x}{p},\frac{x^{}}{p})\frac{\delta \alpha _i^{}}{\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha }+Ne_{i+1}(\frac{x}{p},\frac{x^{}}{p})\frac{\delta \alpha _i^+}{\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha }$$
(5)
where:

$`\delta `$$`\alpha _i^{}`$=$`\alpha `$ \- $`\alpha `$i, $`\delta `$$`\alpha `$$`{}_{}{}^{+}{}_{i}{}^{}`$=$`\alpha `$i+1 \- $`\alpha `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\alpha `$=$`\alpha `$i+1 \- $`\alpha `$i.

Finally, one should consider the singularity in $`y=z=0`$. These points are treated as an average of the neighbouring pixel-data for each plane defined by a given $`x`$.

In the examples reported here we used $`N=200`$, $`n=8`$ and $`p=0.40`$ arcsec.

### 5.2 Results

A problem arises when presenting the $`Ne`$ data-cube of NGC 1501: how can we render the 3-D on the page? The adopted solution is illustrated in the following figures.

Fig. 4 shows the opaque reconstruction of the densest nebular regions ($`Ne>900\mathrm{cm}^3`$) as seen from 12 directions, separated by $`15^{}`$.

Fig. 5 is the same as Fig. 4, but for the weakest components ($`Ne>300\mathrm{cm}^3`$); at even lower densities the roundish halo appears.

Finally, Fig. 6 represents the optical appearance of the rebuilt-nebula seen from the same 12 directions of Figs. 4 and 5.

In these figures the line of view is identified by the zenith angle ($`\theta `$) and the azimuthal angle ($`\psi `$), corresponding to a rotation through the first two Euler angles. Thus, for example, the upper-right image represents the rebuilt nebula as seen from the Earth (i. e. from (0,0)).

Let’s consider Figs. 4 and 5. Since the line of view of two adjacent images differs by $`15^{}`$, each horizontal couple constitutes a stereoscopic pair, allowing the reader to enjoy 12 surprising 3-D views of the nebula in as many directions (instructions are given in the caption of Fig. 4). The stereoscopic view is more difficult in Fig. 6, because of the diffuse, smooth nebular appearance.

Hereafter we will call “direct stereoscopy” the 3-D view just described; in sub-section 6.3 an alternative method, “swapped stereoscopy”, will be introduced and compared with the “direct” one.

For reasons of space, only twelve low resolution nebular structures (at two density cuts) are presented, and as many projections. The complete data-cube can be directly requested from the authors. Moreover, some movies of NGC 1501 (+ other pleasantries) will be available soon from a dedicated WEB page.

### 5.3 Reliability tests

The first (and most important) consistency test of our reconstruction method is based on the comparison of the optical appearance of the true- and the rebuilt-nebula, when reduced to the same angular resolution.

To be noticed that the spatial resolution of NGC 1501-rebuilt is not constant, but anti-correlated to the angular distance from the central star (this occurs because we observed the nebula at radially arranged position angles). Thus, taking into account the slit width, the number of position angles and the nebular angular extension, we have that the spatial resolution of NGC 1501-rebuilt varies from 1.5 - 2.0 arcsec (at the central star position) to 3.0 - 3.5 arcsec (at the nebular edge).

The optical appearance of the true nebula under a seeing of 2.0 and 3.5 arcsec is shown in Fig. 7. The comparison with NGC 1501-rebuilt (Fig. 6 upper-right image) is very satisfactory, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Indeed:

1. all the macro- and micro-characteristics observed in NGC 1501 (general appearance, holes position, blobs and condensations distribution etc.) are faithfully reproduced by the model;
2. the surface brightness profiles of the two nebulae agree to within $`\pm `$10% along the position angles covered by the spectroscopic slit and to within $`\pm `$20% at intermediate directions.

Other checks, eg. the comparison of the nebular fluxes at different radii and/or different positions, the $`Ne`$ distribution etc. confirm that our technique adequately recovers the 3-D nebular shape. In conclusion, Figs. 4 to 6 closely represent both the structure and appearance of NGC 1501 rotating around a N-S axis centred on the exciting star.

## 6 Discussion

In general, the foregoing spatial reconstruction performed in different emissions (i. e. for various ions) allows us to obtain the detailed 3-D ionization structure of a PN. This is particularly valuable for objects presenting complex morphologies (butterflies, poly-polars, multi-shells etc.) and/or large stratification effects and/or small scale condensations (ansae, knots, FLIERS= fast, low ionization emitting regions, BRETS= bipolar, rotating, episodic jets etc.).

Moreover, photo-ionization models at unprecedented resolution of the whole nebula and of the micro- and macro-structures can be produced by combining the true spatial structure of the expanding gas with the ultraviolet stellar flux.

Finally, the 3-D reconstruction can strongly contribute in solving the PNe “Problem”, i.e. the distance: only the detailed knowledge of both the dynamical and physical nebular properties will give the right interpretation of the angular expansion measured in first and second epoch HST and/or radio imagery, thus obtaining precise expansion-parallax distances (Hajian et al., 1993, 1995; Kawamura & Masson, 1996; Terzian, 1997).

From all these points of view NGC 1501 is a complete disappointment: it is quite faint (i. e. only the brightest emissions can be analysed) and homogeneous (no knots, jets or ansae) at high excitation and density bounded (stratification of the radiation is negligible).

In spite of this, the 3-D analysis of our “ordinary” PN is important to introduce the wide potentialities of the spatial reconstruction in studying at small and large scales both the phenomenology and the physical processes connected with expanding nebulae (PNe, nova shells, supernova remnants, nebulae around Population I Wolf-Rayet stars etc.).

### 6.1 General 3-D structure of NGC 1501

NGC 1501 is a high excitation, density bounded PN, and its spatial structure is the same in $`Ne`$, $`N(\mathrm{H}^+`$) and $`N(\mathrm{O}^{++}`$), other than a scaling factor.

Low ionization regions (for example N+, identified by $`\lambda `$6584 Å of \[NII\]) are too weak for a detailed 3-D analysis. Probably they are localized in the external parts of the densest knots and condensations, where the shadowing of the ultraviolet stellar flux lowers the nebular ionization.

The results obtained in P1 (the main body of NGC 1501 is a thin ellipsoid of moderate ellipticity deformed by a pair of large lobes along both the major and intermediate axes and by a multitude of smaller bumps spread on the whole nebular surface, making the general 3-D structure like a boiling, tetra-lobed shell) can now be improved and extended.

The thin, inhomogeneous shell forming the main nebula (Fig. 4) is characterized by a dense, oblique belt definiing the “equatorial” plane, i. e. the plane containing the axes $`b`$ and $`c`$ of the central ellipsoid. The maximum density ($`Ne1400\mathrm{cm}^3`$ for $`ϵ_l`$=1) is reached in the direction of the minor axis. Only some arcs and knots belonging to the lobes appear in Fig. 4.

A lumpy, quite homogeneous cocoon at low density completely embeds the main shell (Fig. 5). The complex radial structure of this envelope (sharp outwards and broad inwards) cannot be seen here and will be presented and discussed later (sub-section 6.4).

The “boiling” structure of NGC 1501 is clearly visible in Figs. 4 and 5 for the shell’s regions with higher spatial resolution, i. e. those projected on -or close to- the central star when the nebula is seen from (0,0).

To highlight the “tetra-lobed” shape, in Fig. 8 we present the optical appearance of NGC 1501 as seen from:

($`25,75`$), i. e. along the major axis of the ellipsoid;

($`65,15`$), i. e. along the intermediate axis;

($`25,15`$), i. e. along the minor axis.

In conclusion: the main body of NGC 1501 is a deformed, almost oblate ellipsoid of moderate ellipticity ($`a44`$ arcsec, $`a/b1.02`$, $`a/c1.11`$), denser in the equatorial belt containing the axes $`b`$ and $`c`$. Hydrodynamical processes (possibly Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities and wind interaction) partially swept up the lower density regions of the ellipsoid, generating both the hemispheric caps and the broad inward tail in the radial matter distribution.

The ionized nebular mass ($`M_{ion}`$, coinciding with the total nebular mass) is 0.15($`\pm `$0.03) M and the dynamical age 5000($`\pm `$500) years.

As noticed in P1, a small, attached halo extending up to 34 arcsec from the central star surrounds the main nebula. The roundish, homogeneous appearance of the halo suggests that it represents photospheric material ejected by the PN progenitor in the late AGB evolution. Moreover, the radial surface brightness profile, steeper than the r-3 law expected of a steady-state flow, indicates that the halo corresponds to a phase of “enhanced” stellar mass-loss. Finally, the electron density profile (Fig. 2 of this paper and Fig. 4 of P1) gives a mass-loss rate of 3($`\pm `$1)x10-5 M yr-1 and an age of 1.0($`\pm `$0.2)x104 years (assuming $`V_{exp}`$ = 20 km s-1; see Habing, 1996 and references therein).

We claim that the halo represents the vestiges of the “superwind” phase (lasted 5($`\pm `$1)x103 years) which generated the nebula. Most of the gas was later swept up by wind interaction, and was completely ionized by the UV flux of the evolving star, thus producing NGC 1501. Note that the mean mass-loss rate in the superwind phase resulting from the analysis of the main nebula, given by ($`M_{ion}`$/superwind duration), coincides with the value just obtained for the halo.

At this point a quick comparison with NGC 40 (the first PN tomographically studied in detail, Sabbadin et al., 2000a) can be instructive.

NGC 40 is an optically thick, very low excitation barrel-shaped nebula with thin arcs emerging at both ends of the major axis; it is powered by a luminous WC8 star presenting a large mass-loss rate. According to the “born-again scenario” proposed by Iben (1984; see also Blöcker, 1995 and references therein), the central stars of NGC 40 and NGC 1501 suffered a final thermal pulse in the late post-AGB phase, ejecting the photospheric strata and exposing the C and O rich core.

Moreover, both the evolutionary sequence \[WClate\] - \[WCearly\] - \[WC-PG1159\] - \[PG1159\] (Hamann, 1997; Koesterke et al., 1997) and the dynamical ages ($`3500\pm 500`$ yr for NGC 40 and $`5000\pm 500`$ yr for NGC 1501) would indicate a earlier evolutionary phase for NGC 40.

In $`2000\pm 500`$ yr its size should be comparable with the present size of NGC 1501, but the structure will be quite different: a dense (optically thick?) equatorial torus + extended, faint polar caps.

Thus: NGC 40 will most likely evolve into a bipolar (butterfly?) PN, whereas NGC 1501 will keep its ellipsoidal structure, becoming fainter and fainter (in a few thousand years it will resemble A 43 and NGC 7094, two extended, filamentary, high ionization PNe excited by hybrid-PG1159 type central stars; see Rauch, 1999 and Feibelman, 2000).

The different evolution of the two nebulae can be tentatively explained by a more massive NGC 40 progenitor, which ejected a higher nebular mass with a larger density gradient between equatorial and polar regions, and created a higher mass central star (with respect to NGC 1501).

Further support for this qualitative scenario comes from a preliminary analysis of a third “born-again” PN at an even earlier evolutionary phase, BD+303639 (the Campbell’s star), observed with TNG + SARG in nine position angles at spatial and spectral resolutions of 0.7 arcsec and $`\lambda /\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda =115000`$, respectively.

### 6.2 2-D (morphology) - 3-D (structure) correlation

Because of its fascinating variety and importance in most aspects of the advanced evolution of low and intermediate mass stars, the morphology of PNe has attracted many authors and several efforts have been made to search for a general classification scheme for the “morphological forest” (Greig, 1972; Zuckerman & Aller, 1986; Balick, 1987; Chu et al., 1987; Balick et al., 1992; Stanghellini et al., 1993; Corradi & Schwarz, 1995; Manchado et al., 1996).

At the same time, a number of hydrodynamical and magnetohydrodynamical simulations were carried out and the theoretical nebulae compared with the observed ones (Mellema, 1997; Dwarkadas & Balick, 1998; Garcia- Segura et al., 1999 and references therein).

Our 3-D reconstruction method, allowing us to derive the detailed spatial structure of each object and to observe it from all possible directions, revolutionizes the approach to the morphological problem of PNe and opens new prospectives for understanding the 2-D (morphology) - 3-D (structure) relation.

Let’s consider Fig. 6, for instance, giving a representative sample of the manifold morphologies of NGC 1501 when changing the line of view.

The optical appearance of the nebula mainly depends on the “latitude”, i. e. on the angle of view of the dense, inhomogeneous equatorial belt: at “low latitudes” (from (0,135) to (0,15) in Fig. 6) it is a broad disk presenting inner, amorphous structures. When seen almost pole-on (from (0,60) to (0,105)), a sharp, oval ring appears, brighter along the minor axis (corresponding to the projection of the c axis of the ellipsoid).

A quick look through the main imagery catalogues (Acker et al., 1992; Schwarz et al., 1992; Manchado et al., 1996; Gorny et al., 1999) indicates that NGC 1501-rebuilt resembles M 3-30 when seen from (0,15), A 53 and NGC 7094 from (0,30), IC 1454 from (0,45), A 73 from (0,60), A 70 from (0,105), NGC 4071 from (0,120) and NGC 6894 from (0,135).

We can add that, seen from other directions (not presented here for reasons of space), NGC 1501 looks like several other nebulae contained in the above-mentioned catalogues.

In short: all the possible morphologies assumed by NGC 1501 when seen from different directions fall in the categories named C (centric PN) by Greig (1972), Def (elliptical disk with filaments) by Zuckerman & Aller (1986), E (elliptical) by Balick (1987), ES (elliptical with inner filaments) by Stanghellini et al. (1994), E (elliptical) by Corradi & Schwarz (1995) and Es (elliptical with inner structure) by Manchado et al. (1996). They correspond to quite regular and symmetric shells, rings or disks probably ejected by single, low mass progenitors (1.1 M$``$ $`<`$ MMS $`<`$ 2.5 M$``$), excited by low mass central stars (0.56 M$``$ $`<`$ MCS $`<`$ 0.60 M$``$) showing a galactic distribution and kinematics typical of the old Disk Population (Peimbert & Serrano, 1980; Corradi & Schwarz, 1995; Maciel & Quireza, 1999 and references therein).

In a certain sense, all this belongs to the past: the understanding of the different mechanisms and physical processes forming and shaping PNe passes through the knowledge of the envelope structures. In their turn, these 3-D structures are usually presumed from a schematic classification of the manifold nebular morphologies. Such a rough cascade process is overcome by our 3-D analysis, which directly provides the accurate spatial distribution (and ionization) of the expanding gas, thus removing any misleading camouflage due to projection.

An example: while it is evident that in no case will NGC 1501 appear as a butterfly or a hourglass, the opposite could occur: when seen at particular directions (e. g. along -or close to- the axis of the lobes), a genuine butterfly or hourglass PN (like NGC 2346 or NGC 650-1) could mimic some NGC 1501 appearances (as suggested for K 4-55 by Guerrero et al., 1996).

This could also be the case for some famous and extensively studied PNe, like NGC 6720. The three-dimensional structure of the Ring Nebula has never been firmly defined, spanning from a complex toroid viewed close to the polar axis (Minkowski & Osterbrock, 1960; Louise, 1974; Reay & Worswick, 1977; Balick et al., 1992; Volk & Leahy, 1993; Bryce et al., 1994; Lame & Pogge, 1994) to an oblate or prolate spheroidal or ellipsoidal shell (Atherton et al., 1978; Phillips & Reay, 1980; Kupferman, 1983; Masson, 1990; Pascoli, 1990; Guerrero et al., 1997), to a flat ring (Hua & Louise, 1970) and to a hollow cylinder (Proisy, 1974; Bachiller et al., 1989). No doubt the Ring Nebula will be one of our next targets.

### 6.3 Zooming in NGC 1501: local filling factor, $`ϵ_l`$, and density fluctuations in the main shell

Figs. 4, 5 and 6 clarify that the big holes characterizing the optical appearance of NGC 1501 represent localized shell regions of lower density. This is even more evident in Fig. 9, showing the “swapped stereoscopic” nebular structure for $`Ne>700\mathrm{cm}^3`$ as seen from (0,0), i.e. from the Earth.

The hole in PA$`=70^{}`$ at 11 arcsec from the central star corresponds to a “window” in the approaching nebular gas; through this “window” we observe the receding, dense material in the oblique belt representing the equatorial region of NGC 1501. The hole is clearly visible also in the following tomographic maps: Fig. 3 at PA$`=80^{}`$, East sector and Fig. 5 of P1 at PA$`=55^{}`$, N-E sector.

Since in the hole $`Ne`$(receding gas)/$`Ne`$(approaching gas) $`>1.6`$, we have flux(rec. gas)/flux(app. gas) $`>2.5`$; i. e. to a first approximation we can neglect the contribution of the approaching material and assume that we are observing only the receding one. In this way we have isolated a well-defined nebular portion, appropriate for study in detail at the maximum spatial resolution (TNG or, better, HST imagery).

Figures 10a, b and c show the flux maps in the $`15\times 15`$ arcsec2 nebular region centred on the hole at 11 arcsec from the central star in PA$`=70^{}`$, as given by our TNG broad-band R frame (Fig. 10a), by the same frame after a soft Lucy-Richardson restoration (Fig. 10b), and by HST (Fig. 10c).

These figures stand out intensity fluctuations in the hole by a factor of 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 for the TNG, TNG + Lucy-Richardson and HST images, respectively, indicating a clear correlation with the angular resolution.

Let’s take in the receding portion of the nebular shell observed through the hole:

the HST value as representative of the small scale flux variations,

the $`Ne`$ radial profile derived from the 3-D reconstruction,

the constancy of the electron temperature.

Under these assumptions we obtain fluctuations of the density peaks of a factor $`1.5(\pm 0.2)`$.

Moreover, using a black-body spectrum for the exciting star and “normal” chemical abundances for the expanding gas (see Aller & Ckyzak, 1983), we have that:

\- the electron density peaks given by the \[SII\] red doublet are $`1.101.20`$ larger than $`Ne(SB)`$;

\- due to the incomplete recombination of S++, the \[SII\] 6717/6731 Å density peaks are 10 to 30% lower than the true $`Ne`$ values.

This is valid for a wide range of nebular distances ($`1.0<D[\mathrm{Kpc}]<2.0`$) and stellar fluxes ($`3.0<\mathrm{log}L_{}(L)<3.6;4.90<\mathrm{log}T_{}<5.10`$).

Very similar results come from the analysis of other “holes” present in NGC 1501, for instance the one at 15 arcsec from the star in PA$`=125^{}`$, corresponding to a “window” in the approaching gas, and the one at 11 arcsec from the star in PA$`=13^{}`$, representing a “window” in the receding material (this last hole is visible in Fig. 1 and in Fig. 3 at PA$`=170^{}`$, Northern sector).

In spite of the heavy assumptions, the foregoing results would indicate small-scale density fluctuations (combined with ionization) as the main cause of the $`Ne([\mathrm{SII}])Ne(SB)`$ discrepancy reported in Section 4.

This implies that:

the local filling factor in the main shell is $`ϵ_l=0.50(\pm 0.1)`$, i. e. lower than the value derived from ($`Ne(SB)/Ne[\mathrm{SII}])^2=0.66(\pm 0.1`$);

our surface brightness electron densities should be increased by a factor $`1.4(\pm 0.2)`$ to obtain the density peaks of the emitting gas in the main shell.

It is evident that new insights into the variation on a small scale of the physical conditions are needed to deepen our understanding of the above-mentioned questions; this mainly concerns the electron temperature, whose changes affect in different ways the emissivities of recombination and forbidden lines (a lower $`Te`$ favouring recombinations; see Peimbert, 1994, for a recent review).

As suggested in P1, an even lower value of $`ϵ_l`$ is expected in the inwards tail of the radial $`Ne`$ distribution, this knotty and inhomogeneous region arising from hydrodynamical processes.

Moreover, the application of eq. (1) to the whole nebula gives a global filling factor $`ϵ<0.25`$ (corresponding to the parameter normally used to estimate the fraction of the total nebular volume filled by the ionized gas; see Boffi & Stanghellini, 1994, and references therein).

The zooming capability implied in our 3-D analysis is a powerful tool to overcome the existing gap between the potential resolution of the modern photo-ionization models and the actual resolution when applied to real nebulae. The first (for example CLOUDY; Ferland et al., 1998) can be as detailed as one wishes simply using proper input parameters (stellar flux distribution, nebular dimensions, density law etc.), whereas their practical application is limited by observational and reduction procedures and by projection effects: up to now, all efforts intended to isolate a well-defined nebular portion (long-slit spectra analysed at different positions, short-slit echellograms etc.; see Barker, 1991, Perinotto & Corradi, 1998 and Hyung et al., 2000), in the best cases give emission line intensities which are a mixing of both the approaching gas and receding gas spectra.

The zooming yield is correlated to the spatial resolution of the rebuilt nebula (i. e. to the spatial and spectral resolutions of the echellograms); it is quite modest in the present study of NGC 1501, performed at spatial and spectral resolutions of $`1.52.5`$ arcsec and $`2200025000`$, respectively. The output will increase when analysing the symmetric knots of the quadrupolar PN IC 4634, the ansae and the FLIERS of NGC 7009 (the “Saturn”) and the “wings” of the butterfly PN HB 5 (observed with ESO NTT + EMMI at spatial and spectral resolutions of 1.0 arcsec and 60000, respectively).

### 6.4 Radial electron density profile and open questions

The intersection of the rebuilt-nebula, seen from (0,0), with the plane perpendicular to the line of sight and crossing the central star, gives the $`Ne`$ map shown in Figure 11, representing the radial electron density profile (for $`ϵ_l=1`$) extended to all position angles.

Fig. 11 shows in detail the most intriguing characteristic of the gas distribution in NGC 1501, i. e. the broad inwards tail present in the radial density profile, probably arising from hydrodynamical processes (Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities and winds interaction; Capriotti, 1973; Kahn & Breitschwerdt, 1990, Garcia-Segura et al., 1999).

The first process worked for about 1000 yr in the early evolutionary phases, when the nebula was ionization bounded (up to R $``$ 0.06 pc).

The second one, being independent of the optical thickness, acted for much longer (for most of the nebula’s life, i. e. 5000 yr) and is probably still present, as suggested by the large value of $`\dot{M}`$ ($`\mathrm{log}\dot{M}=6.28M`$ yr-1) obtained for the WC4 nucleus of NGC 1501 by Koesterke et al. (1997) using the standard atmosphere model of Wolf-Rayet stars.

This simplified scenario is complicated by the peculiarities of the powering nucleus of NGC 1501 (very hot W-R, rich in C and O, hydrogen deficient, pulsating), suggesting that the star suffered a thermal pulse in the late post-AGB evolution. Its path in the HR diagram is quite uncertain, given the large number of parameters involved: phase in the nuclear burning cycle at which the star departs from the AGB; mass of the residual hydrogen-rich stellar envelope; mass-loss rates during the quiescent hydrogen-burning phase, the high-luminosity phase following the helium shell flash and the low-luminosity quiescent helium burning phase; efficiency of convective overshoot in mixing hydrogen-free material out to the stellar surface; chemical mixing due to stellar rotation (Schönberner, 1979; Iben, 1984; Blöcker, 1995 and references therein).

Thus, the detailed analysis of the mechanisms and physical processes forming and shaping the nebula is deferred to a deeper knowledge of both the star evolutionary parameters and the gas structure.

A final remark concerns the rarity of the radial density profile shown by NGC 1501: no evidence of an extended inward tail is present in the other two dozen PNe up to now spectroscopically observed by us with the Asiago 1.82m telescope + Echelle, ESO NTT + EMMI and TNG + SARG.

A good candidate could be NGC 6751; the complex morphology of this nebula (excited by a WC4 star) was shown by Corradi et al. (1996) and spectroscopically studied at high dispersion by Chu et al. (1991), who identified six different components having as many spatio-kinematical characteristics, but didn’t give information on the radial density profile of the ionized gas.

All this, on the one hand confirms and extends the results already obtained in P1, and highlights the potentialities of our reconstruction method, on the other hand leaves unresolved many exciting questions, such as:

\- what is the small-scale matter distribution in the main shell? And that in the inward tail?

\- did the hydrogen-depleted stellar wind create chemical composition gradients across the nebula?

\- how large are the electron temperature and turbulence fluctuations in the shell?

\- what are the physical conditions, dynamics, ionic and total abundances in the outer, roundish halo?

\- is there any observational evidence supporting the “born-again scenario” proposed by Iben et al. (1983; see also Blöcker, 1995, and Herwig et al., 1999) for nonradial g-mode pulsators?

Most of these (and many other) questions can be answered by a deeper spectroscopic study at higher spatial and spectral resolutions (and at more position angles).

### 6.5 Application of the 3-D analysis to expanding nebulae in general

PNe, nova shells, nebulae ejected by symbiotic stars, bubbles surrounding early spectral type main sequence stars, supernova remnants (SNRs), shells around Population I W-R stars all consist of expanding masses of ionized gas, and the many facets of the 3-D analysis can be successfully applied to them for studying morphology, dynamics, physical conditions, photoionization model and evolutionary status.

In all cases the starting point is high resolution slit spectroscopy (or Fabry-Perot interferometry). Given the large range of expansion velocities shown by the different classes of nebulae (a few dozen km s-1 for PNe to several hundred km s-1 for young SNRs and nova shells), the term “high resolution” is here intended relative to Vexp.

Thus, the first parameter to be considered is the “relative resolution”, RR=V$`{}_{exp}{}^{}/\mathrm{\Delta }`$V, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$V being the spectral resolution.

The best RR value is always a compromise between two contrasting factors, dispersion and detection: a bright nebula can be observed at large RR in both strong and weak lines, whereas only the brightest emissions are detectable in a low surface brightness object (even at small RR).

An indicative lower limit to the applicability of the 3-D analysis can be put at RR=3. This means that slow expanding nebulae (like PNe) need high dispersion spectra ($`\lambda `$/$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\lambda `$$`>`$ 20000), whereas low dispersion spectroscopy ($`\lambda `$/$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\lambda `$ $``$ 1000) is preferable for the fastest objects. The latter is clearly illustrated by Lawrence et al. (1995), who derived the three dimensional model of the emitting gas in the Crab Nebula, in Cassiopea A and in the remnant of GK Per (Nova Persei 1901) by means of low resolution (200 $`<`$ $`\lambda `$/$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\lambda `$ $`<`$ 1500) Fabry-Perot imagery.

A second parameter to be considered in the 3-D analysis is the spatial resolution along the slit ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$d). Also in this case:

\- it is intended “relative to the angular dimensions $`d`$ of the nebula”;

\- the larger the “relative spatial resolution” $`SS=d/\mathrm{\Delta }d`$, the better the reconstruction;

\- as a rule of thumb, SS must be larger than 3.

A detailed discussion of the various contributions given by the 3-D analysis in solving the manifold problems connected with the different classes of expanding nebulae is beyond the aims of this paper and is left to the education, experience and imagination of the reader. In fact, our intent is exactly this: to excite the interest of some other people, exposing them to tackle the many problems and the wide applications of the 3-D methodology (we feel quite alone at present… “rari nantes in gurgite vasto” paraphrasing Virgil, Aeneid I, 118).

## 7 Conclusions

This paper introduces a general reduction procedure giving the detailed spatial structure of the ionized gas in expanding nebulae.

Its application to NGC 1501 indicates that this high excitation PN is an almost oblate ellipsoid of moderate ellipticity ($`a44`$ arcsec, $`a/b1.02`$, $`a/c1.11`$), denser in the equatorial belt containing the axes $`b`$ and $`c`$. A lumpy, quite homogeneous cocoon completely embeds the main shell.

A series of images is presented, showing stereoscopic views of the 3-D gas structure and the nebular appearance when changing the line of sight.

The morphology-structure correlation is discussed, the small scale density variations in the main shell and the peculiarities of the matter radial profile are analysed.

NGC 1501 is a quite faint, high ionization, density bounded PN, its 3-D study is simple and straightforward (at our spatial and spectral resolutions).

We are now involved in a much more ambitious project: the spatial mapping in different ions (H+, He+, He++, Oo, O+, O++, N+, S+, Ne++, Ar++, Ar+++ etc.) and the photo-ionization modelling of a dozen bright PNe in both hemispheres; each target observed at several (at least 9) position angles with ESO NTT + EMMI (spatial resolution = 1.0 arcsec, spectral resolution = 60000) and TNG + SARG (spatial resolution = 0.7 arcsec, spectral resolution = 115000).

###### Acknowledgements.

We greatly appreciated the suggestions and the encouragement by Luciana Bianchi, Gary Ferland, Guillermo Garcia-Segura and Vincent Icke; to them all we express our deep gratitude. This paper is based on observations made with: \- the 1.82m telescope of the Astronomical Observatory of Padua, operated at Asiago, Cima Ekar (Italy); \- the Italian Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG) operated on the island of La Palma by the Centro Galileo Galilei of the CNAA (Consorzio Nazionale per l’Astronomia e l’Astrofisica) at the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias; \- the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained from the data archive at the Space Telescope Science Institute. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract NAS 5-26555.


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# K-shell dielectronic resonances in photoabsorption: differential oscillator strengths for Li-like C IV, O VI, and Fe XXIV

## Abstract

Recently X-ray photoabsorption in KLL resonances of O VI was predicted \[Pradhan, Astrophys.J. Lett. 545, L165 (2000)\], and detected by the Chandra X-ray Observatory \[Lee et al. , Astrophys. J. Lett., in press\]. The required resonance oscillator strengths, $`\overline{f}_r`$, are evaluated in terms of the differential oscillator strength d$`f`$/d$`ϵ`$ that relates bound and continuum absorption. We present the $`\overline{f}_r`$ values from radiatively damped and undamped photoionization cross sections for Li-like C,O, and Fe calculated using relativistic close coupling Breit-Pauli R-matrix method. The KLL resonances of interest here are: $`1s2p(^3P^o)2s[^4P_{1/2,3/2}^o,^2P_{1/2,3/2}^o]`$ and $`1s2p(^1P^o)2s[^2P_{1/2,3/2}^o]`$. The KLL photoabsorption resonances in Fe XXIV are fully resolved up to natural autoionization profiles for the first time. It is demonstrated that the undamped $`\overline{f}_r`$ independently yield the resonance radiative decay rates, and thereby provide a precise check on the resolution of photoionization calculations in general. The predicted photoabsorption features should be detectable by the X-ray space observatories and enable column densities in highly ionized astrophysical plasmas to be determined from the calculated $`\overline{f}_r`$. The dielectronic satellites may appear as redward broadening of resonance lines in emission and absorption.

preprint: HEP/123-qed

Resonance spectroscopy may be employed to determine element abundances and ionization structure in astrophysical sources . K-shell line spectra are powerful diagnostic tools in X-ray spectroscopy for density, temperature, ionization state, and abundances laboratory and astrophysical plasmas (e.g. ). K-shell emission spectra from several atomic species have been measured in Electron-Beam-Ion-Trap experiments . Recently it was suggested that, analogous to the dielectronic satellite spectra of He-like ions in emission, K-shell X-ray photoabsorption should be detectable in KLL resonances of Li-like O VI . Soon thereafter, the Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO) made the first detection of the strongest of the predicted O VI KLL features at 22.05 $`\AA `$ from the so called ‘warm absorber’ region of ionized gas around the central source in active galactic nuclei, thought to be a massive black hole . The observation of X-ray absorption from Li-like O VI in the same wavelength region as the emission lines of He-like O VII enabled the simultaneous determination of column densities and, since the two ions do not usually co-exist in a plasma, indicated a composite plasma with widely disparate temperature regimes .

Present theoretical calculations for the resonance oscillator strengths employ highly resolved relativistic photoionization cross sections with fine structure . The quantity of interest is the differential oscillator strength $`\frac{df}{dϵ}`$ that quantitatively relates photoabsorption per unit energy in the bound-bound and the continuum region as

$$\frac{df}{dϵ}=[\begin{array}{c}\frac{\nu ^3}{2z^2}f_{\mathrm{line}},ϵI\hfill \end{array}$$
(1)
where $`f_{\mathrm{line}}`$ is the line absorption oscillator strength, $`\sigma _{\mathrm{PI}}`$ the photoionization cross section, $`I`$ the ionization potential, $`z`$ the ion charge, $`\nu `$ the effective quantum number at $`ϵ=\frac{z^2}{\nu ^2}`$ in Rydbergs, and $`\alpha `$ and $`a_0`$ are the fine structure constant and the Bohr radius respectively. In the bound-free region, with autoionizing resonances, the integrated $`\frac{df}{dϵ}`$ yields the effective photoabsorption in terms of $`\sigma _{\mathrm{PI}}`$, i.e.

$$\overline{f}_r(J_iJ_f)=_{\mathrm{\Delta }E_r}\left(\frac{df(J_iJ_f)}{dϵ}\right)𝑑ϵ=\left(\frac{1}{4\pi ^2\alpha a_0^2}\right)\sigma _{\mathrm{PI}}(ϵ;J_iJ_f)𝑑ϵ,$$
(2)
where $`J_i,J_f`$ are total angular momenta of the initial bound level and the final bound or continuum wavefunction, governed by the usual dipole selection rules $`\mathrm{\Delta }J=0,\pm 1;\pi \pi `$. Eq. (0.2) may be evaluated from the detailed $`\sigma _{\mathrm{PI}}`$ for the $`J\pi `$ symmetries concerned. However, the resonance profile needs to be sufficiently well delineated and elaborate methods need to be employed to obtain accurate positions and profiles (the background and the peaks) of resonances. Relativistic effects are essential in order to differentiate the fine structure components. We employ the coupled channel formulation based on the relativistic Breit-Pauli R-matrix (BPRM) method as employed on the extensive work on the Iron Project .

BPRM photoionization and recombination calculations were reported in earlier works for Li-, He-, H-like carbon and iron: C IV, C V, C VI  and Fe XXIV, Fe XXV, Fe XXVI  for applications to X-ray photoionization and non-LTE (NLTE) modeling. We consider the photoionization of the ground level of the Li-like ions C IV, O VI, and Fe XXIV, $`1s^22s(^2S_{1/2})`$ into all $`n=1,2,3`$ fine structure levels of the He-like ion with $`1s^2(^1S_0),1s2s(^3S_1,^1S_0)`$, $`1s2p(^3P_{0,1,2}^o,^1P_1^o)`$, $`1s3s(^3S_1,^1S_0),1s3p(^3P_{0,1,2}^o,^1P_1^o)`$ and $`1s3d(^3D_{1,2,3},^1D_2)`$ in the close coupling expansion. Thus K-shell photoionization of the $`(1s^22s)`$, i.e. inner-shell excitation-autoionization via the $`1s2p`$ transition resulting in $`1s2s2p`$ (KLL) resonances, is considered with the initial bound state ($`{}_{}{}^{2}S_{1/2}^{}`$) with symmetry $`J=0.5`$ (even parity), and final continua with $`J=0.5`$ and 1.5 (odd parity). The six KLL resonances of interest here are: $`1s2p(^3P^o)2s[^4P_{1/2,3/2}^o,^2P_{1/2,3/2}^o]`$ and $`1s2p(^1P^o)2s[^2P_{1/2,3/2}^o]`$ (the resonances are labeled in Table 1 according to the alphabetical notation by Gabriel ). The autoionization and radiative decay rates and cross sections, with and without radiative decay of resonances back to the ground level, are calculated by analyzing the poles in the complex dipole matrix elements using the method described in . The cross sections are resolved on a very fine energy mesh of up to $`10^6`$ eV.

Whereas calculations have been carried out for C IV, O VI, and Fe XXIV, for brevity we present only the detailed photoionization cross section of the Fe XXIV ground state in Fig. 1 from the L-shell ($`2s`$) ionization threshold at Fe XXV $`(1s^2{}_{}{}^{1}S_{0}^{})`$, up to the K-shell ionization thresholds at $`1s2s`$ and $`1s2p`$ (marked by arrows in the figure). The top panel (a) presents the $`\sigma _{\mathrm{PI}}`$ over the extended range with the KL$`nn2`$ complexes of resonances KLL, KLM, KLN, etc. (at computed wavelengths) converging on to the K-shell ionization edges. The bottom panel (b) shows the region of KLL resonance complex on an expanded scale, and the strongest resonance (labeled ‘q’ , Table 1), fully delineated in (c), showing the orders of magnitude effect of radiation damping. The calculations are further subdivided into the constituent total $`J\pi `$ symmetries for the (e + ion) continua, and we thereby fully resolve the lowest KLL resonance complex into the six distinct resonance features allowed by the orbital and spin angular momentum couplings, as shown in the bottom panel of Fig. 1. Two sets of cross sections are computed – with and without radiation damping of resonances (solid and dashed lines respectively). It is noted that the Y-scale (Megabarns) in the upper panel is linear, whereas in the bottom panel it is log10, i.e. the resonance peaks rise orders of magnitude above the nonresonant background. Further, the radiative damping effect attenuates the peak resonance strengths by similarly large amounts, but it is different for each resonance.

These resonances have heretofore been observed in the laboratory as dielectronic satellites (DES) formed via electron-ion excitation of the core ion followed by dielectronic recombination (DR), i.e. radiation damping of the core of the doubly excited autoionization state (e.g Li-like C IV ). We may distinguish the DR resonances DES, from the ‘photoabsorption resonances’ (PAR) as:

$$\begin{array}{cccc}e+1s^2\hfill & 1s2s2p\hfill & 1s^22s+h\nu \hfill & \text{(DES)}\hfill \\ h\nu +1s^22s\hfill & 1s2s2p\hfill & & \text{(PAR).}\hfill \end{array}$$
(3)
The PAR’s therefore manifest themselves in photoionization cross sections and photoabsorption spectra, whereas the DES appear in emission spectra. For lighter elements such as C and O, the PAR’s are not likely to be also observed as DES. Thus, in general, resonances may be divided as PAR or DES according to their actual formation and observation depending on plasma conditions in the source. For example, in ions of heavier elements such as Fe XXIV, we expect the same set of resonances to act as PAR’s or the DES, and provide useful plasma diagnostics – absorption from cold or cooling environment (with Li-like Fe XXIV for example), or emission at higher temperatures (with DR from He-like Fe XXV). Since both the DES and the PAR are satellite features on the long wavelength side of the resonance lines, they should appear as ‘redward broadening’ of the primary resonance transitions in emission or absorption spectra. This fact may be of considerable astrophysical significance in the analysis of X-ray spectra where such asymmetric broadening of resonance lines is observed, and is sometimes ascribed to relativistic gravitational broadening due to proximity of the plasma source to a massive black hole (see the discussion in Ref. ).

Table 1 gives the computed resonance parameters: the associated autoionization and radiative rates ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }_a,\mathrm{\Gamma }_r`$), as well as the radiatively undamped (NRD) and the damped (RD) $`\overline{f}_r`$ ’s for the KLL resonances in C IV, O VI, and Fe XXIV. The $`\overline{f}_r`$ (NRD) are the conventional $`f`$-values, but computed for resonances; the $`\overline{f}_r`$ (RD) are further multipled by the ratio of the radiative rate back to the ground level and the sum of all radiative rates. The $`\overline{f}_r`$ (C IV,NRD) agree well with the length $`f`$-values computed in  to 3.9% for the $`1s2p(^1P^o)2s`$, and to 0.9% for the $`1s2p(^3P^o)2s`$ resonances.

The ‘q’ resonance in Fe XXIV (Fig. 1c) is the narrowest one with an extremely small $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_a`$, the lowest among the KLL PAR’s. But it has the largest $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_r`$, and hence the largest resonance oscillator strength $`\overline{f}_r`$ , resulting in the most damped profile. In previous works the resonance $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_a,\mathrm{\Gamma }_r`$ are generally determined either in the isolated resonance approximation (e.g. ), or through fitting of complex dipole matrix elements for the dielectronic satellite resonances (e.g. ). The resonances themselves are not fully resolved up to their natural autoionization widths. In the present work, the ‘q’ resonance required an order of magnitude finer resolution than that needed to derive $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_a,\mathrm{\Gamma }_r`$ from fitting alone (given in Table 1). The $`\overline{f}_r`$ ’s obtained from integration over completedly resolved $`\frac{df}{dϵ}`$ accounting for all the oscillator strength (as for Fe XXIV), should be somewhat more accurate than from the fits, or isolated resonance approximation when interference between the background and the resonant parts of the wavefunctions is significant. The $`\overline{f}_r`$ in Table 1 agree very well with those derived from fits to resonances . Another independent check is that the sum over the $`\overline{f}_r`$ ’s for the KLL resonances of Fe XXIV, 0.782, agrees well with the total absorption oscillator strength in the E1 dipole allowed and intercombination transitions in the core ion Fe XXV $`f(1s^2{}_{}{}^{1}S_{0}^{}1s2p^{(3,1)}P_1^o)`$, 0.772.

The present calculations therefore enable not only the calculation of PAR oscillator strengths, but also provide the most stringent check on the accuracy of photoionization calculations. For C IV and O VI all six KLL resonances are not fully delineated due to overlapping and weak components, but the stronger components account for nearly all the expected oscillator strength; the weak components have very small $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_a`$ and small $`\overline{f}_r`$ . We should expect the KLL resonances in C IV and O VI to manifest themselves only as PAR’s, and not DES, since the radiative rates are small compared to autoionization rates.

The computed $`\frac{df}{dϵ}`$ for the three ions are shown in Fig. 2, eextending from the bound-bound region with the ($`2snp`$) transitions to the bound-free ($`2sϵp`$) in the X-ray region. It may be noted that the bound-bound region is in the UV for C IV and O VI, but in the X-ray for Fe XXIV with the exception of the $`n`$ = 2 transition in the extreme UV. The bound-bound oscillator strengths are computed up to $`n`$ = 10 from the same eigenfunction expansion as in the photoionization and recombination work in Refs. ; all atomic parameters are thereby obtained in a theoretically self consistent manner. The Fe XXIV and Fe XXV oscillator strengths were reported in Ref.  (those for carbon and oxygen ions are as yet unpublished but may be obtained from the first author). The $`\frac{df}{dϵ}`$ are continuous across the ionization threshold, but reflect magnitudes and the structures of discrete and resonant transitions ***Owing to a typographical error in the plotting routine, $`\frac{df}{dϵ}(OVI,n=2)`$ = 0.02115 is incorrectly shown in Fig.2 of Ref.  as 0.2115.. In the bound-bound region the $`\frac{df}{dϵ}`$ $`(2snp)`$ is much smaller for $`n`$ = 2 than for $`n`$ = 3, owing to the respective energy differences. The $`\frac{df}{dϵ}`$ therefore rises from $`n`$ = 2 to 3, and then decreases monotonically towards higher $`n`$ and the first ionization threshold as $`n\mathrm{}`$ ($`ϵ0`$). Fig. 2 presents a complete picture of photoabsorption from the Li-like C IV, O VI and Fe XXIV, from L-shell absorption to the the KLL X-ray features, that should provide plasma diagnostics in two quite different wavelength ranges from the same ionic species.

The wavelengths shown in Fig. 2, together with the $`\overline{f}_r`$ in Table 1, mark the positions and strengths of discrete photoabsorption in the X-ray by Li-like C,O, and Fe. The predicted features and the calculated resonance oscillator strengths $`\overline{f}_r`$ should be useful in the interpretation of X-ray spectra from the CXO and the X-ray Multi-Mirror Mission, and determination of column densities using the standard curve-of-growth method . Further, the significant differences between $`\overline{f}_r`$ (NRD) and $`\overline{f}_r`$ (RD), without and with radiative damping, may indicate optical depth effects in the plasma; $`\overline{f}_r`$ (NRD) is the value to be used in optically thin cases where re-emission following photoabsorption in the resonance along the line of sight is unlikely. More generally, this work demonstrates that resonance photoabsorption spectroscopy can provide information complementary to line emission spectroscopy, and should prove to be a powerful tool for plasma diagnostics, such as for ionization fractions and abundances of elements in astrophysical and laboratory plasmas.

This work was partially supported by the National Science Foundation and the NASA Astrophysical Theory Program. The computational work was carried out at the Ohio Supercomputer Center.