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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Since 1995 more than thirty full genomes have been sequenced and information on the sequences of hundreds of millions of nucleotides has been available for the scientific community. This has opened a new field of research, DNA statistical analysis, where genomic sequences are analyzed both in terms of single nucleotides, oligonucleotides and thousands of nucleotides. In the last case there are studies on the power spectral density and correlation function, especially the question of the existence of statistical long-range base-base correlation. Long-range correlation in DNA was first observed in 1992 by three groups, Li et al. , Peng et al.  and Voss . This has been a very active topic until now. We will not put a long list of references here but we cite only some of the the recent papers by H.E. Stanley et al. , Arnéodo et al.  and Vieira  addressing the problem directly. One can also visit a WWW home page by Li (http://linkage.rockefeller.edu/wli/dna\_corr) for the references to this particular topic. We have also contributed to the topic, e.g., in the papers - we show that replication, which is an asymmetric process, is responsible for introducing strong trends in the third bases of codons and in consequence it causes the long-range base-base correlations.

The examinination of the long-range correlation in DNA is strongly connected with the statistical methods applied to texts in natural languages -, where usually one calculates the frequency $`f(k)`$ of each word in a text ($`k=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$). If the words in the text are arranged in rank order, from most frequent to least frequent, so that $`f(1)f(2)f(3)\mathrm{}f(N)`$ then one observes a power law (Zipf law), $`f(k)1/k^\zeta `$, with an exponent $`\zeta `$ and typically $`\zeta 1.0`$ for natural languages. This analysis also applies well to studying short-range time correlations in financial signals . In DNA the words are composed from an ”alphabet” of four letters $`A`$,$`T`$,$`G`$,$`C`$ representing the nucleotides adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine. The $`n`$-tuplets are termed ”n-words”. The biological meaning of these $`n`$-words depends on the value of $`n`$. Typically in the case of coding DNA sequences the words are considered to be $`3`$-tuplets because three nucleotides (codons) code for one amino acid. This triplet structure of DNA coding sequences can be easily detected with the help of the power spectrum because there is a sharp peak at frequency $`f=1/3`$ in the spectrum. The connection of the peak with the codon structure has been reported already by Voss  in 1992 during discussion of the long-range correlations in DNA. This peak reflects the asymmetry of codons. For example, in the case of the yeast genome (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) more then $`75\%`$ of all genes have more $`A`$ than $`T`$ in the first and second positions in codons, more $`G`$ than $`C`$ in the first positions of codons, and less $`G`$ than $`C`$ in the second positions . Codons for hydrophobic amino acids are rich in $`T`$ in the second positions whereas codons for hydrophilic amino acids are rich in $`A`$ in the second positions. In particular, the genes with lower number of $`A`$ than $`T`$ in the second positions in codons represent genes coding for transmembrane proteins. Thus, considering $`3`$-tuplets in coding regions to be the words in DNA texts is quite natural, contrary to the words for noncoding regions which are not known. On the other hand, the observation of a much smaller peak around $`f1/11`$ in DNA power spectrum , makes the understanding the DNA words more complex. Namely, this peak might be related to DNA folding structure. The detailed discussion of the meaning of the peak can be found in a paper by Trifonov  as well as a discussion of other recognized periodicities in genome sequences, $`200`$ and $`400`$base periodicities.

The results of Zipf analysis of 40 DNA sequences have been discussed in detail by Mantegna et al. . They found that the Zipf exponent $`\zeta `$ for a noncoding region is about $`50\%`$ larger than that for coding regions and thus noncoding sequences are closer to natural languages with respect to their information content than the coding ones. Note however that also noncoding regions of DNA can possess a strong signal $`f=1/3`$ . The reason is that there can be found both sequences which were coding in past and sequences which may be recognized as genes in future.

The studies of oligonucleotides ($`n`$-words) in recent years indicate that they can play the role of a genomic signature. Karlin and Burge, in their paper  showed that the relative abundance of dinucleotides ($`2`$-words) can discriminate DNA sequences of different organisms. The abundances, particularly for $`CG`$ and $`TA`$ can reflect the species-specific replication and repair mechanisms (see also Karlin, Mràzek and Campbell ). They analyzed different dinucleotides with the help of effective frequencies:

$$z=\frac{P_{ij}}{P_iP_j}$$
(1)
where $`P_i`$ denoted the frequency of nucleotide $`i`$ ($`i,j=A,T,G,C`$) and $`P_{ij}`$ denoted the frequency of dinucleotide $`ij`$ under consideration. In particular, they suggested that $`CG`$ under-representation should be advantageous for organisms which have small genomes and need to replicate rapidly. On the other hand $`TA`$ under-representation renders DNA more flexible for unwinding. The concept of genomic signature has been been extended recently to $`n`$-words  where the chaos game representation of DNA sequences in the form of fractal images has been used following the method developed by Jeffrey . We address this paper because we have introduced a similar concept of DNA representation independently in our paper . In the method, the frequencies of $`n`$-words are represented by a complex landscape of ”hills” and ”valleys” located on a square board. An example of such a chaos game representation of a DNA sequence is presented in Fig.1 for $`6`$-tuplets constructed from nucleotides located in the first base position in codons, second base position in codons and third base position in codons in the case of the yeast genes. One can observe asymmetric usage of the $`6`$-words. A similar result can be obtained for other values $`n`$ of length of words under consideration.

In general, one can observe many oligomer repeats in the ”hills” of the landscape, especially if one includes noncoding DNA regions. Their number is closely related to the mutation pressure and selection. The statistical properties of short oligonucleotides have been discussed recently by Buldyrev et al. . In particular, they showed that the number of dimeric tandem repeats in coding DNA sequences is exponential, whereas in noncoding sequences it is more often described by a power law.

In the following we restrict ourselves to statistical analysis of $`6`$-tuplets only and to this aim we have considered the relative frequencies of $`6`$-words by a simple generalization of the Eq.1:

$$z=\frac{P_{ijklmn}}{P_iP_jP_kP_lP_mP_n}$$
(2)
where $`P_{ijklmn}`$ is the frequency of the word $`ijklmn`$ in the genome under consideration, and $`P_i`$, $`P_j`$, …, $`P_n`$ are the respective nucleotide frequencies ($`i,j,k,l,m,n=A,T,G,C`$). Thus, $`z=1`$ means that for a chosen $`6`$-word the frequency of its usage in the genome is the same as the expected probability calculated from the nucleotide occurrence. Both under-representation and over-representation of $`6`$-words might introduce the short-range correlation effects. If the words have a biological sense in DNA texts, they will be correlated at least in the region of a gene.

## 2 DNA words versus mutations and selection

The choice of variables $`z`$ in Eq.2 to represent effective frequencies of $`6`$-words instead of absolute frequencies $`P_{ijklmn}`$ guarantees that trivial correlations, the artefacts coming from the nucleotide bias, have been removed. Thus, if the numbers $`z`$ associated with the respective $`6`$-words represent biased random values only, their Zipf plot should be horizontal. We would like to address the paper by Vandewall and Ausloos  who used this argumentation in their analysis of financial data \- daily fluctuations of the Apple stock price.

We analyze separately three gene subsequences, obtained by splicing nucleotides from position (1) in codons, position (2) in codons and position (3) in codons. Next, the three resulting nucleotide sequences are partitioned into non-overlapping $`6`$-tuplets. Note that some $`6`$-tuplets can be strongly under-represented. The reason is that $`6`$-tuplets are already gene-specific and in the extreme case it can happen that a $`6`$-tuplet from a gene under consideration does not appear in any other genes. This could introduce a strong correlation effect. Therefore, the values of $`z`$ in Eq.2 for a gene under consideration are calculated with the help of the frequencies $`P_{ijklmn}`$, $`P_i`$, $`P_j`$, …, $`P_n`$ in a bank of $`6`$-words representing all genes except the considered one. In Fig.2 we present the Zipf plots done for $`6`$-tuplets in the case of 2772 yeast genes taken from $`ftp://genomeftp.stanford.edu/pub/yeast/genome\mathrm{\_}seq/all\mathrm{\_}gcg`$. The results suggest that we can expect non-trivial correlations between successive $`6`$-words. The reason for the observed step-like structure in Fig.2 is that some deviations of $`P_{ijklmn}`$ from the expected value are more frequent than others and, in general, the probability of choosing the next word may depend on several of the preceding words.

Note that the representation of genes by the effective frequencies (Eq.2) of their $`6`$-tuplets loses some information concerning base arrangement. It is often the case that different $`6`$-tuplets have exactly the same deviation of $`P_{ijklmn}`$ from the expected value in the genome. Thus a question could arise: is the $`z`$ representation of genes consistent with the Lévy walk analog of a two-dimensional DNA walk in space (A-T,G-C), discussed by Abramson, Alemany and Cerdeira ? In  it has been shown that the mean square displacement of the DNA walker follows the power law $`<r^2(s)>s^\alpha `$, where $`s`$ denotes the number of steps and $`\alpha 1.5`$ for yeast chromosomes. Once $`1<\alpha <2`$ this walk corresponds to the Lévy walk. We could expect that the distribution of the effective frequencies of $`6`$-words should keep the memory of the Lévy flights performed in space (A-T,G-C). To show this, it will be convenient for us to introduce a new variable $`z^{}`$, which is the effective frequency $`z`$ defined in Eq.2 shifted by 1:

$$z^{}=z1.$$
(3)
In Fig.3 we plotted the distribution of numbers $`z^{}`$ representing yeast genes solely from one DNA strand. Almost the same distribution we have got for the numbers $`z^{}`$ calculated for genes located in the complementary strand. In Fig.4, we symmetrized the distribution of the numbers $`z^{}`$ by introducing the values $`z^{}`$ in the case of $`6`$-tuplets of the complementary DNA strand. The long-tail feature of the distribution of the numbers $`z^{}`$ is compared in the figure with a Lévy flight distribution calculated for the exponent $`\alpha =1.5`$, a value characteristic for the yeast genome . The property of the large variance of $`z`$ is consistent with the suggestion of non trivial correlation by Fig.2. The results are consistent also with other data presented in Fig.5, where for each gene length the maximum value of $`z^{}`$ has been plotted. In the figure we can observe a trend that long genes use more strongly over-represented $`6`$-words than short genes. An analogous situation we have noticed in the case of under-represented $`6`$-words. If selection on the extremely over-represented/under-represented $`6`$-words was strong, long genes would be more affected by spontaneous mutations than short genes. This is suggested also by the results  of our Monte Carlo simulations of gene evolution under constant mutation pressure and selection, where we showed that short genes accumulate more mutations per gene length than the long ones . The fact that spontaneous mutation rates per nucleotide are inversely correlated with genome size has been first discussed by Drake et al.  and later by Karlin and Burge . Our results might relate this phenomenon to the strong over-representation and under-representation of some $`n`$-words representing oligonucleotides.

Figure Captions

* The chaos game representation of the yeast genes in case of $`6`$-words constructed from the first base position in codons (left), second base position in codons (middle), third base position in codons (right).
* Zipf plots for three DNA subsequences originating from 2772 yeast genes, separately for bases in position (1) in codons, position (2) in codons, and position (3) in codons in the case when the effective frequencies $`z`$ of $`6`$-words were used.
* Distribution of the numbers $`z^{}`$ representing $`6`$-words specific for base position (2) in codons of the yeast genes. Here only the genes located at one DNA strand have been considered.
* Distribution of the numbers $`z^{}`$ representing $`6`$-words of yeast genes at base position (2) in codons. We associated a value $`z^{}`$ with genes of one strand, and a value $`z^{}`$ with genes of the complementary DNA strand. The continuous line represents the Lévy distribution with $`\alpha =1.5`$.
* For each gene length (in nucleotides), the maximum value of $`z`$ has been recorded. 2722 yeast genes have been analyzed.


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# Reconsidering Schwarzschild’s original solution

## 1. Introduction: Schwarzschild’s solution and the “Schwarzschild” solution

Nowadays simply talking about Schwarzschild’s solution requires a preliminary reassessment of the historical record as conditio sine qua non for avoiding any misunderstanding. In fact, the present-day reader must be firstly made aware of this seemingly peculiar circumstance: Schwarzschild’s spherically symmetric, static solution  to the field equations of the version of the theory proposed by Einstein  at the beginning of November 1915 is different from the “Schwarzschild” solution that is quoted in all the textbooks and in all the research papers. The latter, that will be here always mentioned with quotation marks, was found by Droste, Hilbert and Weyl, who worked instead , ,  by starting from the last version  of Einstein’s theory.111Recent revisions of the relevant documents tell that Schwarzschild at that time was only contacting Einstein about the question of the solution . As far as the vacuum is concerned, the two versions have identical field equations; they differ only because of the supplementary condition

(1.1)
$$det(g_{ik})=1$$

that, in the theory of November 11th, limited the covariance to the group of unimodular coordinate transformations. Due to this fortuitous circumstance, Schwarzschild could not simplify his calculations by the choice of the radial coordinate made e.g. by Hilbert; he was instead forced to adopt “polar coordinates with determinant 1” that led him to a solution depending on two parameters instead of the single one found by Hilbert. Schwarzschild could then fix one of the parameters in such a way as to push in the “Nullpunkt” the singularity that is named after him. This move is impossible with Hilbert’s choice, and this is the origin of the difference between Schwarzschild’s solution and the “Schwarzschild” solution of the literature which, to put an end to the present confusion, should be more aptly named after Hilbert.

## 2. Solving Schwarzschild’s problem without fixing the radial coordinate

In order to display the difference between the spherically symmetric, static solutions found with different choices for the radial coordinate, let us briefly recall the calculation ,  done by Combridge and by Janne without fixing the radial coordinate at all. By following de Sitter , they found that the line element of the most general static, spherically symmetric field can be reduced by choice of adapted coordinates to the form

(2.1)
$$\mathrm{d}s^2=\mathrm{exp}\lambda \mathrm{d}r^2\mathrm{exp}\mu [r^2(\mathrm{d}\vartheta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\vartheta \mathrm{d}\phi ^2)]+\mathrm{exp}\nu \mathrm{d}t^2$$

in symmetry adapted coordinates. Here $`\lambda `$, $`\mu `$, $`\nu `$ are functions of $`r`$ only. The proof of the correctness of de Sitter’s choice can be found e.g. in Eiesland’s paper . By availing of the field equations already made explicit  by de Sitter, the mentioned authors found that a solution that is Minkowskian at the spatial infinity could be expressed in terms of one arbitrary function $`f(r)`$ and of its derivative $`f^{}(r)`$ by setting:

(2.2) $`\mathrm{exp}\lambda ={\displaystyle \frac{f_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{12m/f}},`$
(2.3) $`\mathrm{exp}\mu ={\displaystyle \frac{f^2}{r^2}},`$
(2.4) $`\mathrm{exp}\nu =12m/f,`$
where $`m`$ is a constant, while of course the arbitrary function $`f`$ must have the appropriate behaviour as $`r\mathrm{}`$. It is now an easy matter to reproduce the results that one obtains when the most popular coordinate conditions are imposed. With the exception of Schwarzschild’s case, the latter were adopted with the aim of making the calculations easier. However, a simple glance to the papers by Combridge and Janne shows that the calculations were not as extra vires as to be in urgent need of simplification.

Setting $`\lambda =0`$ provides Droste’s initial way of fixing the radial coordinate, as given in his equation (4). Despite this initial choice, the “Schwarzschild” solution made its first appearance just in Droste’s paper 222Insisting with the coordinate condition $`\lambda =0`$ leads one to define $`f`$ through the hardly solvable equation    $`r=f(12m/f)^{1/2}+m\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{f^{1/2}+(f2m)^{1/2}}{f^{1/2}(f2m)^{1/2}}}+\mathrm{const}.`$   This is why Droste changed horses in itinere and eventually succeeded in becoming the forerunner of Hilbert..

Choosing $`\mu =0`$ leads instead straight to the “Schwarzschild” solution, i.e. to Hilbert’s form , given by equation (45) of his monumental paper. One notes that if one attributes to $`r`$ the usual range $`0r<\mathrm{}`$ equation (2.4) would only admit the value $`m=0`$ of the mass constant. Maybe this is the reason why Hilbert deviated from de Sitter’s choice (2.1) for the line element and dropped the a priori condition of persistence of the sign for the components of the metric. The omission allows for a nontrivial solution, but also for the appearance of the well known singularity of the components of the metric at the “Schwarzschild” radius. The singularity separates an outer region $`r>2m`$, that with the lapse of the years proved itself capable to precisely account for the workings of Nature, from an inner region whose occurrence soon evolved from a slightly annoying peculiarity into a major conundrum .

Posing $`\lambda =\mu `$ produces the solution expressed in isotropic coordinates, ingeniously found by Weyl through a coordinate transformation  by starting from his own “Schwarzschild” solution. Here again we get a singular behaviour, this time due to the vanishing of $`det(g_{ik})`$ when $`r=m/2`$. There is no track here of the tantalizing inner region of Hilbert. With isotropic coordinates Nature is well accounted for, maybe too well. There is in fact a little redundance: only the outer part of Hilbert’s solution is allowed to appear, but it appears twice, once for $`m/2<r<\mathrm{}`$, and a second time in the range $`0<r<m/2`$. The two replicas happen to be joined just at the “Schwarzschild” singularity. Confronted with such embarras de richesse Weyl flatly declared that in Nature only “ein Stück” of one of the two copies, not reaching the singularity, must be realised . Einstein and Rosen  used the full structure to derive an argument for the mass to be positive. They felt one could postulate the necessity of hiding the curvature singularity by constructing such a “bridge” and identify it with a particle. Their hope to get a hint at some kind of quantisation was not met, but they found that only a positive mass allows to find that bridge.

Schwarzschild’s true and authentic solution , though written with the usual polar coordinates rather than with the original “polar coordinates of determinant 1”, can instead be retrieved by imposing the condition $`\lambda +2\mu +\nu =0`$. Due to (2.2), (2.3) and (2.4) $`f`$ must then fulfil the equation

(2.5)
$$\frac{f_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}f^4}{r^4}=1,$$

i.e., with appropriate choice of sign, $`f^{}=r^2/f^2`$. The latter equation integrates to

(2.6)
$$f=(r^3+\varrho )^{1/3}$$

where $`\varrho `$ is a second integration constant, besides $`m`$. Had not he died just a few months after his discovery due to a rare illness contracted while at war on the Russian front, one could say that Schwarzschild, besides being very clever, was also a very lucky man. In fact the burden of the coordinate condition (1.1) he was obtorto collo forced to confront by the version of Einstein’s theory he was aware of turned out to be a blessing, when compared to the simplifying assumptions adopted by the later authors, that could enjoy the eventually conquered general covariance , . Although the move was later declared not recommendable by Hilbert with a footnote of devastating authority that decided the destiny of the true Schwarzschild’s solution 333See footnote 1 at page 71 of ., with his extra parameter $`\varrho `$ Schwarzschild had the chance of imposing the continuity of the components of $`g_{ik}`$ in the range $`0<r<\mathrm{}`$. He did so by setting

(2.7)
$$\varrho =(2m)^3$$

thereby dispatching in the “Nullpunkt” what the posterity would have unanimously called “the singularity at the Schwarzschild radius”.

## 3. The role of hyperbolic motion in choosing Schwarzschild’s solution

Schwarzschild’s position (2.7) is sufficient for complying with de Sitter’s prescription (2.1) for the line element, but it is by no means necessary. Larger values of $`\varrho `$ fulfil the prescription as well; moreover, the solutions with $`\varrho (2m)^3`$ are different from each other, as the simple consideration of the maximum value attained by the scalar curvature in each of them immediately shows. One needs an additional postulate for fixing the value of $`\varrho `$. Abrams has shown  that one can avail of an assumption that seems to be quite appropriate both from a geometrical and from a physical standpoint. Let us consider a test body whose four-velocity is $`u^i`$; its acceleration four-vector is defined as

(3.1)
$$a^i\frac{\mathrm{D}u^i}{\mathrm{d}s}\frac{\mathrm{d}u^i}{\mathrm{d}s}+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{kl}^iu^ku^l,$$

where $`\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{d}s`$ indicates the absolute derivative. From it one builds the scalar quantity

(3.2)
$$\alpha =(a_ia^i)^{1/2}.$$

The motion of a test body kept at rest in the static, spherically symmetric field whose line element, in adapted coordinates, is given by equations (2.2), (2.3) and (2.4), is defined by postulating the constancy of $`r`$, $`\vartheta `$ and $`\phi `$. At first glance, the definition of the world lines of rest seems to depend on the particular coordinates we use. However, we can identify the congruence of world-lines of our particles at rest through use of the Killing vectors of the metric. There is only one time-like Killing congruence that has not only the Killing property, but is hypersurface orthogonal ($`\xi _{[k,l}\xi _{m]}=0`$) too. It is the congruence we identify in our coordinates with $`r,\vartheta ,\phi `$ constant. It obeys the differential equations

(3.3)
$$\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}s}\left(\frac{a^i}{\alpha }\right)\alpha u^i=0,\alpha =\mathrm{const};$$

therefore the test body under question describes an invariantly defined motion , that Rindler aptly called hyperbolic. The only nonvanishing component of $`a^i`$ in a field with the line element (2.1) is

(3.4)
$$a^1=\frac{1}{2}\nu ^{}\mathrm{exp}(\lambda ).$$

For the solutions given by (2.2), (2.3) and (2.4) the constant $`\alpha `$ has the expression

(3.5)
$$\alpha =\left[\frac{m^2}{f^3(f2m)}\right]^{1/2}$$

in terms of the mass constant $`m`$ and of the arbitrary function $`f`$. As noticed by Rindler, besides the geometrical meaning, $`\alpha `$ has an immediate physical meaning. Let us consider a locally Minkowskian coordinate system whose spatial coordinates be centered at the position $`r=r_0`$, $`\vartheta =\vartheta _0`$, $`\phi =\phi _0`$; the quantity $`\alpha `$ equals the strength of the gravitational pull measured by a dynamometer that holds a unit mass at rest at the given position.

By substituting (2.6) in (3.5) one sees that, with a fixed value of the mass constant, the maximum value of the force that can be measured by the dynamometer is different for different values of $`\varrho `$. As already noticed, the solutions are geometrically and physically different, and we need some reason for choosing one of them. Abrams’ argument is the following : since up to now no experimental evidence has been found for attributing a finite limiting value to $`\alpha `$, we cannot help mimicking in the case of general relativity the way out adopted in Newtonian physics. There the norm of the force exerted by the gravitational field of an ideal pointlike mass on a test body tends to infinity as the test body is brought nearer and nearer to the source of the field. According to equation (3.5), in the static spherically symmetric field defined by (2.2), (2.3) and (2.4) $`\alpha \mathrm{}`$ only when $`f2m`$, because $`f0`$ is prohibited by equation (2.4). If one chooses the arbitrary function $`f`$ according to (2.6), $`\alpha `$ is allowed to grow without limit at $`r=0`$ only when $`\varrho `$ is chosen just in the way kept by Schwarzschild in his fundamental paper of 1916 444To dispel any possible misunderstanding, it is stressed that no meaning is attributed to the accidental vanishing of the radial coordinate where $`\alpha \mathrm{}`$..

We add a remark on the Killing congruences that shows how to generalize the argument for the full Kerr-Newman-solution. The elements

(3.6)
$$\xi ^k\frac{}{x^k}=\lambda \frac{}{t}+\mu \frac{}{\phi }$$

of the Killing group ($`\xi _{k;l}+\xi _{l;k}=0`$) of the Kerr-Newman metric

(3.7) $`\mathrm{d}s^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\varrho ^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }}}\mathrm{d}r^2+\varrho ^2\mathrm{d}\vartheta ^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2\vartheta }{\varrho ^2}}((r^2+J^2)\mathrm{d}\phi J\mathrm{d}t)^2`$
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{\varrho ^2}}(\mathrm{d}tJ\mathrm{sin}^2\vartheta \mathrm{d}\phi )^2`$
$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ $`=`$ $`r^2+J^2+Q^22Mr`$
$`\varrho ^2`$ $`=`$ $`r^2+J^2\mathrm{cos}^2\vartheta `$
define invariantly a set of orbits. The acceleration on these orbits

(3.8) $`\alpha ^2`$ $`=`$ $`g_{ij}a^ia^j=g_{ij}({\displaystyle \frac{\xi ^i}{N}})_{;k}{\displaystyle \frac{\xi ^k}{N}}({\displaystyle \frac{\xi ^j}{N}})_{;l}{\displaystyle \frac{\xi ^l}{N}},`$
$`N`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{g_{mn}\xi ^m\xi ^n}`$
contains always the factor $`1/\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ and diverges for orbits on the surface $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$. All Killing congruences are spacelike at $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$ except for the case given by

$$\mu =\lambda J/(r_0^2+J^2).$$

This congruence is timelike for $`r>r_0=M+\sqrt{M^2J^2Q^2}`$ and null on the surface $`r=r_0=M+\sqrt{M^2J^2Q^2}`$.555The physical interpretation of the congruence is a swarm of particles kept at rest in the field. This rest, in the static case ($`J=0`$), is just no change in the spatial coordinates. In the general case, this “rest frame” undergoes a drag by the rotation of the source. The drag is given by $`\mu 0`$. Its acceleration diverges in the limit $`rr_0`$. In the case of a static metric, $`J=0`$, the congruence turns out to be the hypersurface-orthogonal one. Hence, the surface $`r=r_0=M+\sqrt{M^2J^2Q^2}`$ is singular in the Kerr-Newman case, too. Any Killing congruence that remains timelike in the outer vicinity will show the singularity.

One can see that the singularity in the acceleration is connected with the norm of the Killing vector becoming zero or the determinant of the metric in stationary coordinates becoming zero. Let us use the notation $`\mathrm{\Xi }=\xi _a\xi ^a`$. The velocity along the orbits is given by $`u^k=\xi ^k/\sqrt{\mathrm{\Xi }}`$, the acceleration $`a^k`$ by $`\mathrm{\Xi }^2a^k=\mathrm{\Xi }\xi _{}^{k}{}_{;l}{}^{}\xi ^l\xi ^k\xi ^l\xi _b\xi _{}^{b}{}_{;l}{}^{}`$. The norm of this expression is

$$\mathrm{\Xi }^4a_ka^k=\frac{1}{4}\mathrm{\Xi }^2\mathrm{\Xi }_{,k}\mathrm{\Xi }_{,l}g^{kl}\mathrm{\Xi }(\mathrm{\Xi }_{,l}\xi ^l)^2$$

We may, of course, introduce coordinates in which $`\xi ^k=\delta _0^k`$. These coordinates show that $`\mathrm{\Xi }_{,l}\xi ^l=g_{00,0}=0`$. We obtain

$$a_ka^k=\frac{1}{4\mathrm{\Xi }^2}\mathrm{\Xi }_{,k}\mathrm{\Xi }_{,l}g^{kl}$$

When $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ has a zero of some order n on some surface of orbits, and the space-part metric has no singularity, the norm of the acceleration has to show a second-order infinity. If the space-part metric has a singularity, but the determinant of the metric remains finite, as in the Schwarzschild case, the infinity of $`a_ka^k`$ is still of first order. If $`a_ka^k`$ becomes infinite while $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ has no zero, it must be due to a zero of the determinant of the metric tensor in the coordinates defined.666When singular coordinate transformations are forbidden, the zeros of the determinant of the metric tensor acquire a physical interpretation . In addition, the Schwarzschild mass can be interpreted as result of the gravitational field outside the Schwarzschild sphere .

## 4. The analytic extensions of the “Schwarzschild” solution

As previously shown, Hilbert’s solution was born out of the accidental choice of the radial coordinate $`r`$ produced by setting $`\mu =0`$ in equation (2.3); hence there is no reason to accept as unavoidable consequences of the very field equations of general relativity all the features stemming from this choice, in particular the existence of the region for $`r<2m`$. However Hilbert’s solution was soon perceived as the unique “Schwarzschild” solution and as such it became the obligatory starting point of all the theoretical exertions. The curious circumstance that what was initially meant to model the field of a “Massenpunkt” displayed two singularities, one at the “Schwarzschild radius”, and a second one for $`r=0`$, instead of the single one appearing in Newtonian physics, suggested the idea that one of them had to be spurious 777Hilbert did not share this opinion; however, he did not consider the singularities displayed by his solution really worth of much study. He believed in fact that the vacuum solutions with singularities were just “an important mathematical tool for approximating characteristic regular solutions”. To him, only the latter were capable to represent reality in an immediate way. See , page 70.. Since the Kretschmann scalar happened to be finite at the “Schwarzschild radius”, while it was infinite at $`r=0`$, the conviction arose that the “true” singularity was the one at $`r=0`$. Therefore the singularity displayed by the components of the metric at $`r=2m`$ had to be a mere mathematical mishap, devoid both of geometrical and of physical meaning. A reason had to be given for the wrongdoing, and it was found in a presumed inadequacy of the coordinate system at $`r=2m`$.

The search thus started for different coordinate systems that allowed to erase the singular behaviour displayed by $`g_{ik}`$ at $`r=2m`$. Already in 1924 Eddington had unintentionally succeeded in the task  by rewriting the static “Schwarzschild” solution in stationary form through the introduction of what would have been called the Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates 888Eddington’s coordinate transformation was purposedly retrieved  by Finkelstein in 1958.. In 1933 Lemaitre achieved the same result by rewriting  the “Schwarzschild” metric with cosmological term in time-dependent form. Another solution to the problem was given in 1950 by Synge with a geometrically inspired paper  that represents the now forgotten forerunner of the maximal extensions ,  of the “Schwarzschild” metric obtained by Kruskal and Szekeres.

All these exertions entail coordinate transformations $`x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{i}=f^i(x^k)`$ whose derivatives happen to be singular at the “Schwarzschild” radius in just the appropriate way for providing a transformed metric that is regular there. One cannot help noticing that the restriction to admissible coordinate tranfrormations, which looked mandatory in the old papers, with the lapse of the decades has become optional and dependent on taste. In the time span that goes from Hilbert’s paper  to, say, the publication of Lichnerowicz’ book  with his axioms inscribed in the first chapter, transformations like the ones needed to efface the “Schwarzschild” singularity were simply disallowed.

Nevertheless, the rule was violated here and there, and already in Synge’s paper one finds an explicit program of transgression, since for the latter author “it is precisely the non-regular transformations which are interesting” . But the value of scalars cannot be altered by any transformation, however “interesting”. Therefore in all the alternative forms of the “Schwarzschild” metric mentioned in this section the singularity in the metric components at the “Schwarzschild” radius is canceled, but the norm $`\alpha `$ of the acceleration of the hyperbolic motion on the invariantly specified Killing orbit remains infinite at the position of the erased singularity. Since $`\alpha `$ has a well defined physical meaning, an infinite value of $`\alpha `$ in the middle of a manifold should not be so light-heartedly overlooked: either this singularity should be removed from that position, or a physical argument for its existence there should be given.

Already in 1916 Karl Schwarzschild had deliberately sent the singularity in the “Nullpunkt”, thus stipulating that there his idealised vacuum model ceased to be physically meaningful, because the source of the field had been attained.


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# Comparison of Higgs Boson Mass and Width Determination of the LHC and a Linear Collider

## Introduction

The search for Higgs bosons is one of the main goals of future colliders. After a discovery it will be very important to establish the properties of the Higgs boson. First, results from an LHC study are given for the gluon fusion process where the Higgs boson mass is reconstructed by calculating the invariant mass of the four-muon final state. The simulation is based on the CMS detector response parametrization CMSJET $`^\mathrm{?}`$. The selection is outlined in Refs. $`^{\mathrm{?},\mathrm{?}}`$ and it suppresses effectively the background.

The invariant four-muon mass distribution is shown in Fig. 2 for three different Higgs boson masses. The resulting peaks are clearly visible over the expected background which consists of ZZ, $`\mathrm{t}\overline{\mathrm{t}}`$ and $`\mathrm{Zb}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ events. The number of background events is fairly constant and only about two events per 1 GeV/c2 for an integrated luminosity of 300 $`\mathrm{fb}^1`$. The signal and background simulation is repeated 100 times for each investigated mass, where the background distribution is generated randomly according to the expected rate per mass bin. The results of the 100 fits are averaged in order to obtain the most likely outcome of the future experimental analysis. Each invariant-mass distribution is fitted with a Gaussian below a Higgs boson mass of 200 $`\mathrm{GeV}/\mathrm{c}^2`$ and a Breit-Wigner distribution otherwise. An example is shown in Fig. 2 and all results are given in Table 1. A description of the Higgs mass determination of the other LHC experiment, ATLAS, can be found in Ref. $`^\mathrm{?}`$.

## Mass Reconstruction

This LHC study has been compared with two LC studies which have been extrapolated to the mass range investigated here. The first study has exploited the Higgsstrahlung production $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{ZH}`$, where the Z decays either to $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ or $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$. The reconstruction of the recoiling mass to the $`\mathrm{}^+\mathrm{}^{}`$ pair from the Z decay is used for the Higgs boson mass reconstruction. The two leptons from the Z boson decay can be reconstructed with a high precision $`^\mathrm{?}`$. In a second study the ZH $``$ $`\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ channel was investigated $`^\mathrm{?}`$. In this channel the Higgs boson mass was calculated from the invariant mass of the $`\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ system. Beamstrahlung is included in all LC simulations and has only a small effect on the reconstructed mass distributions. Details of the extrapolations are given in Table 2. Figure 4 compares these LC studies with the Higgs boson mass determination for the LHC.

## Width Determination

In addition to the Higgs boson mass determination, the determination of the Higgs boson width may allow a Higgs boson of an extended model to be distinguished from a SM Higgs boson. For the direct width determination at the LHC in the four-muon channel, the detector response simulation and event selection is applied as described before.

For masses below 200 GeV/c2 the detector resolution dominates and a Gaussian fit function is used, while for higher masses a Breit-Wigner distribution convoluted with the detector resolution is fitted and results are given in Table 3. Figure 4 shows the expected accuracy, defined as the error on the fit normalized to the natural width of the SM Higgs boson (curve 1, CMS detector). For a SM Higgs boson mass below about 180 GeV/c2, the predicted width $`^\mathrm{?}`$ becomes much smaller than the detector resolution. In this range a direct width reconstruction is not possible and only an upper limit can be derived.

In addition to the direct determination, results from indirect determinations for an LC (curve 2) and for the LHC (curve 3) are shown in Fig. 4. The indirect methods are based on the W-fusion production $`\mathrm{W}^+\mathrm{W}^{}\mathrm{H}`$. In the LC case $`^\mathrm{?}`$, and in contrast to the indirect LHC study, only the decay $`\mathrm{H}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ is considered (curve 2). The analysis of Ref. $`^\mathrm{?}`$ (curve 3) makes use of several Higgs boson production processes. In the mass region below 150 GeV/c2, where the $`\mathrm{H}\mathrm{W}^+\mathrm{W}^{}`$ branching fraction falls off rapidly, the LC has a much higher sensitivity than the LHC. The current direct and indirect studies for the LHC and an LC are complementary.

In future studies, the relative errors should improve further when, for the LHC and LC, additional channels which use other decay modes are investigated.

## Conclusions

We have investigated the accuracy with which the Higgs boson mass and width could be measured at the LHC in the four-muon channel. These are compared with the results from LC studies extrapolated into the range 120 - 340 GeV/c2 in the case of the mass determination. The accuracy of the mass measurement is limited by $`\sigma \times \mathrm{BR}`$ of the corresponding Higgs boson decay into ZZ and $`\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ for the $`\mathrm{H}\mathrm{ZZ}^{}\mu ^+\mu ^{}\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ (LHC) and the $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{HZ}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ (LC) channels, respectively. In contrast, determinations through the LC H$`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ channel are independent of the Higgs boson decay mode. In the latter case the event rate depends only on the cross section, which decreases slowly with the Higgs boson mass and falls off rapidly at the kinematic production limit. For a large mass range the mass precisions of the LHC and an LC are comparable in the considered channels, and amount to about 0.1%.

For the Higgs boson width determination we show that direct measurements and indirect methods cover the mass range 120 - 340 GeV/c2 with a relative error of about 10%. The overall precision will be higher when all Higgs decay modes are investigated.

## References


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# Cosmological evolution in a brane universe

## 1 Homogeneous brane cosmology

It has been recently suggested that there could exist extra-dimensions which are not accessible to ordinary matter, in the sense that matter would be confined to a three-dimensional subspace, or brane, within a higher dimensional space or bulk. In this context, a lot of attention has been devoted to cosmology, essentially to five-dimensional models where our Universe would be a hypersurface.

One of the first striking results was that, when solving the five-dimensional Einstein’s equations $`G_{AB}R_{AB}Rg_{AB}/2=\kappa ^2T_{AB}`$, the matter content of the brane appears quadratically  in Friedmann’s equations instead of linearly as in standard cosmology. In the case of an empty bulk, one would thus find a cosmological evolution incompatible with our understanding of nucleosynthesis. A way out has been found by applying the Randall-Sundrum idea  to cosmology , i.e. considering an Anti-de Sitter bulk spacetime (with a negative cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$) and a tension in the brane. The (assumed) cancellation of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ with the square of the brane tension $`\sigma `$ leads to the new Friedmann equations

$$H^2=\frac{8\pi G}{3}\left(\rho +\frac{\rho ^2}{2\sigma }\right),$$
(1)
where $`H`$ is the Hubble parameter in the brane, $`\rho `$ the cosmological energy density in the brane. And Newton’s constant is related to the brane tension by $`8\pi G=\kappa ^4\sigma /6`$. This equation gives the usual evolution in the low energy regime $`\rho \sigma `$ and quadratic corrections in the high energy regime $`\rho >\sigma `$.

## 2 Cosmological perturbations in brane cosmology

The next step is obviously to investigate what will be the influence of extra-dimensions on the cosmological perturbations and their evolution. Several pioneering works have developed formalisms to handle the cosmological perturbations for a brane-universe in a five-dimensional spacetime .

The study of perturbations during a de Sitter phase in the brane is made easier by the fact that the background evolution is rather simple. One can for example compute explicitly the spectrum of gravitational waves generated in a de Sitter phase on the brane .

For radiation or matter dominated eras, the evolution of perturbations is much more complicated. However, it is possible to rewrite the evolution equations for the cosmological perturbations in the brane in a form very close to the equations of standard cosmology with two types of corrections: a. corrections due to the unconventional evolution of the homogeneous solution (in the high energy regime), which change the background-dependent coefficients of the equations; b. corrections due to the curvature along the fifth dimension, which act as source terms, i.e. ‘active seeds’, in the evolution equations . This reformulation of the five-dimensional equations makes transparent the way the perturbations due to the fifth dimension could have an impact, from the point of view of a brane observer, for instance on the cosmic Microwave Background anisotropies , but a quantitative analysis depends on the specific distribution of gravitational waves in the bulk.


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# Rieffel’s deformation quantization and isospectral deformations

## 1. Introduction

The isospectral deformation has been recently introduced by Connes and Landi , with the examples of the noncommutative 3 and 4 spheres, providing new examples of noncommutative spectral triples . However, the construction of similar examples, though in different context, can be found in earlier works by Kulish and Mudrov  as well as, more recently in Paschke Ph.D. thesis .

The properties of isospectral deformations has been recently a subject of much interest . In particular, the symmetries of isospectral geometries (seen as Hopf algebras acting on the deformed algebras) appear to be a twist by a Cartan subalgebra of the universal enveloping algebra of Lie algebras, which were symmetries of the undeformed algebras, and the constructed spectral triples are symmetric in the sense of .

The analysis of symmetries and the generalized construction of the deformation, as well as the similarity of the construction with the well-known noncommutative torus has led to the connections between the isospectral deformations and Rieffel’s  deformation quantization by the action of $`^n`$. In fact, both the general construction as well as the corresponding symmetries were already defined in a general setup by Rieffel (see also ).

In this Letter we show that the isospectral deformations as defined in  are the special case of the Rieffel’s construction .

## 2. The isospectral deformations.

In the original article  one starts with the algebra $`𝒜`$ of smooth functions on a manifold, with an isometry group of rank $`r2`$. This is equivalent to the statement that the torus $`T^2`$ is the isometry subgroup of the algebra. Now, taking the elements $`t`$, which are of $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ class with respect to the action of the torus group: $`t\alpha _s(t)`$, one can obtain their decomposition as a norm convergent sum of homogeneous elements of a given bidegree. Then, for any homogeneous element one may define a deformed product (by a left or right twist). By linearity this extends to the linear combinations of homogeneous elements which are dense in the algebra we have started with.

To make correspondence with the Rieffel’s deformation quantization we shall use the dual picture of isometries as used in .

###### Remark 1.

Let $`𝒜`$ be an algebra and the torus $`T^2`$ be a subgroup of automorphisms of $`𝒜`$. Then for every operator $`T`$, which is of class $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ relative to the isometry $`\alpha _s`$, the additive group $`^2`$ acts as follow:

(1)
$$[x_1,x_2]t=\alpha _{e^{2\pi ix_1},e^{2\pi ix_2}}(t),$$

Using the generators of torus symmetries $`p_1,p_2`$, for instance:

$$p_1T=\frac{1}{2\pi i}\left(\frac{d}{dx_1}([x_1,x_2]t)\right)_{|x=0},$$

the relation (1) could be rewritten as:

$$[x_1,x_2]t=e^{2\pi i(x_1p_1+x_2p_2)}t.$$

###### Remark 2.

With respect to the action of $`p_1,p_2`$ the operators, which are homogeneous of degree $`(n_1,n_2)`$, behave like:

(2)
$$\begin{array}{cc}p_1t=n_1t,\hfill & p_2t=n_2t.\hfill \end{array}$$

###### Remark 3.

The product in the algebra $`𝒜`$ can be deformed, first on elements of given degree, and then extending the deformation by linearity:

(3)
$$ab=ab\lambda ^{n_1^an_2^b},$$

where $`\lambda `$ is a complex number such that $`|\lambda |=1`$. This gives the right twist of . For future reference we shall denote the deformed algebra by $`𝒜_\lambda `$.

This deformation, can be extended, in the case of a differential manifold and a Lie algebra acting on the differential functions, to all $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ functions. .

It would be useful to introduce a quantization map:

$$𝒜a\underset{¯}{a}𝒜_\lambda ,$$

so that the Eq.3 could be rewritten as:

(4)
$$\underset{¯}{a}\underset{¯}{b}=\underset{¯}{ab}\lambda ^{n_1^an_2^b},$$

It will be useful to rewrite the above quantization form in a more abstract form, using the action of the generators $`p_i`$. 111We use here a particular form of a more general formula derived in .

###### Remark 4.

The quantization map (3) could be written as: $`𝒜_\mathrm{\Psi }`$:

(5)
$$\underset{¯}{m}\left(\underset{¯}{a}\underset{¯}{b}\right)=\underset{¯}{m\left(\mathrm{\Psi }^1(ab)\right)},$$

where $`m`$ is the multiplication map

$$m:𝒜𝒜abab𝒜.$$

and $`\underset{¯}{m}`$ is, similarly, the multiplication in deformed algebra, whereas $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is:

(6)
$$\mathrm{\Psi }_c=\lambda ^{p_1p_2},$$

## 3. Rieffel’s deformation by the action of $`^n`$

### 3.1. General construction

Suppose we have an algebra $`A`$ and the action of $`V=R^n`$ on this algebra. and a linear map, $`J`$, from $`V^{}`$, the dual of $`V`$ to $`V`$, such that it is skew-symmetric $`J^T=J`$. Again, one takes a subalgebra of elements, which are $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$ vectors in $`A`$ for the action of $`^n`$.

To make a direct correspondence with the above case of isospectral deformations we restrict ourselves to $`n=2`$. In analogy with Poisson brackets on the function on a manifold we might define a Poisson bracket:

(7)
$$P(a,b)=\underset{i}{}\alpha _{Jr_i}(a)\alpha _{p_i}(b),$$

where $`p_i`$ is the basis of $`^2`$ and $`r_i`$ of its dual. Clearly this is independent of the choice of the basis (see ) and makes the algebra $`A^{\mathrm{}}`$ a strict Poisson \*-algebra.

Then using the oscillatory integrals one can define a deformed product:

(8)
$$a\times _Jb=_V_V^{}\alpha _{Jy}(a)\alpha _x(b)e^{2\pi i(yx)},$$

which could be recognized as a deformation quantization in the direction of the Poisson structure as defined in (7).

### 3.2. Equivalence with isospectral deformations.

To obtain the deformation as defined in (3) we have to modify the expression (8) by allowing arbitrary (not necessarily antisymmetric) operator $`J`$.

Let us calculate explicitly for homogeneous elements $`a`$ and $`b`$. We parameterize $`V`$ (coordinates $`x`$, basis $`p_i`$) and $`V^{}`$ (coordinates $`y`$, basis $`e_i`$), and with a particular choice of the map $`J`$.

$$Je_1=0,Je_2=\theta p_1.$$

Then:

$$a\times _Jb=_V_V^{}d^2xd^2ye^{2\pi i(\theta y_2n_1^a)}ae^{2\pi i(x_1n_1^b+x_2n_2^b)}be^{2\pi i(y_1x_1+y_2x_2)}=\mathrm{}$$

Calculating further using the standard properties of oscillatory integrals we obtain:

$`\mathrm{}=ab{\displaystyle _V}d^2x{\displaystyle _V^{}}d^2ye^{2\pi i(\theta n_1^ay_2+n_2^bx_2+y_2x_2)}=`$
$`=abe^{2\pi i\theta n_1^an_2^b},`$
which agrees with the definition for the right twist as defined in (3) with $`\lambda =e^{2\pi i\theta }`$.

Having shown the relation one might use the results valid for the deformation quantization to this particular case, for instance to the noncommutative four-spheres. On the other hand, using similar arguments as in  one will obtain a vast family of noncommutative spectral triples and their symmetries, by constructing the deformation quantization as described in  of, for instance, spin manifolds.

Acknowledgements: While finishing this paper we have learned of a similar work by Joseph Varilly , more general picture shall be also presented in a forthcoming work .

The author would also like to thank Michel Dubois-Violette, J.M.Gracia-Bondía, Gianni Landi, John Madore, Mario Pachke and Harold Steinacker for helpful discussions on many topics.