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# Problems connected with electrons trajectory in separated atom

## Introduction

At atom-field interaction frequency-time splitting of a spectral line of spontaneous radiation can occurs due to given the dressed atom theory at high intensity of external field or for explained splitting each of two energy atomics levels to some sublevels at low intensity of external field as a result of quantum interference effect, as it was supposed and demonstrated with help of 3D pictures titled as Probability-Time-Frequency (PTF) manifolds . On the other hand for such observable characteristics as the spontaneous radiation is possible to use the transformation from trigonometrical functions of probability of a finding a particle at a concrete energy level inside atom to the exponential characteristics in space outside of atom. The rate of emission for the quantum transition depend on the derivative of probability $`P(\tau )`$

$$R=\underset{\mathit{0}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\gamma \left[\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left(\gamma t\right)\right]\left(\dot{P}\right)\mathrm{𝑑𝑡}$$
(1)
The well known formula for the transition probability $`P(\tau )`$ given in single frequency excitation of the two level atom is:

$$P_1=\left[\frac{4\mathrm{\Omega }^2}{4\mathrm{\Omega }^2+\mathrm{\Delta }\omega ^2}\right]\mathrm{sin}^2\left(\frac{\tau }{2}\sqrt{4\mathrm{\Omega }^2+\mathrm{\Delta }\omega ^2}\right)$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the Rabi frequency and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\omega =\omega _0\omega _1,`$ are the laser frequency detuning values. Then the procedure of finding the rate of the power absorption leads to the correspondent profile:

$$R_1=\frac{2\mathrm{\Omega }^2\gamma }{\mathrm{\Delta }\omega ^2+4\mathrm{\Omega }^2+\gamma ^2}$$
(3)
At a denominator of the formula there are three members, one of which can be incorporated with other of two stayed members. In this case this formula can be compared with a standard structure of Lorentz profile, at which denominator always there are only two members. Therefore communication of two spaces both the atomic and the external are carried out except the amplitude in unique parameter known as a full width on half of maximum (FWHM) of spectral line measured in a scale of frequencies or time. This FWHM for a Lorentz profile is designated as $`(2\gamma )`$. The connection between this size of FWHM and a damping constant of oscillator same designated, but describing losses of energy of a particle at interaction with other particles in environment is especially brightly shown for wide of FWHM spectral lines due to collisions with other atoms. It is much more difficult to explain such connection between FWHM and $`(\mathit{2}\gamma )`$ for isolated oscillator or for radiation from stopped atom by laser cooling. Despite of it isolated oscillator has spontaneous radiation and therefore is characterized by so-called natural width of a spectral line connected with the same $`(\mathit{2}\gamma )`$ as the damping constant from classical equation of oscillator. It is possible to tell that it is one of difficult examples when the classical performances need to be combined with the quantum, if to mean that the energy level can be split as in the dressed theory. If such splitting is not connected to a magnetic field, therefore does not exist rules of selection for optical transitions and then there is a question about that occurs with a particle on line interacted with EM field if it is with identical probability at different energy statuses of sub levels. The time of spontaneous emission $`t_S`$ from upper energy level is well known:

$$t_S=\frac{3\pi \mathrm{}ϵ_0c_0^3}{\omega _0^3d_{21}^2}$$
(4)
The probability that an electron with life, having unknown time $`(t)`$, will leave the upper energy level, and its spontaneous radiation will fade with known constant $`(\gamma _S^1)`$ is defined by function

$$G_\mathit{1}=\gamma _S\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left(\gamma _St\right)$$
(5)
The probability that the upper level will become empty with a known damping constant $`(\gamma )`$ during the unknown time of spontaneous radiation $`(t_S)`$ is:

$$G_\mathit{2}=\gamma \mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left(\gamma t_S\right)$$
(6)
At definition of complete probability of time of life it is necessary to take into account both probabilities

$$G=G_\mathit{1}G_\mathit{2}=\frac{\mathit{1}}{tt_S}\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left[\frac{t^\mathit{2}+t_S^\mathit{2}}{tt_S}\right]$$
(7)
The lifetime $`t`$ going from function $`G_\mathit{2}`$ is oversized the lifetime $`t_L=\mathit{2}t_s`$ from the first distribution $`G_\mathit{1}`$ due to the contribution of no radiative decay that is important for a separated atom.

Other classical example is under consideration of the phase and group speed of the waves interaction with a separated atom, because for only one wave of an external EM field, as against a single pulse mode or mode of several EM waves, the group speed of the single wave exist only as a mathematics value and therefore does not influence on phase speed, if of course is to consider reception of a single external wave from single external oscillator. It is well known that the dispersion of an index of refraction $`n(\omega )`$ named as the abnormal refraction is in a vicinity of resonant frequency $`(\omega _0)`$ at interaction of an electromagnetic wave (EM) with two levels atoms $`E=E_\mathit{0}\mathrm{𝑐𝑜𝑠}(\omega t)`$ , where the wave number is $`k=\omega n/c_\mathit{0}`$, $`(E_\mathit{0})`$ is the amplitude of an external EM wave, $`(c_\mathit{0})`$ is the speed of the light in vacuum. Phase $`(v_f)`$ and group $`(v_g)`$ speeds of a wave involved for an explanation of this effect are defined by the known relations due to the wave number can be spread out in a number on degrees of frequency is in a vicinity of resonant frequency $`(\omega _0)`$:

$$v_f=\frac{c_\mathit{0}}{n(\omega )}=\frac{\omega }{k(\omega )}$$
(8)
$$v_g=\frac{\mathit{1}}{\mathrm{𝑑𝑘}/d\omega }=\frac{c_\mathit{0}}{n+(\omega \omega _\mathit{0})(\mathrm{𝑑𝑛}/d\omega )}$$
(9)
On the other hand such single wave can be submitted from external space as a set waves and then the physical sense for application of group speed is kept for single wave. However it is possible to assume and return situation, when single external wave cooperates with set of particles having for example a parallel trajectories.

## I Whether there is a problem of an electrons trajectory in atom?

Last example can be served by application of mutual orientation of a trajectory of a particle and field. Because the phase speed $`(v_f)`$ depends on $`(\omega \omega _0)`$, therefore, in particular, for two separated EM waves with frequencies detuned symmetrical respect to the central frequency of quantum transition in atom, named as sidebands modes of EM field, as known, that is possible to supply different phase speeds of EM waves in same environment. Is possible spatially to divide these waves and to direct them towards each other. So, the atom placed in such field, will test action of different forces $`f_{\mathit{1},\mathit{2}}=\mathrm{𝑑𝑝}/\mathrm{𝑑𝑡}`$, where $`p=m\mathrm{𝑑𝑥}/\mathrm{𝑑𝑡}`$, where $`(m)`$ is the mass of the particle,$`(x)`$ is the displacement of the atom along the EM field. When an atom is under perturbation of two symmetrical and coherent laser frequencies , therefore the frequency detuning conditions for such bichromate laser waves are:

$$E(\tau )=E_0\left[\mathrm{cos}(\omega _1\tau )+\mathrm{cos}(\omega _2\tau )\right]$$
(10)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }\omega _2=\omega _2\omega _0$$
(11)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }\omega _1=\omega _0\omega _1$$
(12)
For the special perturbation of the upper energy level there are two symmetrical frequencies and we can use the relation:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\omega _2=\mathrm{\Delta }\omega _1=\mathrm{\Delta }\omega $$
(13)
The transition probability is:

$$P_2=\left[\mathrm{sin}\left(\mathrm{\Omega }\frac{\mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Delta }\omega \tau }{\mathrm{\Delta }\omega }\right)\right]^2$$
(14)
With Bessel functions the probability $`P_\mathit{2}`$ can be written:

$$P_2=[2J_1(\rho )\mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Delta }\omega \tau +2J_3(\rho )\mathrm{sin}3\mathrm{\Delta }\omega \tau +2J_5(\rho )\mathrm{sin}5\mathrm{\Delta }\omega \tau +..]^2$$
(15)
$$\rho =\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\mathrm{\Delta }\omega }$$
(16)
The rate of radiation $`R_\mathit{2}`$ can be obtained by the same way as above for a single frequency excitation. After some algebra with Bessel functions and by use the known relation

$$\mathrm{𝑠𝑖𝑛}\left[\mathrm{𝑠𝑖𝑛}\Theta \right]=\mathit{2}\underset{k=\mathit{0}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}J_{\mathit{2}k+\mathit{1}}(z)\mathrm{𝑠𝑖𝑛}\left[(\mathit{2}k+\mathit{1})\Theta \right]$$
(17)
there are two presentations of the rate $`R_\mathit{2}`$ :

$$R_2=\frac{\gamma }{2}(\mathrm{\Delta }\omega )^2\left[2J_{2k+2}(2\rho )\frac{\left(2n+2\right)^2}{\left(2n+2\right)^2\mathrm{\Delta }\omega ^2+\gamma ^2}\right]$$
(18)
$$R_2=\frac{\gamma }{2}(\mathrm{\Delta }\omega )^2\left[2J_{2k+2}(2\rho )\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Delta }\omega ^2+\left(\frac{\gamma }{2n+2}\right)^2}\right]$$
(19)
Here numbers $`(k\mathit{0})`$ worth at Bessel functions $`(J_{\mathit{2}k})`$ coincide with numbers $`(\mathit{2}n+\mathit{2}=\mathit{2}k)`$, where $`(n=\mathit{0},\mathit{1},\mathit{2},..)`$ There are series with Lorentzian profiles. If the condition for detuning is: $`\mathrm{\Delta }\omega \gamma `$, then the rate of the power absorption $`R_\mathit{2}`$ is simply :

$$R_2=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }}{2}\left[1J_0\left(2\rho \right)\right],$$
(20)
Thus the trajectory of an atom plays the important role, because the atom can be stopped by sidebands method that results in known now results on cooling atoms. Contrary an atom can be accelerated.

Let us note, that is interesting to consider the problem of the movement of an electron within atom with the trajectory along and against a direction of a wave vector of the EM field, because with the rotation inside atom the electron can additional braking or acceleration. So both the trajectory of electrons within atom especially in a case of quantum transition and spatial orientation of a field inside atom are important too. In this work it is offered to discuss only some of these problems due to this question is connected with the important presence of a damping coefficient $`(\gamma )`$ in equation of the oscillator and because such modes of movement should be shown in radiation of a driven charge.

The quantum mechanics does not recognize exact definition of coordinates or trajectory of movement. If the force in classical physics is defined as $`f=\mathrm{𝑑𝑝}/\mathrm{𝑑𝑡}`$, in the quantum mechanics it is $`(F=U/t)`$, where $`(U)`$ represents known potential. At the same time potential depends on coordinate $`(x)`$, which by virtue of known uncertainty relation in the quantum mechanics cannot be defined. However, a wave function $`(\psi )`$ in the quantum mechanics describes wave with not observable characteristics as the ”wave frequency” $`(H/\mathrm{})`$ and is presented through the operators of coordinate $`(X)`$ and moment $`(\mathrm{\Lambda })`$, because the hamiltonian $`\mathit{2}H=X^\mathit{2}+\Lambda ^\mathit{2}`$:

$$\psi (x,t)=\left[\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left(ı\frac{H}{\mathrm{}}t\right)\right]\psi (x,\mathit{0})$$
(21)
Application of the operators is connected with two linear spaces, one of which is the space of laboratory where classical physics is work and coordinate is measured as $`x`$:

$$X\psi =x\psi $$
(22)
$$\mathrm{\Lambda }\psi =ı\mathrm{}\frac{\psi }{x}$$
(23)
The information about space of an atom can be received only in space of classical physics named in this work as the space of laboratory where for the known classical model of the oscillator the exam of the differential equation gives infinite on size value of displacement $`(x)`$ of the oscillator for both conditions the absence of the damping constant $`(\gamma )`$ and the exact resonance condition $`(\omega =\omega _0)`$:

$$\ddot{x}+\mathit{2}\gamma \dot{x}+\omega _\mathit{0}^\mathit{2}x=\frac{e}{\mathit{2}m}E_\mathit{0}\left[\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}(ı\omega t)+\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}(ı\omega t)\right]$$
(24)
$$x=\left[\frac{e}{\mathit{2}m}\frac{E_\mathit{0}^\mathit{2}}{\omega _\mathit{0}^\mathit{2}\omega ^\mathit{2}+\mathit{2}ı\gamma \omega }\right]+c.c.$$
(25)
Therefore it is obvious, that it is simultaneously impossible to simulate both conditions $`(\omega =\omega _0)`$ and $`(\gamma =0)`$. Despite of it, it is possible to explain increase of displacement up to infinite size by display of the appeared acceleration. Really, the well known equation of a clasical oscillator can be considered as a threshold condition at balance of several acceleration mechanisms for one connected electron. When the frequency of a field comes nearer to resonant frequency, then in this vicinity of frequencies or in the appropriate vicinity of time in system necessarily there should be an the damping, differently irrespective of energy of an electromagnetic field oscillations will simply be stopped when the electron becomes free, because increase of displacement up to infinite size.

Therefore there is a vicinity of time, when there are processes with several types of the damping mechanisms braking the electron. From known observable processes of these mechanisms, connected to presence, first of all, it is necessary to allocate the absorption and both spontaneous and compelled radiation. The important problem for one atom is the understanding of a nature of the spontaneous radiation damping constant. This problem concerns to a question on so-called optical friction and is general for the classical and quantum approach, as is connected that the damping is present at processes, which are not for separately taken atom, because there is no interaction with environment.

In the quantum mechanics the damping $`(\gamma )`$ is entered in the equations provided that the electron already is at the exited level, and the field at this moment has no energy or is switched simply off like a case for a short pulse of a EM field. The presence of the damping is entered in the assumption, that probability of a finding atom in the exited status is . In case of unlimited quantity of oscillators, the system of the equations results for complete probability of spontaneous transition from the exited status . Thus the damping has the imaginary part and gives the amendment on displacement of own frequency, neglecting with which, however, it is possible to receive, that is defined by summation on all radiated quantum.

The important note is about the time as the complex number, which has not only size opposite to the frequency of an external field, but also size, opposite to the complex damping coefficient.

The connection between a spectral contour for probability and its FWHM is determined as well as by Lorentz function with inknown value of the amplitude:

$$L=\mathrm{𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡}\frac{\gamma }{\Delta \omega ^\mathit{2}+\gamma ^\mathit{2}/\mathit{4}}$$
(26)
Let’s note, that the size $`(\mathrm{\Delta }\omega =|\omega \omega _0|)`$ is variable and depends on adjustment of frequency of an external field $`(\omega )`$ in relation to resonant frequency of quantum transition $`(\omega _0)`$ in atom between two energy levels. Let’s consider the norm one of the two typical functions, which make refraction index:

$$k_A=\mathrm{𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡}\frac{b}{a^\mathit{2}+b^\mathit{2}}$$
(27)
$$k_B=\mathrm{𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡}\frac{a}{a^\mathit{2}+b^\mathit{2}}$$
(28)
It is possible to fix in them one of two variable $`(a)`$ or $`(b)`$. The norm can be used in three cases

$$\mathrm{𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡}\frac{\mathrm{𝑑𝑎}}{a^\mathit{2}+b^\mathit{2}}=\mathrm{𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡}\left[\frac{\mathit{1}}{b}\mathrm{𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛}\frac{a}{b}+C\right]$$
(29)
$$A\frac{\mathrm{𝑑𝑦}}{y^\mathit{2}+\mathit{1}}=A\pi =\mathit{1}$$
(30)
$$A\pi =\frac{\mathrm{𝑠𝑖𝑛}^\mathit{2}(Ay)}{y^\mathit{2}}\mathrm{𝑑𝑦}$$
(31)
Anyone here is taken variable $`(y)`$ and constants $`(A)`$ and a free constant $`(C)`$ . It is clear, that it is possible to solve this system of the equations and to receive a number of the decisions, instead of one known $`(y)`$.

Considering only one analytical function of complex variable $`(z)`$ on a complex plane one can observe the power numbers $`(q)`$ :

$$f(z)=\frac{\mathit{1}}{z^\mathit{2}+\mathit{1}}$$
(32)
In a circle $`(z<\mathit{1})`$, except for points $`(zı)`$, this function is an indefinitely decreasing geometrical progression with the radius of convergence $`(r=\mathit{1})`$:

$$f(z)=\underset{q=\mathit{0}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(\mathit{1}\right)^qz^{\mathit{2}q}$$
(33)
In the other circle $`|z\mathit{1}|<\sqrt{\mathit{2}}`$ , the radius of convergence $`(r=\sqrt{\mathit{2}})`$:

$$f(z)=\underset{\mathit{0}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(\mathit{1}\right)^q\frac{\mathrm{𝑠𝑖𝑛}(q+\mathit{1})\frac{\pi }{\mathit{4}}}{\mathit{2}^{\frac{q+\mathit{1}}{\mathit{2}}}}(z\mathit{1})^q$$
(34)
Therefore any quantum process observable in space of laboratory and described by the formula passes through a number $`(qn_\mathit{0})`$, where $`(n_\mathit{0})`$ is the main quantum number of discrete energy levels. Consequently the picture of energy levels distribution in the space of laboratory should correspond to this picture. It is possible to try to show importance of distinction of performances about the main quantum number in different spaces on the following example which is connected with classical parameter of refraction.

The direct transition from consideration of one atom to consideration of environment consisting many $`(N)`$ atoms and back requires a physical explanation of applicability for separated atom $`(N=\mathit{1})`$ not only concept of the damping constant, but also such concepts as a parameter of refraction $`(n)`$ or permeability $`(ϵ)`$. As is known, the polarization of environment $`(P)`$ is defined by the dipole moment $`(d=ex)`$. On the other hand, the polarization is defined by a susceptibility $`(\alpha )`$ and electrical component of an electromagnetic field $`(E)`$:

$$P=N\alpha E=Nex=Nd$$
(35)
$$ϵ=\mathit{1}+\mathit{4}\pi \alpha $$
(36)
$$n=\sqrt{ϵ}$$
(37)
However permeability $`(ϵ)`$ and parameter of refraction $`(n)`$ can not be simply transferred from space of environment into the space of separate atom. In this work is possible to assume, that there are features of structure of atom, which are shown that the connected electron in atom and the free electron in space of laboratory are the same particle which are taking place in different spaces. Therefore they can have differences in such characteristics, as a charge $`(e)`$ and the mass $`(m)`$, because they have differences on dynamics of the movement driven by EM field. The space of separate atom can have especial structure, in which the mass and the charges of the connected electron interacted with a EM field differ among themselves. Thus connected electrons with a negative charge in different atoms are considered taking place in different spaces, and free electrons with a negative charge leaving of energy limits of different atoms in space of laboratory are considered identical (standard electron). The change of particles mass $`(m)`$ during movement should result in the certain conformity between complete energy of a particle and energy of the appropriate quantum transition. It is natural to assume, that the electromagnetic wave crosses set of spaces with different phase speed in each of them. Let’s name as resonant spaces such spaces, which are connected among themselves by any interaction to occurrence of a particle or information electromagnetic field. As an information electromagnetic field we shall name such electromagnetic field, which satisfies with the Maxwell equations and bears in the characteristics the information on investigated space. Let’s assume, that the resonant spaces having, at least, linear communication between one vector in one space with other vectors in the other space cooperate only. Let’s assume, that the birth of an electromagnetic field occurs on border of resonant spaces. The communication of two linear spaces of laboratory and atom is carried out by conformity between dependence of amplitude of a field on time and frequency in one space and in the another space with dependence of probability of finding electron at a energy level from time and frequency. Factor of proportionality defines a time scale in each space, i.e. the frequency of a EM field $`(\omega )`$ and Rabi frequency $`(\mathrm{\Omega })`$:

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\frac{d_{\mathit{12}}E}{\mathrm{}}$$
(38)
where the dipole matrix element is $`(d_{\mathit{12}}=ex_{\mathit{12}})`$. It is possible to assume, that the vectors $`(\stackrel{}{d})`$ and $`(\stackrel{}{x})`$ characterize the space not as linearly dependent pair vectors, and as linear - independent pair vectors, therefore is possible to write down:

$$\stackrel{}{e}=e_\mathit{1}\stackrel{}{d}+e_\mathit{2}\stackrel{}{x}$$
(39)
Thus, the charge $`(e)`$ of the connected electron is a vector $`(\stackrel{}{e})`$. This vector has projections to the allocated directions and, hence, brings in charging symmetry to space of atom. Therefore, the application of the classical physical characteristics such as $`(n)`$, $`(ϵ)`$ for separate atom is possible.

Assuming, that trajectory of an electron with speed $`(V)`$ is the circle, in which centre is nucleus, is necessary to return to a hypothesis of Bohr and De Brogle. On one orbit with length $`(\mathit{2}\pi R)`$, where radius $`(R)`$ is defined by:

$$R=\frac{n_\mathit{0}\mathrm{}}{mV},$$
(40)
is possible to lay an integer of lengths of waves $`(\lambda n_\mathit{0})`$, where $`(\lambda )`$ is characterizes a wave nature of a material particle and $`(n_\mathit{0})`$ is the main quantum number:

$$\frac{\lambda }{n_\mathit{0}}=\frac{h}{mV}$$
(41)
On the other hand the same radius $`(R)`$ of an orbit can be determined from known relation:

$$\frac{1}{8\pi ϵ_0}\frac{e^\mathit{2}}{R}=\frac{mV^\mathit{2}}{2}$$
(42)
One can to observe that the charge has the same vector nature that the velocity. Let’s copy the formula in view of a known ratio $`(\lambda \nu =c_\mathit{0})`$, where the frequency is $`(\mathit{2}\pi \nu =\omega )`$, the speed of light $`(c_\mathit{0})`$ is connected to phase speed of electrons wave through $`(c_\mathit{0}=v_fn)`$, where $`(n)`$ \- is a parameter of refraction.

$$n=\frac{\mathrm{}\omega }{m}\frac{\mathit{1}}{v_fV}n_\mathit{0}$$
(43)
Thus, the parameter of refraction $`(n)`$ of an atom should be discrete size due to the main quantum number.

Let’s return to the decision of the classical equation of oscillator. It is possible to notice what exactly from here follows, that the permeability $`(ϵ)`$ is complex number. For this reason the parameter of refraction $`(n=\sqrt{ϵ})`$ is defined by a root of the second degree from complex number. However parameter of refraction defines a phase speed of an electrons wave. It is easy to show, that this phase speed is split on two waves distinguished on a phase on number $`(\pi )`$. This implies, that the main quantum number $`(n_\mathit{0})`$ also can result in processes with the same phase displacement.

In physics some cases are known, when the difference of phases is equal to $`(\pi )`$. First it is shown at reflection of a EM wave. Secondly it is possible to search for such difference in phases at display of linear polarization of a wave. In third, such difference exists between positive and negative parts of periodic sine wave function.

## II Possible pair processes for waves and particles

Let’s consider as an example probable reaction of an atom space to action of an external field. For this purpose we shall lead analogy between space of an optical crystal and the two levels atom. Let external field has given, for example, ordinary linear polarization named as a $`(o)`$ -wave, which in turn, as is known, can be submitted consisting from both the right and the left rotating vectors of polarization. Such two vectors, opposite on rotation can be considered, as two waves having the identical module and arguments distinguished on number $`\pi `$. On an entrance of a crystal such external $`(o)`$-field is usually represented as two identical $`(o)`$-waves having identical frequency $`\omega `$ and two identical amplitudes. Actually by such consideration the one wave goes about two waves having the identical module and different arguments. As a result of interaction, a unusual $`(e)`$-wave with the polarization revolved on corner of 90 degrees is left the crystal. As is known, there is such spatial direction inside a crystal, in which the so-called $`(\mathrm{𝑜𝑜}e)`$ interaction results in identical factors of a parameter of refraction $`n_\mathit{0}(\omega )=n_e(\mathit{2}\omega )`$ on the frequency $`\omega `$ for $`(o)`$\- wave and on the frequency $`2\omega `$ for $`(e)`$ -wave for known procedure of the second harmonic generation (SHG). Both fields are external in relation to space of a crystal, as their characteristics are measured in space of classical physics named as a space of laboratory. Thus, the phase synchronism of speeds $`v_f=c_\mathit{0}/n`$ is a reaction of interaction of two spaces.

In gas environment of atoms the reaction of interaction both spaces the laboratory space and the space of atoms shown as similar SHG of $`2\omega `$ should not essentially differ from reaction by the space of a crystal. Near to a line of absorption always there is an opportunity of a choice of two frequencies with an identical parameter of refraction due to the known abnormal dependence of the refraction parameter. In the specific case frequencies can be multiple, as SHG, but the square-law dependence for low intensity external EM field of SHG intensity completely not necessarily should be observed. Thus it is necessary to distinguish, that at such low intencities the SHG in atomic environment differs from known process of the two photon absorption within an atom with the subsequent radiation. Generally is possible to think that at high intencities the multi photons generation of radiation differs from multi photons of absorption with the subsequent radiation, because can occur at conditions when the determining factor is the dependence $`n(\omega )`$ near to a line of resonant absorption.

External in relation to atom and periodically time-dependent electromagnetic (EM) field $`E=E_o\mathrm{cos}\omega t`$ in space of laboratory is usually represented as analytical continuation of function valid variable $`(\omega t)`$ in complex area. In this work is paid attention to some features of such transition in a complex plane and back from the point of view of interpretation of physics of model connected to generation of an electromagnetic field.

When on some given piece $`[a,b]`$, where $`a=\omega _\mathit{1}t_\mathit{1}`$ and $`b=\omega _\mathit{2}t_\mathit{2}`$ of the valid real axis chosen along any direction of the space, that for length $`[a,b]`$, included in complex area, there is a unique function of the complex variable $`z=a+ıb`$. Accepting the same value that function real variable the electromagnetic field can be submitted on this piece by a converging sedate number in a known kind

$$c_n\left[\omega t\omega _\mathit{0}t_\mathit{0}\right]^n$$
(44)
From the mathematical point of view on definition of complex numbers follows, that one complex number can characterizes one physical value of pair real numbers with the established order of following of one real number behind another, where thus the only imaginary number $`z=ıb`$ is equivalent to $`a=\mathit{0}`$. In particular, the EM field in space of laboratory is submitted as

$$\frac{E_\mathit{0}}{2}\left[\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left(ı\omega t\right)+\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left(ı\omega t\right)\right]$$
(45)
Also this EM field incorporates the sum of two functions complex variable

$$\zeta _{1,2}=\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left(z_{\mathit{1},\mathit{2}}\right)=\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left(a\pm ıb\right)=\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left(\pm ı\omega t\right)$$
(46)
It means, that two variable $`z_{\mathit{1},\mathit{2}}`$ are correspond to a separately taken wave where the module of each is identical, but the arguments differ is familiar

$$E_\mathit{0}|\zeta |=E_\mathit{0}\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left(a\right)=E_\mathit{0}$$
(47)
$$\mathrm{𝑎𝑟𝑔}\zeta _{\mathit{1},\mathit{2}}=\pm b=\pm \omega t$$
(48)
It is understandable, that interpretation of different marks of arguments of a field can serve performance about two vectors directed along the allocated direction of a numerical axis in opposite directions and distinguished on a corner equal $`\pi `$.

It is known, that the loss of energy of an external field communicates, for example, with such effects, as effect of saturation in two-level atom $`(N_\mathit{1}=N_\mathit{2})`$ or with other known nonlinear effects occurring to a plenty connected electrons in different atoms at a large intensity of the external field. At the same time, in separately taken atom connected electron increases the energy only for the account $`(\mathrm{}\omega )`$. Therefore according to the quantum theory for excite separately taken oscillator it is enough to have vaguely weak on intensity external EM field.

Actually a threshold condition should exist as a ratio between losses of the electron on radiation $`\gamma _R`$ and losses of a field on absorption $`\gamma _A`$. At such understanding of processes the connected electron always radiates, including at the moment of transition to the exited energy level. For example, considering one-dimensional classical oscillator at the included external field, according to the theory of Einstein, it is necessary to exam processes of absorption, and also processes of the compelled and spontaneous radiation. These processes are characterized in known coefficients $`A_{\mathit{21}}`$,$`B_{\mathit{21}}`$ and $`B_{\mathit{12}}`$ . In this connection, it is possible to write down the balance equation for various damping constants of classical oscillator, because the damping constant of spontaneous radiation $`\gamma _S`$ is equal to $`A_{\mathit{21}}`$:

$$A_{\mathit{21}}+\frac{E_x^\mathit{2}}{\mathit{8}\pi }B_{\mathit{21}}=\frac{N_\mathit{1}}{N_\mathit{2}}\frac{E_x^\mathit{2}}{\mathit{8}\pi }B_{\mathit{12}}$$
(49)
$$\gamma _S+\gamma _B=\gamma _A$$
(50)
The process of absorption is a resulting process and consequently the return size of $`\gamma _A`$ corresponds to time of life $`\gamma _A=t_L^\mathit{1}`$. Therefore the parameter $`\gamma =\gamma _A`$ should be present at the equation of the oscillator. Therefore becomes obvious, that the time of life should not be equaled of time spontaneous radiation $`\gamma _S^1`$.

If there is an absorption of energy of EM field in space of atom, this implies classical performance that the external field should cross a surface of atom under the laws by and large connected with the known laws of Fresnel for environments. Visible light absorbed by the majority of known atoms, does not test of diffraction on such small on the sizes object as atom. However, for shorter lengths of waves or for atoms with the large sizes occurring processes of reflection and (or) the absorption would result in occurrence of a diffraction shadow from atom. As the sizes of atom are small in comparison with length of a EM wave, such sizes allow to make transition to a limiting case of disappearance of objects in classical diffraction tasks, when the external field can be submitted on a complex plane as a spiral, including in a limiting case with a resulting vector along an imaginary axis. Agreeing with application of a known principle of Optics it is possible to assume, that the separate atom is a source of secondary waves. Apparently, the secondary waves in interpretation of this principle simply should mean the fact of an output from atom of pair waves with a difference of phases distinguished on number $`\pi `$.

The EM wave can be presented as a continuous analytical function $`f(z)`$ of complex variable $`z=x+ıy`$ with $`\dot{f}0`$, through partial derivative of functions $`(u)`$ and $`(v)`$:

$$f(z)=u(x,y)+ıv(x,y)$$
(51)
The continuity of function is carried out during each period, when there are limiting values $`\mathrm{𝑙𝑖𝑚}\left[f(z)\right]=\left[f(z_\mathit{0})\right]`$ in a vicinity $`zz_\mathit{0}`$, when the inverse function is determined as

$$z=\varphi |f(z)|$$
(52)
$$\dot{f}=\frac{1}{\dot{\varphi }|f(z)|}$$
(53)
$$\left|\begin{array}{cc}u_x& u_y\\ v_x& v_y\end{array}\right|0$$
(54)
Therefore at return transition to the valid plane the function EM field as the function of complex variable can be presented as two functions valid variable $`(u)`$ and $`(v)`$.

For presentation it is possible to consider possible interpretation of occurrence of a usual periodic wave with constant amplitude $`E=E_o\mathrm{sin}(\omega t)`$. Such recording for both electrical components of a field means that at increase of size of product of frequency at time there is an increase of a corner between these components of a field. Here analogy to periodic movement on a circle for a particle having an electrical charge first of all is pertinent. In this case it is possible to speak that between the center of a circle where there is a positively charged nucleus and the particle with a negative charge exists electromagnetic interaction resulting to such movement. For a wave with a wave vector $`k=\omega /c`$, where $`c`$ is a speed of light, such periodic decision corresponds to the wave equation

$$\frac{^2E}{t^\mathit{2}}+c^\mathit{2}kE=\mathit{0}$$
(55)
If the particle is at fixed energy level, its trajectory can be connected to a trajectory of other pair particles taking place on other energies levels of the same atom. There is an example for a particle fixed on a circle with a radius $`(a)`$ and driven together with a circle along the allocated direction $`(x)`$ in space of an atom in a plane $`(x,y)`$ with a parameter $`(T)`$ of the corner of turn acts:

$$x=a\left[T\mathrm{𝑠𝑖𝑛}(T)\right]$$
(56)
$$y=a\left[\mathit{1}\mathrm{𝑐𝑜𝑠}(T)\right]$$
(57)
$$x=\mathrm{𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠}\frac{ay}{a}\sqrt{\mathit{2}ayy^\mathit{2}}$$
(58)
$$z=x+ıy=a\left[T+ı\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}\left(ıT\right)\right]$$
(59)
It is known, that such trajectory is a projection of movement on a spiral. Radius of curvature monotonously changes in conformity with a sine function:

$$\rho =\left|\frac{\left[1+\left(\frac{\mathrm{𝑑𝑦}}{\mathrm{𝑑𝑥}}\right)\right]^{\frac{3}{2}}}{\frac{d}{\mathrm{𝑑𝑥}}\left(\frac{\mathrm{𝑑𝑦}}{\mathrm{𝑑𝑥}}\right)}\right|=\mathit{4}a\mathrm{𝑠𝑖𝑛}\frac{T}{\mathit{2}}$$
(60)
It is easy to notice connection between interpretation of a trajectory for the simple and double frequency of a wave. It is possible, that Radius of curvature $`\rho `$ of this trajectory for pair fields is variable size and can corresponds to amplitude $`(E)`$ of EM wave, the radius of the circle $`(a)`$ can corresponds to $`(E_\mathit{0})`$, the corner $`T`$ can corresponds to $`\omega t`$. For pair particles it is possible to connect these characteristics with the Rabi frequency.

In each point such curve radius of curvature is perpendicular trajectories and all together such radiuses form other curve, of what it is possible to be convinced if to replace $`T=\tau \pi `$. This will be the same trajectory, but with other coordinates:

$$X+a\pi =a[\tau \mathrm{𝑠𝑖𝑛}(\tau )]$$
(61)
$$Y+\mathit{2}a=a[\mathit{1}\mathrm{𝑐𝑜𝑠}(\tau )]$$
(62)
Therefore it is possible to assume, that there is one more field or particle carrying out the same movement with the same frequency and time, but taking place on other circle with same radius. The trajectories of these pair processes will be moved with a phase difference on number $`(\pi )`$ and together they will correspond to one function with variable on a mark by amplitude. Such movement for a particle can be simulated as movement at a fixed energy level with friction $`(\gamma )`$, which is present at the equations of classical and quantum oscillators. Continuing this logic it is possible to enter other parallel trajectories for charges of particles and it is possible to investigate new EM processes.

In connection with the proposed model is possible to approve, that if the order of following functions in investigated physical process is established to within a constant difference of the phase, thus is established possibility to observe a pair physical processes for waves and particles not only at space of the atom or the space of laboratory, but for different spaces where the flat part of space in general probably may be divided on inverse sub spaces with in parallel current direct and return processes.

Probably here there should be balanced restrictions on imagination, because it is possible too to assume, that the physical laws containing mathematical functions from even degrees of the arguments should correspond to pair processes and particles ”koquark”.


format: text

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# Quasi-local evolution of cosmic gravitational clustering in weakly non-linear regime

## 1 Introduction

One of the basic goals of large scale structure study is to reconstruct the initial mass field of the universe. Assuming observed objects trace the underlying matter field in some way, it should be possible to recover the initial conditions of the mass field. For instance, if the probability distribution function (PDF) of the initial mass fluctuations is Gaussian, one may recover the initial Gaussian mass fluctuations by properly removing all non-Gaussian features via the Gaussianization reconstruction algorithm (Weinberg 1992.)

The key step in the Gaussianization algorithm is a mapping from a smoothed observed non-Gaussian distribution of the density contrast, $`\delta (x)=(\rho \overline{\rho })/\overline{\rho }`$ ($`\rho `$ is the mass density, and $`\overline{\rho }`$ is its mean) into a smoothed initial Gaussian density contrast $`\delta _0(x)`$. The basic assumptions of this mapping are that the relation between $`\delta (x)`$ and the initial density distribution $`\delta _0(x)`$ is local and monotonic, i.e., the rank order of the mass density field, smoothed over a given scale, is preserved even under nonlinear gravitation evolution(Narayanan & Weinberg 1998). Thus, the high initial density pixels will evolve into high $`\delta (x)`$ pixels and low initial density pixels into low $`\delta (x)`$ pixels. With this assumption, the Gaussian mapping can be realized by a point-to-point, order-preserving transformation. The shape of the initial Gaussian density field is recovered with an arbitrary normalization.

This method has been employed to recover the initial mass field and power spectrum from galaxy redshift surveys and from the transmitted flux of the Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption in QSO spectra (Croft et al. 1998.) The validity of the point-to-point (or pixel-to-pixel) recovery of the initial Gaussian mass field from the evolved mass field stems from the belief that the transmitted flux probably is a pixel-to-pixel tracer of the underlying dark matter distribution (Bi 1993; Fang et al. 1993; Bi, Ge & Fang 1995; Hernquist et al 1996; Bi & Davidsen 1997; Hui, Gnedin & Zhang 1997.)

However, whether the order-preserving assumption is reasonable is far from clear. It has been argued that the order-preserving condition may be a poor approximation to the actual dynamics because of the non-locality of gravitational evolution (Monaco & Efstathiou 2000). Gravitational clustering is not localized. Even in the weakly non-linear evolutionary regime, the processes of cosmic clustering typically are those of objects free falling into potential wells (e.g. Xu, Fang & Wu 2000), Fourier mode-mode coupling (e. g. Suto & Sasaki 1991), and the merging of pre-virialized dark halos. These processes are generally non-local.

In the Zel’dovich approximation (Zel’dovich 1970), the density field $`\rho (𝐱,t)`$ at (Eulerian) comoving position $`𝐱`$ and time $`t`$ is determined by the initial perturbation at (Lagrangian) comoving position, $`𝐪`$, plus a displacement $`𝐒`$:

$$𝐱(𝐪,t)=𝐪+𝐒(𝐪,t).$$
(1)
The displacement $`𝐒(𝐪,t)`$ represents the effect of density perturbations on the trajectories of gravitating particles. Therefore, cosmic self-gravitating systems do not follow a Eulerian point-to-point localized evolution. Even when the transmitted flux is locally determined by the evolved underlying dark matter distribution, the relation between the initial mass field and the transmitted flux might still be non-local. The initial power spectrum reconstructed from the point-to-point Gaussian mapping of Ly$`\alpha `$ transmitted flux shows a systematic suppression on small scales (Croft et al. 1999.) This problem may be mitigated by smoothing the data. However, the smoothing scale is put in by hand and it is hard to understand how this scale can be determined from the dynamics of the non-local evolution. For these reasons the basis of the order-preserving transformation and the point-to-point Gaussian mapping need to be reconsidered.

In this paper, we will show first that the assumption of point-to-point locality is not necessary for a proper Gaussianization reconstruction.

Recently, we showed that the transmitted flux Gaussianized by the point-to-point Gaussian mapping is still largely non-Gaussian (Feng & Fang 2000.) That is, the non-Gaussianities of the original transmitted flux are retained in the mass field recovered by the point-to-point, order-preserving transformation. Especially troubling is the fact that the scale-scale correlations of the Gaussianized field are about the same as before the mapping. The mass power spectrum recovered by the point-to-point Gaussian mapping is systematically lower than the initial mass spectrum on scales at which the scale-scale correlation of the recovered mass field are substantial.

To solve this problem, a scale-by-scale algorithm of the Gaussian mapping was proposed (Feng & Fang 2000.) In this algorithm the order-preserving transformation is done on the coefficients of a space-scale decomposition rather than on each pixel of the transmitted flux. This method can effectively remove the non-Gaussianities of the observed distribution, especially clearing the scale-scale correlations. Consequently, small scale suppression is significantly reduced. Furthermore, the scale-by-scale Gaussianization procedure does not require a point-to-point order preservation, but only the order preservation of the density fluctuations of the space-scale decomposed field.

We will show that the order preservation assumption for the scale-by-scale Gaussian mapping is supported by the Zel’dovich approximation and that in quasi-linear evolution, the gravitational clustering is quasi-local and monotonic. Moreover, we will find that the non-Gaussian features during the weakly non-linear regime are dominated by the local scale-scale correlations. Therefore, at least for the transmitted flux and forest lines of the QSO Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption spectrum, the scale-by-scale Gaussianization algorithm has a solid basis in the weakly non-linear regime.

The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the quasi-locality condition needed for the scale-by-scale Gaussianization recovery. In Section 3 we show the quasi-locality and monotonic nature of the weak non-linear evolution using the Zel’dovich solution of the growth modes. Section 4 presents the result of measuring the quasi-locality for samples of the Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption spectrum. The conclusions are summarized in Section 5.

## 2 Scale-by-scale Gaussian mapping and the quasi-locality condition

### 2.1 Problems with the point-to-point Gaussian mapping

Let us briefly introduce the algorithm for a point-to-point Gaussian mapping which is designed for recovering the initial Gaussian mass density contrast $`\delta _0(𝐱)`$ from an observed, non-Gaussian distribution $`\delta (𝐱)`$. As an example, we consider an observed transmitted flux $`F`$ or absorption optical depth $`\tau =\mathrm{ln}F`$ of the Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption in QSO spectra. The distribution is one–dimensional and of length $`L`$. The PDF of the observed transmitted flux $`F`$ is generally non-Gaussian, while the PDF of the initial density contrast $`\delta _o`$ is assumed to be Gaussian in a large variety of structure formation models. The relation between $`F=e^\tau `$ and $`\delta _0`$ is assumed to be order-preserved, or monotonic, i.e., high initial density $`\delta _0`$ pixels evolve into high absorption optical depth $`\tau `$ pixels, while low initial density pixels into low $`\tau `$ pixels. Thus, a point-to-point (or pixel-to-pixel) Gaussian mapping can be done as follows. First, sort in ascending order, the $`N`$ pixels by the observed amount of flux. Second, assign to the n-th pixel a density contrast $`\delta `$ by the solving the error function equation $`(2\pi )^{1/2}_{\mathrm{}}^\delta \mathrm{exp}(x^2/2)𝑑x=n/N`$. This pixel-to-pixel Gaussian mapping produces a mass field with the same rank order as the original flux but with a Gaussian PDF. After determining the overall amplitude of the Gaussian mapped field by a separate procedure, the initial density field $`\delta _0`$ is recovered (Weinberg 1992.)

However, the density field recovered by the pixel-to-pixel Gaussian mapping still exhibits non-Gaussian features. Especially, the scale-scale correlations of the Gaussianized field are almost as strong as the pre-Gaussianized flux. The pixel-to-pixel Gaussian mapping does not remove all the non-Gaussianities and the initial Gaussian field will not be recovered precisely. The power spectrum recovered by the point-to-point Gaussian mapping is systematically lower than the initial mass spectrum on scales at which the scale-scale correlation is substantial. Physically, the effect might just be due to the fact that $`\delta `$ is simply too non-linear, and the relation between $`\delta `$ and $`\delta _0`$ is no longer monotonic. If this is the case, then a scale-adaptive smoothing is required before Gaussianization.

However, a smoothing window function sometimes introduces spurious features. For instance, the aliasing of the power spectrum on scales around the Nyquist frequency corresponds to the scale of the smoothing grid. However with the DWT analysis one need not introduce window functions for smoothing because the scaling functions of the wavelet transform already play that role. The scaling function is orthogonal to the relevant wavelets. False correlations due to the smoothing window can then be perfectly eliminated (Feng & Fang 2000.) Therefore, a scale-adaptive smoothing and reconstruction can be realized by the scale-by-scale Gaussian mapping.

### 2.2 Scale-by-scale Gaussian mapping

Scale-by-scale, or scale-adaptive Gaussianization can be performed via the discrete wavelet transform (DWT)111For the details of the DWT refer to the classic papers by Mallat (1989a,b); Meyer (1992); Daubechies, (1992) and references therein, and for physical applications, refer to Fang & Thews (1998) and references therein.. The first step in this process is to wavelet expand the flux $`F`$ as

$$F(x)=\overline{F}+\underset{j=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{l=0}{\overset{2^j1}{}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}\psi _{j,l}(x)$$
(2)
where $`\psi _{j,l}(x)`$, $`j=0,1,\mathrm{}`$, $`l=0\mathrm{}2^j1`$, is an orthogonal and complete basis. The wavelet basis (mode) $`\psi _{j,l}(x)`$ is localized both in physical space and in Fourier (scale) space. The function $`\psi _{j,l}(x)`$ is centered at position $`lL/2^j`$ in physical space and at wavenumber $`2\pi \times 2^j/L`$ in Fourier space. The wavelet function coefficients (WFCs), $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}`$, are labeled by the two subscripts $`j`$ and $`l`$ corresponding to the scale and position respectively. The $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}`$ describe the fluctuation of the flux on scale $`L/2^j`$ at position $`lL/2^j`$ and are computed as the inner product

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}=_0^LF\psi _{j,l}𝑑x.$$
(3)
The density fields in cosmology are assumed to be ergodic, that is, the average over an ensemble is equal to the spatial average taken over one realization. This is the so-called fair sample hypothesis (Peebles 1980). A homogeneous Gaussian field with a continuous power spectrum is certainly ergodic(Adler 1981). In some non-Gaussian cases, such as homogeneous and isotropic turbulence, ergodicity also approximately holds(Vanmarke, 1983). Roughly, the ergodic assumption is reasonable if the spatial correlations decrease sufficiently rapidly with increasing separation. This property can effectively be used by the DWT because the wavelet $`\psi _{j,l}(x)`$ are orthogonal with respect to the position index $`l`$. The SFCs $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}`$ ($`j=0\mathrm{}2^j1`$) can be considered as $`2^j`$ independent sampling, without false correlations caused by a non-orthogonal or redundant decomposition. Thus, for ergodic random fields the $`2^j`$ WFCs form a statistical ensemble on scale $`j`$. So for quantity $`X_j`$, the ensemble average is given by

$$X_j\frac{1}{2^j}\underset{l=0}{\overset{2^j1}{}}X_{j,l}$$
(4)
where $`X_{j,l}`$ is the quantity at position $`l`$. In other words, the distribution of the $`2^j`$ WFCs is the one-point distribution of $`X_j`$.

In short we have arrived at the scale-by-scale Gaussianization algorithm which consists of the following steps: 1.) Sort out the $`2^j`$ WFCs, $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}`$, of the flux field $`F`$ in ascending order. 2.) Assign to the $`2^j`$ WFCs, the Gaussianized density contrast $`\delta ^g`$ at position $`l`$ by the solving the error function equation. In this algorithm, the order-preserving transformation is performed scale-by-scale. It gives a position($`l`$)-to-position($`l`$) Gaussian mapping for each scale $`j`$. After a proper amplitude normalization (Feng & Fang 2000), the initial Gaussian density field $`\delta _0`$ is reconstructed with the Gaussianized WFCs $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^g`$ (we have added the subscript $`g`$ to emphasize that we are dealing with a Gaussian field.)

The $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^g`$ are normally distributed with covariance given by

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^g\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j^{},l^{}}^g=P_{j,l}\delta _{j,j^{}}\delta _{l,l^{}}.$$
(5)
For a homogeneous Gaussian field, $`P_{j,l}`$ is $`l`$-independent, i.e., $`P_{j,l}=P_j`$. Thus, $`P_j`$ is the power spectrum of the initial field. (Pando & Fang 1998b, Feng & Fang 2000, Fang & Feng, 2000.) Because the 2j WFCs $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^g`$ form a fair ensemble, the DWT power spectrum $`P_j`$ of the initial field can be calculated by

$$P_j=\frac{1}{2^j}\underset{l=0}{\overset{2^j1}{}}(\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^g\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^g)^2,$$
(6)
where

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^g=\frac{1}{2^j}\underset{l=0}{\overset{2^j1}{}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^g.$$
(7)
In our numerical calculation, we generally use the compactly supported basis Daubechies 4 (D4) (Daubechies 1992). The choice of particular compactly supported wavelet basis does not effect the statistical results (Pando & Fang 1996) and the D4 wavelet is chosen as a matter of convenience. Although the so called Haar wavelet appears to be simpler, it is not well behaved in scale space (Fang & Thews 1998.)

### 2.3 An example

To demonstrate the scale-by-scale Gaussian mapping, we recover the initial Gaussian mass field of a simulation sample of Ly$`\alpha `$ forests.

The simulation samples are produced by a semi-analytic model of the intergalactic medium (Bi 1993; Fang et al. 1993.) This model approximately fits most observed features of the Ly$`\alpha `$ clouds, including the column density distribution and the number density of the lines, the distribution of equivalent widths and their redshift dependence, the clustering of the lines, and even the 3rd- and 4th-order non-Gaussian features (Bi, Ge & Fang 1995; Bi & Davidsen 1997, Feng & Fang, 2000.) We produce the simulation samples in redshift range $`z=2.0662.436`$ with $`2^{14}`$ pixels. The corresponding simulation size in the CDM model is 189.84 h-1Mpc in comoving space. These scales weakly depend on $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$.

Figure 1 shows a typical realization of the simulated Ly$`\alpha `$, including the flux $`F`$, density contrast of IGM, $`\delta _{IGM}`$, peculiar velocity of the IGM, $`V_{pec}`$ and the column density of neutral hydrogen $`N_{HI}`$. The recovered IGM density distributions on scales $`10/2^j`$ h-1 Mpc and $`j=6,9,12`$ are plotted in Fig. 2. These results show that the density distributions can be well reconstructed by the DWT algorithm. The small deviation of the recovered distributions from the original one is due mainly to the effect of the peculiar velocity. Figure 3 plots the DWT power spectra of the initial and recovered fields. It shows that the recovered power spectrum is in excellent agreement with the initial one until scale $`j=9`$ or $`k=10`$ h Mpc-1. This means that the effect of the peculiar velocity is significant only on small scales $`j>9`$.

However, our goal is to put the scale-of-scale algorithm on a firm foundation and so recovering the power spectrum from simulation samples is insufficient for our purposes. We must investigate the conditions under which the basic assumption of the scale-of-scale algorithm – the order-preserving transformation – is reasonable.

### 2.4 Conditions for quasi-locality

The scale-by-scale Gaussian mapping assumes the order preservation between the WFCs $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}`$ of the evolved field and the initial WFCs $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^0`$ at each scale $`j`$. For scale $`j`$, index $`l`$ corresponds to a spatial range $`L/2^j`$. The scale-by-scale Gaussianization algorithm does not require a point-point (or pixel-pixel) locality, but only a locality in the range of $`\mathrm{\Delta }x=L/2^j`$.

For scale $`j`$, the corresponding wavenumber is $`k=2\pi 2^j/L`$ and we have

$$\mathrm{\Delta }x2\pi /k.$$
(8)
That is, the size of the locality $`\mathrm{\Delta }x`$ in the scale-by-scale Gaussian mapping is scale-adaptive. Only for wavelengths corresponding to one pixel is pixel-pixel locality required.

Obviously, if the locality condition is valid, the mode-mode correlation will be dominated by the local term. Thus, one can set a condition for the locality as

$$\frac{\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l^{}}}{\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^2}1,ll^{}.$$
(9)
For cosmological problems, the second order correlations $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l^{}}`$ only depend on the difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }l=l^{}l`$, and eq.(9) can be calculated as

$$\frac{\kappa _{j;j}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)}{\kappa _{j;j}(0)}1,\mathrm{\Delta }l0,$$
(10)
where $`\kappa _{j;j,}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$ is defined by

$$\kappa _{j;j}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)=\frac{1}{2^j}\underset{l=0}{\overset{2^J1}{}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l+\mathrm{\Delta }l}.$$
(11)
The ratios (10) or (11) can be used to estimate the error caused by the locality assumption.

## 3 The evolution of the DWT modes in the Zel’dovich approximation

In this section, we will show that conditions eqs.(10) or (11) are reasonable in the weakly non-linear regime. We use the Zel’dovich solution, which describes the growing mode of the gravitational clustering in the quasi-linear and even non-linear regime until the variance of the density field is of order unity.

### 3.1 The Zel’dovich solution in the DWT representation

In the Zel’dovich approximation \[eq.(1)\], the displacement vector field $`𝐒(𝐪,t)`$ is given by

$$𝐒(𝐪,t)=b(t)\varphi |_𝐪,$$
(12)
where $`b(t)`$ is the linear growth factor and $`\varphi (𝐪)`$ is the initial irrotational peculiar velocity potential (Catelan 1995.) The Eulerian density field can be described as

$$\rho (𝐱,t)=\overline{\rho }(t)d^3q\delta ^D[𝐱𝐪𝐒(𝐪,t)],$$
(13)
where $`\delta ^D(𝐱)`$ denotes the 3-dimensional Dirac delta function.

In the DWT representation, a density field $`\rho (𝐱)`$, $`𝐱=(x_1,x_2,x_3)`$, in range $`0<x_i<L_i,\{i=1,2,3\}`$ is described by the WFCs

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}(t)=\rho (𝐱,t)\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐱)𝑑𝐱,$$
(14)
where the $`\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐱)`$ are again an orthogonal and complete basis in 3-dimensions, constructed by the direct product of the 1-dimension wavelets (Daubechies 1992; Fang & Thews 1999)

$$\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐱)=\psi _{j_1,l_1}(x_1)\psi _{j_2,l_2}(x_2)\psi _{j_3,l_3}(x_3).$$
(15)
Substituting eqs. (13) and (15) into eq.(14), we have

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}(t)=d^3q\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}[𝐪b(t)\varphi ].$$
(16)
This is the solution of the DWT mode $`(𝐣,𝐥)`$ evolution in the Zel’dovich approximation.

### 3.2 Weakly non-linear evolution of the DWT modes

In the weakly non-linear regime, one can expand eq.(16) in a power series with respect to $`b(t)`$

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}(t)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{[b(t)]^n}{n!}d^3q(\varphi )^n\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪).$$
(17)
The evolution of the DWT mode $`(𝐣,𝐥)`$ can be calculated from the first few terms of eq.(17). Specifically, the first 4 terms give

1. The $`n=0`$ term is

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{(0)}(t)=\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)d^3q=0,$$
(18)
where we used the admissibility property of wavelets. This is the uniform background.

2. The $`n=1`$ term is

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{(1)}(t)=b(t)d^3q(\varphi )\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)=b(t)d^3q^2\varphi \psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)$$
(19)
Because $`^2\varphi `$ is equal to the initial density contrast $`\delta _0(𝐱)`$, we have

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{(1)}(t)=b(t)d^3q\delta _0(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)=b(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^0$$
(20)
where $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^0`$ is given by

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^0=d^3x\delta _0(𝐱)\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐱).$$
(21)
Therefore, $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^0`$ is the initial density perturbation of mode $`(𝐣,𝐥)`$. Equation (20) gives the linear growth of mode $`(𝐣,𝐥)`$ as $`b(t)`$ is taken to be the growth solution of the density perturbations.

3. The $`n=2`$ term is

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{(2)}(t)=\frac{b^2(t)}{2}d^3q(\varphi )^2\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)=b^2(t)^2\varphi \varphi \psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪).$$
(22)
One can also decompose the initial velocity field $`\varphi `$ into the DWT modes $`(𝐣,𝐥)`$ as

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{V_i}=d^3x\frac{\varphi }{x_i}\psi _{j,l}(𝐱).$$
(23)
Thus, eq.(25) can be rewritten as

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{(2)}(t)=b^2(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}^0\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}^{V_i}d^3q\psi _{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}(𝐪)\frac{}{q_i}\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)$$
(24)
where the summation conventions for $`𝐣^{},𝐥^{}`$, $`𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`i`$ are employed. Since the 3-dimensional wavelets are given by the direct product of 1-dimensional wavelets \[eq.(15)\], all terms in the r.h.s. of eq.(27) contain the three-wavelet integrals $`𝑑x\psi _{j^{},l^{}}(x)\psi _{j^{\prime \prime },l^{\prime \prime }}(x)\frac{d}{dx}\psi _{j,l}(x)`$. These integrals are non-zero only if the spatial ranges of the modes $`j^{},l^{}`$ and $`j^{\prime \prime },l^{\prime \prime }`$ overlap $`j,l`$. For the Daubechies 4 wavelet, $`l^{}`$ and $`l^{\prime \prime }`$ should not differ from $`l`$ by more than 2. Thus, this integral requires that $`(l,l^{},l^{\prime \prime })`$ be localized.

4. The $`n=3`$ term is

$`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{(3)}(t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{b^3(t)}{6}}{\displaystyle d^3q(\varphi )^3\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{b^3(t)}{2}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}^0\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}^{V_i}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime \prime }}^{V_k}{\displaystyle d^3q\psi _{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣^{\prime \prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime \prime }}(𝐪)\frac{}{q_i}\frac{}{q_k}\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)}`$
Similar to the 3-wavelet integral, the 4-wavelet integrals in eq.(25) require that the modes $`𝐣^{},𝐥^{}`$, $`𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }`$, $`𝐣^{\prime \prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime \prime }`$ and $`𝐣,𝐥`$ be localized.

Thus, the behavior of mode $`(𝐣,𝐥)`$ in the weak non-linear regime can be estimated as

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}(t)=\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{(1)}(t)+\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{(2)}(t)+\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{(3)}(t).$$
(26)
Considering the locality of the wavelet integrals in eqs(24) and (25), eq.(26) yields

$`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}(t)`$ $``$ $`b(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^0[1b(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}^{V_i}{\displaystyle }d^3q\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}(𝐪){\displaystyle \frac{}{q_i}}\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{b^2(t)}{2}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}^{V_i}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime \prime }}^{V_k}{\displaystyle }d^3q\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣^{\prime \prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime \prime }}(𝐪){\displaystyle \frac{}{q_i}}{\displaystyle \frac{}{q_k}}\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)]`$
If the initial density and velocity perturbations are Gaussian, we have

$`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^0=\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{V_i}=0`$ (28)
$`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}^{V_i}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}^0=0`$
and

$`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}^0\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}^0=\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}^{V_i}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime \prime }}^{V_k}=0,`$ (29)
$`\mathrm{if}𝐣^{}𝐣^{\prime \prime }\mathrm{or}𝐥^{}𝐥^{\prime \prime }.`$
All high order cumulants of $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣\mathrm{"},𝐥\mathrm{"}}^0`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}^{V_i}`$ are also zero.

Thus, in the bracketed expression of the r.h.s. of eq.(27), the second term is zero on average because the initial Gaussian velocity perturbations $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}^{V_i}=0`$. The third term in the bracket is proportional to the variance of $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^{V_i}`$, and then to the variance of $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^0`$. Therefore, large initial WFCs $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^0`$ statistically evolve into large $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}(t)`$, and low initial WFCs into low WFCs. The evolution is monotonic.

### 3.3 Quasi-locality of second order correlations in phase space

The locality can be expressed by the mode-mode correlations. For the second order correlation between modes $`(𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏})`$ and $`(𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐})`$, the non-zero terms up to order $`b^4`$ are

$`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}(t)=`$
$`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^{(1)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}^{(1)}(t)+\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^{(2)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}^{(2)}(t)+\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^{(1)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}^{(3)}(t)+\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^{(3)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}^{(1)}(t)`$
$`=`$ $`b^2(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^0\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}^0+b^4(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^0\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}^0\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}^{V_i}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime \prime }}^{V_k}\times `$
$`{\displaystyle d^3q\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}(𝐪)\frac{}{q_i}\psi _{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}(𝐪)d^3q\psi _{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣^{\prime \prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime \prime }}(𝐪)\frac{}{q_i}\psi _{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}(𝐪)}`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{b^4(t)}{2}}\{\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^0\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}^0\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}^{V_i}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime \prime }}^{V_k}{\displaystyle }d^3q\psi _{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣^{\prime \prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime \prime }}(𝐪){\displaystyle \frac{}{q_i}}{\displaystyle \frac{}{q_k}}\psi _{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}(𝐪)`$
$`+[(𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏})(𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐})]\}.`$
The term $`b^2(t)`$ is the linear term and the $`b^4(t)`$ term gives the first non-linear correction.

Due to the locality of the 3- and 4-wavelet integrals, eq.(30) yields

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}(t)0.$$
(31)
The second order correlations between the DWT modes $`(𝐣,𝐥)`$ are localized \[eqs.(9) and (10)\].

Since the 3- and 4-wavelet integrals do not require that scales $`𝐣`$ be the same as $`𝐣^{}`$, $`𝐣^{\prime \prime }`$, and $`𝐣^{\prime \prime \prime }`$, there exist correlations between modes on different scales but localized in the same spatial range. That is

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}0.$$
(32)
This second order correlation actually is a non-Gaussian correlation which corresponds to the non-random phase of the Fourier modes, or the phase-phase correlations between the Fourier modes (Feng & Fang 2000)

Moreover, the spatial size of a mode on scale $`j`$ is $`L/2^j`$. Thus, the scale-scale correlations between $`j^{}`$ and $`j`$ lead to a dependence of perturbations at $`L/2^j^{}`$ on the perturbations at $`L/2^j`$. The two perturbations are not perfectly localized in the same area, and therefore, the coupling between the DWT modes is quasi-local. In the fully developed non-linear regime, the strong scale-scale correlations will finally lead to non-local correlations of the DWT modes.

### 3.4 Non-Gaussianity of third-order correlations

The non-Gaussianities on higher-order correlations caused by the weakly non-linear evolution can be calculated by the cumulants of $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}`$. Using eq.(29), the third order correlation up to order $`b^4`$ is

$`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟑},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟑}}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^{(1)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}^{(1)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟑},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟑}}^{(1)}(t)`$
$`+[\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^{(1)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}^{(1)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟑},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟑}}^{(2)}(t)+2\mathrm{terms}\mathrm{with}\mathrm{cyc}.\mathrm{permutations}].`$
For Gaussian initial perturbation eq.(28), we have

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^{(1)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}^{(1)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟑},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟑}}^{(1)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^0(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}^0(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟑},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟑}}^0(t)=0.$$
(34)
Using eq.(24) we have

$`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^{(1)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}^{(1)}(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟑},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟑}}^{(2)}(t)`$
$`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}^0(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}^0(t)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}^0\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}^{V_i}{\displaystyle }d^3q\psi _{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}(𝐪)\psi _{𝐣^{\prime \prime },𝐥^{\prime \prime }}(𝐪){\displaystyle \frac{}{q_i}}\psi _{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟑},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟑}}(𝐪)=0.`$
Therefore, the largest two terms of eq.(33) are zero and we have

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟑},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟑}}0.$$
(36)
That is, the one-point distribution of the DWT modes $`(𝐣,𝐥)`$ contains at most a small skewness.

This result can also be obtained from the hierarchical clustering or linked-pair approximation as

$`\delta (𝐱^\mathrm{𝟏})\delta (𝐱^\mathrm{𝟐})\delta (𝐱^\mathrm{𝟑})Q_3[\delta (𝐱^\mathrm{𝟏})\delta (𝐱^\mathrm{𝟐})\delta (𝐱^\mathrm{𝟏})\delta (𝐱^\mathrm{𝟑})`$
$`+2\mathrm{terms}\mathrm{with}\mathrm{cyc}.\mathrm{permutations}],`$
where $`\delta (𝐱)=[\rho (𝐱)\overline{\rho }]/\overline{\rho }`$. Since wavelet $`\psi _{j,l}`$ is admissible, i.e., $`\psi _{j,l}(x)𝑑x=0`$, eq.(17) gives

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}(t)=\frac{1}{\overline{\rho }}\delta (𝐱)\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}(𝐱)𝑑𝐱.$$
(38)
We can take $`\overline{\rho }=1`$, i.e., the mean density is normalized.

Expressing eq.(38) in the wavelet basis $`\psi _{𝐣,𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}(𝐱^\mathrm{𝟏})\psi _{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟐},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}(𝐱^\mathrm{𝟐})\psi _{𝐣^\mathrm{𝟑},𝐥^\mathrm{𝟑}}(𝐱^\mathrm{𝟑})`$, we have

$`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥^\mathrm{𝟑}}Q_3{\displaystyle \underset{𝐥^{},𝐥^{\prime \prime }}{}}a_{𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^{{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }\mathrm{𝟏}}}^3[\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥^{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{𝟏}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥^\mathrm{𝟐}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥^{{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }\mathrm{𝟏}}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥^\mathrm{𝟑}}`$
$`+3\mathrm{terms}\mathrm{with}\mathrm{cyc}.\mathrm{permutations}].`$
where $`a_{𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^{{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }\mathrm{𝟏}}}^3`$ is given by the 3-wavelet integral,

$$a_{𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^{{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }\mathrm{𝟏}}}^3=\psi _{𝐣,𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏}}(𝐱)\psi _{𝐣,𝐥^{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{𝟏}}(𝐱)\psi _{𝐣,𝐥^{{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }\mathrm{𝟏}}}(𝐱)𝑑𝐱.$$
(40)
$`a_{𝐥^\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥^{}_{}{}^{}\mathrm{𝟏},𝐥{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }\mathrm{𝟏}}^3`$ generally is small and exactly equal to zero for the Haar wavelets (Mallat 1989a; Meyer 1992). Therefore, a hierarchical clustered field is only weakly skewed. Note however, that this does not imply that the skewness in the DWT representation is small in general.

### 3.5 Non-Gaussianity of fourth-order correlations

In contrast, the 4th-order correlations of the WFCs given by eq.(26) are generally non-zero at order $`b^4`$. The first significant non-zero higher order term not caused by $`\rho 0`$ is the kurtosis defined by

$$K_j=\frac{(\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥})^4}{\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^2^2}3.$$
(41)
The kurtosis can be considered as a special case ($`j=j^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }l=0`$) of the fourth order scale-scale correlations defined by

$$C_{j,j^{}}^{2,2}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)=\frac{2^j^{}_{l=0}^{2^j^{}1}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j;[l/2^{j^{}j}]+\mathrm{\Delta }l}^2\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j^{};l}^2}{\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,[l/2^{j^{}j}]}^2\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j^{};l}^2}.$$
(42)
$`C_{j;j^{}}^{2,2}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$ measures the correlations between the perturbations of modes on scales $`j`$ and $`j^{}`$, at two positions separated a distance $`\mathrm{\Delta }lL/2^j`$. In the case of $`\mathrm{\Delta }l=0`$, $`C_{j;j^{}}^{2,2}(0)`$ measures the correlation between fluctuations on scale $`j`$ and $`j^{}`$ at the same physical point.

Using the locality of the 4-wavelet integral in eq.(25), one can show that the scale-scale correlations in the weakly non-linear regime are also localized, i.e.,

$$C_{j;j^{}}^{2,2}(\mathrm{\Delta }l0)C_{j;j^{}}^{2,2}(0).$$
(43)
In the weakly non-linear regime, the phase space behavior of gravitational clustering for an initially Gaussian mass field can be summarized as

1. The evolution is spatially quasi-localized, i.e., the correlations between WFCs at different positions are always less than that at the same position.
2. The density field contains a very small skewness.
3. The major non-Gaussianities are local scale-scale correlations.

It should be pointed out that if a distribution possesses the above-listed features, it does not mean that the initial mass field is Gaussian. Actually, for a distribution to exhibit these features, we only need the following conditions on the initial density perturbation:

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^0\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}^0=0,$$
(44)
when the spatial range of $`𝐥`$ doesn’t overlap $`𝐥^{}`$, and

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}^0\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣^{},𝐥^{}}^00,$$
(45)
when the spatial range of $`𝐥`$ does overlap $`𝐥^{}`$. The conditions given by eqs.(44) and (45) are weaker than eqs.(28) and (29). The initial field given by eqs.(44) and (45) can be non-Gaussian.

Equations (44) and (45) show once again that the statistical properties of a random field should be described by two types of correlations: one with respect to scale $`j`$ and the other with respect to position $`l`$. These two types of correlations correspond to correlations with respect to the phase and amplitude in the Fourier representation. It is, in fact, possible to construct clustering models which lead to a density field with a Poisson or Gaussian PDF with respect to $`l`$, but that are highly scale-scale correlated (Greiner, Lipa & Carruthers, 1995.)

### 3.6 Redshift space

If the density field is viewed in redshift space, the observed radial position is given by the radial velocity consisting of the uniform Hubble flow and the peculiar motion $`𝐯(𝐱)`$. Thus the position $`𝐱`$ in eq.(1) should be replaced by

$$𝐬=𝐱+[\widehat{𝐳}𝐯(𝐱)]\widehat{𝐳},$$
(46)
where $`\widehat{𝐳}`$ is taken to be in the direction of the line of sight. The second term in eq.(46) is the correction due to the radial peculiar velocity.

In redshift space the Zel’dovich solution eq.(16) is replaced by (e.g. Taylor & Hamilton 1996)

$$\rho (𝐬,t)=\overline{\rho }(t)d^3q\delta ^D[𝐬𝐪𝐒^𝐬(𝐪,t)].$$
(47)
In the linear approximation of the velocity field, the displacement vector field is

$$𝐒^𝐬(𝐪)=𝐒(𝐪)+\mathrm{\Omega }^{0.6}[\widehat{𝐳}𝐒(𝐱)]\widehat{𝐳},$$
(48)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the cosmological density parameter. Thus, the solution \[eq.(19)\] becomes

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{𝐣,𝐥}(t)=d^3q\psi _{𝐣,𝐥}[𝐪+𝐒^𝐬(𝐪,t)].$$
(49)
This is the Zel’dovich solution for the DWT modes in redshift space. Mathematically, eq.(48) is equivalent to eq.(16), with $`𝐒^𝐬(𝐪,t)`$ replacing $`𝐒(𝐪,t)`$. Therefore, all results drawn from eq.(16) still hold for eq.(49) if the intersection of the particle trajectories has not yet happen.

It is known that the non-linear effect of the redshift distortion, like the Fingers-of-God in the galaxy distribution in redshift space, cannot be modeled by the Zel’dovich solution. In other words, the non-linear effects of the redshift distortion are not negligible if the Zel’dovich solution fails. Thus, the scale on which the quasi-locality assumption is no longer correct is also the scale where the non-linear redshift distortion effects emerge. This result is consistent with the numerical example shown in §2.3, which shows that on scales as small as $`j=9`$, the scale-by-scale reconstruction is still very good, and the redshift distortion effects are not yet significant.

## 4 Quasi-locality in the Ly$`\alpha `$ forests

To test the predictions on the quasi-locality of the DWT mode-mode correlations (§3.5), we analyze samples of the QSO Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption spectrum which are believed to trace the underlying mass field in the weakly non-linear regime. The second point listed in §3.5 has been tested by our previous studies, which showed no skewness above a positive definite random distribution for the distributions of Ly$`\alpha `$ forests lines (Pando & Fang 1998a) or the transmitted flux (Feng & Fang 2000.) In this section, we will focus on the points 1 and 3.

The QSO Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption spectrum samples used in our analysis are: 1.) the transmitted flux of HS1700+64 Ly$`\alpha `$ absorptions; 2.) the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest lines from moderate resolution spectrum, including a sample compiled by Lu, Wolfe, & Turnshek (LWT) (1991) that contains $``$ 950 lines from the spectra of 38 QSOs, and a sample compiled by Bechtold (JB) (1994) which contains a total $``$ 2800 lines from 78 QSO’s spectra in which 34 high-redshift QSO’s were observed, and 3.) the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest lines from high resolution spectrum, including the data of Hu et al. (HU) (1995) which has $``$ 1056 lines from four quasars in wavelength range 4300-5100 Å measured with the HIRES spectrograph on the Keck, and the HIRES data of QSO HS1946+7658 0f Kirkman & Tytler (HT) (1997).

The simulation samples used in this section are the same ones used in §2.3.

### 4.1 Quasi-locality of the second order DWT mode-mode correlation

Figure 4 shows $`\kappa _{j,j}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$ for 100 realizations of the simulated Ly$`\alpha `$ transmitted flux and QSO HS1700+64. Here we use the Daubechies 4 wavelets in our calculations as these wavelets are better behaved in scale space. Figure 4 shows clearly that the condition for locality eq.(13) holds. The correlations $`\kappa _{j,j}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$ for all $`\mathrm{\Delta }l0`$ are sharply lower than $`\kappa _{j,j}(0)`$. For small scales $`j>5`$, at the 95% confidence level, the non-local correlations are no more than 20%.

Figure 5 shows the correlation $`\kappa _{j,j+1}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$, the second order correlations between scales $`j`$ and $`j+1`$. Comparing with $`\kappa _{j,j}(0)`$, the second order non-local scale-scale correlations ($`\mathrm{\Delta }l0`$) show no power. For the local case, $`\kappa _{j,j+1}(0)`$ generally also has no power. But it is interesting to note that $`\kappa _{j,j+1}(0)`$ becomes significant on very small scales $`j=9,10.`$ This is a second order non-Gaussian detection. One can similarly detect other second order scale-scale correlations, such $`(j,j+2)`$, $`(j,j+3)`$ etc. with similar results.

Figures 6 and 7 are similar to Fig. 4 but for the LWT/JB and HU/KT Ly$`\alpha `$ forest line samples. Although the identification of absorption lines from transmitted flux may introduce an arbitrary bias, the LWT/JB and HU/KT data show the same behavior as $`\kappa _{j,j}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$ in Fig. 4. For scales $`j>5`$, the locality eq. (10) is a very good approximation, even considering the large error in the data. For each QSO, we calculate the statistical quantity $`\kappa _{j,j+1}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$, and the mean and 1-$`\sigma `$ error bars are found from the ensemble of these QSOs. Since there are more QSO’s in the LWT/JB data, the error bars for the LWT/JB data are smaller than the high resolution data HU/KT.

Figures 8 and 9 are similar to Fig. 5 but again for the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest lines. The results once again show that the behavior of the second order scale-scale correlations for the forest line samples is the same as the transmitted flux samples. There is no power in these second order scale-scale correlations.

### 4.2 Quasi-locality of 4th order non-Gaussianity

In the previous section, we detected the local scale-scale correlation from the second order statistics. The local correlation of the 4th-order statistics is more prominent. In our previous studies, we have shown that the Ly$`\alpha `$ forests are significantly non-Gaussian at 4th-order, including the kurtosis (Pando & Fang 1998a) and the scale-scale correlations (Pando et al. 1998, Feng & Fang 2000). In this section, we will show that although the 4th-order local correlations are strong, the non-local correlations are weak.

The 4th-order statistic in Figure 10 is defined by

$$Q_j^{2,2}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)=\frac{2^j_{l=0}^{2^j1}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j;l}^2\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j;l+\mathrm{\Delta }l}^2}{\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^2\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j;l+\mathrm{\Delta }l}^2}.$$
(50)
For the local case, i.e., $`\mathrm{\Delta }l=0`$, $`Q_j^{2,2}(0)`$ is the compact form of the kurtosis

$$K_j=\frac{2^j_{l=0}^{2^j1}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j;l}^4}{[_{l=0}^{2^j1}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}_{j,l}^2]^2}.$$
(51)
Figure 10 shows that the non-local correlation $`Q_j^{2,2}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$ with $`\mathrm{\Delta }l0`$ of the transmitted flux generally is around 1, i.e., no correlation. On small scales $`j5`$ the local correlation $`Q_j^{2,2}(0)`$ gradually becomes significant, while the non-local correlation $`Q_j^{2,2}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$ with $`\mathrm{\Delta }l0`$ still remains at 1. This result supports the quasi-locality condition.

Figure 11 displays $`C_j^{2,2}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$, which is the scale-scale correlation between scales $`j`$ and $`j+1`$, and shows that the non-local scale-scale correlation $`C_j^{2,2}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$ with $`\mathrm{\Delta }l0`$ generally is around 1, i.e., no correlation. When the local scale-scale correlation becomes significant on scales $`j7`$, the non-local correlation $`C_j^{2,2}(\mathrm{\Delta }l)`$ with $`\mathrm{\Delta }l0`$ still remains at 1.

Unlike the second order scale-scale correlations, the 4th-order correlations $`Q_j^{2,2}(0)`$ and $`C_j^{2,2}(0)`$ are significant. There is substantial power on all scales $`j5`$.

Figures 12 and 13 show the scale-scale correlations for the LWT/JB and HU/KT Ly$`\alpha `$ forest lines, respectively. Figure 9 clearly shows a steady decrease in the scale-scale amplitudes with $`\mathrm{\Delta }l`$. This again demonstrates the quasi-locality. Fig. 10 also shows a decrease in the scale-scale amplitudes with $`\mathrm{\Delta }l`$, but it is rather slow. Even when $`\mathrm{\Delta }l=3`$, the correlation remains. These non-local correlations may be caused by problems in identifying the lines, and if so, indicates that the transmitted flux is better suited than the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest lines for a Gaussianization reconstruction.

## 5 Conclusions and discussions

In this work we have demonstrated that the assumptions necessary for reconstructing an initial density field by a scale-dependent Gaussianization procedure are justified. The assumptions, namely the locality and monotonic nature of the gravitational clustering, are borne out by both the Zel’dovich approximation and correlation analysis of QSO Ly$`\alpha `$ samples. That is, the DWT mode-mode coupling caused by the weakly non-linear evolution of the gravitational clustering is quasi-local and that the large initial WFCs evolve into large WFCs of the observed density field. This result provides a solid basis for the DWT scale-by-scale Gaussianization reconstruction of Ly$`\alpha `$ forests.

The non-Gaussianities produced by the mode-mode coupling during the weakly non-linear regime are mainly local scale-scale correlations. This result explains why the Gaussianization reconstruction is substantially improved by removing the local scale-scale correlations (Feng & Fang 2000.) Clearing the local scale-scale correlation is a key for an effective Gaussianization reconstruction. All these features provide a solid basis for the DWT scale-by-scale (or scale-adaptive) Gaussianization reconstruction algorithm.

Since galaxies undergo a highly non-linear evolution, and their bias might be non-monotonic, the validity of the order preserving assumption for the galaxy field needs further study . Whether a sample is suitable for the DWT scale-by-scale reconstruction can be judged by detecting the non-local mode-mode correlations. If the scale-scale correlations are significantly non-local, the sample will not be a good candidate for a DWT scale-by-scale Gaussianization. The local scale-scale correlation have been detected in recent years for galaxy samples, such as the APM bright galaxy catalog (Feng, Deng & Fang 2000.) However, it remains to be determined whether these couplings are non-localized.

In essence, the DWT analysis looks at the phase space behavior of the gravitational clustering. While there are many perturbation calculations of the clustering dynamics in the Fourier and coordinate representations (Buchert 1993; Bouchet et al. 1995; Catelan 1995), the locality cannot be revealed with these calculations, because in the Fourier representation, the phases hold the position information (locality) of the relevant Fourier modes. This makes it practically impossible to determine the locality of clustering in the Fourier representation. The DWT analysis may also be useful in studying other clustering features in the Zel’dovich approximation for which a phase space description is essential, such as the breakdown of the Galilean invariance or the lack of momentum conservation (Polyakov 1995; Scoccimarro 1998.)

This work was supported in part by the LWL foundation. We thank Dr. D. Tytler for kindly providing the data of the Keck spectrum HS1700+64. LLF acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) and World Laboratory Scholarship.


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# CMS Central Hadron Calorimeter

## 1 CMS Central Hadron Calorimeter

The design of the CMS detector starts with the 4 T solenoidal magnet of length 13 m and inner diameter 5.9 m. The magnet determines many of the features of the CMS calorimeters, since the CMS calorimeter is located inside the magnet. Figure 1 shows a quarter slice of the CMS up to the coil. The EM calorimeter, ECAL, consists of lead tungstate, PbW04, crystals. The hadron calorimeter, HCAL, surrounds ECAL. The most important requirement of HCAL is to minimize the non-gaussian tails of the energy resolution function. Hence, HCAL design maximizes as much interaction length of material inside the magnetic coil as possible. Copper absorber satisfies this requirement, as well as being nonmagnetic. In addition, copper is fairly low Z, so it does not degrade the muon momentum measurement. Maximizing the amount of absorber before the magnet requires minimizing the amount of space devoted to active medium. The tile/fiber technology is an ideal choice. It consists of plastic scintillator tiles read out with embedded wave length shifting (WLS) fibers. This technology was first developed by the UA1 collaboration and at Protvino . The system is being used in the upgrade of the CDF endcap calorimeter . It enables HCAL to be easily built with a tower geometry readout. The entire HCAL area can be instrumented with no uninstrumented cracks.

HCAL covers the pseudorapidity range $`|\eta |<`$3.0 with a barrel (central) and endcap hadron calorimeter. The barrel calorimeter covers 0$`<|\eta |<`$1.4, while the endcap calorimeter covers down to $`|\eta |`$=3.0. The region to $`|\eta |`$=5.0 is covered by a very forward calorimeter. HCAL is segmented into towers of granularity $`\mathrm{\Delta }\eta \times \mathrm{\Delta }\varphi `$=0.087$`\times `$0.087. This granularity is sufficient for good dijet mass resolution. The rest of this article will only discuss the barrel hadron calorimeter.

HCAL is built as 20o wedges inside the magnet. Figure 2 shows a 20o wedge, with ECAL on the right side and HCAL on the left side. The body of wedges are copper, but the inner and outer plates are stainless steel for structural strength. The wedges are bolted together. This enables the wedges to be assembled cheaply and minimizes the crack between the wedges to $``$ 2 mm. The wedges contain 15 active layers segmented into 2 readouts. A space of 9 mm is left for active layers. The HCAL is about 1 meter thick inside the magnet, 6.2 $`\lambda `$ at $`\eta `$=0. This is not enough material to contain a high energy hadron shower. Hence, 2 layers are instrumented outside the magnet. A layer of scintillator is put after the coil and after the innermost muon steel. This adds an additional 4 $`\lambda `$ at $`\eta `$=0.

The active medium uses the tile/fiber concept as used by the CDF plug upgrade. The hadron calorimeter consists of about 70,000 individual tiles. In order to limit the number of individual elements, the tiles of a given layer are put into a single mechanical unit called a megatile. Figure 3 displays a typical megatile. The megatile with segmentation of 16($`\eta `$)$`\times `$2($`\varphi `$) goes into the $`\varphi `$ center of a wedge while the megatile with segmentation 16($`\eta `$)$`\times `$1($`\varphi `$) goes into the edge slots in a wedge. Each layer has 108 megatiles. Figure 4 shows a cross section of the megatile. The scintillator is surrounded by Tyvek 1073D for reflectivity. The scintillator and Tyvek are surrounded by tedlar for light tightness. The top plastic routes the fibers and source tubes.

The baseline scintillator is 4 mm Kuraray SCSN81. The scintillator is read out by a WLS fiber, Kuraray multiclad Y-11 (Fluor K27), embedded in the tile in a $`\sigma `$ pattern. Outside the scintillator, the WLS fiber is spliced to Kuraray multiclad clear fiber. Next, the clear fiber goes to an optical connector at the end of the pan. An optical cable takes the light to an optical descrambler. The descrambler arranges the fibers into readout towers and brings the light to a hybrid photomultiplier tube (HPMT). Since the descrambler will be operating in the 4 T magnetic field, conventional phototubes will not work.

The HPMT consists of a photocathode and a PIN diode separated by $``$ 1 mm. The photoelectrons from the photocathode are accelerated to the PIN diode by high voltage, $``$ 10,000 volts. The HPMT has a gain of 1000 to 2000. If the electric field is aligned with the magnetic field, they can operate in a magnetic field of 4 T. This makes them suitable for CMS HCAL.

## 2 CMS hadron calorimeter test beam

We have built modules for a 1995 and 1996 testbeam at CERN. The purpose of the testbeam is to determine the response of the calorimeter in a magnetic field and to determine the resolution of the combined ECAL and HCAL calorimeter. To determine the response in a magnetic field, the calorimeter was put inside the EPS magnet in the H2 beam line at CERN. We describe the calorimeter and its production to illustrate the production of the real device and show some of the quality control tests we will use for the real device. All numbers we quote for the quality control are for the 1996 testbeam module.

### 2.1 1996 HCAL Testbeam Megatile

Figure 5 shows the megatile for the 1996 testbeam. The active area is 64 cm by 64 cm and consists of 9 separate towers. The transverse size of the testbeam megatile is determined by size of the center of the EPS magnet. Embedded in each tile is a WLS fiber in the $`\sigma `$ pattern. Outside the tile, the WLS fibers are spliced to multiclad clear fibers. The clear fibers are routed out to a connector at the end of the megatile. The fiber on the left going into the middle tile is a light injection fiber. For calibration purposes light is injected into the tile through this fiber. The megatile has 3 thin stainless steel tubes, diameter=1 mm, that will route Cs137 radioactive sources through the center of each tile. A picoammeter measures the current generated by the source to simultaneously calibrate the tile, fibers, and photodetector.

The elements for the megatile are drawn on a CAD system. The drawings are converted to machine code which can be run on a computer controlled router, a Thermwood machine.

We describe the production and quality control of the device. First the WLS fibers are cut, polished, and mirrored. The reflectivity of the mirror is checked by measuring test fibers which are mirrored along with the fibers used in the calorimeter. Measuring the reflectivity of the mirror gives

$$light_{withmirror}/light_{withmirrorcutoff}=1.85$$

This measurement is done with a computer controlled UV scanner with the fibers read out by pin diodes. Clear fibers are spliced onto WLS fibers with a fusion splicer. The transmission across the splice is checked by splicing a sample of WLS fibers onto WLS fibers. The splice region is measured with the UV scanner. The transmission across the splice is 92.6% with an RMS of 1.8%. Next, the optical fibers are glued into a 10 fiber connector. This configuration is called a pigtail. In order to get the fiber lengths correct, the pigtail is assembled in a templet. The connector is diamond polished. The fibers are measured with the UV scanner. The scanner checks the green fiber, clear fiber, splice, and mirror. The RMS of the light from the fibers is 1.9%.

The pigtail is inserted into the megatile. The completed megatile is checked with an automated source scanner. A Cs137 source is in a lead collimator. This yields a 4 cm diameter source spot on the megatile. The collimator is moved with a computer controlled x-y motor. From the scanner we determine the relative light yield of each tile and the uniformity of the each megatile. The gain of the individual tiles has an RMS of 4.6%, while the transverse uniformity of the megatile is 4.5%. A Cs137 wire source is run through the 3 source tubes and the light yield is measured. The RMS of the ratio of collimated source to wire source is 1.3%. This means the line sources, which can be used when the calorimeter is completely assembled, can calibrate the tiles to better than 1.3%. Fiber cables are constructed separately and tested with the UV scanner.

The testbeam module has several methods to maintain the calibration. As just described, it has small steel tubes to run a wire source. It has a laser and LED light injection system. The photomultiplier tube that reads out the calorimeter has an addition fiber going to it. Either a laser or an LED can inject light into this fiber. During the testbeam we injected light with both the laser and LED. As shown on the drawing of the megatile, there is a fiber which can inject light into a tile. A more complete description of the calibration, including procedures for calibrating the full calorimeter, is given in ref .

### 2.2 1995 HCAL Testbeam Results

We present results from the 1995 testbeam. Results for the 1996 testbeam are not yet final. Figure 6 shows the testbeam configurations. For the Pb/scin ECAL module, ECAL is the 10 layer lead/scintillator sandwich sampling calorimeter, positioned directly upstream of the HCAL. The HCAL corresponds to the end cap configuration (5 cm and 10 cm copper absorber plates in HAC1 and HAC2 respectively). For the PbWO4 crystal ECAL module, the ECAL detector (7 $`\times `$ 7 matrix of 2 cm by 2 cm by 23 cm PbWO4 crystals) is followed by the HCAL in the barrel configuration (3 cm and 5 cm copper absorber plates in HAC1 and HAC2 respectively). There is approximately 46 cm air gap between the end of ECAL and the front face of HCAL. Each layer for both configurations is readout by a phototube connected to a 10 m optical cable.

Figure 7 shows the average pion and electron response of the calorimeter, as a function of the B field, relative to the 0 T setting. The data indicates an approximate 6% increase in the response of the calorimeter to pions and electrons for B field at 1 T, 2 T, and 3 T. The measurement is consistent with the increased light yield of the scintillator tiles, as measured by the calibration system using the radioactive $`\gamma `$ source. The 1996 test beam run had the magnetic field transverse to the beam direction. The result is different if the magnetic field is transverse to the beam direction. A discussion is in ref  and will be in future presentations of the 1996 test beam.

The overall calibration constant of the hadron calorimeter is determined by using 50 GeV hadrons, and the overall calibration constant of EM calorimeter is determined using 150 GeV electrons. The total energy of pions is defined as

$$E_{tot}^{pions}=\alpha \times E_{em}+E_{had}$$

where $`\alpha `$ is a parameter we vary to study linearity and resolution. Figure 8 shows the linearity of the Pb/scin ECAL configuration for pions which are minimum ionizing (mip) in ECAL and all pions ($`\alpha `$=1). The energy resolutions for the 2 cases are comparable. The fit of this data to the relative energy resolution function is

$$\sigma _E/E=(stoch.term)/\sqrt{E}(const.term)$$

where stochastic and constant terms are combined in quadrature. For pions which are mip in ECAL we have

$$\sigma _E^{\pi mipinECAL}/E=$$

$$(90\pm 0.1)\%/\sqrt{E}(4.8\pm 0.1)\%.$$

For the case of all pions we have

$$\sigma _E^{all\pi }/E=$$

$$(77\pm 0.1)\%/\sqrt{E}(5.5\pm 0.1)\%.$$

At low energies the energy resolution of all pions is narrower than pions which are mip in ECAL due to the fine sampling of the ECAL calorimeter.

Figure 9 and Figure 10 show the linearity and resolution of the PbWO4 crystal configuration for hadrons mip in ECAL and all hadrons. Hadrons mip in ECAL have the same linearity and resolution in both configurations. However, the PbWO4 crystal data for all pions ($`\alpha `$=1) is non-linear. The average response of the combined ECAL+HCAL calorimeter to pions is also approximately 10% lower than the HCAL only calorimeter. The resolution is much worse for all pions than pions mip in ECAL. The linearity and resolution is shown for $`\alpha `$=1.4. Although both the linearity and resolution are improved, this type of energy sum cannot be used for jets.

Figure 11 shows the scatter plot of the total energy response of the calorimeter normalized the beam momentum, $`E_{TOT}/p_{beam}=(E_{EM}+E_{HAD})/p_{beam}`$ as a function of the fraction of energy deposited in the ECAL, $`f_{EM}=E_{EM}/(E_{EM}+E_{HAD})`$. Data points with $`f_{EM}`$ 0 correspond to pions that interacted in the HCAL. Data with $`f_{EM}`$ 1 correspond to pions fully contained in the ECAL. A fit of the data binned as a function of $`f_{EM}`$ to a second degree polynomial is shown on the figure. The fitted function $`corr(f_{EM})`$ is used to correct the total energy.

$$E_{TOT}^{cor}=(E_{EM}+E_{HAD})/corr(f_{EM})$$

The linearity and resolution are shown on Figure 9 and 10 for the $`f_{EM}`$ corrected data. The correction improves the linearity and resolution.