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# Cosmological Black Holes

## 1 Introduction

One of the most intriguing features of the universe is that galaxies tend to lie on sheet-like structures surrounding voids with typical sizes of about $`4050h^1`$ Mpc \[References\].

The existence of voids has been evident after the discovery by Kirshner et al. of a $`60`$ Mpc large void in the Böotes constellation \[References\]. Systematic surveys have shown the existence of many regions with similar characteristics \[References\], \[References\]. Today it is believed that voids occupy about 50 per cent of the volume of the universe (e.g. see \[References\]).

From the observational point of view, one of the most important issues is whether the voids are or are not really empty regions. IRAS surveys indicate the absence of infra-red galaxies, other considerations lead to exclude the presence of dark matter inside them (see references in \[References\]).

But as observed by Peebles in \[References\] the low dispersion of the velocities of the galaxies indicates, when $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=1`$, that most of the matter must be inside the voids, but the author suggests that this could also be true even in the case of small $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$. Moreover, very recent observations indicate that a possible value can be $`\mathrm{\Omega }=1`$ \[References\] and that likely the correct value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ is about $`1/3`$ \[References\] and therefore, that about 90% of this mass is not luminous (see e.g.\[References\]).

It needs to be stressed that the visual inspection of galaxy’s distribution suggests nothing else that the absence of large amount of luminous matter in vast regions. Furthermore it is not very clear whether the voids are physically empty approximately spherical regions or larger underdense regions with arbitrary shapes. Many definition of voids have been proposed, but a definitive conclusion has not been reached yet \[References\].

Two solutions of the Einstein equations are generally employed to study the theoretical properties of the cosmological voids. The Lemaître-Tolman (L-T) metric and the Einstein-Straus Swiss Cheese model. The first is a spherically symmetric metric for irrotational dust. A complete account of the developments of this model is discussed in \[References\].

The Swiss Cheese model is obtained by cutting out spherical regions from a Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) model, with null pressure, and substituting them with regions with a spherically symmetric metric such as the Schwarzschild or the L-T solutions. Appropriate junction conditions have to be imposed in order to join the solutions of the Einstein equations. A problem which was solved by Einstein and Straus \[References\] in order to study the effect of the universal expansion on the planetary orbits (McVittie and Järnefeldt studied the same problem some time before, see references in \[References\]).

The L-T and the Swiss Cheese models do not predict the formation of voids, which must be contained in the initial data \[References\]

In a series of papers, Piran and his coworkers attribute the void formation to the evolution of negative perturbations \[References\] \[References\] \[References\] \[References\]. In particular in \[References\] it is shown that these negative fluctuations behave as if they have a negative effective mass; in \[References\] Friedmann and Piran show that the underdense regions can result as the combined effect of the gravitational expansion of negative density perturbations and biasing, because galaxies are less likely to form in an underdense region.

In this paper, we show that void formation can be the result of the collapse of positive perturbations. To this purpose, we consider an Einstein-Straus model with a distribution of spherical voids of fixed comoving radius $`R_v`$. In the centre of each void we assume that a black hole, whose mass $`M`$ compensates the mass that the void would have if it were completely filled by matter with the average cosmological mass-energy density $`\rho `$. In what follows we calculate the mass, the Schwarzschild radius and the densities of these black holes. Due to their cosmological properties, we shall call them cosmological black holes (CBH). As they have apparently very low densities, these CBHs may have likely formed directly from the collapse of very large wavelength perturbations. Therefore voids are the result of the comoving expansion of the matter surrounding the CBHs.

This scenario explains the existence of a large amount of dark matter, which is hidden in these black holes without perturbing the cosmic background radiation. In this simple model the CBHs do not affect the galaxy motion due to the Birkhoff theorem, they just take part in the collective universal expansion.

In the last part of the paper we discuss some observational implications of the proposed scenario, in particular the gravitational lensing effects induced by these CBHs behave and their influence on the cosmic background radiation

In the final remarks we discuss the limits of this cosmological model. For instance we expect to gain some improvement by weakening the condition of exact sphericity of the CBHs and of the voids.

## 2  Properties and Origin of the Cosmological Black Holes

We consider here an Einstein-Straus universe characterised by the following properties,

a) For sake of simplicity we shall limit ourselves to consider a flat Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker universe;

b) in all the voids there is a central spherical black hole with mass $`M`$

$$M=\frac{4}{3}\pi \mathrm{\Omega }_{cbh}\rho _{crit.}R_v^3,$$
(1)
where the parameter

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{cbh}=\frac{\rho _{cbh}}{\rho _{crit.}}$$
(2)
represents the fraction of density due to all these black holes to the total density of the universe; where $`\rho _{crit.}=1.88h^2\times 10^{29}gcm^3`$ is the critical density of the universe;

and

c) all the voids are spherical.

We also note that the Schwarzschild radius can be related to the mass-energy density $`c^2\rho =ϵ`$, see \[References\].

It is known that a black hole forms when a body with mass $`M`$ collapses entirely within a sphere of radius

$$R_s=\frac{2GM}{c^2}.$$
(3)
This statement is equivalent to say that its density satisfies the relation,

$$R_s(\rho )=\sqrt{\frac{3c^2}{8\pi G\rho }}.$$
(4)
Conversely, Eq. (4) relates to any density a corresponding Schwarzschild radius. In other words any space-like sphere of matter with uniform density $`\rho `$ and radius at least equal to $`R_s(\rho )`$ is a black hole.

Whereas astrophysical and primordial black holes form at very high densities \[References\], relation (4) implies that it is possible to consider also the formation of low-density black holes. The transition of collapsing matter to a black hole at low densities is described in \[References\].

From Eqs. (1) and (3) we determine the mass $`M`$ and the corresponding Schwarzschild radius and consequently from Eq. (4) the mass-energy density of the central black hole. In Table 1, we list, in solar units, the results for three typical diameters of voids.

The low densities given in the Table 1 are those reached by the collapsing matter when it crossed the Schwarzschild radius. Loeb in \[References\], observes that massive black holes can form from the collapse of primordial gas clouds after the recombination epoch ($`200(1+z)1400`$). We expect that the process of formation of a CBH started with large wavelength perturbations at cosmological densities smaller than $`10^{19}g/cm^3`$ i.e for $`1+z10^3`$. According to the inflationary scenario, we only need to suppose that the inflation occurred during a time long enough to provide such perturbations.

The Oppenheimer-Snyder model \[References\] describes the spherical symmetric collapse at zero pressure. A growing perturbation, in a homogeneous and isotropic universe, with initial wavelength $`\lambda _i`$ and amplitude $`\delta _i<<1`$, it first expands and then collapses according to the equations,

$$\left(\frac{\dot{a}_p}{a_i}\right)^2=H_i^2\left(\mathrm{\Omega }_p(t_i)\frac{a_i}{a_p}+1\mathrm{\Omega }_p(t_i)\right),$$
(5)
$$\mathrm{\Omega }_p(t_i)=\frac{\rho (t_i)(1+\delta _i)}{\rho _c(t_i)}=\mathrm{\Omega }(t_i)(1+\delta _i).$$
(6)
The solution of Eq. (5) and the relation

$$\lambda (t)=\lambda _i\frac{a(t)}{a_i}$$
(7)
give, in a parametric form, the evolution of $`\lambda (t)`$,

$$\lambda (\theta )=\frac{\lambda _i}{2}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_p}{\mathrm{\Omega }_p1}(1\mathrm{cos}\theta )$$
(8)
and

$$t(\theta )=\frac{1}{2H_i}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_p}{(\mathrm{\Omega }_p1)^{\frac{3}{2}}}(\theta \mathrm{sin}\theta ),$$
(9)
where $`a_i`$ is the expansion factor at the beginning of the perturbation formation, $`H_i`$ is the corresponding Hubble constant and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_p`$ is the ratio of the perturbation density and the background critical density. It is important to note that, borrowing a sentence in \[References\], due to spherical symmetry, it follows that inside the collapsing matter and in a certain neighborhood behaves as if the collapsing matter were embedded in a space “with no cosmic expansion or curvature”.

A serious objection to this picture could be that very unlikely perturbations develop with an exact spherical symmetry. As a matter of fact, one of the principal processes that can prevent the collapse of a perturbation into a black hole is the acquisition of angular momentum through the tidal torques produced by interaction with other structures. The presence of an angular momentum produces a centrifugal barrier at typical scales of six order of magnitude larger than the Schwarzschild radius. But it has been shown by Loeb \[References\] that, for large perturbations, the friction between the collapsing matter and the cosmic background radiation is capable to extract angular momentum and energy and reduce the centrifugal barrier below the Schwarzschild radius. We assume that the total mass of the perturbation

$$M=\frac{\pi }{6}\mathrm{\Omega }_p\rho _i\lambda _i^3$$
(10)
remains constant during the whole process.

The Schwarzschild radius of the spherical perturbation is equal to

$$R_s=\frac{H_i^2}{c^2}\left(\frac{\lambda _i}{2}\right)^3\mathrm{\Omega }_p.$$
(11)
We can therefore distinguish two cases. First, the case in which the relation

$$\frac{2R_s}{\lambda _i}1,$$
(12)
is satisfied, the perturbation is in the linear regime and, according to the evolution equations in a universe with constant equation of state, it is frozen when $`\lambda _i`$ is larger than the Hubble radius \[References\]. After crossing the Hubble horizon, it collapses and becomes a black hole when

$$\left(\frac{\lambda _i}{2}\right)^2\frac{c^2}{H_i^2\mathrm{\Omega }_p}.$$
(13)
In the second case

$$\frac{2R_s}{\lambda _i}<1,$$
(14)
the perturbation evolves according to Eqs. (8) and (9). During the contraction, it becomes unavoidably a black hole, since the final density is very low and the internal pressure and temperature can not raise to values large enough to prevent the collapse, even when the perturbation enters in a non-linear regime. In addition, any possible centrifugal barrier is reduced to values smaller than the Schwarzschild radius.

Let us establish a limit for the black hole formation. To this aim we fix a threshold value $`\widehat{\rho }`$ of the mass-energy density, above which one can expect that the equation of state sensibly changes and then equilibrium conditions can be established, thus preventing any further collapse, see a similar discussion in \[References\].

To $`\widehat{\rho }`$ we can associate an final wavelength $`\widehat{\lambda }`$ defined by the equation

$$M=\frac{\pi }{6}\widehat{\rho }\widehat{\lambda }^3.$$
(15)
Comparison with Eq. (10) yields

$$\widehat{\lambda }^3=\frac{\rho _i\mathrm{\Omega }_p}{\widehat{\rho }}\lambda _i^3.$$
(16)
A perturbation does not collapse to a black hole when $`\widehat{\lambda }/2>R_s`$, i.e. if its initial wavelength satisfies the equation

$$\left(\frac{\lambda _i}{2}\right)^2<\frac{3c^2}{8\pi G}\frac{1}{(\rho _i\mathrm{\Omega }_p)}\left(\frac{\rho _i\mathrm{\Omega }_p}{\widehat{\rho }}\right)^{\frac{1}{3}}.$$
(17)
According to the Einstein-Straus model, after the formation of the black hole, the matter around it expands in a comoving way leading to the formation of an empty region between it and the rest of the universe. As the central black hole cannot be seen, the whole region appears to an external observer as a void.

In conclusion, among all wavelengths of the cosmological perturbations spectrum, only those structures which satisfy (17) appear in the observed universe as luminous matter or exotic dark matter. The rest of the matter is confined in very massive cosmological black holes.

## 3 Some phenomenological aspects of the CBHs

A CBH can be detected through its lensing properties, it must behave as a Schwarzschild gravitational lens. Since, according to our hypothesis, a CBH sits in the centre of a void, the Einstein angle is \[References\]

$$\alpha _0=4.727\times 10^4\mathrm{\Omega }_{CBH}^{1/2}\sqrt{\frac{R_V^3D_{ds}}{D_dD_s}}$$
(18)
where $`R_V`$is the radius of the void, $`D_s`$ is the distance of the source from the observer, $`D_{ds}`$ is the distance of the source from the CBH, and $`D_d`$ is the distance of the CBH from the observer, all this quantities are expressed in Mpc. The characteristic length

$$\xi _0=\alpha _0D_d.$$
(19)
For a 50 Mpc void of diameter, with the centre placed at a distance of 80 Mpc from the Sun and with the source at the opposite edge of the void, we expect

$$\alpha _03.2\times 10^3\mathrm{\Omega }_{CBH}^{1/2}$$

and

$$\xi _02.6\times 10^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{CBH}^{1/2}Mpc.$$

This value is the expected extension of an Einstein ring, but to observe it is required that the source must lie exactly on top of the resulting degenerate point-like caustic \[References\]; so, in order to falsify our model, a first point is to analyze the probability that a galaxy in the background can satisfy this demand. We expect a general magnification effect in the neighborhood of the CBH \[References\]. Considering a galaxy with an effective luminous part long about $`6`$ kpc , we expect in case of a perfect alignment a magnification factor of the order of $`1.4\times 10^2`$. Numerical calculations indicate that the magnification factor decays to $`6.8`$ in the range of $`6\times 10^2`$ Mpc and reaches the value of $`1.37`$ at $`0.6`$ Mpc .

The high masses involved produce also strong field lensing effects \[References\] \[References\] \[References\], in the range of distances of about $`3R_s`$. In the case of a $`50`$ Mpc void we expect, theoretically, the production of an infinite sequence of relativistic images, on both sides of the optical axis, at scales of the order of $`6`$ kpc.

A third observational effect is the influence of a CBH on the cosmic background radiation. In \[References\] Zeldovich and Sazhin point out that generally static structures can raise the temperature of the cosmic background radiation by an amount proportional to the Hubble parameter and the gravitational time delay. By considering the Swiss Cheese model case, they find a fluctuation of temperature $`\delta T/T10^{10}`$ for a giant galaxy ($`M=4\times 10^{12}M_{}`$). As this result is proportional to the mass, it follows that it corresponds to a fluctuation of temperature $`\delta T/T10^5`$ for a large CBH with mass ($`M10^{17}M_{})`$, which does not contradict the recent COBE measurements.

Very recent observations of type Ia supernovae showed that the expansion of the universe is accelerating \[References\]. This acceleration can be justified by admitting that the universe is dominated by a source of “dark energy” with negative pressure. Constraints on this source require that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{darkener.}2/3`$ and dark and baryonic matter contribute to the total energy density of the universe with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M1/3`$ \[References\].

Measurements, performed using different methods, led to a wide range of values results of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$. According to the mass-to-light ratio Bahcall and coworkers obtained $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M(M/L)=0.16\pm 0.05`$ \[References\] and recently, after some corrections, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M(M/L)=0.17\pm 0.05`$ \[References\]. It is important to note that according to \[References\] it was assumed that the voids do not contribute with additional dark matter. On the other side estimates of the baryon fraction in clusters yield $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M0.3\pm 0.05`$ and the evolution of cluster abundance gives $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M0.25`$ (see \[References\]).

Finally Turner \[References\] infers that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M=0.33\pm 0.035`$ together with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_B=0.039\pm 0.0075`$ according to recent measurements of the physical properties of clusters, CMB anisotropy and the power spectrum of mass inhomogeneity.

We think that our model could reconcile the discrepancy between the mass-to-light ratio method and the others which find larger values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$. As a matter of fact the mass-to-light ratio cannot trace the presence of the CBHs.

As voids occupy about 50 % of the volume of the universe, we claim that the CBHs would simply double the mass observed by the mass-to-light ratio method, i.e. $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{CBH}\mathrm{\Omega }_M(M/L)`$ and

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_M=\mathrm{\Omega }_{CBH}+\mathrm{\Omega }_M(M/L)$$
(20)
This hypothesis can be confirmed by measuring the Einstein angles produced by the CBHs, according to equation (18).

## 4 Remarks and conclusions

Before concluding this work we remind that the idea that black holes can be generated by cosmological perturbations has been already used to predict the existence of primordial black holes \[References\]\[References\] \[References\] \[References\] \[References\]. But as dark matter candidates their role is limited by very severe constraints \[References\].

The formation of supermassive black holes from the collapse of a primordial cloud was proposed by Loeb in \[References\]. Recent observations provide some evidence of the existence of supermassive black holes \[References\]. These objects have been revealed in the centers of the galaxies with masses up to $`10^9M_{}`$.

In this paper we considered the existence of the CBHs, with larger masses and residing at the center of the voids, isolated from any other form of matter. This model explains part of the dark matter problem and provides new observational predictions, it is possible to detect the presence of the cosmological black holes by observing their lensing properties on a background of galaxies.

Moreover we remark that the existence of these black holes is compatible with the Zeldovich perturbation spectrum and with any other spectrum. A more precise information on the spectrum can be obtained by analyzing the void distribution, which reflects the black hole distribution.

But we think that our model can be improved. First of all it is based on exact spherical symmetry, which is not a realistic condition when dealing with the collapse of a perturbation. Second since the CBHs are generated by perturbations, their mass does not necessarily correspond to the value rated by (1), even if the severe restrictions on the initial amplitudes of the perturbations, imposed by the COBE observations, allow us to take the values of mass, energy-mass density, and the Schwarzschild radius given in Table 1 as good approximations of the real ones. Third the Einstein-Straus model is not stable with respect to the variations of mass and to radial perturbations (see \[References\] and the references within).

Moreover as stated by the Birkhoff theorem, a spherical CBH, that compensates a spherical void, does not influence the motions of the galaxies outside the void. But, according to Peebles in \[References\], some peculiarities of the galaxy motion can be explained by admitting the presence of large amounts of mass in the voids. This requires that the effective mass of a cosmological black hole may be larger than the mass given by (10). In this case that the void expansion must not be comoving as in the Einstein-Straus model (for a review on this problem see \[References\]).

The previous considerations and the observation that presently voids present an underdense distribution of galaxies (see \[References\]), suggest that the CBHs can affect the motion of the surrounding galaxies. This can be explained only relaxing the conditions of the Birkhoff theorem and considering the non uniform distribution of matter on lower scales. This problem will be analyzed by computer simulations.

Finally we think to develop our model extending the results obtained from the Einstein-Straus Swiss-Cheese model with the recent results obtained by Bonnor \[References\]\[References\], Senovilla and Vera \[References\], Mars \[References\] \[References\].

Aknowledgments I am very grateful to Prof. G. Cosenza, Dr. G. Bimonte, Dr. G. Esposito and Dr. P. Santorelli for their constant encouragement; I am also indebted with Prof. G. Platania, Dr. G. Covone, Dr. C. Rubano Dr P. Scudellaro for very stimulating discussions and with Prof. G. Longo for important remarks and suggestions that helped to improve the final version of this work.

This paper is dedicated to the memory of Prof. R. de Ritis.


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# Entanglement and Dynamic Stability of Nash Equilibria in a Symmetric Quantum Game.

## 1 Introduction

In a recent paper Eisert et al  have shown that when the players in a game have access to quantum strategies the game can give different Nash Equilibria (NE) that can give better payoffs. Marinatto and Weber have proposed another interesting scheme to play a quantum game where players implement their ‘tactics’ on an initial strategy by a probabilistic choice between applying the ‘identity’ and ‘Pauli spin-flip’ operators. In a quantized game there can rise multiple NE similar to a classical game. For example classical version of the Battle of Sexes game gives three NE and its quantization by Marinatto and Weber’s scheme again gives three NE. In classical game theory dynamical stability is one of essential criteria to select among multiple NE that are solutions to a game and it is usually considered with respect to some adjustment process that underlies the game. Selten  introduced the idea of perturbations in normal form classical games to get rid of unreasonable NE as solutions to these games by using a static procedure based on intuitive equilibrium conditions of NE. Replicator dynamic  in evolutionary game theory is an adjustment process for which frequency of a particular strategy evolves according to its payoff relative to that of other strategies. For pure available classical strategies $`S_1,\mathrm{},S_n`$ let the proportion of players of $`S_i`$ at a particular time be $`p_i,(i=1,\mathrm{},n),`$ so that the average population strategy is the vector $`𝐩=(p_i)`$, with the expected payoff of an $`S_i`$ player being $`f_i(𝐩)`$ and the overall expected payoff in the population being $`F(𝐩)=p_if_i(𝐩)`$. Then the replicator dynamic is defined by the differential equation

$$\frac{dp_i}{dt}=p_i(f_i(𝐩)F(𝐩))$$
(1)
Thus the proportion of players which play the better strategies increase with time. The replicator dynamic is originally based on biological considerations but it has also found applications in Economics. Evolutionarily Stable Strategies (ESSs) of evolutionary game theory are attractors of replicator dynamic with an important property of stability. When a population plays an ESS it cannot be invaded by a small number of mutants.

Quantum games apart from finding applications in quantum information  have also been considered interesting from another perspective. Referring to Dawkins’ ’Selfish Gene’  Eisert et al  hinted that games of survival are being played already on molecular level where quantum mechanics dictates the rules. Self replication of DNA molecules and synthesis of proteins which govern all the processes of a living molecule are two essential ways  where quantum information exchange can be said to play an important role. A consideration of quantum games in such situations seems a good reason to make these games interesting as indicated by Eisert et al . A decision by a DNA molecule, for example to replicate itself or to synthesize a protein, can be imagined as a set of instructions that can formulated as a quantum strategy. How can, then, a DNA molecule evolves and develops a procedure to prepare a particular protein, for example, and not some other; assuming the procedure constitutes a quantum strategy. Why the other strategies, leading to synthesis of a different protein for example, instead of the desired one are not successful? This brings to mind the notion of mutant strategy from ESS theory that tries to invade an ESS without success and ESS comes out as a winning or successful strategy having a property of stability against perturbations from mutants.

We assume life molecules in possession of many strategies out of which a few or just one is successful in the sense of its increased use with time. The notion of ESS derived from population biology problems but the concept remains valid even when, for example, there are just two players to play a bi-matrix game. In that case the ESS will be a strategy the players will choose to play almost all the time and the fraction of the total time will replace the usual term called ‘frequency’ that corresponds to fraction of the total population. The molecule deciding in favor of a particular set of steps out of many available options gave us a good reason to consider perturbations in quantum game like situation that we believe to exist in that domain of intermolecular interactions. Mutant strategies constituting perturbations in classical evolutionary game theory are not successful against the Evolutionarily Stable Strategy (ESS) and ESS appears as a stable strategy that cannot be invaded when mutants appear in small numbers.

Underlying process in the definition of ESS is replicator dynamic based on Darwinian idea of ‘survival of the fittest’ leading to increase with time the frequency of a strategy giving better pay off. Replicator dynamic is a simple and theoretically attractive process that can have, we believe, an intuitive appeal to be extended to quantum game like situations. Among the many possible quantum strategies that we suppose to be at the disposal of a life molecule the winning strategy, corresponding to synthesis of desired protein for example, can be imagined as a result of micro-level replicator dynamic that becomes responsible for the increased use of the winning stable strategy to such an extent that the molecule implements it almost all the time and mutant set of procedures resulting in undesirable synthesis cannot invade the stable solution called ESS coming out of replicator dynamic.

In this perspective the use of replicator dynamic to select among many NE a special one corresponding to a stable solution, in quantum game like situations that we believe to exist in molecules forming the basis of life, appears an interesting hypothesis related to the mechanism existing in molecules to formulate and evolve established and stable procedures to perform their fundamental functions. An adjustment process having fruitful results both in population biology problems and economics is simple and intuitively appealing to form a mechanism to provide stable solutions in the domain of molecular interactions.

We apply Marinatto and Weber’s scheme  to a symmetric game between two players. Our reason to select this scheme is that the idea of a mixed NE and mixed ESS can easily be given a meaning without some extra assumptions when the pure strategies of the quantized version of the game are taken as the implementation by the players of identity $`I`$ and Pauli spin-flip operator $`\sigma _{x\text{ }}`$respectively. In Marinatto and Weber’s scheme quantum ‘tactics’ are applied by selecting $`I`$ and $`\sigma _x`$ with classical probabilities similar to the case of mixed NE in classical games where pure strategies are chosen with classical probabilities. We then show how the ‘entanglement’ usually considered as a pure quantum phenomenon can be exploited to select and decide ESSs in quantum version of a game satisfying a few requirements. The game we consider is symmetric similar to corresponding examples in evolutionary game theory where ESS is usually defined for symmetric pairwise contests.

In an earlier letter  we showed that for certain asymmetric quantum games between two players ESSs can be made to appear or disappear via a control over the initial state even when the corresponding strategies remain NE for those initial states. Our motivation in this letter is to explore similar possibilities for symmetric quantum games. The ESS idea was originally defined for symmetric games and will be of more interest when entanglement and entangled states are exploited in those games as well. Even for possible molecular level games referred to earlier the symmetric contests seems more appropriate and interesting. It also brings the exciting subject of mathematical theory of ESSs in the domain of quantum games and also quantum mechanics in general. During the last thirty years the theory of ESSs has been developed by collaboration between mathematicians and evolutionary biologists. An extension of the ESS idea in quantum games is an opportunity for both quantum game theory and classical theory of ESSs to broaden their domains and also look for topics of common interest.

## 2 Evolutionary Stability

An Evolutionarily Stable Strategy (ESS) was originally defined by Smith and Price  with the motivation that a population playing the ESS can withstand a small invading group. They considered a symmetric game where the players are anonymous. Let $`P[x,y]`$ be the payoff to a player playing $`x`$ against the player playing $`y`$.Strategy $`x`$ is an ESS if for any alternative strategy $`y`$, the following two requirements are satisfied:

$$P[x,x]P[y,x]$$
(2)
and in the case were condition 2 is satisfied as an equality:

$$P[x,y]>P[y,y]$$
(3)
Requirement 2 is in fact the Nash requirement and requires that no single individual can gain by unilaterally changing strategy from $`x`$ to $`y`$. For a linear structure of the game the two requirements 2 and 3 are equivalent to that for any $`yx`$ there is a critical positive value such that if the frequency of the $`y`$-mutant strategists is lower than this value (while the rest of the population sticks to the strategy $`x`$), it is better for everyone to stick to majority strategy $`x`$, better being defined in terms of individual maximization of the payoff function $`P`$ .Thus, as ESS is a strategy which, if played by almost all members of a population, cannot be displaced by a small invading group playing any alternative strategy. An ESS will persist as the dominant strategy through time, so that strategies observed in the real world will tend to be ESSs .ESS comes out dynamically stable with respect to replicator dynamic. In molecular level situations when replicator dynamic is taken as the underlying process the ESSs involving quantum strategies will similarly tend to be observed in real micro world.

## 3 Evolutionary stability in symmetric quantum games

In Marinatto and Weber’s scheme  an entangled ‘initial strategy’ is forwarded to two players on which they apply their ‘tactics’. To remain consistent with available literature on the theory of ESSs in classical games we preferred to call Marinatto and Weber’s ‘initial strategy’ an ‘initial state’ and call their ‘tactics’ as ‘strategies’. This change in terminology has no effect on the originally proposed scheme to play a quantum game . We consider following symmetric bi-matrix game between two players for two available classical strategies $`S_1`$ and $`S_2`$

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}(\alpha ,\alpha )& (\beta ,\gamma )\\ (\gamma ,\beta )& (\sigma ,\sigma )\end{array}\right)$$
(4)
with the constants of the matrix $`\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma ,\sigma `$ satisfying the following conditions.

$`\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma ,\sigma `$ $``$ $`0`$
$`(\sigma \beta )`$ $`>`$ $`0`$
$`(\gamma \alpha )`$ $``$ $`0`$
$`(\gamma \alpha )`$ $`<`$ $`(\sigma \beta )`$ (5)
We take the initial quantum state to play the above game to be:

$$|\psi _{in}=a|S_1S_1+b|S_2S_2$$
(6)
where

$$\left|a\right|^2+\left|b\right|^2=1$$
(7)
The associated density matrix is:

$`\rho _{ini}`$ $`=`$ $`\left|a\right|^2|S_1S_1S_1S_1\left|+ab^{}\right|S_1S_1S_2S_2|`$ (8)
$`+a^{}b|S_2S_2S_1S_1|+\left|b\right|^2|S_2S_2S_2S_2|`$
Where $`p`$ and $`q`$ be the probabilities of two players to act with the operator $`\stackrel{}{I}`$. Payoff to a $`p`$ player against a $`q`$ player for the payoff matrix (4) are written as :

$`P(p,q)`$ $`=`$ $`\alpha \left\{pq\left|a\right|^2+(1p)(1q)\left|b\right|^2\right\}+`$ (9)
$`\beta \left\{p(1q)\left|a\right|^2+q(1p)\left|b\right|^2\right\}+`$
$`\gamma \left\{p(1q)\left|b\right|^2+q(1p)\left|a\right|^2\right\}+`$
$`\sigma \left\{pq\left|b\right|^2+(1p)(1q)\left|a\right|^2\right\}`$
The condition that makes $`(p^{},p^{})`$ a NE is given as:

$`P(p^{},p^{})P(p,p^{})`$
$`=`$ $`(p^{}p)\left[\left|a\right|^2(\sigma \beta )+\left|b\right|^2(\gamma \alpha )+p^{}\left\{(\sigma \beta )(\gamma \alpha )\right\}\right]0`$
From the relation (LABEL:NE) it is clear that there can be three NE i.e. the pure strategies $`p^{}=0`$, $`p^{}=1`$ and the mixed strategy $`p^{}=\frac{(\sigma \beta )\left|a\right|^2(\gamma \alpha )\left|b\right|^2}{(\sigma \beta )(\gamma \alpha )}`$. In the earlier form of this letter we only considered the strategy $`p^{}=0`$ and showed that it is evolutionary stable in the classical game (4) with conditions (5) but not so in a quantum version of the same game. We are grateful to anonymous referee who hinted the need to study the problem in a more general and systematic way. We now consider the evolutionary stability of these three NE of the symmetric game (4) in three separate cases:

### 3.1 Case $`p^{}=0`$

For the strategy $`p^{}=0`$ to be a NE we should have:

$$P(0,0)P(p,0)=\frac{p}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}\left[\left|a\right|^2\frac{(\gamma \alpha )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}\right]0$$
(11)
Now $`[P(0,0)P(p,0)]>0`$ when $`1\left|a\right|^2>\frac{(\gamma \alpha )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}`$ and $`p^{}=0`$ is a pure ESS. However, at $`\left|a\right|^2=\frac{(\gamma \alpha )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}`$ we have the difference (11) zero and $`p^{}=0`$ can be an ESS if

$`P(0,p)P(p,p)`$ (12)
$`=`$ $`p\left\{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )\right\}\left\{\left|a\right|^2{\displaystyle \frac{(1p)(\gamma \alpha )+p(\sigma \beta )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}}\right\}>0`$
it can be written as:

$$P(0,p)P(p,p)=p\left\{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )\right\}\left\{\left|a\right|^2ϝ\right\}>0$$
(13)
Where $`\frac{(\gamma \alpha )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}ϝ\frac{(\sigma \beta )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}`$ for the range $`0p1.`$ In such a situation $`p^{}=0`$ can be an ESS only when $`\left|a\right|^2>\frac{(\sigma \beta )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}`$ which is not possible because $`\left|a\right|^2`$ is fixed at $`\frac{(\gamma \alpha )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}.`$ Therefore $`p^{}=0`$ is a stable NE or an ESS for $`1\left|a\right|^2>\frac{(\gamma \alpha )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}`$ and at $`\left|a\right|^2=\frac{(\gamma \alpha )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}`$ this NE becomes unstable. The classical game is obtained by fixing $`\left|a\right|^2=1`$ for which $`p^{}=0`$ is a stable NE. However, this NE does no remain stable when $`\left|a\right|^2=\frac{(\gamma \alpha )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}`$ corresponding to an entangled initial state; though, the NE remains intact in both forms of the game.

### 3.2 Case $`p^{}=1`$

Similar to previous case we write the NE condition for the strategy $`p^{}=1`$ as:

$$P(1,1)P(p,1)=\frac{(1p)}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}\left[\left|a\right|^2+\frac{(\sigma \beta )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}\right]0$$
(14)
Now $`p^{}=1`$ is a pure ESS for $`0\left|a\right|^2<\frac{(\sigma \beta )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}.`$ At $`\left|a\right|^2=\frac{(\sigma \beta )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}`$ we have the difference given in eq. (14) zero. The strategy $`p^{}=1`$, then, becomes an ESS when

$`P(1,p)P(p,p)`$
$`=`$ $`(1p)\left\{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )\right\}\left\{\left|a\right|^2+{\displaystyle \frac{(1p)(\gamma \alpha )+p(\sigma \beta )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}}\right\}>0`$
It is possible only when $`\left|a\right|^2<\frac{(\gamma \alpha )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}.`$ Therefore the strategy $`p^{}=1`$ is a stable NE for $`0\left|a\right|^2<\frac{(\sigma \beta )}{(\gamma \alpha )+(\sigma \beta )}.`$ Therefore, the strategy $`p^{}=1`$ not stable classically ,i.e. for $`\left|a\right|^2=1`$, can be stable for an entangled initial state.

### 3.3 Case $`p^{}=\frac{(\sigma \beta )\left|a\right|^2(\gamma \alpha )\left|b\right|^2}{(\sigma \beta )(\gamma \alpha )}`$

In case of the mixed strategy

$$p^{}=\frac{(\sigma \beta )\left|a\right|^2(\gamma \alpha )\left|b\right|^2}{(\sigma \beta )(\gamma \alpha )}$$
(16)
we have from the NE condition (LABEL:NE)

$$P(p^{},p^{})P(p,p^{})=0$$
(17)
The mixed strategy (16) becomes an ESS when

$`P(p^{},p)P(p,p)`$ (18)
$`=`$ $`(p^{}p)\left[\left|a\right|^2(\sigma \beta )+\left|b\right|^2(\gamma \alpha )+p\left\{(\sigma \beta )(\gamma \alpha )\right\}\right]>0`$
for all $`pp^{}`$. Write now the strategy $`p`$ as $`p=p^{}+`$. For the mixed strategy of eq. (16) the payoff difference of the eq. (18) can be reduced to:

$$P(p^{},p)P(p,p)=^2\{(\sigma \beta )(\gamma \alpha )\}$$
(19)
So that, for the game defined in the conditions (5) the mixed strategy $`p^{}=\frac{(\sigma \beta )\left|a\right|^2(\gamma \alpha )\left|b\right|^2}{(\sigma \beta )(\gamma \alpha )}`$ cannot be an ESS, though it can be a NE of the symmetric game.

## 4 Conclusion

Dynamic stability is a well known refinement concept in situations where multiple NE arise as solutions to a symmetric quantum game played between two players. ESS is a stable NE in a game when its dynamics puts a direct proportionality between frequency of a strategy and its relative payoff advantage usually termed as replicator dynamic. We suggested that this idea can be interesting not only in population biology but also in quantum game theory. We explored evolutionary stability of NE in a symmetric quantum game played between two players via a scheme proposed recently by Marinatto and Weber . We showed that in this scheme the evolutionary stability of a pure strategy for a symmetric game can be changed by maneuvering the initial state even when the strategy remains a NE during such a maneuver. For example, in a symmetric game a pure strategy can be an ESS in the classical form of the game but it does not remain so in some quantized form of the same game. We also showed that in the proposed scheme  with its particular form of initial state the evolutionary stability of a mixed strategy, however, cannot be changed while retaining the corresponding NE. Our results show that entangled states have also potential roles to play in the stability properties of NE in symmetric games. It shows the possibility of achieving dynamic stability of NE in symmetric quantum games via the use of entangled states.

## 5 Acknowledgment

One of us (A.I) is grateful to Pakistan Institute of Lasers and Optics, Islamabad, for support.