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# Quantum Weakdynamics as an 𝑆𝑈(3)_𝐼 Gauge Theory: Grand Unification of Strong and Electroweak Interactions

## I Introduction

The standard model (SM) $`SU(3)_C\times SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory  is quite successful for the phenomenology of elementary particle physics. However, there are still many unexplained phenomena in the SM: for instances, many free parameters, three family generations for leptons and quarks, matter mass generation, the Higgs problem or vacuum problem, dynamical spontaneous symmetry breaking (DSSB) beyond spontaneous symmetry breaking, neutrino mass problem, etc. In order to resolve these problems, grand unified theories (GUTs) were proposed . Nevertheless, grand unification of the strong and electroweak interactions is not complete, and GUTs also have model dependent problems: the hierarchy problem, proton decay, and the Weinberg angle are problems in $`SU(5)`$ gauge theory . On the other hand, two important observations can be made. One is that Higgs particles have not been observed yet; this suggests DSSB rather than spontaneous symmetry breaking. The other one is that the experimental strong coupling constant $`\alpha _s0.12`$ at the energy scale of the intermediate $`Z^0`$ vector boson mass  and the experimental weak coupling constant $`\alpha _w0.03`$ at the energy scale of the $`W^\pm `$ intermediate vector boson mass ; the two coupling constants have the same value $`\alpha _i=\alpha _s0.12`$ around the $`10^3`$ GeV energy scale if an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory with the coupling constant $`\alpha _i`$ for the weak force is adopted. These phenomena strongly suggest that all the theoretical problems and experimental facts may thus easily be resolved if quantum weakdynamics (QWD) as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory for the weak force is broken down to the Glashow-Weinberg-Salam (GWS) model, the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ theory  through DSSB. The aim of this paper accordingly is to propose that QWD as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory for the weak force provides hints for the challenging problems and ways to unify the weak and strong force systematically: QWD is analogous to quantum chromodynamics (QCD) as an $`SU(3)_C`$ gauge theory for the strong force. Many free parameters in the SM must be understood in the context of the grand unification scheme. More precisely, QWD as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory is proposed to be the unification of the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ electroweak theory , and the grand unification of QCD and QWD is proposed as the unification of weak and strong interactions  beyond the SM. The proposed group chain is thus given by $`HSU(3)_I\times SU(3)_C`$ for grand unification, weak, and strong interactions respectively. The grand unified group $`H`$ of the group $`SU(3)_I\times SU(3)_C`$ beyond the SM, $`SU(3)_C\times SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$, provides coupling constants $`\alpha _w=\alpha _s0.12`$ at a new grand unification scale around $`10^3`$ GeV, which might be the resolution of the hierarchy problem of the conventional grand unification scale $`10^{15}`$ GeV . QWD provides plausible explanations for the Weinberg angle, the Cabbibo angle, quark and lepton families, modification, etc. This scheme can be substantiated through further quantum tests; it gives rise to several predictions such as the relation with inflation, the analogy between weak and strong force, the breaking of discrete symmetries, etc. The present work is restricted to the real four dimensions of spacetime without considering supersymmetry or higher dimensions. This work is based on phenomenology below the grand unification scale: electroweak and strong interactions.

As a step toward the grand unification of fundamental forces or toward the systematic description of the evolution of the universe, a new grand unification scale of the $`SU(3)_I\times SU(3)_C`$ symmetry around $`10^3`$ GeV is necessary. QWD as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory provides the unification of electroweak interaction being an $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory . This scheme resolves the free parameters in the GWS model. In order to show that electroweak interactions stem from an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory, the roles of scalar fields, parameterized by spatially longitudinal components of gauge bosons, are emphasized instead of roles of Higgs particles: unsatisfactory factors of the Higgs mechanism  can be overcome in this scheme. The essential point is that the system at high energies experiences the stage of DSSB and the effective coupling constant acquires the dimension of inverse energy square due to massive gauge bosons through DSSB; the effective coupling constant chain due to massive gauge bosons is $`G_HG_F\times G_R`$ for grand unification, weak, and strong interactions respectively. The DSSB mechanism is adopted to all the interactions characterized by gauge invariance, the physical vacuum problem, and discrete symmetry breaking; the DSSB mechanism is applied to strong interactions having analogous features . The DSSB of local gauge symmetry and global chiral symmetry triggers the (V+A) current anomaly. This study suggests that sextet isospin states in two octets of triplet isospin combinations for QWD can produce the three family generations of leptons and quarks. DSSB is closely related to the breaking of discrete symmetries, parity (P), charge conjugation (C), charge conjugation and parity (CP) and time reversal (T). Photons are regarded as massless gauge bosons, Nambu-Goldstone (NG) bosons , appearing during DSSB. The quark or lepton mass is generated as the DSSB of gauge symmetry and discrete symmetries, which is motivated by the parameter $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ representing the surface term. Fermion mass generation introduces the common features of constituent particle mass, the dual Meissner effect, and hyperfine structure. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term plays important roles in the DSSB mechanism of the gauge group and in the quantization of the fermion space and vacuum space.

This paper is organized as follows. Section II proposes QWD as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge symmetry and describes the common features of DSSB. Section III explicitly shows the generation of the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge symmetry from the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge symmetry. In Sect. IV, the grand unification of $`SU(3)_I\times SU(3)_C`$ introduces the unified coupling constant at a new grand unification scale. The fermion mass generation mechanism is addressed as being the result of the breaking of gauge and chiral symmetries in Sect. V. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ constant and quantum numbers are discussed in Sect. VI. Section VII describes a comparison of QWD, GWS, and GUT. Section VIII is devoted to conclusions.

## II Quantum Weakdynamics as an $`SU(3)_I`$ Gauge Theory

The generation of the electroweak $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ theory from QWD as the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory has several implications. It suggests the DSSB mechanism initiated by the (V+A) current anomaly and predicts several free parameters such as the Weinberg angle, the Cabbibo angle, isospin and electric charge quantization, modification to the Higgs mechanism, the three family generations of leptons and quarks, fermion mass generation, etc.

DSSB is one of the underlying principles whose principal application is the electroweak theory; remarkably, this unifies weak interactions with electromagnetic interactions in a single larger gauge theory. Here, the DSSB of the weak force from an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory to an $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ electroweak theory, the GWS model , is addressed as well as the modification of the Higgs mechanism ; the phase transition of electroweak interactions takes place through the condensation of scalar fields, which are postulated to be spatially longitudinal components of gauge bosons, instead of Higgs particles. This scheme uses dynamical symmetry breaking without having to introduce elementary scalar particles; this idea, which aims to have DSSB with gauge interactions alone, is similar to the technicolor model  in this sense. Discrete symmetry violation occurs as the result of DSSB. Photons are regarded as massless gauge bosons  indicating DSSB. An analogy of superconductivity is expected as a consequence of the condensation of scalar fields.

In this section, the common characteristics of DSSB are discussed following the introduction of QWD: the introduction of QWD, the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum as weak CP violation, DSSB through the condensation of scalar fields, the Fermi weak interaction constant and massive gauge boson, and the breaking of discrete symmetries are addressed.

### A Weak Interactions as an $`SU(3)_I`$ Gauge Theory

QWD is proposed as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory, which is an exact copy of QCD in the form apart from the fermion mass term; triplet isospin sources and octet gauge bosons are introduced. A mass term violating gauge invariance is not included but is generated through DSSB. Natural units with $`\mathrm{}=c=k=1`$ are used for convenience throughout this paper unless otherwise specified.

The Dirac Lagrangian density apart from the mass term $`=\overline{\psi }i\gamma ^\mu _\mu \psi `$ leads to the local $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory invariant under the local transformation $`\psi e^{i\stackrel{}{\lambda }\stackrel{}{a}/2}\psi `$ where $`\stackrel{}{\lambda }`$ are the $`SU(3)_I`$ generators and $`\stackrel{}{a}`$ are spacetime parameters. An $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory for the weak interactions can then be established and the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge invariant Lagrangian density is the same, apart from the mass term, as the Lagrangian density of QCD  in the form

$$=\frac{1}{2}TrF_{\mu \nu }F^{\mu \nu }+\overline{\psi }i\gamma ^\mu D_\mu \psi $$
(1)
where $`\psi `$ stands for the spinor field and $`D_\mu =_\mu ig_iG_\mu `$ stands for the covariant derivative with the coupling constant $`g_i`$. The field strength tensor is given by $`F_{\mu \nu }=_\mu G_\nu _\nu G_\mu ig_i[G_\mu ,G_\nu ]`$, where spinors carry gauge fields denoted by $`G_\mu =_{a=0}^8G_\mu ^a\lambda ^a/2,a=0,..,8`$ with generators $`\lambda ^a`$. The Gell-Mann matrices satisfy the commutation relation $`[\lambda _k,\lambda _l]=2i_mc_{klm}\lambda _m`$ where $`c_{klm}`$ are the structure constants of the $`SU(3)_I`$ group. The fine structure constant $`\alpha _i`$ in QWD is defined analogously to the fine structure constant $`\alpha _e=e^2/4\pi `$ in QED: $`\alpha _i=g_i^2/4\pi `$ where $`\alpha _i`$ is dimensionless.

Three intrinsic isospin (isotope) charges $`(A,B,C)`$ form the fundamental representation of the $`SU(3)_I`$ symmetry group. Fermions are combinations of three particles with triplet isospins which produce a decuplet, two octets, and a singlet gauge bosons; $`333=10881`$. Interactions between fermions may be described by two body interactions. The set of unitary $`3\times 3`$ matrices with $`\text{det}U=1`$ forms the group $`SU(3)_I`$ whose fundamental representation is a triplet. The eight gauge bosons in the octet are for example constructed by a matrix $`_1^8\lambda _kG^k`$:

$$\left(\begin{array}{ccc}G_3+G_8/\sqrt{3}& G_1iG_2& G_4iG_5\\ G_1+iG_2& G_3+G_8/\sqrt{3}& G_6iG_7\\ G_4+iG_5& G_6+iG_7& 2G_8/\sqrt{3}\end{array}\right)$$
(2)
where the two diagonal gauge bosons are $`G_3=(A\overline{A}B\overline{B})/\sqrt{2}`$ and $`G_8=(A\overline{A}+B\overline{B}2C\overline{C})/\sqrt{6}`$.

The six off-diagonal gauge bosons are accordingly represented by

$`A\overline{B}`$ $`=`$ $`(G_1iG_2)/\sqrt{2},A\overline{C}=(G_4iG_5)/\sqrt{2},`$ (3)
$`B\overline{C}`$ $`=`$ $`(G_6iG_7)/\sqrt{2},B\overline{A}=(G_1+iG_2)/\sqrt{2},`$ (4)
$`C\overline{A}`$ $`=`$ $`(G_4+iG_5)/\sqrt{2},C\overline{B}=(G_6+iG_7)/\sqrt{2}.`$ (5)
The isospin singlet is symmetric:

$$G_0=(A\overline{A}+B\overline{B}+C\overline{C})/\sqrt{3}.$$
(6)
It will be later realized that $`G_0`$ is weak gauge boson with isospin zero, $`G_1G_3`$ are weak gauge bosons with isospin one, and $`G_4G_8`$ are weak gauge bosons with isospin two.

The conserved quantity $`Q`$ as a total electric charge is quantized in terms of Gell-Mann-Nishijima formula  as the subgroup $`U(1)_e`$ of the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge symmetry via the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge group. The corresponding charge operator $`\widehat{Q}`$ is defined by

$$\widehat{Q}=\widehat{I}_3+\widehat{Y}/2$$
(7)
where $`\widehat{I}_3`$ is the third component of the isospin operator $`\widehat{I}`$ and $`\widehat{Y}=\widehat{B}\widehat{L}`$ is the hypercharge operator $`\widehat{Y}`$ with the baryon number operator $`\widehat{B}`$ and lepton number operator $`\widehat{L}`$.

### B $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ Vacuum: Weak CP Asymmetry

The (V+A) current anomaly is taken into account in analogy with the axial current anomaly , which is linked to the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum in QCD as a gauge theory . The normal vacuum is unstable and the tunneling mechanism is possible between all possible vacua. The true vacuum must be a superposition of the various vacua, each belonging to some different homotopy class. The effective $`\overline{\mathrm{\Theta }}`$ term in QCD involves both the bare $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term relevant for pure QCD vacuum and the phase of the quark mass matrix relevant for electroweak effects. Only the latter is here considered as the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum responsible for the fermion mass and is added as a single, additional non-perturbative term to the QWD Lagrangian density

$$_{QWD}=_P+\mathrm{\Theta }\frac{g_i^2}{16\pi ^2}TrF^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{F}_{\mu \nu },$$
(8)
where $`_P`$ is the perturbative Lagrangian density (1), $`F^{\mu \nu }`$ is the field strength tensor, and $`\stackrel{~}{F}_{\mu \nu }`$ is the dual of the field strength tensor. Since the $`F\stackrel{~}{F}`$ term is a total derivative, it does not affect the perturbative aspects of the theory. Such a term in the QWD Lagrangian represents the (V+A) current anomaly, violates CP, T, and P symmetries, and causes the DSSB of local gauge symmetry and global chiral symmetry. Since the Lagrangian density for weak interactions (1) is completely symmetric under the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge transformation, the conservation of isospin degrees of freedom holds. Spatially longitudinal components of the gauge fields parameterized by scalar fields condense and then subtract the vacuum energy in broken phase as the system expands; scalar fields replace the roles of Higgs bosons in the electroweak interactions. Details are given in the following subsections.

### C Dynamical Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking

DSSB requires the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term and scalar fields. Scalar fields with spin zero, which replace the roles of Higgs particles, are postulated as spatially longitudinal components of gauge fields. Therefore, scalar fields always have the same symmetry as the gauge symmetry of gauge fields. DSSB is triggered by the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term in equation (8) as the surface term, which demands the boundary condition breaking the discrete symmetries. Due to the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term, some of the scalar fields condense. There are two types of transverse gauge fields which are left-handed (or vector) gauge fields and right-handed (or axial vector) gauge fields. There are also two types of scalar fields which are real scalar fields and pseudo-scalar fields. Among the scalar fields, pseudo-scalar fields condense while real scalar fields remain. During this process, continuous and discrete symmetries are simultaneously broken. This mechanism makes gauge bosons massive and massive gauge bosons break the discrete symmetries in fermion spectra. Masses of fermions and bosons are thus acquired as a consequence of DSSB. In fact, gauge bosons become less massive and fermions become more massive as the condensation increases. In the phase transition from the $`SU(3)_I`$ to the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge symmetry, more massive gauge bosons with isospin $`2`$ become less important and less massive gauge bosons with isospin $`1`$ become more important. The scale of the gauge boson mass is related to the scale of the vacuum energy. Left-handed and right-handed fermions are classified through the weak phase transition. Overall, all these processes simultaneously and dynamically take place and both continuous and discrete symmetries are spontaneously broken. In summary, DSSB mechanism involves the mass generation of fermions and bosons, discrete symmetry breaking in fermions and bosons, and continuous symmetry breaking in scalar and gauge fields.

A fermion possesses three intrinsic isospin degrees of freedom; in group theoretical language, $`333=10881`$. Two octets are mixed to form leptons and quarks, which is discussed in the following section. In this scheme, masses of the gauge bosons are reduced due to the condensation of scalar fields, which are postulated as spatially longitudinal components of gauge bosons. This is very analogous to the mass generation of electroweak interactions through the Higgs mechanism , but it is different in that the gauge boson mass decreases as the condensation increases as shown in the following subsection. Gauge fields are generally decomposed by charge non-singlet-singlet symmetries on the one hand and by even-odd discrete symmetries on the other hand: they have dual properties in charge and discrete symmetries. The Higgs particles are not necessary in this case, since spatially longitudinal components of the gauge bosons play the same role as the Higgs particles. This scheme introduces dynamical symmetry breaking without any free parameters except the weak coupling constant. The $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge symmetry is spontaneously broken to $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge symmetry by the condensation of scalar fields, postulated as spatially longitudinal components of gauge fields. DSSB consists of two simultaneous mechanisms; the first mechanism is the explicit symmetry breaking of the gauge symmetry, which is represented by the isospin factor $`i_f`$ and the weak coupling constant $`g_i`$, and the second mechanism is the spontaneous symmetry breaking of the gauge fields, which is represented by the condensation of pseudo-scalar fields.

Effective gauge boson interactions can, from the Lagrangian density (8), written by

$$\mathrm{}^e=\frac{1}{2}TrF_{\mu \nu }F^{\mu \nu }+\mathrm{\Theta }\frac{g_i^2}{16\pi ^2}TrF^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{F}_{\mu \nu }.$$
(9)
Spatially longitudinal components of the gauge bosons are postulated as the $`SU(3)`$ symmetric scalar fields. Four scalar field interactions are parameterized by the typical potential

$$V_e(\varphi )=V_0+\mu ^2\varphi ^2+\lambda \varphi ^4$$
(10)
where $`\mu ^2<0`$ and $`\lambda >0`$ are demanded for spontaneous symmetry breaking. The first term of the right-hand side corresponds to the bare vacuum energy density representing the zero-point energy. The vacuum field $`\varphi `$ is shifted by an invariant quantity $`\varphi `$, which satisfies

$$\varphi ^2=\varphi _0^2+\varphi _1^2++\varphi _i^2$$
(11)
where the condensation of pseudo-scalar fields is $`\varphi =(\frac{\mu ^2}{2\lambda })^{1/2}`$. DSSB is relevant for the surface term in (9), $`\mathrm{\Theta }\frac{g_i^2}{16\pi ^2}TrF^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{F}_{\mu \nu }`$, which explicitly breaks down the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge symmetry to the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge symmetry through the condensation of pseudo-scalar bosons; scalar fields are also broken from the $`SU(3)`$ to $`SU(2)\times U(1)`$ symmetry in this case. $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ can be assigned to a dynamic parameter by

$$\mathrm{\Theta }=10^{61}\rho _G/\rho _m$$
(12)
with the matter energy density $`\rho _m`$ and the vacuum energy density $`\rho _G=M_G^4`$. The detail of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ constant will be discussed in Sect. VI. As the system expands, pseudo-scalar bosons condense and accordingly gauge boson masses are reduced.

For QWD, being a $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory, there are nine weak gauge bosons ($`n_i^2=3^2=9`$), which consist of one singlet gauge boson $`G_0`$ with $`i=0`$, three degenerate gauge bosons $`G_1G_3`$ with $`i=1`$, and five degenerate gauge bosons $`G_4G_8`$ with $`i=2`$ as shown in (2). In the case of isospin $`1`$ gauge bosons, $`G_3`$ has the third component $`0`$ and $`G_1`$ and $`G_2`$ have the third component $`1`$. In the case of isospin $`2`$ gauge bosons, $`G_8`$ has the third component $`0`$, $`G_6`$ and $`G_7`$ have the third component $`1`$, and $`G_4`$ and $`G_5`$ have the third component $`2`$. For the GWS model with the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory, one singlet gauge boson $`G_0`$ with $`i=0`$, three gauge bosons $`G_1G_3`$ with $`i=1`$, and one gauge boson $`G_8`$ with $`i=2`$ are required. This implies that the mixing of $`G_3`$ with $`i=1`$ and $`G_8`$ with $`i=2`$ is the same as mixing between the third component $`0`$ gauge bosons, which is represented by the Weinberg mixing angle $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W1/4`$. In the DSSB mechanism of the $`SU(3)_I`$ to $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge symmetry, more massive gauge bosons with $`i=2`$ reduce their roles as intermediate vector bosons. Even though their contributions are very weak, they appear in quark flavor mixing.

The concept of $`SU(2)`$ isospin degree of freedom introduces intrinsic quantum numbers. This means that the intrinsic isospin degree of freedom can be regarded as an intrinsic angular momentum such as the spin degree of freedom. The isospin principal number $`n_i`$ in intrinsic space quantization is very much analogous to the principal number $`n`$ in extrinsic space quantization and the intrinsic angular momenta are analogous to the extrinsic angular momentum. The total angular momentum has the form of $`\stackrel{}{J}=\stackrel{}{L}+\stackrel{}{S}+\stackrel{}{I},`$ which is the extension of the conventional total angular momentum $`\stackrel{}{J}=\stackrel{}{L}+\stackrel{}{S}`$. The intrinsic principal number $`n_i`$ denotes the intrinsic spatial dimension or radial quantization: $`n_i=3`$ represents weak interactions as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory.

### D Effective Coupling Constant and Gauge Boson Mass

Weak interactions are generated by the emission and absorption of weak gauge bosons. Gauge bosons are the analogs of photons for the electromagnetic force and gluons for the color force. Contrary to the photon, the gauge boson must be massive, otherwise it would have been directly produced in weak decays. $`G_F`$ is replaced gauge boson propagation $`\sqrt{2}i_fg_i^2/8(k^2M_G^2)`$ with the gauge boson mass $`M_G`$ and, in contrast to the dimensionless coupling constant $`g_i`$ and the isospin factor $`i_f`$, has the dimension of inverse energy squared.

The weak interaction amplitude is thus of the form

$$=\frac{i_fg_i^2}{4}J^\mu \frac{1}{k^2M_G^2}J_\mu ^{}=\sqrt{2}G_FJ^\mu J_\mu ^{}$$
(13)
where $``$ is the product of two universal current densities and $`i_f`$ is the isospin factor, which is defined by

$$i_f=\frac{1}{4}(i_3^{}\lambda ^ai_1)(i_2^{}\lambda _ai_4)$$
(14)
with the isospin fields, $`i_i`$ with $`i=14`$, in analogy with the color factor $`c_f`$ in QCD. The (V - A) current is conserved but the (V+A) current is not conserved. If $`k^2<<M_G^2`$, the effective coupling constant becomes

$$\frac{G_F}{\sqrt{2}}=\frac{i_fg_i^2}{8(k^2M_G^2)}\frac{g_w^2}{8M_G^2}$$
(15)
with $`g_w=i_fg_i`$ and the weak currents interact essentially at a point. That is, in the low momentum transfer, the propagation between the currents disappears. The above equation prompts the idea that weak interactions are weak not because $`g_i`$ is much smaller than $`e`$ but because $`M_G^2`$ is large. Indeed, the two coupling constants are related by $`e^2=i_fg_i^2=g_i^2/16`$ and around energies of the intermediate vector bosons, weak interactions would become of a strength comparable to the electroweak interactions.

The Lagrangian density as an $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory has the same form as the one for QWD as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory:

$`_{GWS}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}TrG_{\mu \nu }G^{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{}}\overline{\psi }_ii\gamma ^\mu D_\mu \psi _i`$ (16)
$`+`$ $`\mathrm{\Theta }{\displaystyle \frac{g_w^2}{16\pi ^2}}TrG^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{G}_{\mu \nu },`$ (17)
where the bare $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term  is a non-perturbative term added to the perturbative Lagrangian density with $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge invariance. The above Lagrangian density has the same form as the GWS model in the fermion and gauge boson parts but the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term replaced with the Higgs term in the GWS model. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term is apparently odd under the P, T, C, and CP operations. The coupling constant $`g_w^2=i_fg_i^2=\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _Wg_i^2=g_i^2/4`$ is given in terms of the weak coupling constant $`g_i`$ and the isospin factor $`i_f`$.

Since the covariant derivative is changed from $`D_\mu =_\mu +ig_iG_{\mu a}\lambda ^a/2`$ in the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory to $`D_\mu =_\mu +ig_wW_{\mu a}\lambda ^a/2+ig_yB_\mu `$ in the above Lagrangian density, the gauge boson mass term is obtained via

$`\mathrm{}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(D_\mu \varphi )^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}g_w^2\varphi ^2W_\mu W^\mu `$ (18)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{g_w^2}{2}}(W_\mu \varphi )^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}g_w^2\varphi ^2W_\mu W^\mu \mathrm{}`$ (19)
where the intermediate vector bosons $`W_\mu `$ and $`B_\mu `$ are defined in the following section and $`\varphi `$ is the condensation of the pseudo-scalar boson. Note that the vacuum energy due to the scalar boson $`\varphi `$ is shifted with respect to its condensation $`\varphi `$; this implies that the condensation subtracts the zero-point energy in the system. The coupling constant $`i_fg_i^2`$ and the vacuum expectation value $`\varphi `$ for the condensation of the pseudo-scalar field make the gauge boson at low energy less massive: the gauge boson mass is generally defined by

$$M_G^2=M_H^2i_fg_i^2\varphi ^2=i_fg_i^2[\varphi ^2\varphi ^2]$$
(20)
where $`M_H=\sqrt{i_f}g_i\varphi `$ indicates the unification gauge boson mass at a phase transition just above the weak phase transition, $`\varphi `$ denotes the real scalar boson and $`\varphi `$ stands for the condensation of the pseudo- scalar boson. Note that the isospin factor $`i_f`$ used in (20) is the symmetric factor for a gauge boson with even parity and the asymmetric factor for a gauge boson with odd parity. This process leads to the breaking of discrete symmetries P, C, T, and CP, as is discussed in the following subsection. The crucial point is that the more massive gauge boson at higher energies becomes lighter through its condensation at low energies. The Fermi weak interaction constant at low momentum transfer can be, by the expression (15), related to the gauge boson mass. The mass must be identical to the inverse of the screening length, that is, $`M_G=1/l_{EW}G_F^{1/2}`$. The gauge boson mass $`M_G`$ is related to the effective vacuum energy density $`V_e(\varphi )`$ in (10) by $`V_e=M_G^4`$: $`V_0=M_H^410^{12}\text{GeV}^4,\mu ^2=2i_fg_i^2M_H^23\times 10^6\text{GeV}^2,\lambda =i_f^2g_i^40.01`$ for $`M_G10^2`$ GeV, $`M_H10^3`$ GeV, and $`\alpha _i0.12`$. The weak vacuum represented by massive gauge bosons is quantized by the maximum wavevector mode $`N_R10^{30}`$, the total gauge boson number $`N_G=4\pi N_R^3/310^{91}`$, and the gauge boson number density $`n_G=\mathrm{\Lambda }_{EW}^310^{47}\text{cm}^3`$. The Yukawa potential associated with the massive gauge boson is given by

$$V(r)=\sqrt{\frac{i_fg_i^2}{4\pi }}\frac{e^{M_G(rl_{EW})}}{r}$$
(21)
which shows the short range interaction.

### E Breaking of Discrete Symmetries

The normal vacuum proceeds to the physical vacuum through the condensation mechanism represented by DSSB. DSSB by the condensation of scalar fields, which are postulated as spatially longitudinal components of the gauge bosons, leads to the breaking of unitarity symmetry as well as the breaking of discrete symmetries. Electromagnetic and weak interactions preserve different discrete symmetries. The electromagnetic interaction violates isospin symmetry but preserves the C, P, and T symmetries. The weak interaction separately violates all of them but is invariant under the combined CPT symmetry.

In the above, it is briefly mentioned that the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory for electroweak interactions has its origin in the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory for weak interactions as shown by the triggering of DSSB by the condensation of the scalar bosons. The condensation is also the origin of the discrete symmetry violation which is observed in electroweak interactions. The discrete symmetries P, C and T are broken down explicitly by the condensation of the scalar bosons; the product symmetry CPT remains intact and CP conserves approximately. Since the condensation of scalar boson is relevant for the vector and axial-vector currents, the (V - A) doublet current is conserved in the $`SU(2)_L`$ weak theory, $`_\mu J_\mu ^{1\gamma ^5}=0`$, but the (V + A) singlet current is not conserved,

$$_\mu J_\mu ^{1+\gamma ^5}=\frac{N_fg_i^2}{16\pi ^2}TrF^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{F}_{\mu \nu }$$
(22)
with the flavor number $`N_f`$. The reason for the parity nonconservation is the scalar boson condensation or the fermion condensation represented by the condensation number $`N_{sc}`$ in the fermion mass generation as discussed later. The $`SU(3)_I`$ symmetry is broken by DSSB, in which the right-handed symmetry is not manifested in the particle spectrum such as the absence of right-handed neutrinos explained by P violation . The Cooper pairing between matter particles violates $`C`$ symmetry and the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum violates $`T`$ symmetry explicitly. The inclusion of the third quark generation is represented by the Kobayashi-Maskawa (KM) matrix  which contains P violation and CP symmetry violation. The assumption of the KM matrix has a verifiable consequence for the decay of the K mesons. CP violation observed in the neutral kaon decay  with the probable value $`\mathrm{\Theta }10^3`$ indicates T violation because CPT symmetry is conserved. The electric dipole moment of electrons is observed to be $`d_e=1.5\times 10^{26}`$ e cm , which implies $`\mathrm{\Theta }10^4`$ if the effective dipole length of electrons $`l_eG_Fm_e10^{22}`$ cm is used. A possible lepton-antilepton asymmetry is suggested as a consequence of C, T, and CP violation during the DSSB of the $`SU(3)_I`$ symmetry to the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ symmetry: the electron asymmetry $`\delta _e10^7`$  is suggested as a consequence of the $`U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory. The lepton number is not conserved above the weak scale, but the lepton number is conserved below the weak scale as illustrated by the $`U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory in the weak interactions.

The DSSB of gauge symmetry and chiral symmetry induces the (V+A) current anomaly represented by the value $`\mathrm{\Theta }10^4`$ at the weak scale. This implies the reduction of zero modes through the scalar boson condensation. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum as the physical vacuum is achieved from the normal vacuum, which possesses larger symmetry group than the physical vacuum. The instanton mechanism, vacuum tunneling is expected in the Euclidean spacetime. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum term represents the surface term since it is total derivative and decreases as the system expands. The condensation of vacuum decreases the mass of gauge boson, which causes the expansion of the system during a phase transition: this is the source of the exponential inflation as expected by the Higgs mechanism.

Photons as NG bosons in DSSB play the role of massless gauge bosons responsible for the $`U(1)_e`$ gauge theory. Photons are generated as massless gauge bosons from the weak interactions by DSSB whereas gauge bosons as intermediate vector bosons are generated as massive gauge bosons by DSSB. Photons mediate the Coulomb interaction in the static limit as a result of the symmetry breaking of the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ to $`U(1)_e`$ gauge symmetry. Detail of photon dynamics generation is described in the following section.

## III Generation of Electroweak Interactions

In the previous section, the common features in DSSB are addressed, and in this section the precise generation of the GWS model from QWD is more in particular focused on and the resolution for problems of the GWS model is suggested.

The generation of the GWS model by $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_YU(1)_e`$ electroweak interactions  from QWD as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory will now be considered. Spatially longitudinal components of the gauge bosons parameterized by scalar fields play the role of Higgs bosons in the electroweak interactions, so that the GWS model, $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory, dynamically results from QWD being an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory. QWD, an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory, generates the electroweak theory, an $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory, through the condensation of the scalar field. The condensation of the scalar boson also produces DSSB yielding the $`U(1)_e`$ gauge symmetry as expected by the Higgs mechanism of electroweak interactions. The covariant derivative $`D_\mu =_\mu +ig_iG_{\mu a}\lambda ^a/2`$ of the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory becomes $`D_\mu =_\mu +ig_wW_{\mu a}\lambda ^a/2+ig_yB_\mu `$ of the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory. The weak coupling constant $`g_i`$ is the unification of the electroweak charge $`g_w`$ and the hypercharge $`g_y`$ at the weak scale.

There are several supporting clues for the generation of the electroweak interactions being an $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory from the weak interactions as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory: parity violation, the Fermi weak coupling constant, the Weinberg angle, three generations as doublets of leptons and quarks, the Cabbibo angle, and the weak coupling constant $`g_w`$. Since scalar field generators do commute with some octet gauge bosons, massive gauge bosons reduce their masses through the condensation of pseudo-scalar bosons. This is exactly expected from electroweak interactions of the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge symmetry since three intermediate vector bosons, $`W^\pm `$ and $`Z`$ (or $`W^3`$), associated with the generators $`\lambda _1\lambda _3`$ are massive and the photon is massless. Through the condensation of pseudo-scalar bosons, DSSB from the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ to the $`U(1)_e`$ is accomplished. The weak gauge bosons $`G_4G_7`$ with isospin two are heavier than weak gauge bosons $`G_1G_3`$ with isospin one and their contribution almost disappears during the phase transition of $`SU(3)_I`$ to $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ symmetry: the detailed concept of isospin will be discussed on treating intrinsic quantum numbers. During DSSB, parity violation and charge conjugation violation are maximal due to the condensation of pseudo-scalar fields. The linear combination of the diagonal isospin octet generators in two octets of triplet isospin combinations generates the three families of an isospin doublet in leptons and quarks. The mass generation scheme for fermions is suggested in terms of the DSSB of chiral symmetry without introducing new input parameters, unlike the GWS model. In this scheme, the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ symmetry and the $`U(1)_e`$ symmetry using the symmetric isospin factors, $`i_f^s=(i_f^z,i_f^w,i_f^y,c_f^e)=(1/3,1/4,1/12,1/16)`$, are applied to the typical electroweak interactions.

The conclusive clues are presented in the following: the Fermi weak coupling constant, the Weinberg angle and neutral current, the three generations of leptons and quarks, the electroweak coupling constants, and the electroweak flavor mixing angle for quarks.

### A Fermi Weak Coupling Constant

As described by the previous section, the electroweak interaction amplitude takes the form of

$$=\frac{g_w^2}{2}J^\mu \frac{1}{k^2M_W^2}J_\mu ^{}=\frac{4}{\sqrt{2}}G_FJ^\mu J_\mu ^{}$$
(23)
where the Fermi weak coupling constant

$$\frac{G_F}{\sqrt{2}}=\frac{g_w^2}{8(k^2M_W^2)}\frac{g_w^2}{8M_W^2}$$
(24)
has the dimension of inverse energy squared. The isospin factor $`i_f=\frac{1}{4}(i_3^{}\lambda ^ai_1)(i_2^{}\lambda _ai_4)`$ is defined in terms of the isospin field $`i`$. Note that (24) is exactly identical to (15), since $`g_z=i_fg_i=g_i/3`$, $`g_w=g_z\mathrm{cos}\theta _W`$, $`M_G^2=M_W^2/i_f`$, and $`M_Z=M_W/\mathrm{cos}\theta _W`$: the isospin factor $`i_f=1/3`$ for the symmetric sextet configuration is discussed in the following subsections. The gauge boson mass $`M_G`$ is connected with the electroweak cutoff scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{EW}`$.

### B Weinberg Angle and Neutral Current

Another clue for the generation of the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ to the $`SU(3)_I`$ symmetry comes from the Weinberg angle $`\theta _W`$ which represents the mixing of $`G_3`$ and $`G_8`$. The experimental value $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W0.234`$  is very close to the theoretical value $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=g_y^2/(g_w^2+g_y^2)=0.25`$ if the coupling constant $`g_w`$ for the $`SU(2)_L`$ group and the coupling constant $`g_y`$ for the $`U(1)_Y`$ group are determined from the $`SU(3)_I`$ group; the theoretical value of $`tan\theta _W=g_y/g_w`$ is just the ratio, $`1/\sqrt{3}`$, between the gauge fields $`G_3`$ and $`G_8`$ from the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge symmetry. The neutral weak coupling constant $`g_z=\sqrt{g_w^2+g_y^2}`$ is defined and accordingly $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _W=g_y/g_z`$ and $`\mathrm{cos}\theta _W=g_w/g_z`$; $`g_w`$ and $`g_y`$ are related by a number known as the isospin factor of the coupling constants. Notice that the experimental value $`0.236`$ is much closer to the theoretical prediction $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=0.25`$ of this scheme than $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=3/8`$ of the $`SU(5)`$ gauge theory  at the tree level.

The Weinberg angle is closely related to massive gauge boson and massless photon generation. The gauge mass terms come from equation (20), evaluated at the shifted vacuum $`\varphi ^{}_{}{}^{}2=\varphi ^2\varphi ^2`$ with scalar boson $`\varphi `$ and condensed scalar boson $`\varphi `$. The relevant terms after the phase transition of the $`SU(3)_I`$ symmetry to the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ symmetry are

$`\varphi ^{}_{}{}^{}2(g_iG_\mu ^a\lambda ^a)(g_iG^{\mu b}\lambda ^b)`$ (25)
$``$ $`\varphi ^{}_{}{}^{}2[g_w^2(G_\mu ^1)^2+g_w^2(G_\mu ^2)^2+(g_wG_\mu ^3+g_yG_\mu ^8)^2].`$ (26)
Recall that $`G_\mu ^1G_\mu ^3`$ and $`G_\mu ^8`$ are respectively equivalent to $`W_\mu ^1W_\mu ^3`$ and $`B_\mu `$ in the GWS electroweak model. There are massive bosons

$`W_\mu ^\pm `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}(G_\mu ^1iG_\mu ^2),`$ (27)
$`Z_\mu ^0`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{cos}\theta _WG_\mu ^3\mathrm{sin}\theta _WG_\mu ^8`$ (28)
where their masses are

$`M_W^2`$ $`=`$ $`g_w^2(\varphi ^2\varphi ^2),`$ (29)
$`M_Z^2`$ $`=`$ $`M_W^2/\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _W=i_fg_i^2[\varphi ^2\varphi ^2]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}g_i^2[\varphi ^2\varphi ^2]`$ (30)
with $`M_H=i_fg_i^2\varphi ^2`$ respectively. The fourth vector identified as the photon, orthogonal to $`Z^0`$, remains massless:

$$A_\mu =\mathrm{sin}\theta _WG_\mu ^3+\mathrm{cos}\theta _WG_\mu ^8$$
(31)
with the mass $`M_A=0`$. Photons play the role of massless gauge bosons responsible for the $`U(1)_e`$ gauge theory. They are understood as NG bosons during DSSB . Two physical neutral gauge fields $`Z_\mu `$ and $`A_\mu `$ are orthogonal combinations of the gauge fields $`G_\mu ^3`$ and $`G_\mu ^8`$ with the mixing angle $`\theta _W`$. The mixing represents the mixing of gauge bosons with the zero third component of isospin, $`G_\mu ^3`$ with isospin $`1`$ and $`G_\mu ^8`$ with isospin $`2`$. The electromagnetic current is the combination of the two neutral currents $`J_\mu ^3`$ and $`j_\mu ^y`$. The generators of this scheme satisfy $`\widehat{Q}=\widehat{I}_3+\widehat{Y}/2`$ as shown in (7) so that

$$j_\mu ^e=J_\mu ^3+j_\mu ^y/2.$$
(32)
The hypercharge operator $`\widehat{Y}=\widehat{B}\widehat{L}`$ is used and applied in the subsection of the three generations of leptons and quarks. The interaction in the neutral current sector can be given by

$`ig_wJ_\mu ^3G^{3\mu }ig_yj_\mu ^yG^{8\mu }/2`$ (33)
$`=`$ $`iej_\mu ^eA^\mu ig_z[J_\mu ^3\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _Wj_\mu ^e]Z^\mu `$ (34)
where the relation

$$e=g_w\mathrm{sin}\theta _W=g_y\mathrm{cos}\theta _W=g_z\mathrm{cos}\theta _W\mathrm{sin}\theta _W$$
(35)
is used. The Weinberg angle in the neutral current interaction of (33) is further addressed by

$`i{\displaystyle \frac{g_w}{\mathrm{cos}\theta _W}}j_\mu ^{NC}Z^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`ig_z\overline{\psi }\gamma ^\mu [{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(1\gamma ^5)I_3\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _WQ]\psi Z_\mu `$ (36)
$`=`$ $`ig_z\overline{\psi }\gamma ^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(g_Vg_A\gamma ^5)\psi Z_\mu `$ (37)
where $`j_\mu ^e`$ is the electric current density. The vector and axial-vector couplings, $`g_V`$ and $`g_A`$, are determined by

$$g_V=I_32\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _WQ,g_A=I_3.$$
(38)
Experimental values for the vector and axial-vector coupling from neutrino-electron data  are reasonably in good agreement with isospin quantum numbers shown in Table I, which is obtained by the GWS model, when the Weinberg angle is $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _W=1/2`$; for the electron, the experimental values are $`g_A=0.52`$ and $`g_V=0.06`$, and theoretical values are $`g_A=0.5`$ and $`g_V=0`$.

### C Electroweak Coupling Constants

During the phase transition from the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory to the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory, two fermion interactions with triplet isospins are represented by $`33=\overline{3}6`$ in group theoretical language. Similarly to the strong interactions, the triplet isospin charges $`(A,B,C)`$ are introduced. From two fermions, a triplet which are asymmetric combinations becomes

$`(ABBA)/\sqrt{2},(BCCB)/\sqrt{2},(CAAC)/\sqrt{2}`$

and a sextet of symmetric combinations becomes

$`AA,BB,CC,`$ (39)
$`(AB+BA)/\sqrt{2},`$ $`(BC+CB)/\sqrt{2},(CA+AC)/\sqrt{2}.`$ (40)
The isospin factor $`i_f=2/3`$ for the triplet configuration is obtained for the fermion-fermion interactions. Since six pairs with the same isospin factor are, together with the normalization factor $`1/6`$, taken into account, the isospin factor is $`i_f=1/3`$. The completely symmetric sextet configuration is related to the three generations of leptons and quarks; sextet members might lead to three generations of the $`SU(2)_L`$ isospin symmetry after the electromagnetic phase transition: $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_YU(1)_e`$. The involved gauge bosons in the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory are $`G_1G_3`$ and $`G_8`$. Note that the coupling constant for the charge neutral current is $`\alpha _z=i_f\alpha _i=\alpha _i/3`$. Leptons are asymmetric in spin and isospin states while quarks are symmetric in spin and isospin states.

This scheme explains the weak coupling constant consistent with experimental values through the data of muon decay . The observed muon lifetime and mass give a Fermi weak coupling

$$G_F=\frac{\sqrt{2}}{8}(\frac{g_w}{M_W})^2=1.166\times 10^5\text{GeV}^2.$$
(41)
The corresponding value of the weak coupling constant $`g_w`$ is given by $`g_w0.61`$ and the weak fine structure constant becomes

$$\alpha _w=g_w^2/4\pi 0.03.$$
(42)
On the other hand, since $`\alpha _e=1/137`$, $`\alpha _e=\alpha _w\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W`$, $`\alpha _z\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _W=\alpha _w`$, $`\alpha _z=i_f\alpha _i`$, and $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=1/4`$, the prediction of $`\alpha _z=g_z^2/4\pi =0.04`$ and $`\alpha _i=g_i^2/4\pi 0.12`$ at the weak scale is obtained. In summary, the coupling constant hierarchy in the weak interactions is $`\alpha _i,\alpha _z=\alpha _i/30.04,\alpha _w=\alpha _i/40.03,\alpha _y=\alpha _i/120.01`$, and $`\alpha _e=\alpha _i/161/133`$ at the weak scale. The isospin factor $`i_f=1/4`$ for $`\alpha _w=\alpha _i/4`$ represents the coupling between parallel $`SU(2)`$ isospins.

### D Three Generations of Leptons and Quarks: Weak Isospin and Charge Quantum Number

This scheme exhibits three generations of leptons and quarks holding family symmetry, which is one of the fundamental question in particle physics. The left-handed lepton doublets are

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\nu _e}{e}\right)_L,\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\nu _\mu }{\mu }\right)_L,\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\nu _\tau }{\tau }\right)_L$$
(43)
and the right-handed lepton singlets are $`e_R,\mu _R,\tau _R`$. The left-handed quark doublets are

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{u}{d}\right)_L,\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{c}{s}\right)_L,\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{t}{b}\right)_L$$
(44)
and the right-handed quark singlets are $`u_R`$ or $`d_R`$, $`c_R`$ or $`s_R`$, and $`t_R`$ or $`b_R`$. The detailed scenarios of the isospin and charge quantum numbers are as follows.

The $`SU(3)_I`$ symmetry represents, in group theoretical language, $`333=10881`$ for three fermion combinations with triplet isospins. When triplet isospin charges $`A,B,C`$ are introduced, the two octets are partially asymmetric under the interchange of isospin. One octet is asymmetric under the interchange of the first and second isospins, $`(A,B)`$, and the other octet is asymmetric under the interchange of the first and third isospins, $`(A,C)`$, or the second and third isospins, $`(B,C)`$. The linear combination of two octets yields the fermion families with symmetric isospin configurations. Three families of leptons are created as the linear combination of diagonal isospin components of three $`SU(2)`$ subgroups, I, U, and V isospins, in two octets. The phase transition of the $`SU(3)_ISU(2)_L\times U(1)_YU(1)_e`$ gauge theory provides us with the electric charge quantization $`\widehat{Q}=\widehat{I}_3+\widehat{Y}/2`$ with $`\widehat{Y}=\widehat{B}\widehat{L}`$. For example, the linear combination of generators $`\lambda _3^a`$ and $`\lambda _3^s`$ is for left-handed lepton doublet, and the linear combination of generators $`\lambda _8^a`$ and $`\lambda _3^s`$ is for the right-handed lepton singlet, where the superscripts $`a`$ and $`s`$ represent the asymmetric and symmetric states under interchanging the first two particles, respectively. The generators are dual in parity:

$`\lambda _3^a/2`$ $`=`$ $`diag(1,1,0)/2,\lambda _3^s/2=diag(1,1,0)/2,`$ (45)
$`\lambda _8^a/2\sqrt{3}`$ $`=`$ $`diag(1,1,2)/6,\lambda _8^s/2\sqrt{3}=diag(1,1,2)/6.`$ (46)
Note that the rotation by the Weinberg angle is included in the coefficients. Three generations of quarks are also created as a linear combination of the diagonal isospin components of I, U and V subgroups: for instance, the linear combination of $`\lambda _3^a`$ and $`\lambda _8^s`$ for left-handed quark doublet and the linear combination of $`\lambda _8^a`$ and $`\lambda _8^s`$ for the right-handed quark singlet. The mass difference among the three families depends on the condensation of the pseudo-scalar bosons. The $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge symmetry is broken as a result of the condensation of the pseudo scalar bosons. The $`\lambda _3^s`$ is relevant for lepton families with $`I_3=0`$ and $`Y=L=1`$, the $`\lambda _8^s`$ is relevant for the quark families with $`I_3=0`$ and $`Y=B=1/3`$, the $`\lambda _3^a`$ is relevant for the left-handed doublets $`I_3=\pm 1/2`$ and $`Y=0`$, and the $`\lambda _8^a`$ is relevant for the right-handed singlets with $`I_3=0`$ and $`Y=1`$. Note that the states of $`\lambda _3^a`$ and $`\lambda _8^a`$ determine the distinction between the left- and right-handed particles; they are closely related to the axial-vector charges since they hold odd parity while $`\lambda _3^s`$ and $`\lambda _8^s`$ are related to the vector charges since they hold even parity. A summaries for the generation of leptons and quarks is as follows. The linear combination of $`\lambda _3^a`$ and $`\lambda _3^s`$ generates the left-handed lepton doublets with $`I_3=\pm 1/2`$ and $`Y=L=1`$: $`diag(1,1,0)/2diag(1,1,0)/2=diag(0,1,0)`$. The linear combination of $`\lambda _3^a`$ and $`\lambda _8^s`$ generates the left-handed quark doublets with $`I_3=\pm 1/2`$ and $`Y=B=1/3`$: $`diag(1,1,0)/2+diag(1,1,2)/6=diag(2,1,1)/3`$. The linear combination of $`\lambda _8^a`$ and $`\lambda _3^s`$ generates the right-handed lepton singlets with $`I_3=0`$ and $`Y=2`$: $`diag(1,1,2)/6diag(1,1,0)/2=diag(2,2,1)/3`$. The linear combination of $`\lambda _8^a`$ and $`\lambda _8^s`$ generates the right-handed quark singlets with $`I_3=0`$ and $`Y=4/3`$ or with $`I_3=0`$ and $`Y=2/3`$: $`diag(1,1,2)/6+diag(1,1,2)/6=diag(0,0,2)/3`$ or $`diag(1,1,2)/6diag(1,1,2)/6=diag(1,1,0)/3`$ where the element $`1/3`$ denotes the down quark and the element $`2/3`$ denotes the up quark. Weak isospin and electric charge quantum numbers of leptons and quarks are summarized in Table I. This scheme illustrates the left-right symmetry before DSSB; it is similar to the composite model  and the left-right symmetric model of weak interactions .

In other words, each elementary fermion such as the lepton or quark possesses color and isospin degrees of freedom in addition to spin degrees of freedom. The lepton is postulated as a color singlet state while the quark is postulated as a color triplet state so that it may interact through the color charge exchange. All leptons and quarks consist of a lepton octet and a quark octet, in which each family explicitly possesses three generations of isospin doublets with one electric charge unit difference: this is very much analogous to the celebrated eight-fold way in hadron spectra with quark flavor symmetry.

### E Electroweak Flavor Mixing Angle for Quarks

Further clues are the mixing angles of the KM matrix  including the Cabbibo angle . The mixing between the $`d`$ and $`s`$ quarks in the decay of the vector boson $`W^+`$ is represented by the Cabbibo angle which indicates mixing among quark families. The mixing of the d and s quark is observed by comparing $`\mathrm{\Delta }S=1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }S=0`$ decays:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(K^+\mu ^++\nu _\mu )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi ^+\mu ^++\nu _\mu )}}`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _C,`$ (47)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(K^+\pi ^0+e^++\nu _\mu )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi ^+\pi ^0+e^++\nu _\mu )}}`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _C.`$ (48)
The mixing between the quarks is more extended to the third generation of quarks by the KM matrix which includes three angles and one CP phase angle . These mixing angles and this phase angle show the possibility that quark interactions are generated from both the weak interaction of the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge symmetry and the strong interaction of the $`SU(3)_C`$ gauge symmetry.

Recall that electric charges for left-handed quarks are obtained by the linear combination of generators $`\lambda _3^a`$ and $`\lambda _8^s`$; the electric charge matrix is given by $`diag(2/3,1/3,1/3)`$. The existence of the third component in QWD, which has a quantum number $`Y=2/3`$, which is unpredictable from the GWS model, indicates the $`SU(3)_I`$ flavor symmetry and is related to the mixing of $`W^+=G^{1+i2}`$ and $`G^{4+i5}`$ gauge fields for positively charged gauge fields; for instance, the total current becomes $`j_\mu =\mathrm{cos}\theta _Cj_\mu ^{1+i2}+\mathrm{sin}\theta _Cj_\mu ^{4+i5}`$ where the Cabbibo angle $`tan^2\theta _C`$ is determined by the mass square ratio of the two gauge fields $`G^{1+i2}`$ and $`G^{4+i5}`$: $`M_W=M_G^{1+i2}`$ and $`M_G^{4+i5}2M_W`$. The Cabbibo angle $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _C=(M_G^{1+i2}/M_G^{4+i5})^21/4`$ is thus predicted and is very close to the experimental value $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _C=0.231`$. This is also supported by $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _C`$ being connected with the mass ratio $`1/20`$ of the $`d`$ and $`s`$ quarks . The Cabbibo angle thus indicates the mixing between the $`SU(2)`$ subgroups I and U. This can be considered to be conclusive evidence of the massive gauge bosons $`G_4`$ and $`G_5`$ with the masses $`2M_W`$ in addition to three intermediate vector bosons.

The other two mixing angles in the KM matrix respectively represent the mixing between the $`SU(2)`$ subgroups I and V and the mixing between the subgroups U and V. Since the other mixing angles are experimentally close to zero, the masses of the gauge bosons $`G_6`$ and $`G_7`$ must be heavier than those of $`G_1`$ and $`G_2`$. Note that weak CP violation from the decay of the neutral kaon is relevant for the $`\mathrm{\Theta }10^3`$, and the absence of right-handed neutrinos is a direct consequence of the non-conservation of the (V + A) current under the breaking of discrete symmetries.

## IV Grand Unification of Strong and Electroweak Interactions

In this section, the grand unification of QWD and QCD is clarified in terms of the experimental strong and weak coupling constants. A coupling constant hierarchy for weak interactions is suggested in analogy with coupling constant hierarchy for the strong interactions.

A grand unified group $`H`$ contains the $`SU(3)_I`$ group for the weak interactions and the $`SU(3)_C`$ group for strong interactions  as subgroups: $`HSU(3)_I\times SU(3)_C`$. A certain grand unification group $`H`$ breaks down to the $`SU(3)_I\times SU(3)_C`$ group at the grand unification scale around $`10^3`$ GeV, which is much lower than the grand unification scale $`10^{15}`$ GeV of the GUT  being the grand unification of the standard model $`SU(3)_C\times SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$. This scheme might provide the resolution to the hierarchy problem and the analogy between the $`SU(3)_I`$ and $`SU(3)_C`$ symmetries. In the following, grand unification of the weak and strong interactions and the comparison of effective coupling constants are discussed.

### A Grand Unification of Quantum Weakdynamics and Quantum Chromodynamics

There is conclusive evidence for the proposal that QCD for the strong force is unified with QWD for the weak force at the grand unification scale around $`10^3`$ GeV. The fine structure constant $`\alpha _s`$ for the strong interactions is measured by numerous experiments :

$$\alpha _s(M_Z)0.12$$
(49)
which has been evaluated at the momentum of the $`Z`$ boson mass $`q=M_Z`$. The fine structure constant $`\alpha _w`$ for the $`SU(2)_L`$ weak interaction is given by the data of muon decay :

$$\alpha _w(M_W)0.03$$
(50)
at the momentum of the $`W`$ boson mass $`q=M_W`$. The two empirical coupling constants (49) and (50) provide the grand unification scale around $`10^3`$ GeV, where the strong coupling constant is the same as the weak coupling constant: $`\alpha _h=\alpha _s=\alpha _i`$. For the $`SU(3)_I`$ symmetry, a symmetric sextet configuration in isospin-isospin interactions has the fine structure constant $`\alpha _z=i_f\alpha _i=\alpha _i/3`$, which is the coupling constant for the gauge boson $`Z`$. Since $`\alpha _z=\alpha _w/\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _W`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=1/4`$, the fine structure constant for the $`W`$ boson is $`\alpha _w=\alpha _i/4`$; the fine structure constant for QWD, $`\alpha _i(M_Z)0.12`$, is thus obtained. This leads to the fine structure constant for the electromagnetic interactions $`\alpha _e=\alpha _w\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=\alpha _i/16=1/133`$. In summary, the fine structure constants are given by $`\alpha _h=\alpha _s=\alpha _i0.12`$, $`\alpha _z=\alpha _i/30.04`$, $`\alpha _w=\alpha _i/40.03`$, $`\alpha _y=\alpha _i/120.01`$, and $`\alpha _e=\alpha _i/161/133`$ around the weak scale $`10^2`$ GeV. In addition, the electromagnetic interactions give the fine structure constant $`4\alpha _e/9=\alpha _i/36`$ for up quarks and $`\alpha _e/9=\alpha _i/144`$ for the down quarks. This explains the group chains $`HSU(3)_I\times SU(3)_C`$ and $`SU(3)_ISU(2)_L\times U(1)_YU(1)_e`$.

After the phase transition of the group $`H`$, the groups $`SU(3)_I`$ and $`SU(3)_C`$ preserve the analogous properties. The isospin coupling constant is given by $`g_i`$ and the Weinberg weak mixing angle is given by $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=1/4`$. As the energy scale decreases, the $`SU(3)_I`$ group for isospin interactions breaks down to the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ group for the electroweak interactions at the electroweak scale. The electroweak coupling constants are, in summary, $`\alpha _z=i_f^z\alpha _i=\alpha _i/30.04`$, $`\alpha _w=i_f^w\alpha _i=\alpha _i/40.03`$, $`\alpha _y=i_f^y\alpha _i=\alpha _i/120.01`$, and $`\alpha _e=i_f^e\alpha _i=\alpha _i/161/133`$ for the symmetric isospin interactions at the weak scale and $`2\alpha _i/3`$, $`\alpha _i/2`$, $`\alpha _i/6`$, and $`\alpha _i/8`$ for the asymmetric isospin interactions: $`i_f^w=\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W`$ and $`i_f^e=\mathrm{sin}^4\theta _W`$. The isospin factors introduced are $`i_f^s=(i_f^z,i_f^w,i_f^y,i_f^e)=(c_f^b,c_f^n,c_f^z,c_f^f)=(1/3,1/4,1/12,1/16)`$ for symmetric interactions and $`i_f^a=(2/3,1/2,1/6,1/8)`$ for asymmetric interactions. The symmetric charge factors reflect an intrinsic even parity with repulsive force while the asymmetric charge factors reflect an intrinsic odd parity with attractive force; this suggests electromagnetic duality. The symmetric charge factors reflect intrinsic even parity with repulsive force while the asymmetric charge factors reflect an intrinsic odd parity with attractive force. As a consequence of gauge theories, conservation laws are expected. Table II shows relations between conservation laws and gauge theories in the weak interactions. However, there is a possibility that not for the separate conservation of the baryon number and the lepton number hold, but the combined conservation of $`(BL)`$ number conservation in the energies above $`10^2`$ GeV.

### B Coupling Constants for Fundamental Forces

The new grand unification energy $`10^3`$ GeV rather than the conventional energy $`10^{15}`$ GeV is obtained so that the hierarchy problem seems to be resolved. The unification at the order of a TeV energy is consistent with recent GUT . Dynamical symmetrical breaking is adopted instead of the Higgs mechanism; the condensation of pseudo-scalar bosons reduces the mass of the gauge boson and it becomes the source of the system inflation.

QWD has an asymptotic freedom in the weak coupling constant $`g_i`$ just at the notable characteristic of QCD is the asymptotic freedom due to anti-screening at short distance as a non-Abelian gauge theory according to the renormalization group study . Massive gauge bosons at the grand unification scale produce massive intermediate vector bosons and massive gluons at weak and strong interaction energies respectively. The effective grand unified coupling becomes

$$\frac{G_H}{\sqrt{2}}=\frac{g_h^2}{8(k^2M_G^2)}\frac{g_h^2}{8M_G^2}10^4\text{GeV}^2$$
(51)
where the coupling constant $`g_h`$ for the grand unified gauge group $`H`$: the effective coupling constant chain becomes $`G_HG_F\times G_R`$ with the effective strong coupling constant $`G_R/\sqrt{2}=g_s^2/8M_G^210\text{GeV}^2`$. Note that $`G_H`$ is close to $`G_F`$ or it is slightly less than $`G_F`$, since $`\alpha _h\alpha _i\alpha _s`$ at the energy scale $`10^3`$ GeV. The mass of the gauge boson at the grand unification scale is expressed by $`M_G^2=M_H^2`$ at a slightly higher phase transition energy above the weak scale. The gauge boson decreases its mass as the condensation increases when the energy scale decreases. At $`T10^2`$ GeV, the gauge boson number density is $`n_G=M_G^310^6\text{GeV}^310^{47}\text{cm}^3`$, the vacuum energy density is $`V_0=M_G^410^8\text{GeV}^410^{25}g\text{cm}^3`$, and the total gauge boson number is $`N_G10^{91}`$, which is a conserved good quantum number.

Of the four fundamental forces in nature, the three forces, the electromagnetic, strong, and weak forces, are unified at the grand unification scale. Strong interactions are limited in range to about $`10^{13}`$ cm and are insignificant even at the scale of the atom $`10^8`$ cm, but play an important role in binding the nucleus. Weak interactions with an even shorter scale $`(10^{15}\text{cm})`$ do play an important role in weak decay processes. The strengths of the four forces are roughly in orders of magnitude $`10,10^2,10^5`$, and $`10^{41}`$ for strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational forces, respectively. The difference in strength is more than a factor of $`G_R/G_N10^{39}`$ for the strong and gravitational interactions. The ratio of the electroweak and gravitational forces is also obtained by $`G_F/G_N10^{33}`$.

The gauge boson possesses the isospin $`SU(3)_I`$ and color $`SU(3)_C`$ symmetries below the grand unification energy. The gauge boson with the energy higher than its mass thus effectively interacts with the Coulomb potential outside the grand unification scale while the gauge boson with the energy lower than its mass essentially interacts with the Yukawa potential within the grand unification or weak scale. At the grand unification scale, the gauge boson has a mass so that the interaction range is limited to the grand unification scale. However, as energy goes down the gauge boson loses mass because of the pseudo-scalar boson condensation. Isospin interactions are represented by both the Coulomb potential and the Yukawa potential with a Fermi weak constant $`G_F10^5\text{GeV}^2`$. This implies that the isospin field with the Yukawa interaction does not propagate over the long range due to the heavy mass; recall that the (V - A) current in the weak theory has a point-like interaction with a Fermi coupling constant $`G_F`$. At the electroweak phase transition, the isospin interaction range for massive gauge bosons is restricted to the weak scale but the electromagnetic interaction range for the massless photons is infinite. Gauge boson masses change their values at the different energy scale due to the scalar boson condensation. For example, $`M_G10^2`$ GeV at the grand unification scale or at the electroweak phase transition scale and $`M_G0.1`$ GeV at the QCD cutoff scale. The Fermi coupling constant $`G_F`$ thus denotes the effective coupling for the Yukawa potential of the isospin field at the electroweak scale. Energy scales for phase transitions of the fundamental forces are accordingly as follows; the grand unification corresponds to $`E\mathrm{\Lambda }_H`$, the weak force to $`E\mathrm{\Lambda }_W`$ with the weak scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_W10^2`$ GeV, and the strong force to $`E\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}`$ with the strong mass scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}0.1`$ GeV.

## V Quark and Lepton Mass Generation

The DSSB mechanism suggests quark and lepton mass generation, which is the outstanding problem in the GWS model using the Higgs mechanism. In this scheme, quarks and leptons are not treated as fundamental elementary particles but as composite particles. The duality property before phase transition may be broken by DSSB after phase transition.

Ordinary mass terms in the Lagrangian are not allowed, because the left- and right-handed components of the various fermion fields have different quantum numbers, and so simple mass terms violate gauge invariance. To generate masses for the quarks and leptons, the DSSB mechanism of gauge symmetry and chiral symmetry is required. The condensation of pseudo-scalar bosons and fermion pairs is connected with the lepton and quark masses in the course of parity and charge conjugation violation, which breaks chiral symmetry; the $`SU(2)_L`$ doublet (V - A) current is conserved but the $`SU(2)_R`$ (or $`U(1)_R`$) singlet (V + A) current is not conserved. The massless gauge bosons in the DSSB of gauge symmetry and chiral symmetry are photons.

The dual Meissner effect, constituent fermions, fine and hyperfine structure, and quark and lepton mass generation are addressed in the following.

### A Dual Meissner Effect

The quark or lepton formation is the consequence of the isospin-isospin interaction due to the dual Meissner effect, in which the isotope electric monopole and the isotope magnetic dipole (isospin) are confined inside the quark (or lepton), while the isotope magnetic monopole and the isotope electric dipole are confined in the vacuum. The difference number of right- and left-handed (singlet and doublet) fermions $`N_{sd}=N_{ss}N_{sc}`$, the number of left-handed constituent particles $`N_{ss}`$, and the right-handed condensation number $`N_{sc}`$ are introduced.

During the DSSB of gauge symmetry and chiral symmetry, the dual Meissner effect of the isospin electric field in the relativistic case can be given by

$$_\mu ^\mu G^\mu =M_G^2G^\mu $$
(52)
where the right-hand side is the screening current, $`j_{sc}^\mu =M_G^2G^\mu `$. Recall that the masses of the gauge bosons are expressed by $`M_G^2=M_H^2i_fg_i^2\varphi ^2=i_fg_i^2[\varphi ^2\varphi ^2]`$ where $`\varphi `$ represents the condensation of the pseudo scalar boson and $`i_f`$ denotes the isospin factor. The screening of the isospin field intensity in the isospin superconducting state is given by

$$^2\stackrel{}{E}_i=M_G^2\stackrel{}{E}_i$$
(53)
where $`\stackrel{}{G}`$ is the isospin electric field $`E_i`$ excluded in the vacuum by $`\stackrel{}{E}_i=\stackrel{}{E}_{i0}e^{M_Gr}`$. Note the difference between the isospin dielectric due to the isospin electric field $`\stackrel{}{E}_i`$ and the isospin diamagnetism due to the isospin magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{B}_i`$. The mechanism is by analogy connected with the Faraday induction law which opposes the change in the isospin electric flux, rather than the isospin magnetic flux according to Lenz’s law.

The gauge boson mass is related to the fermion mass $`m_f`$:

$$M_G=(\frac{g_{im}^2|\psi (0)|^2}{m_f})^{1/2}\sqrt{\pi }m_fi_f\alpha _i\sqrt{N_{sd}}$$
(54)
which is obtained by the analogy of electric superconductivity , $`M^2=q^2|\psi (0)|^2/m`$: $`q=2e`$ and $`m=2m_e`$ are replaced by $`g_{im}`$ and $`m_f`$. The isospin magnetic coupling constant $`g_{im}=2\pi n/\sqrt{i_f}g_i=2\pi \sqrt{N_{sd}}/\sqrt{i_f}g_i`$ by the Dirac quantization condition, is used. $`|\psi (0)|^2`$ denotes the particle probability density and $`N_{sd}`$ denotes the difference number of right- and left-handed fermions in intrinsic two-space dimensions.

A fermion mass term in the Dirac Lagrangian has the form $`m_f\overline{\psi }\psi =m_f(\overline{\psi }_R\psi _L+\overline{\psi }_L\psi _R)`$ where the mass term is equivalent to a helicity flip. Left-handed fermions are put into $`SU(2)`$ doublets and the right-handed ones into $`SU(2)`$ singlets. The coherent fermion system is effectively a collection of the Cooper pairs of left- and right-handed fermions, so that the macroscopic occupancy of a single quantum state could occur; all the pairs have the same center of mass momentum known as the coherent state. The fermion mass generation mechanism is the dual pairing mechanism of the constituent fermions, which makes boson-like particles of paired fermions. According to the electric-magnetic duality , the isospin electric flux is quantized by $`\mathrm{\Phi }_E=\stackrel{}{E}_i𝑑\stackrel{}{A}=\sqrt{i_f}g_i`$ in the matter space while the isospin magnetic flux is quantized by $`\mathrm{\Phi }_B=\stackrel{}{B}_i𝑑\stackrel{}{A}=g_{im}`$ with the isospin magnetic coupling constant $`g_{im}`$ in the vacuum space: the Dirac quantization condition

$$\sqrt{i_f}g_ig_{im}=2\pi n=2\pi \sqrt{N_{sd}}$$
(55)
is satisfied with the connection between $`n`$ and $`N_{sd}`$. In the matter space, it is the pairing mechanism of isospin electric monopoles while in the vacuum space, it is the pairing mechanism of isospin magnetic monopoles according to the duality between electricity and magnetism : isospin electric monopole pairing and isospin magnetic monopole condensation. In the dual pairing mechanism, the discrete symmetries P, C, T, and CP are dynamically broken. The isospin electric monopole, isospin magnetic dipole, and isospin electric quadrupole remain in the matter space, but the isospin magnetic monopole, isospin electric dipole, and isospin magnetic quadrupole condense in the vacuum space as a consequence of P violation. Antimatter particles condense in the vacuum space while matter particles remain in the matter space as a consequence of C violation: the matter-antimatter asymmetry. The lepton-antilepton asymmetry is also supporting evidence of the discrete symmetry breaking. The electric dipole moment of the neutron and the decay of the neutral kaon decay are the typical examples for T or CP violation.

Normal fermions with the quantum number $`N_{sd}`$ interact with each other with isospin symmetric configurations, $`c_f^s=(c_f^b,c_f^n,c_f^z,c_f^f)=(1/3,1/4,1/12,1/16)`$, while condensed fermions with the condensation number $`N_{sc}`$ interact each other with isospin asymmetric configurations, $`c_f^a=(2/3,1/2,1/6,1/8)`$. Comparing (54) with (20), it is realized that $`M_H=\sqrt{\pi }m_fi_f\alpha _i\sqrt{N_{ss}}`$ and $`\varphi =(m_f^2i_f\alpha _iN_{sc}/4)^{1/2}`$. Note that equation (54) is analogous to the fermion mass $`m_f=\overline{F}F/2\mu ^2`$ with the condensation of the technifermion $`F`$ and the extended technicolor scale $`\mu `$ in the extended technicolor model . It is instructive that $`m_f=\lambda _fM_G`$ where $`\lambda _f\frac{1}{\sqrt{\pi }i_f\alpha _i\sqrt{N_{sd}}}`$ depends on the number $`N_{sd}`$. The intrinsic quantum number of a constituent fermion is thus important in determining the fermion masses. For example, the $`u`$ quark with the current quark mass $`m_u5`$ MeV has $`N_{sd}^u=10^{10}`$ and electron with the mass $`m_e0.5`$ MeV has $`N_{sd}^e10^{12}`$ for the effective coupling constant $`G_F=10^5\text{GeV}^2`$ and the gauge boson mass $`M_G10^2`$ GeV: $`m_e/m_u1/10`$ and $`N_{sd}^e/N_{sd}^u1/10^2`$. Each quark or lepton holds a different intrinsic quantum number as a distinct state.

### B Constituent Fermions

Leptons and quarks are postulated to be composite particles consisting of constituent fermions as a result of $`U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory. This concept is similar to the concept of technicolors or preons  as more fundamental particles forming quarks and leptons.

The relation between the gauge boson mass and the free fermion mass, which is confirmed in (54), is given by $`M_H=\sqrt{\pi }m_fi_f\alpha _i\sqrt{N_{ss}}`$ or

$$M_G=\sqrt{\pi }m_fi_f\alpha _i\sqrt{N_{sd}}$$
(56)
where $`m_f`$ is the mass of a fermion, $`N_{sd}`$ is the difference number of left- and right-handed fermions in intrinsic two-space dimensions, and $`N_{ss}`$ is the number of left-handed fermions. The fermion mass formed as a result of the dual pairing mechanism in the above is composed of constituent particles:

$$m_f=\underset{i}{\overset{N}{}}m_i$$
(57)
where $`m_i`$ is the constituent particle mass. In the above, $`N`$ depends on the intrinsic quantum number of the constituent particles: $`N=N_{sd}^{3/2}`$. For example, $`N=1/L`$ with the lepton number $`L`$ for a constituent particle in the formation of a lepton.

The difference number of fermions $`N_{sd}`$ is the origin of symmetry violation during DSSB. Fermions with odd parity condense in the vacuum space while fermions with even parity remain in the matter space; for example, magnetic monopoles with odd parity are not observed, but electric monopoles with even parity are observed in the matter space. Discrete symmetries are violated so as to have complex scattering amplitude and the non-conservation of the right-handed singlet current. This is the main reason for the change of the fermion mass and gauge boson mass.

### C Fine and Hyperfine Structure

In order to obtain the fermion mass formula for fine and hyperfine interactions the analogy of QED is nonrelativistically considered to avoid complexity. The fine interactions become isospin-isospin interactions as a result of the $`SU(2)_L`$ gauge theory. Hyperfine interactions consist of spin-spin and colorspin-colorspin interactions. The colorspin-colorspin interaction is closely related to the difference between the lepton as a color singlet state and the quark as a color triplet state.

In QED, the dipole moment has the form expected for a Dirac point-like fermion: $`\stackrel{}{\mu }_i=\frac{e}{2m_e}\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i`$ where $`e`$ is the electric charge of particle, $`m_e`$ the particle mass, and $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i`$ its Pauli matrix. The spin-spin interaction due to the magnetic moment leads to the hyperfine splitting of the ground state:

$$\mathrm{}E_{hf}=\frac{2}{3}\stackrel{}{\mu }_i\stackrel{}{\mu }_j|\psi (0)|^2=\frac{2\pi \alpha _e}{3}\frac{\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_j}{m_im_j}|\psi (0)|^2$$
(58)
where $`\psi (0)`$ is the wave function of the two particle system at the origin $`(r_{ij}=0)`$ and the spin-spin interaction is proportional to $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_j=4\stackrel{}{s}_i\stackrel{}{s}_j`$. The above result can be taken over to the isospin-isospin interaction as the fine interaction:

$$\mathrm{}E_f=\frac{2\pi g_i^2}{3}\frac{\stackrel{}{\tau }_i\stackrel{}{\tau }_j}{m_im_j}|\psi (0)|^2$$
(59)
where $`g_i`$ is the isospin coupling constant, $`i_f=\stackrel{}{\tau }_i\stackrel{}{\tau }_j`$ is the isospin factor, and $`\stackrel{}{\tau }_i=2i`$ is the Pauli matrix. The masses $`m_i`$ and $`m_j`$ denote constituent fermion masses for each lepton or quark as suggested by the fermion mass formation through the pairing mechanism.

The above result can be taken over to spin-spin and colorspin-colorspin interactions:

$$\mathrm{}E_{hf}=\frac{2\pi i_fg_i^2}{3}\frac{\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_j}{m_im_j}|\psi (0)|^2+\frac{2\pi i_fg_i^2}{3}\frac{\stackrel{}{\zeta }_i\stackrel{}{\zeta }_j}{m_im_j}|\psi (0)|^2$$
(60)
where $`g_i`$ is the isospin coupling constant, $`i_f`$ is the symmetric isospin factor, and $`\stackrel{}{\zeta }_i=2c`$ is the Pauli matrix. The first term denotes the contribution from the spin-spin interaction and the second term denotes the colorspin-colorspin interaction. The second term in (60) makes the distinction between leptons and quarks and causes quark mixing like d and s quarks.

### D Quark and Lepton Mass Generation

The quark or lepton mass consists of three parts apart from the dual pairing mechanism: constituent particle mass, the fine structure energy, and the hyperfine structure energy.

Combining (57), (59), and (60), the fermion mass formula is thus given by

$`m_f`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}m_i+{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi g_i^2}{3}}{\displaystyle \underset{i>j}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{\tau }_i\stackrel{}{\tau }_j}{m_im_j}}|\psi (0)|^2`$ (61)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi i_fg_i^2}{3}}{\displaystyle \underset{i>j}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_j}{m_im_j}}|\psi (0)|^2`$ (62)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi i_fg_i^2}{3}}{\displaystyle \underset{i>j}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{\zeta }_i\stackrel{}{\zeta }_j}{m_im_j}}|\psi (0)|^2`$ (63)
where $`|\psi (0)|^2(i_fm_f\alpha _i)^3`$ and $`m_i`$ is the mass of each constituent particle. The first term of the right-hand side denotes the free constituent particle contribution, the second term denotes the isospin-isospin contribution, the third term denotes the spin-spin contribution, and the fourth term denotes the colorspin-colorspin contribution in the mass generation mechanism. The fourth term seems to be the main reason for the mass difference of the lepton as a color singlet state and the quark as a color triplet state. The fundamental particles known as leptons and quarks are postulated to be composite particles with the same third component of spin $`\pm 1/2`$ and isospin $`\pm 1/2`$ but a different degeneracy number $`N_{sd}`$: $`N_{sd}`$ is further discussed in the following section. It suggests that fermion mass generation mechanism is relevant for the (V+A) current anomaly, which reduces the zero-point energy and triggers the DSSB of gauge and chiral symmetries.

Although the GWS model holds many attractive features, the Higgs sector and the fermion mass sector are the least satisfactory aspects of the electroweak theory. The minimal choice of a simple Higgs doublet is sufficient to generate the masses both of the gauge bosons and of fermions, but the masses of the fermions are just parameters of the theory which are not predicted; their empirical values must be taken as input parameters. The GWS model allows the electron to be very light but it can not explain why the electron is so light compared with the intermediate vector boson. However, this scheme might express a plausible reason for it if the fermion difference number $`N_{sd}`$ is very large, about $`10^{12}`$ order. QWD hints at mass generation through the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum and the dual pairing mechanism. QWD produces three generations of fermion families and the gauge bosons for the DSSB of the gauge group. In this scheme, neutrinos should have masses as hinted at by . QWD as a gauge theory has the favorable feature of only one input parameter for the weak coupling constant $`g_i`$; the dynamics can be regarded as quantum flavordynamics for fermion generations. Being anomaly free in perturbative renormalization, which requires equal numbers in quarks and leptons, suggests that the lepton number excess compared to the baryon number might be used for the dark matter, which plays an important role in the later stage of the evolution of the universe. The presence of the non-perturbative anomaly, the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum term in (8), does not necessarily spoil renormalization because there is no Ward-Takahashi identity  destroyed by the non-conservation of any local conserved current with even parity. QWD as the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory suggests the possibility not for the separate conservation of baryon number and lepton number but for the combined of $`(BL)`$ number conservation in the energies above $`10^2`$ GeV. The lepton number is however conserved as a result of the $`U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory below the weak scale, and the baryon number is conserved as a result of the $`U(1)_Z`$ gauge theory below the strong scale .

## VI $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ Constant and Quantum Numbers

The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term in the Lagrangian density triggers DSSB and quantizes space and time. The parameter $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ is constrained to hold the flat universe condition. The gauge invariance and boundary condition of spacetime provide the quantization of the internal space and external space. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ constant in (12) is related to the decay of the neutral kaon, and is applied to the mechanism of fermion mass generation. In this section, the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ constant, matter and vacuum quantum numbers, and $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ constant and quantum numbers are addressed.

### A $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ Constant

Under the constraint of the extremely flat universe required by quantum gauge theory, the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ constant in (8) $`\mathrm{\Theta }=10^{61}\rho _G/\rho _m,`$ depends on the gauge boson mass $`M_G`$ since $`\rho _G=M_G^4`$: $`\mathrm{\Theta }=10^{61}M_G^4/\rho _c10^4`$ at the weak scale $`M_G10^2`$ GeV. Since the gauge boson mass depends on the Weinberg mixing angle $`\theta _W`$, $`M_G^{}M_G\mathrm{sin}\theta _W`$, during the DSSB of $`SU(3)_ISU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ or $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_YU(1)_e`$ gauge theory, the change of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ constant depends on $`\theta _W`$: $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Theta }\mathrm{sin}^4\theta _W=i_f^{e2}.`$ Note that the isospin factor $`i_f^w=\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W1/4`$ and the weak boson mass $`M_W=M_Z\mathrm{cos}\theta _W`$. The relation between the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ constant and the difference number $`N_{sd}`$ is given by

$$\mathrm{\Theta }=\pi ^2i_f^4\alpha _i^4m_f^4N_{sd}^2/10^{61}\rho _c$$
(64)
from equations (12) and (56). $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ values become $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{EW}10^4`$ and $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{QCD}10^{13}`$ at different stages. This is consistent with the observed results, $`\mathrm{\Theta }<10^9`$ in the electric dipole moment of the neutron and $`\mathrm{\Theta }10^3`$ in the neutral kaon decay.

### B Matter and Vacuum Quantum Numbers

There is the condensation process in the fermion mass generation mechanism. The process is the dual pairing mechanism of constituent fermions, which makes boson-like particles of paired fermions. At the phase transition, $`N_{sc}`$ becomes zero so that $`N_{sd}`$ becomes the maximum. Using the relations $`M_G=\sqrt{\pi }m_fi_f\alpha _i\sqrt{N_{sd}}`$ and $`M_G^2=M_H^2i_fg_i^2\varphi ^2=i_fg_i^2[\varphi ^2\varphi ^2]`$, the zero point energy $`M_H^2=\pi m_f^2i_f^2\alpha _i^2N_{ss}`$ and the reduction of the zero-point energy $`\varphi ^2=m_f^2i_f\alpha _iN_{sc}/4`$ are obtained. The difference number of right-left handed singlet fermions $`N_{sd}`$ in intrinsic two-space dimensions suggests the introduction of a degenerate particle number $`N_{sp}`$ in the intrinsic radial coordinate and an intrinsic principal number $`n_m`$; particle quantum numbers are related by $`n_m^4=N_{sp}^2=N_{sd}`$ and the Dirac quantization condition $`\sqrt{i_f}g_ig_{im}=2\pi N_{sp}`$ is satisfied. The $`N_{sp}`$ is thus the degenerate state number in the intrinsic radial coordinate that has the same principal number $`n_m`$. The intrinsic principal quantum number $`n_m`$ consists of three quantum numbers, that is, $`n_m=(n_c,n_i,n_s)`$ where $`n_c`$ is the intrinsic principal quantum number for the color space and, $`n_i`$ is the intrinsic principal quantum number for the isospin space, $`n_s`$ is the intrinsic principal quantum number for the spin space. The intrinsic quantum numbers $`(n_c,n_i,n_s)`$ take integer numbers. A fermion therefore possesses a set of intrinsic quantum numbers $`(n_c,n_i,n_s)`$ to represent its intrinsic quantum states.

The concept automatically adopts the three types of intrinsic angular momentum operators, $`\widehat{C}`$, $`\widehat{I}`$, and $`\widehat{S}`$, when the intrinsic potentials for color, isospin, and spin charges are central so that they depend on the intrinsic radial distance: for instance, the color potential in the strong interactions is dependent on the radial distance. The intrinsic spin operator $`\widehat{S}`$ has a magnitude squared $`S^2=s(s+1)`$ and $`s=0,1/2,1,3/2\mathrm{}(n_s1)`$. The third component of $`\widehat{S}`$, $`\widehat{S}_z`$, has half integer or integer quantum number in the range of $`ss`$ with the degeneracy $`2s+1`$. The intrinsic isospin operator $`\widehat{I}`$ analogously has a magnitude squared $`I^2=i(i+1)`$ and $`i=0,1/2,1,3/2\mathrm{}(n_i1)`$. The third component of $`\widehat{I}`$, $`\widehat{I}_z`$, has half integer or integer quantum number in the range of $`ii`$ with the degeneracy $`2i+1`$. The intrinsic color operator $`\widehat{C}`$ analogously has a magnitude square $`C^2=c(c+1)`$ and $`c=0,1/2,1,3/2\mathrm{}(n_c1)`$. The third component of $`\widehat{C}`$, $`\widehat{C}_z`$, has half integer or integer quantum number in the range of $`cc`$ with the degeneracy $`2c+1`$. The principal number $`n_m`$ in intrinsic space quantization is very much analogous to the principal number $`n`$ in extrinsic space quantization and the intrinsic angular momenta are analogous to the extrinsic angular momentum so that the total angular momentum has the form of $`\stackrel{}{J}=\stackrel{}{L}+\stackrel{}{S}+\stackrel{}{I}+\stackrel{}{C}`$, which is the extension of the conventional total angular momentum $`\stackrel{}{J}=\stackrel{}{L}+\stackrel{}{S}`$. The intrinsic principal number $`n_m`$ denotes the intrinsic spatial dimension or radial quantization: $`n_c=3`$ represents the strong interactions as an $`SU(3)_C`$ gauge theory and $`n_i=3`$ represents the weak interactions as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory. For QWD as the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory, there are nine weak gauge bosons ($`n_i^2=3^2=9`$), which consist of one singlet gauge boson $`G_0`$ with $`i=0`$, three degenerate gauge bosons $`G_1G_3`$ with $`i=1`$, and five degenerate gauge bosons $`G_4G_8`$ with $`i=2`$; for the GWS model as the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory, one singlet gauge boson $`G_0`$ with $`i=0`$, three gauge bosons $`G_1G_3`$ with $`i=1`$, and one gauge boson $`G_8`$ with $`i=2`$ are required. One explicit piece of evidence of colorspin and isospin angular momenta is the strong isospin symmetry in nucleons, which is postulated to be the combination symmetry of colorspin and weak isospin in this scheme. Other evidence is the nuclear magnetic dipole moment: the Lande spin g-factors of the proton and neutron are respectively $`g_s^p=5.59`$ and $`g_s^n=3.83`$, which are shifted from $`2`$ and $`0`$, because of contributions from color and isospin degrees of freedom as well as spin degrees of freedom. The mass ratio of the proton and the constituent quark, $`m_p/m_q2.79`$, thus represents three intrinsic degrees of freedom of color, isospin, and spin. In fact, the extrinsic angular momentum associated with the intrinsic angular momentum may be decomposed by $`\stackrel{}{L}=\stackrel{}{L}_i+\stackrel{}{L}_c+\stackrel{}{L}_s`$ where $`\stackrel{}{L}_i`$ is the angular momentum originating from the isospin charge, $`\stackrel{}{L}_c`$ is the angular momentum originating from the color charge, and $`\stackrel{}{L}_s`$ is the angular momentum originating from the spin charge. This is supported by the fact that the orbital angular momentum $`l_c`$ of a nucleon has the different origin from the color charges with the orbital angular momentum $`l_i`$ of the electron from the isospin charge, since two angular momenta have opposite directions from the information of the spin-orbit couplings in nucleus and atoms. Extrinsic angular momenta have extrinsic parity $`(1)^l=(1)^{(l_c+l_i+l_s)}`$, intrinsic angular momenta have intrinsic parity $`(1)^{(c+i+s)}`$, and the total parity becomes $`(1)^{(l+c+i+s)}`$ for the electric moments; while the extrinsic angular momenta have extrinsic parity $`(1)^{(l+1)}=(1)^{(l_c+l_i+l_s+1)}`$, intrinsic angular momenta have intrinsic parity $`(1)^{(c+i+s+1)}`$, and the total parity becomes $`(1)^{(l+c+i+s+1)}`$ for magnetic moments.

Fermions increase their masses by decreasing their intrinsic principal quantum numbers from the higher ones at higher energies to the lower ones at lower energies. The coupling constant $`\alpha _i`$ of a non-Abelian gauge theory is strong for the small $`N_{sd}`$ and is weak for the large $`N_{sd}`$ according to the renormalization group analysis. The vacuum energy is described by the zero-point energy in the units of $`\omega /2`$ with the maximum number $`N_{sd}10^{61}`$ and the vacuum is filled with fermion pairs of up and down colorspins, isospins, or spins, whose pairs behave like bosons quantized by the unit of $`\omega `$: this is analogous to the superconducting state of fermion pairs. The intrinsic particle number $`N_{sp}10^{30}`$ (or $`B10^{12}`$, $`L10^9`$) characterizes gravitational interactions for fermions with the mass $`10^{12}`$ GeV, $`N_{sp}10^6`$ (or $`L_e1`$) characterizes the weak interactions for electrons, and $`N_{sp}1`$ (or $`B1`$) characterizes the strong interactions for nucleons. The fundamental particles known as leptons and quarks are hence postulated to be composite particles with the color, isospin, and spin quantum numbers; the quark is a color triplet state, but the lepton is a color singlet state. Note that if $`N_{sp}>1`$ (or $`B<1`$), it represents a pointlike fermion and if $`N_{sp}<1`$ (or $`B>1`$), it represents a composite fermion. There is accordingly the possibility of internal structure for the lepton or quark when they are considered as composite particles. Since the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ constant is thus parameterized by $`\mathrm{\Theta }=10^{61}\rho _G/\rho _m`$ with the vacuum energy density $`\rho _G=M_G^4`$ and the matter energy density $`\rho _m\rho _c10^{47}\text{GeV}^4`$, the relation between the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ constant and the difference number $`N_{sd}`$ is given by $`\mathrm{\Theta }=\pi ^2m_f^4i_f^4\alpha _i^4N_{sd}^2/10^{61}\rho _c`$.

The weak vacuum represented by massive gauge bosons is quantized by the maximum wavevector mode $`N_R10^{30}`$, the total gauge boson number $`N_G=4\pi N_R^3/310^{91}`$, and the gauge boson number density $`n_G=\mathrm{\Lambda }_{EW}^310^{47}\text{cm}^3`$. Baryon matter represented by massive baryons is spatially quantized by the maximum wavevector mode $`N_F10^{26}`$ and the total baryon number $`B=N_B=4\pi N_F^3/310^{78}`$ . The baryon matter quantization described above is consistent with the nuclear matter density $`n_nn_B1.95\times 10^{38}\text{cm}^3`$ and Avogadro’s number $`N_A=6.02\times 10^{23}\text{mol}^110^{19}\text{cm}^3`$ in the matter. Electrons with the mass $`0.5`$ MeV might be similarly quantized by $`N_F10^{27}`$ and the total number $`10^{81}`$ if the electron number is conserved under the assumption of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_e=\rho _e/\rho _c1`$: since the conservation of the baryon number minus the lepton number ($`BL`$) as well as the baryon number ($`B`$) and the lepton number ($`L`$) is a good quantum number at low energies, the total electron number $`10^{81}`$, different from the total baryon number $`10^{78}`$, suggests lepton matter as dark matter. The maximum wavevector mode $`N_F`$ is close to $`10^{30}`$ if the quantization unit of fermions $`10^{12}`$ GeV (the baryon number $`B10^{12}`$) is used rather than the unit of baryons $`0.94`$ GeV (the baryon number $`B=1`$) under the assumption of the fermion number conservation $`N_f10^{91}`$.

### C $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ Constant and Quantum Numbers

The invariance of the gauge transformation provides us with $`\psi [\widehat{O}_\nu ]=e^{i\nu \mathrm{\Theta }}\psi [\widehat{O}]`$ for the fermion wave function $`\psi `$ with the transformation of an operator $`\widehat{O}`$ by the class $`\nu `$ gauge transformation, $`\widehat{O}_\nu `$: the vacuum state characterized by the constant $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ is called the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum . The true vacuum is the superposition of all the $`|\nu `$ vacua with the phase $`e^{i\nu \mathrm{\Theta }}`$: $`|\mathrm{\Theta }=_\nu e^{i\nu \mathrm{\Theta }}|\nu `$. The topological winding number $`\nu `$ or the topological charge $`q_s`$ is defined by

$$\nu =\nu _+\nu _{}=\frac{i_fg_i^2}{16\pi ^2}TrF^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{F}_{\mu \nu }d^4x$$
(65)
where the subscripts $`+`$ and $``$ denote moving particles with chiralities $`+`$ and $``$ respectively in the presence of the gauge fields . The matter energy density generated by the surface effect is postulated to be

$$\rho _m\rho _c\frac{i_fg_i^2}{16\pi ^2}TrF^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{F}_{\mu \nu }$$
(66)
which implies that the fermion mass is generated by the difference of fermion numbers moving to left- and right-handed directions. In this respect, the difference number $`N_{sd}`$, the left-handed fermion number $`N_{ss}`$, and the condensed right-handed fermion number $`N_{sc}`$ in intrinsic two-space dimensions respectively correspond to $`\nu `$, $`\nu _+`$, and $`\nu _{}`$ in three-space and one time dimensions. In the presence of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term, the singlet $`(V+A)`$ current is not conserved due to an Adler-Bell-Jackiw anomaly : $`_\mu J_\mu ^{1+\gamma ^5}=\frac{N_fi_fg_i^2}{16\pi ^2}TrF^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{F}_{\mu \nu }`$ with the flavor number of fermions $`N_f`$, and this reflects degenerate multiple vacua. This illustrates mass generation by the surface effect due to the field configurations with parallel isospin electric and magnetic fields. If $`\nu =\rho _m/\rho _G`$ is introduced from (65) and (66), a condition $`\mathrm{\Theta }\nu =10^{61}`$ is satisfied. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ value parameterized by $`\mathrm{\Theta }=10^{61}\rho _G/\rho _m`$ is consistent with the observed result, $`\mathrm{\Theta }10^3`$, in the neutral kaon decay .

The topological winding number $`\nu `$ is related to the intrinsic quantum number $`n_m`$ by $`\nu =n_m^8`$. The intrinsic principal number $`n_m`$ is also connected with $`N_{sp}`$ and $`N_{sd}`$: $`n_m^2=N_{sp}`$, $`N_{sp}^2=N_{sd}`$, and $`N_{sp}^4=1/\nu `$. The relation between the intrinsic radius and the intrinsic quantum number might be written by $`r_i=r_{0i}/n_m^2`$, with the radius $`r_{0i}=1/2m_f\alpha _z=N_{sp}/M_G`$. The intrinsic quantum numbers are exactly analogous to the extrinsic quantum numbers. The extrinsic principal number $`n`$ for the nucleon is related to the nuclear mass number $`A`$ or the baryon quantum number $`B`$: $`n^2=A^{1/3}`$, $`n^4=A^{2/3}`$, $`n^6=B=A`$. The relation between the nuclear radius and the extrinsic quantum number is outlined by

$$r=r_0A^{1/3}=r_0n^2$$
(67)
with the radius $`r_0=1.2`$ fm and the nuclear principal number $`n`$. This is analogous to the atomic radius $`r_e=r_0n_e^2`$ with the atomic radius $`r_0`$ and the electric principal number $`n_e`$: the atomic radius $`r_0=1/2m_e\alpha _y`$ is almost the same as the Bohr radius $`a_B=1/m_e\alpha _e=0.5\times 10^8`$ cm. These concepts are related to the constant nuclear density $`n_B=3/4\pi r_0^3=1.95\times 10^{38}\text{cm}^3`$ or Avogadro’s number $`N_A=6.02\times 10^{23}\text{mol}^1`$ and to the constant electron density $`n_e=3/4\pi r_e^3=6.02\times 10^{23}Z\rho _m/A`$ with the nuclear mass density $`\rho _m`$ in the unit of $`\text{g/cm}^3`$, where the possible relation is

$$r_e=r_0L^{1/3}=r_0n_e^2$$
(68)
with the lepton number $`L`$.

$`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ values according to (12) become $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{Pl}10^{61}`$, $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{EW}10^4`$, $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{QCD}10^{13}`$, and $`\mathrm{\Theta }_010^{61}`$ at different stages. The scope of $`\mathrm{\Theta }=10^{61}10^{61}`$ corresponds to the scope of $`\nu =10^{122}10^0`$ to satisfy the flat universe condition $`\nu \mathrm{\Theta }=10^{61}`$: the maximum quantization number $`N_{sp}N_R10^{30}`$ and $`N_G4\pi N_R^3/310^{91}`$. The maximum wavevector mode $`N_R=(\rho _G/\mathrm{\Theta }\rho _m)^{1/2}=10^{30}`$ of the weak vacuum is obtained. These describe possible dualities between intrinsic quantum numbers and extrinsic quantum numbers: $`n_m`$ and $`n`$, $`N_{sp}^3`$ and $`A`$, and $`1/\nu `$ and $`A^{4/3}`$ for baryons. $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term as the surface term modifies the original GWS model  for the weak interactions, which has a problem in the fermion mass violating gauge invariance, and this suggests mass generation as the non-perturbative breaking of gauge and chiral invariance through DSSB.

## VII Comparison among Quantum Weakdynamics, Glashow-Weinberg-Salam model, and Grand Unified Theory

This section is devoted to a summary, and to show QWD extending beyond the SM or toward a new GUT as an $`SU(3)_C\times SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory. Table III summarizes a comparison among QWD, GWS model, and GUT. GUT in the table represents $`SU(5)`$ gauge theory or $`SO(10)`$ gauge theory .

There are many unexplained phenomena in the SM. For instances, there are no clues in the SM for many free parameters, three family generations for the leptons and quarks, matter mass generation, the Higgs problem or vacuum problem, dynamical spontaneous symmetry breaking (DSSB) beyond spontaneous symmetry breaking, the neutrino mass problem, etc. In order to resolve these problems, grand unified theories (GUTs) were proposed . Nevertheless, the grand unification of strong and electroweak interactions is not complete and GUTs also have model dependent problems: hierarchy problem, proton decay, and the Weinberg angle are problems in $`SU(5)`$ gauge theory .

Already confirmed predictions of QWD generating the GWS model are discrete symmetry breaking, V - A current conservation, massive gauge bosons, the Fermi weak coupling constant $`G_F`$, the Weinberg angle $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=1/4`$, the Cabbibo angle $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _C=1/4`$, and the three generations of leptons and quarks as discussed in Section III.

New predictions from QWD beyond the GWS model, which are to be tested by experiments, are as follows: the existence of isospin $`3/2`$ leptons or quarks in addition to isospin $`1/2`$ fermions, the eight-fold way of isospin $`1/2`$ fermions as composite particles, CP violation with $`\mathrm{\Theta }10^4`$ order, the existence of massive gauge bosons $`G_4G_7`$ with isospin $`2`$ in addition to gauge bosons $`G_1G_3`$ with isospin $`1`$, the (B-L) current conservation above the weak scale, the new unification scale of the strong and weak forces at the order of $`10^3`$ GeV, fermion mass generation, neutrino mass and oscillation confirmed by recent experiments, quark flavor mixing due to color charge, the isospin coupling constant hierarchy ($`\alpha _i,\alpha _z=\alpha _i/3,\alpha _w=\alpha _w/4,\alpha _y=\alpha _i/12`$, and $`\alpha _e=\alpha _i/16`$), the lepton asymmetry in the universe, neutron-antineutron oscillations, the analogy between QWD and QCD as $`SU(3)`$ gauge theories, etc.

## VIII Conclusions

This study proposes that a certain group $`H`$ leads to an $`SU(3)_I\times SU(3)_C`$ group for weak and strong interactions at a grand unification scale through dynamical spontaneous symmetry breaking (DSSB); the group chain is $`HSU(3)_I\times SU(3)_C`$. The grand unification of the $`SU(3)_I\times SU(3)_C`$ group beyond the standard model with the group $`SU(3)_C\times SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ provides the coupling constant $`\alpha _i=\alpha _s0.12`$ at a new grand unification scale around $`10^3`$ GeV, which might be the resolution to the hierarchy problem of the grand unification scale $`10^{15}`$ GeV. DSSB consists of two simultaneous mechanisms; the first mechanism is the explicit symmetry breaking of gauge symmetry, which is represented by the isospin (isotope) factor $`i_f`$ and the weak coupling constant $`g_i`$, and the second mechanism is the spontaneous symmetry breaking of gauge fields, which is represented by the condensation of the pseudo-scalar fields postulated as spatially longitudinal components of the gauge fields. At the energy $`T10^2`$ GeV, the gauge boson number density $`n_G=M_G^310^6\text{GeV}^310^{47}\text{cm}^3`$, the vacuum energy density $`V_0=M_G^410^8\text{GeV}^410^{25}\text{g  cm}^3`$, and the total gauge boson number $`N_G10^{91}`$ are predicted.

Quantum weakdynamics (QWD) as an $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory predicts the free parameters in the GWS model being an $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory. QWD provides the Weinberg angle, the Cabbibo angle, quark and lepton families, a modification of the Higgs mechanism, fermion mass generation, etc. QWD is dynamically spontaneous symmetry broken through the condensation of pseudo- scalar bosons. QWD generates electroweak theory as an $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory at the electroweak scale and then electroweak theory produces QED as a $`U(1)_e`$ gauge theory through DSSB. The essential point is that the DSSB mechanism is adopted to all the interactions characterized by gauge invariance, the physical vacuum problem, and discrete symmetry breaking. This work suggests that the electroweak interactions originate from the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory for the weak force, provided that scalar bosons play the roles of Higgs particles producing DSSB. The effective coupling constant chain due to massive gauge bosons is $`G_HG_F\times G_R`$ for grand unification, weak, and strong interactions respectively. Quark and lepton families seems to be successfully generated in terms of the mixing of the $`SU(2)`$ three subgroups in two octets. The DSSB of local gauge symmetry and global chiral symmetry triggers the (V+A) current anomaly. The (V - A) current conservation and the (V+A) current non-conservation are thus explained and the absence of right-handed neutrinos is resulte of the (V+A) current non-conservation. The electroweak coupling constants derived in terms of the Weinberg angle $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=1/4`$ are $`\alpha _z=i_f^z\alpha _i=\alpha _i/30.04`$, $`\alpha _w=i_f^w\alpha _i=\alpha _i/40.03`$, $`\alpha _y=i_f^y\alpha _i=\alpha _i/120.01`$, and $`\alpha _e=i_f^e\alpha _i=\alpha _i/161/133`$ for symmetric isospin interactions at the weak scale and $`2\alpha _i/3`$, $`\alpha _i/2`$, $`\alpha _i/6`$, and $`\alpha _i/8`$ for asymmetric isospin interactions. The isospin factors are $`i_f^s=(i_f^z,i_f^w,i_f^y,i_f^e)=(1/3,1/4,1/12,1/16)`$ for symmetric interactions and $`i_f^a=(2/3,1/2,1/6,1/8)`$ for asymmetric interactions: $`i_f^w=\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W`$ and $`i_f^e=\mathrm{sin}^4\theta _W`$. The symmetric charge factors reflect an intrinsic even parity with repulsive force while the asymmetric charge factors reflect intrinsic odd parity with attractive force; this suggests electromagnetic duality. The Cabbibo angle $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _C1/4`$ predicts that two more massive gauge bosons with $`M_G=2M_W`$ in addition to four intermediate vector bosons exist at the weak scale for symmetric isospin interactions and quark flavor mixing is due to color degrees of freedom for quarks. QWD for weak interactions is also proposed as the analogous dynamics of QCD for strong interactions. Common characteristics of gauge theories, such as gauge symmetry, the true vacuum problem, and discrete symmetry breaking for both weak and strong interactions, are understood in terms of the concepts of the analogy property and DSSB mechanism.

The mechanism of fermion mass generation is suggested in terms of the DSSB of gauge symmetry and chiral symmetry known as the dual pairing mechanism of the superconducting state: $`M_G=\sqrt{\pi }m_fi_f\alpha _i\sqrt{N_{sd}}`$ with the difference number of right-left-handed fermions $`N_{sd}`$ in intrinsic two-space dimensions. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ constant is parameterized by $`\mathrm{\Theta }=10^{61}\rho _G/\rho _m`$ with the vacuum energy density $`\rho _G=M_G^4`$ and the matter energy density $`\rho _m`$. $`N_{sd}`$ suggests the introduction of a degenerate particle number $`N_{sp}`$ in the intrinsic radial coordinate and an intrinsic principal number $`n_m`$; particle numbers are linked to the relation $`n_m^4=N_{sp}^2=N_{sd}`$ and the Dirac quantization condition $`\sqrt{i_f}g_ig_{im}=2\pi N_{sp}`$ is satisfied. The intrinsic principal quantum number $`n_m`$ consists of three quantum numbers, that is, $`n_m=(n_c,n_i,n_s)`$ where $`n_c`$ is the intrinsic principal quantum number for the color space, $`n_i`$ is the intrinsic principal quantum number for the isospin space and $`n_s`$ is the intrinsic principal quantum number for the spin space. The concept automatically adopts the three types of intrinsic angular momentum operators, $`\widehat{C}`$, $`\widehat{I}`$, and $`\widehat{S}`$, when intrinsic potentials for color, isospin, and spin charges are central so that they depend on the intrinsic radial distance. The principal number $`n_m`$ in intrinsic space quantization is very much analogous to the principal number $`n`$ in extrinsic space quantization and the intrinsic angular momenta are analogous to the extrinsic angular momentum so that the total angular momentum has the form of $`\stackrel{}{J}=\stackrel{}{L}+\stackrel{}{S}+\stackrel{}{I}+\stackrel{}{C}`$, which is the extension of the conventional total angular momentum $`\stackrel{}{J}=\stackrel{}{L}+\stackrel{}{S}`$. The intrinsic particle number $`N_{sp}10^6`$ (or $`L_e1`$) characterizes weak interactions for electrons, and $`N_{sp}1`$ (or $`B1`$) characterizes strong interactions for nucleons. Fundamental particles known as leptons and quarks are hence postulated as composite particles with the color, isospin, and spin quantum numbers; the quark is a color triplet state but the lepton is a color singlet state. If $`N_{sp}>1`$ (or $`B<1`$), it represents a point-like fermion and if $`N_{sp}<1`$ (or $`B>1`$), it represents a composite fermion. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ value defined by $`\mathrm{\Theta }=10^{61}\rho _G/\rho _m`$ is consistent with the observed result, $`\mathrm{\Theta }10^3`$ in the neutral kaon decay. The fact that a gauge theory allows one to generate the masses of fermions and gauge bosons without spoiling the renormalizability is very important; the renormalizability of a gauge theory with spontaneous symmetry breaking was demonstrated by ’t Hooft .

In this scheme, vacuum and matter energies are spatially quantized as well as photon energy. The weak vacuum represented by massive gauge bosons is quantized by the maximum wavevector mode $`N_R10^{30}`$, the total gauge boson number $`N_G=4\pi N_R^3/310^{91}`$, and the gauge boson number density $`n_G=\mathrm{\Lambda }_{EW}^310^{47}\text{cm}^3`$. The baryon matter represented by massive baryons is quantized by the maximum wavevector mode (Fermi mode) $`N_F10^{26}`$ and the total baryon number $`B=N_B=4\pi N_F^3/310^{78}`$. Electrons might be similarly quantized by the maximum wavevector mode $`N_F10^{27}`$ and the total particle number $`L_e=N_e10^{81}`$ for electrons with the mass $`0.5`$ MeV. The maximum wavevector mode $`N_F`$ is close to $`10^{30}`$ if the quantization unit of fermions $`10^{12}`$ GeV is used rather than the unit of baryons, $`0.94`$ GeV under the assumption of the fermion number conservation. The baryon matter quantization described above is consistent with the nuclear matter density $`n_nn_B1.95\times 10^{38}\text{cm}^3`$ and Avogadro’s number $`N_A=6.02\times 10^{23}\text{mol}^110^{19}\text{cm}^3`$ in the matter. Massless photons are quantized by the maximum wavevector mode $`N_\gamma 10^{29}`$ and the total photon number $`N_{t\gamma }=4\pi N_\gamma ^3/310^{88}`$. These total particle numbers $`N_G10^{91},N_B10^{78}`$, and $`N_{t\gamma }10^{88}`$ are conserved good quantum numbers. The quantization unit of vacuum energy due to a gauge boson in the weak interactions is $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{EW}/N_R10^{28}`$ GeV.

The notable accomplishments of this work are summarized in the following. The grand unification of the $`SU(3)_I\times SU(3)_C`$ gauge theory beyond the standard model of the $`SU(3)_C\times SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory is suggested in the scale around $`10^3`$ GeV rather than in the conventional unification scale $`10^{15}`$ GeV. This seems to be the viable solution of the hierarchy problem. The unification of the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ electroweak theory, the GWS model, is developed in terms of the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory, QWD, if scalar bosons postulated to be spatially longitudinal components of the gauge bosons play roles of Higgs particles during DSSB. The DSSB of local gauge symmetry and global chiral symmetry gives rise to the (V+A) current anomaly. The quark and lepton families are successfully generated from two octets of triplet isospin combinations, and the predicted Weinberg angle and Cabbibo angle are in good agreement with experimental values. Photons are regarded as massless gauge bosons indicating DSSB and the fine structure constant in the electromagnetic interactions is related to the fine structure constant in weak interactions, $`\alpha _e=\alpha _i/16`$. Fermion mass generation is suggested in terms of the DSSB of gauge symmetry and chiral symmetry due to the (V+A) current anomaly. The baryon minus lepton number (B -L) conservation is a consequence of the $`SU(3)_I`$ gauge theory, the lepton number conservation is a consequence of the $`U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory, and the electron number conservation is a consequence of the $`U(1)_e`$ gauge theory. The development of this theory would thus shed light on understanding the fundamental forces in nature and its consequences play significant roles in various fields since point-like particles, like quarks and leptons are more or less governed by the electroweak force explained by QWD.

Leptons $`I`$ $`I_3`$ $`Y`$ $`Q`$    $`\nu _e`$ $`1/2`$ $`1/2`$ $`1`$ $`0`$  $`e_L`$ $`1/2`$ $`1/2`$ $`1`$ $`1`$  $`e_R`$ $`0`$ $`0`$ $`2`$ $`1`$

Quarks $`I`$ $`I_3`$ $`Y`$ $`Q`$    $`u_L`$ $`1/2`$ $`1/2`$ $`1/3`$ $`2/3`$  $`d_L`$ $`1/2`$ $`1/2`$ $`1/3`$ $`1/3`$  $`u_R`$ $`0`$ $`0`$ $`4/3`$ $`2/3`$  $`d_R`$ $`0`$ $`0`$ $`2/3`$ $`1/3`$

Force Conservation Law Gauge Theory    Electromagnetic Electron $`U(1)_e`$  Weak Lepton (or B-L) $`U(1)_Y`$  Weak V-A $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$  Weak isotope (isospin) $`SU(3)_I`$

Classification QWD GWS GUT  Grand Unification energy $`10^3`$ GeV  $`10^{15}`$ GeV  Symmetry breaking DSSB SSB SSB  Discrete symmetries (P, C, T, CP) breaking breaking breaking  $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum yes no no  Higgs bosons no yes yes  Lepton number conservation yes yes no  Electron number conservation yes ($`N_e10^{81}`$) yes yes  Baryon number conservation no no no  Proton decay unknown no yes  Electron decay unknown no unknown  Weinberg angle $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=1/4`$ free parameter $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=3/8`$  Cabbibo angle $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _C=1/4`$ free parameter free parameter  Fermion mass generation yes unsatisfactory unsatisfactory  Coupling constant hierarchy yes no no  Neutrino mass yes no unknown  Number of gauge bosons 9 4 24  Free parameters coupling constant many several