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# Inflationary Scenarios with Scale-invariant Spectral Tensorial Index

## I Introduction

With measurements carried out by experiments Boomerang and Maxima-1  observations of cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropies entered a phase where different theories for structure formation at our Universe can be falsified. To date, inflation  is the cosmological model supported by analysis of these observations  as favored theory. Almost any model that produces an accelerated expansion of the early Universe (i.e., inflation) solves the well-known set of fundamental problems faced by the Standard Cosmological Model, provided that the inflationary period lasts long enough (see  for detailed explanations). The simplest inflationary scenario describes the classical and quantum dynamics of the early Universe dominated by a single scalar field (inflaton) evolving in a nearly flat potential.

Analyses such as those in Refs. and  consist of maximizing a likelihood function over the space of model parameters. A given set of parameters yields a theoretical CMB spectrum to be compared with observations. The precise number of parameters depends on the version of the analysis and commonly is as small as 6 and as large as 11. They are classified as inflationary or cosmological parameters depending on whether they determine the initial power spectrum of fluctuations or its posterior evolution. To set the initial conditions what it is commonly assumed is a particular kind of single scalar field model namely, power-law inflation , characterized by scale-invariant scalar and tensorial spectral indices differing in unity each from the other. Amplitudes of tensorial perturbations are often neglected. The conclusion to be drawn is that, in the corresponding to observed Universe scales, the actual potential has a strong similarity with that of power-law inflation. No conclusions can be made about potential functional form in other scales, particularly at Planck scales.

When the relative contribution of kinetic energy to total scalar field energy (known as $`ϵ`$) may be regarded as constant then, to leading order (LO) in an expansion in terms of $`ϵ`$, the scalar and tensorial indices and $`r`$, the relative contribution of primordial gravitational waves to CMB anisotropies, are directly related and could be taken as constants too. In this situation, the model that better accomplishes the job of fitting the available data is still power-law inflation, with some distortion taking place for the relation between spectral indices . Assumption $`ϵ=\mathrm{const}.`$ is not realistic since the equation of state must change near the end of inflation in order to return to the Standard Model expansion rate. Hence, several authors had pointed out that some scale dependence for the scalar index may be expected . Furthermore, in Ref.  it was already found currently available data to be compatible with scale-dependent scalar index, though this dependence seems to be highly constrained . If a scale-dependent scalar index is the actual case, then using a power-law index would affect the best-fit values of the entire set of cosmological parameters.

In this work we would like to address the question of which is the theoretical inflationary potential generating the primordial fluctuations characterized by a scale-dependent scalar index that could give the best fit to current as well as to next generation of observations.

Among other alternatives for deriving the inflaton potential from observations (see Ref. , and references therein), the Stewart-Lyth inverse problem (SLIP) was introduced  as a procedure consisting of solving a pair of non-linear differential equations derived in Refs. from next-to-leading order (NLO) algebraic Stewart-Lyth equations for spectral indices , and determining the corresponding inflaton potential. The full power of this procedure can be used only when information on the functional forms of both spectral indices is available. Unfortunately, this information is rather difficult to be directly obtained from observations and, in addition, simple functional forms of the spectral indices involve great difficulties while solving SLIP. However, there is an alternative way of using the SLIP related expressions. Having independent information on the functional form of one of the indices, the second one can be calculated and used as prior for maximizing the likelihood function. The resulting maximized likelihood will approve or reject the used spectral indices and the corresponding inflationary potential as a reliable scenario of the Early Universe.

Next generation of observations is expected to give information on CMB polarization which, in turn, is linked to $`r`$ (see Ref. for a review on this subject). Hence, future CMB data, such as MAP and Planck  will provide, will determine a range of likely values for tensor-modes parameters, in spite of the subdominance of the gravitational-waves contribution to CMB anisotropies characteristic of most inflationary models. Nevertheless, even if a central constant value of the tensorial parameters can be estimated from these observations, it will be almost impossible to detect any scale- dependence for the tensorial spectral index. With this regard, it makes sense to state the problem as finding out which are the inflationary scenarios, other than power-law inflation, with scale-invariant spectral tensorial index. A major theoretical advantage here is that this is one of the few cases where the SLIP is analytically solvable.

In this paper we propose two models that could serve to fit the inflationary perturbations, detecting, if there exist, scale dependence for the scalar spectral index at large angular scales while increasing the scale range and resolution of CMB observations. These models are obtained in a straightforward manner as SLIP solutions assuming a constant and almost negligible tensorial index.

In next Sec. we briefly describe the theoretical frame for Stewart-Lyth calculations, the main features of power-law model upon which these calculations are based and current observations are fitted, and present Stewart-Lyth algebraic NLO equations for the spectral indices. In Sec. III SLIP is rewritten using $`ϵ`$ as the basic parameter. Further, we introduce a criterion that allows us to determine when a given SLIP solution is consistent with assumptions underlying calculations. Sec. IV is devoted to the main aspect of this manuscript, i.e., how to use NLO expressions related to SLIP to determine a theoretical potential yielding a spectrum of perturbations able to fit observations likely to be done in the near future. We summarize main results obtained in Sec.V.

## II Perturbations produced by inflationary models

Many propositions for inflaton potential can be made fulfilling the conditions for successful inflation (see Ref.  for a description of some inflationary models). Hence, the criterion for choosing the potential must be the agreement between theoretical predictions and measurements. Ultimately, testing this agreement involves the calculation of primordial perturbations spectra. These spectra are used as initial conditions for the evolution of perturbations which can be computed through the transfer functions (using for example the CMBFAST package ), solutions being compared with current measurements of CMB anisotropies. The simplest scenario where that comparison can be carried out is that of a single and real scalar field rolling down a potential. In this scenario, a flat Friedmann-Robertson-Walker universe is assumed containing a single scalar field equivalent to a perfect fluid with equations of motions given by

$`H^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa }{3}}\left[T+V(\varphi )\right],`$ (1)
$`\ddot{\varphi }`$ $`+`$ $`3H\dot{\varphi }=V^{}(\varphi ),`$ (2)
where $`\varphi `$ is the inflaton, $`T\dot{\varphi }^2/2`$, $`V(\varphi )`$ the inflationary potential, $`H=\dot{a}/a`$ the Hubble parameter, $`a`$ the scale factor, dot and prime stand for derivatives with respect to cosmic time and $`\varphi `$ respectively, $`\kappa =8\pi /m_{\mathrm{Pl}}^2`$ is the Einstein constant and $`m_{\mathrm{Pl}}`$ the Planck mass.

In this framework, the first three slow-roll parameters were respectively defined in Ref. and can be written as ,

$`ϵ(\varphi )`$ $``$ $`3T\left[T+V(\varphi )\right]^1={\displaystyle \frac{2}{\kappa }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{H^{}}{H}}\right)^2={\displaystyle \frac{\kappa T}{H^2}},`$ (3)
$`\eta (\varphi )`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\ddot{\varphi }}{H\dot{\varphi }}}={\displaystyle \frac{2}{\kappa }}{\displaystyle \frac{H^{\prime \prime }}{H}}=ϵ{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ^{}}{\sqrt{2\kappa ϵ}}}=\kappa {\displaystyle \frac{dT}{dH^2}},`$ (4)
$`\xi ^2(\varphi )`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{\kappa ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{H^{}H^{\prime \prime \prime }}{H^2}}=ϵ\eta \left({\displaystyle \frac{2}{\kappa }}ϵ\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\eta ^{}=\kappa ϵ{\displaystyle \frac{dT}{dH^2}}+2\kappa ϵH^2{\displaystyle \frac{d^2T}{d(H^2)^2}}.`$ (5)
Up to a constant, the first slow-roll parameter (3) is a measure of the relative contribution of kinetic energy to total field energy. By definition $`ϵ0`$ and, as it is well known and we shall see in details further in this manuscript, it has to be less than unity for inflation to proceed. This last assertion implies the potential being positive defined. We also note that while defining second and third slow-roll parameters it was assumed the potential to be a monotonically decreasing function. We shall return later to the point of assumptions behind the definitions and calculations to be used in this manuscript.

Few models of inflation allow exact determination of scalar and tensorial perturbations. One of them is power-law , a scenario of inflation where:

$$a(t)t^p,H(\varphi )\mathrm{exp}\left(\sqrt{\frac{\kappa }{2p}}\varphi \right),V(\varphi )\mathrm{exp}\left(\sqrt{\frac{2\kappa }{p}}\varphi \right),$$
(6)
with $`p`$ being a positive constant. It follows from Eqs. (3), (4), and (5) that in this case the slow-roll parameters are constant and equal each other, $`ϵ=\eta =\xi =1/p`$. Note that condition $`ϵ<1`$ implies $`p>1`$.

For perturbations produced during power-law inflation it can be shown  that $`A_T(k)=10A_S(k)/\sqrt{p}`$, where $`A_S(k)`$ and $`A_T(k)`$ stand for normalized scalar and tensorial spectral amplitudes, and $`k`$ is the wavenumber corresponding to the scale matching the Hubble radius, $`k=aH`$. Now, through definition of the spectral indices

$$n_S(k)1\frac{d\mathrm{ln}A_S^2(k)}{d\mathrm{ln}k},n_T(k)\frac{d\mathrm{ln}A_T^2(k)}{d\mathrm{ln}k}$$
(7)
one can see that for power-law inflation

$$\frac{n_T}{2}=\frac{n_S(k)1}{2}=\frac{1}{1p}=\frac{1}{p}\left(1+\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{p^2}+\mathrm{}\right)0.$$
(8)
where the inequality follows from above mentioned condition $`ϵ<1`$. Obviously, relation (8) must be valid to any order in expansion of $`1/(1p)`$. Since spectral indices are constant, for power-law inflation, definitions (7) can be rewritten as

$$A_S^2(k)=A_S^2(k_0)\left(\frac{k}{k_0}\right)^{n_S1},A_T^2(k)=A_T^2(k_0)\left(\frac{k}{k_0}\right)^{n_T},$$
(9)
where $`k_0`$ is a pivot scale usually taken to be the scale probed by COBE. From these expressions it is evident that $`n_S1`$ and $`n_T`$ measure the deviation of the spectra amplitudes from scale-invariance.

Up to the present, there are not general analytic expressions to calculate power spectra of inflationary models. Based on the power-law solution, Stewart and Lyth  derived approximated expressions for both spectra regarding as small the deviation of higher slow-roll parameters from $`ϵ`$ and also deviation of $`ϵ`$ with respect to zero. These approximations imply the slow-roll parameters to be slowly varying in time functions. In terms of spectral indices, NLO expressions are

$`1n_S(k)`$ $``$ $`4ϵ2\eta +8(C+1)ϵ^2(10C+6)ϵ\eta +2C\xi ^2,`$ (10)
$`n_T(k)`$ $``$ $`2ϵ\left[1+(2C+3)ϵ2(C+1)\eta \right],`$ (11)
where notation is that of Ref.  and $`C0.73`$ is a constant. Symbol $``$ is used to indicate that these equations were obtained using the slow-roll expansion. Hereafter we shall use equal sign in our calculations, but meaning of approximation should be added whenever it applies.

For a giving expression of scale factor, the Hubble parameter and potential are determined, and then substituting definitions (3), (4), and (5) in Stewart-Lyth equations (10) and (11), scale-dependent spectral indices are obtained. Imposing exact power-law relation $`ϵ=\eta =\xi =1/p`$, expression (8) is recovered.

Even if it is already possible to include time dependence of $`ϵ`$ at lowest order, we shall show here that some interesting cases able to answer the question stated in this paper are only considered if NLO expressions are used. NLO expressions for the spectra have been tested and found to provide a high accuracy for theoretical perturbations calculations . Even more, some authors have stressed that NLO expressions in terms of $`ϵ`$ will be compulsory in order to match analytic results with data to be obtained in the near future .

For Eq. (11) constrain $`n_T0`$ remains valid, even for scale-dependent tensorial index. Assume $`n_T>0`$ then, from Eq. (11), we obtain inequality $`11+ϵ<2(C+1)(\eta ϵ)`$. Evaluating $`C=0.73`$ yields $`\eta ϵ1.852`$, in contradiction with the approximation $`\left|\eta ϵ\right|<1`$ used to derive Eq. (11). Thus, in general,

$$n_T(k)0.$$
(12)
For the kind of models we are considering here, even if tensorial perturbations are large enough to have a detectable imprint in CMB anisotropies, according with definition (7), their amplitudes will vanish in wave longitudes to be probed by most gravity waves interferometers . A similar analysis for Eq. (10) yields that, although models with $`n_S<1`$ are favored, not particular constrain exist upon values of $`n_S`$, thus allowing models with so called, blue spectra, i.e., $`n_S>1`$.

## III Stewart-Lyth Inverse Problem

In Ref. it was shown that using definitions (3), (4), (5) and defining $`\tau \mathrm{ln}H^2`$, $`\delta (k)n_T(k)/2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }(k)[n_s(k)1]/2`$, the indices equations in terms of the first slow-roll parameter $`ϵ`$ and its derivatives with respect to $`\tau `$ ($`\widehat{ϵ}dϵ/d\tau `$ and $`\widehat{\widehat{ϵ}}d^2ϵ/d\tau ^2`$), in a straightforward manner, can be written as

$`2Cϵ\widehat{\widehat{ϵ}}(2C+3)ϵ\widehat{ϵ}\widehat{ϵ}+ϵ^2+ϵ+\mathrm{\Delta }`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (13)
$`2(C+1)ϵ\widehat{ϵ}ϵ^2ϵ\delta `$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (14)
Given expressions for scale-dependent spectral indices, corresponding inflaton potential can be found by solving Eqs. (13) and (14) for $`ϵ`$, and using definitions of first slow-roll parameter (3). This procedure is what we called Stewart-Lyth inverse problem .

When SLIP was introduced in Ref. , the inflaton potential corresponding to a given solution of differential equations (13) and (14), was determined as a parametric function of $`\tau `$. Solutions of these equations are expressed with $`\tau `$ as an explicit function of $`ϵ`$ and are difficult to convert to expressions for $`ϵ`$ as explicit functions of $`\tau `$. Hence, it seems reasonable to look for a similar procedure, in terms of the first slow-roll parameter. Moreover, as we shall see later, using $`ϵ`$ as a parameter allows us to analyze the solution restricted to the interval of $`\varphi `$ where inflation is feasible, i.e., $`0ϵ<1`$.

The expression for the potential as a function of $`ϵ`$ remains the same that in Ref.  and is obtained from definition (3),

$$V(ϵ)=\frac{1}{\kappa }\left(3ϵ\right)\mathrm{exp}\left[\tau (ϵ)\right],$$
(15)
but here, instead substituting the first slow-roll parameter as function of $`\tau `$, we substitute $`\mathrm{exp}[\tau (ϵ)]`$. On the other hand, using Eq. (3) ,

$$\varphi (\tau )=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\kappa }}\frac{d\tau }{\sqrt{ϵ(\tau )}}+\varphi _0,$$
(16)
where $`\varphi _0`$ is an integration constant. Changing variables, and substituting $`\widehat{ϵ}`$ from the first order equation (14),

$$\varphi (ϵ)=\frac{2(C+1)}{\sqrt{2\kappa }}\frac{\sqrt{ϵ}dϵ}{ϵ^2+ϵ+\delta }+\varphi _0.$$
(17)
This way, the inflaton potential is given by the parametric function,

$$V(\varphi )=\{\begin{array}{c}\varphi (ϵ),\\ V(ϵ).\end{array}$$
(18)
Here is very important to recall that for SLIP solution (18) to be unique, $`ϵ(\tau )`$ must be solution of both equations (13) and (14). Need of information on the tensorial modes is also a conclusion stressed by Lidsey et al.  in their report about perturbative reconstruction of inflaton potential. With this regards, one can see that solution $`ϵ=1/p`$ to Eqs. (13) and (14) automatically implies $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\delta =1/(1p)`$ in full correspondence with relation (8).

### A Consistency criterion for SLIP solutions

Solving SLIP is not enough to state that solutions have any physical meaning. We recall that our calculations are based on several assumptions regarding the form of the potential (behavior of the inflaton as function of cosmic time) and range of slow-roll parameters. Hence, for SLIP to yield consistent results, conditions arising from this assumptions should be fulfilled by the obtained inflaton and its potential. Let us analyze these conditions in detail.

To derive Eqs. (10) and (11) and SLIP solution (18), no particular assumption was made about initial conditions for $`\varphi `$ nor for its expected value thus, solutions of SLIP are not constrained to chaotic or new inflation nor to a particular energy scale. Furthermore, no assumption was neither made about the potential convexity so, in principle, it could be in any of categories related to classification given in Ref.  and moreover, the same potential could have features characteristic of different categories. This is a consequence of dealing with NLO expressions, i.e., allowing a larger variation of slow-roll parameters during inflation. Particularly, SLIP solutions can be associated with a hybrid scenario of inflation . Next, we shall analyze possible constrains upon solutions of SLIP. Deriving Eq. (1) with respect to cosmic time and inserting Eq. (2) it is obtained,

$$T=\frac{1}{\kappa }\dot{H}.$$
(19)
Now, taking into account that $`H^{}=\dot{H}/\dot{\varphi }`$, to determine a sign for $`H^{}`$ it is necessary to fix the inflaton behavior as a function of cosmic time. In this paper, it was assumed that $`\dot{\varphi }>0`$, and, correspondingly, $`H^{}<0`$. Further, comparing definitions in Eq. (3) for the first slow-roll parameter and eliminating $`ϵ`$ yields,

$$T=\frac{2}{\kappa ^2}H_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2},$$
(20)
and after substituting Eq. (20) in the equation of motion (1) and deriving with respect to $`\varphi `$ we obtain,

$$V^{}=\frac{2}{\kappa }\left(3\eta \right)HH^{},$$
(21)
where the definition of the second slow-roll parameter (4) was used.

Eqs. (10) and (11) were obtained using the slow-roll expansion, i.e, the absolute value of $`\eta `$ should be close to the value of $`ϵ`$ which, in turn, should be near zero. Therefore, $`(3\eta )>0`$ and the sign of $`V^{}`$ is determined by that of $`H^{}`$. Hence, according to the previous assumptions, the potential must be a monotonically decreasing function of the inflaton. Summarizing, any feasible solution of SLIP should fulfill the following conditions:

$$\{\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \dot{\varphi }& >& 0,\hfill \\ \hfill V^{}(\varphi )& <& 0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(22)
These correspond to conditions for the inflaton to roll down the potential from lower to higher values of the scalar field. At least in the case we shall analyze here, it seems to be useful to write conditions (22) in an equivalent manner. Note that $`d\tau /dt=2\dot{H}/H<0`$, then conditions (22) imply

$$\{\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \widehat{\varphi }& <& 0,\hfill \\ \hfill \widehat{V}& >& 0,\hfill \end{array}\{\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \widehat{ϵ}\frac{d\varphi }{dϵ}& <& 0,\hfill \\ \hfill \widehat{ϵ}\frac{dV}{dϵ}& >& 0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(23)
Similar conditions could be derived for the case of an inflaton rolling down from higher to lower values by properly choosing the behavior of the inflaton as a function of cosmic time. For that case conditions (23) will read,

$$\{\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \widehat{ϵ}\frac{d\varphi }{dϵ}& >& 0,\hfill \\ \hfill \widehat{ϵ}\frac{dV}{dϵ}& >& 0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(24)
In fact, of all the expressions used here, the sign of $`\dot{\varphi }`$ only affects Eq. (17), the modification being $`\varphi (ϵ)\varphi (ϵ)`$. That changes the SLIP solutions by the mirror equivalent solutions.

On the other hand, inflation is defined as a period where scale factor grows accelerately, i.e, $`\ddot{a}>0`$. This is equivalent to say that $`d(H^1/a)/dt<0`$, definition remarking that, during inflation, the comoving Hubble radius decrease with time. Deriving, using expression (19) and definition (3) we obtain already mentioned upper value for first slow-roll parameter, i.e., $`ϵ<1`$. By definition $`ϵ0`$, then criteria (23) and (24) must be tested in the interval $`ϵ[0,1)`$. Looking at graphs of inflaton and its potential as functions of $`ϵ`$, and plots of $`ϵ(\tau )`$ in the corresponding range, one is able to find out whether SLIP solutions will be consistent with underlying assumptions. Note that these conditions are sufficient for given potential to be inflationary but they do not ensure the inflationary epoch to be long enough.

## IV Models with constant tensorial spectral index

To settle down the cosmological parameters, the set containing the parameters that determine the realization of the cosmological model together with the parameters that determine the initial conditions is tuned in order to maximize a likelihood function . Commonly, the initial power spectra are set to the form corresponding to power-law inflation with negligible amplitudes for primordial gravitational waves. The assumption behind is that during the inflationary lapse where quantum fluctuations were imprinted in scales currently reentering our causal Universe, slow-roll parameters behave roughly as constants.

An important parameter is the tensor-scalar ratio of contribution to the CMB spectrum which can be defined as (see Ref.  for alternative definitions),

$$r12.4\frac{A_T^2}{A_S^2}.$$
(25)
In principle, the value of $`r`$ can be estimated from observations of CMB polarization . To NLO, $`r`$ is related with the tensorial index by

$$n_T2\frac{A_T^2}{A_S^2}(1+3ϵ2\eta ).$$
(26)
From Eqs. (10) and (11), LO expressions are recovered by neglecting second order terms of slow-roll parameters, and from Eq. (26) by setting the expression within parenthesis equal to unity. This way, if in the desired scale range $`ϵ`$ and $`\eta `$ can be approximated by constant values, to LO, $`n_S`$, $`n_T`$ and $`r`$ must be regarded as constants too. Hence, if some information on $`r`$ is available, power-law inflation can still be the model providing the best fit to data given some distortion of the relation between indices. If some degree of scale dependence is hidden in the CMB, the error of assuming power-law will be reflected in the best-fit values of remaining parameters. Hence, to consider $`ϵ\mathrm{const}.`$ is a big restriction regarded as fair if the fit of data using a constant scalar index give a good result. Nevertheless, even now, such a good overall fit can also be achieved for some potentials yielding scale dependent scalar index, for example, running mass models  though the recent results in Ref.  constrain this dependence to be very weak. Several authors have pointed out that observations with higher resolution and wider scale-range to be provided by satellites Planck and Map, and galaxies surveys should be able to discern a time dependent $`ϵ`$ , making of power-law a poor assumption for the inflationary period. Therefore, question arises of which model could provide the best fit to upcoming data. To answer this question, an option is to find out if there exist models with slowly-varying tensorial and scalar spectral indices which, using current data, can be accurately fitted by a power-law and smoothly departs from power-law while making broader the range of scales or increasing the resolution of measurements. With this aim, one can make assumptions on the functional form for $`n_T`$ and look for solutions of SLIP and corresponding functional forms of the scalar spectral index which, in turn, can be compared with observations of CMB anisotropies. In general, the tensorial spectral index should be a scale-dependent function slowly varying close to zero thus, a well-based assumption for $`\delta `$ is

$$\delta (\mathrm{ln}k)=\delta (\mathrm{ln}k_0)+a_1\mathrm{ln}\frac{k}{k_0}+a_2\mathrm{ln}^2\frac{k}{k_0}+\mathrm{}.$$
(27)
The first reliable observation of $`r`$ to be obtained is hardly expected to detect any dependence on the scale . Hence, from this information only a constant value for $`n_T`$ would be estimated. With this regard, in this paper, the analysis will be restricted to zero order in expansion (27). This approach has also the advantage of dealing with one of the few cases when SLIP is analytically solvable. We remark that to LO it is a nonsense to consider a constant tensorial index while regarding a time dependent $`ϵ`$. Solutions presented here can be obtained only by using NLO expressions related to SLIP.

### A Constant scalar and tensorial indices

Let us start by proving that using $`\delta =C_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }=C_2`$ as SLIP input (with $`C_1`$ and $`C_2`$ being some constants) just yields power-law solution. Recall that power-law inflation has a number of characteristic features: slow-roll parameters are constant and equal each other, spectral indices are constant, and spectra given by these indices are red tilted in the same magnitude from Harrison-Zeldovich spectra, i.e., $`C_1=C_20`$. To proceed with, we note that in Eqs. (13) and (14) $`ϵ`$ and its derivatives depend on $`\tau `$ while $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and $`\delta `$ explicitly depend on $`k`$. So, we shall rewrite these equations in terms of $`k`$ in the same fashion it was done in Ref. . The conversion between the inflaton values and wavenumbers while crossing the Hubble radius can be done using expression

$$\frac{d\mathrm{ln}k}{d\varphi }=\frac{\kappa }{2}\frac{H}{H^{}}\left(ϵ1\right).$$
(28)
Using Eq. (28) it is obtained,

$$\frac{d\mathrm{ln}k}{d\tau }=\frac{1}{2}\frac{ϵ1}{ϵ}.$$
(29)
After conversion to derivatives in term of $`\mathrm{ln}k`$, Eqs. (13) and (14) become ,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{C(ϵ1)^2}{2ϵ}}\stackrel{~}{\stackrel{~}{ϵ}}+{\displaystyle \frac{C(ϵ1)}{2ϵ^2}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}^2\left[(2C+3)ϵ+1\right]{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ1}{2ϵ}}\stackrel{~}{ϵ}+ϵ^2+ϵ+\mathrm{\Delta }`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (30)
$`(C+1)(ϵ1)\stackrel{~}{ϵ}ϵ^2ϵ\delta `$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (31)
where $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}dϵ/d\mathrm{ln}k`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\stackrel{~}{ϵ}}d^2ϵ/d(\mathrm{ln}k)^2`$.

Differentiating Eq. (31) with respect to $`\mathrm{ln}k`$ we can replace expressions for $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\stackrel{~}{ϵ}}`$ obtained from this equation into Eq. (30) and the following algebraic expression for $`ϵ`$ is obtained:

$$ϵ(k)^4+Pϵ(k)^3+Q(\stackrel{~}{\delta },\delta ,\mathrm{\Delta })ϵ(k)^2+R(\stackrel{~}{\delta },\delta )ϵ(k)+S(\delta )=0,$$
(32)
where

$`P`$ $`=`$ $`C+2,`$ (33)
$`Q(\stackrel{~}{\delta },\delta ,\mathrm{\Delta })`$ $`=`$ $`(C+1)\left[C\stackrel{~}{\delta }(2C+3)\delta +2(C+1)\mathrm{\Delta }1\right],`$ (34)
$`R(\stackrel{~}{\delta },\delta )`$ $`=`$ $`(C+1)C\stackrel{~}{\delta }+(2C+1)\delta ,`$ (35)
$`S(\delta )`$ $`=`$ $`C\delta ^2.`$ (36)
Roots of Eq. (32) can be calculated but they are very complicated expressions not necessary for further analysis. They can be simply written as

$$ϵ_i=ϵ_i(\mathrm{\Delta },\delta ,\stackrel{~}{\delta }),$$
(37)
where $`i=1,\mathrm{},4`$. Thus, for $`\delta =C_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }=C_2`$ the solution is $`ϵ=\mathrm{const}.`$. Substituting back this solution into Eqs. (30) and (31) we finally obtain $`\delta =\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Thus, as it was expected, power-law inflation is a trivial solution of our problem. Notice that, according with Eq. (6) any inflationary potential that behaves like a decaying exponential for a range of $`\varphi `$ corresponding to scales currently probed can be, in this range, approximated by a power-law. While this will offer good enough information on the inflationary period corresponding to currently observed Universe, it perhaps will hide clues about physics on higher energy scales.

### B Scale-dependent scalar index and constant tensorial index

Previously it has been stressed the relevance of Eq. (14) for constraining solutions of Eq. (13). As was already proved, for constant $`\delta `$, a trivial SLIP solution is power-law inflation, corresponding to $`\delta =\mathrm{\Delta }`$. We shall analyze here remaining solutions involving scale-dependent $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The methodology used in this research to solve the problem of finding models with scale-invariant tensorial index but scale-dependent scalar index consists of solving Eq. (14) for $`ϵ`$ using as input a constant $`\delta `$, substituting the solutions on Eq. (13) and deriving the corresponding functional forms for the inflaton potential and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

With the aim of obtaining an expression for the scalar spectral index as function of scale, let us first to express $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ as a function of $`ϵ`$. It can be derived from algebraic Eq. (32) considering a constant $`\delta `$,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(ϵ)=\frac{1}{2\left(C+1\right)^2}\left\{ϵ^2+\left(C+2\right)ϵ+\left(C+1\right)\left[\left(2C+3\right)\delta +1\right]+\left(2C+1\right)\frac{\delta }{ϵ}+C\frac{\delta ^2}{ϵ^2}\right\}.$$
(38)
Now, we shall look for an expression of the comoving scale as a function of $`ϵ`$. This relation is obtained by integrating Eq. (31):

$$\mathrm{ln}k(ϵ)=\frac{(C+1)}{2}\left(\mathrm{ln}\left|ϵ^2+ϵ+\delta \right|3\frac{dϵ}{ϵ^2+ϵ+\delta }\right).$$
(39)
This way, the scalar spectral index can be expressed as a parametric function given by

$$n_S(k)=\{\begin{array}{cc}k(ϵ),& \\ 2\mathrm{\Delta }(ϵ)+1.& \end{array}$$
(40)
The relevant inflationary parameters are the scalar and tensorial spectra amplitudes evolved through the transfer functions into the CMB anisotropies spectrum. Having Eq. (40), a parametric expression for the scalar amplitudes $`A_S(k)`$ can be readily derived using definition (7) and Eq.(31):

$$A_S(k)=\{\begin{array}{cc}k(ϵ),& \\ A_S(ϵ),& \end{array}$$
(41)
with $`A_S(ϵ)`$ given by

$$A_S(ϵ)=A_0\mathrm{exp}\left[(C+1)\mathrm{\Delta }(ϵ)\frac{ϵ1}{ϵ^2+ϵ+\delta }𝑑ϵ\right],$$
(42)
where $`A_0`$ is an integration constant, $`\mathrm{\Delta }(ϵ)`$ is given by expression (38) and the scale as function of $`ϵ`$ by Eq. (39).

As it was discussed in Sec. II while analyzing constrain given by Eq. (12), we have that possible values of the tensorial index are restricted to the interval $`\delta 0`$. With this regard, in Secs. IV B 1 and IV B 2 we shall solve the problem of finding models with scale-invariant tensorial index and scale-dependent scalar index for $`\delta =0`$ and $`\delta <0`$ respectively.

#### 1 Null tensorial index, $`\delta =0`$

We begin by analyzing the case $`\delta =0`$ which, being easy to explicitly solve, is a good example of using SLIP to test the reliability of given functional form for tensorial index and of corresponding analysis of solutions. However, we shall see that the results fail to match current observations.

Explicit integration of Eq. (14) with $`\delta =0`$ yields,

$$\mathrm{exp}(\tau \tau _0)=\left(ϵ+1\right)^{2(C+1)},$$
(43)
where $`\tau _0`$ is the integration constant. This solution, first reported in Ref. , is plotted in Fig. 1.

Corresponding to $`\delta =0`$ expression for $`\varphi (ϵ)`$ is obtained by straightforward integration of Eq. (17),

$$\varphi (ϵ)=\frac{4(C+1)}{\sqrt{2\kappa }}\mathrm{arctan}\left(\sqrt{ϵ}\right)+\varphi _0.$$
(44)
Expression for $`V(ϵ)`$ is obtained by substituting solution (43) in Eq. (15),

$$V(ϵ)=V_0(3ϵ)(ϵ+1)^{2(C+1)},$$
(45)
where $`V_0=\mathrm{exp}(\tau _0)/\kappa `$. Separating $`ϵ`$ in the expression for $`\varphi `$ and substituting in Eq. (45) finally yields for the inflaton potential,

$$V(\varphi )=V_0\frac{3\mathrm{tan}^2\left[\frac{\sqrt{2\kappa }}{4(C+1)}(\varphi \varphi _0)\right]}{\mathrm{cos}^{4(C+1)}\left[\frac{\sqrt{2\kappa }}{4(C+1)}(\varphi \varphi _0)\right]}.$$
(46)
Plot of this solution for range corresponding to $`0ϵ<1`$ is presented in Fig. 2.

Looking at expression (46) and Fig. 2, one can conclude that exist an interval of $`\varphi `$ where the potential is not consistent with the assumption $`\dot{\varphi }>0`$, i.e., where the potential increases with the inflaton value. One can wonder whether there is another sector of this potential where inflation can take place. Indeed, such a sector can exist but the primordial fluctuations generated during the corresponding inflaton rolling down could be different to those assumed as SLIP input. Note that the range of $`\varphi `$ used to plot solution (46) was possible to determine using Eq. (44) which describe the inflaton as a function of the first slow-roll parameter. The valid range of values for $`ϵ`$ determine the corresponding inflaton values.

Let us look at plots of $`\varphi `$ and $`V`$ as functions of $`ϵ`$, Fig. 3.

Regarding criterion (23) and Figs. 1, and 3, it can be concluded that solution is consistent only for $`ϵ[0,ϵ_0^{}]`$ with $`ϵ_0^{}(6C+5)/(2C+3)0.4`$. This way, the correct functional form for the potential with $`\delta =0`$ is that in Fig. 4.

Observe that for this case the potential curvature undergoes changes. Such a behavior for the potential is obtained as a SLIP solution due to the use of NLO expressions.

After integrating Eq. (31), the comoving number $`k`$ as a function of $`ϵ`$ is given by

$$k=k_0\left(\frac{(ϵ+1)^2}{ϵ}\right)^{C+1},$$
(47)
with $`k_0`$ being the integration constant. From here, $`ϵ(k)`$ is obtained,

$$ϵ(k)=\frac{1}{2}\left\{\left(\frac{k}{k_0}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}2\sqrt{\left(\frac{k}{k_0}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}\left[\left(\frac{k}{k_0}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}4\right]}\right\},$$
(48)
where the root was chosen corresponding to $`0ϵ<1`$.

Substituting expression (48) in Eq. (38) with $`\delta =0`$, the corresponding expression for $`\mathrm{\Delta }(k)`$ is,

$`\mathrm{\Delta }(k)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\left(C+1\right)^2}}\left\{\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}\sqrt{\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}4\right]}\right\}`$ (50)
$`\times \left\{\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}+2C\sqrt{\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}4\right]}\right\}.`$
Plot for $`\mathrm{\Delta }(k)`$ and $`\delta =0`$ is presented in the left part of Fig. 5.

The range of scales plotted was chosen to allow observation of features at lowest scales. The logarithmic plot of a proper range of scales is presented in the right part of this figure, where in the vertical axis is plotted the logarithm of squared scalar amplitudes given by,

$`\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{A_S(k)^2}{A_0^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left\{\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}2\sqrt{\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}4\right]}\right\}\right)`$ (53)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\left(C+1\right)}}\left\{\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}2\sqrt{\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}4\right]}\right\}`$
$`\times \left\{\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}2+4C\sqrt{\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{k_0}}\right)^{1/\left(C+1\right)}4\right]}\right\}.`$
The value for $`A_0`$ must be chosen taking into account the observational constrain $`A_S^210^5`$ given by COBE measurements.

From these figures it is observable that the scalar index could be regarded as scale independent for relevant to measurements scales. The corresponding constant value is $`n_S=(C+2)/(C+1)4.7`$, which is too far from values allowed by theory and experiments. It seems to be not possible an inflationary model to exist such that the tensorial spectrum generated in its framework will be of Harrison-Zeldovich type and the corresponding scalar index will be scale-dependent. Therefore, to this order and considering Eqs. (26) and (11) with $`\delta =0`$, it can be concluded that any model with a scale-dependent scalar index matching observations will give a nonzero tensorial contribution to the CMB spectrum.

Note that, while applying criterion (24) to the mirror image with respect to the ordinate axis of solution (46), the same result is obtained.

#### 2 SLIP solution for negative tensorial index, $`\delta <0`$

We shall find the inflationary potentials producing perturbations that, to next-to-leading order, are characterized by constant and negative tensorial index and scale-dependent scalar index. Since for $`\delta <0`$, SLIP equations are not explicitly solvable in terms of $`\varphi `$, we must look for a parametric expression for the inflaton potential.

The solution of Eq. (14) for $`\delta <0`$ is

$$\mathrm{exp}(\tau \tau _0)=\left|ϵ^2+ϵ+\delta \right|^{C+1}\left|\frac{2ϵ+1+\sqrt{14\delta }}{2ϵ+1\sqrt{14\delta }}\right|^{\frac{C+1}{\sqrt{14\delta }}}.$$
(54)
The three branches corresponding to this expression are plotted in Fig. 6.

It is observed that, along with stationary solution

$$ϵ_+=\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{14\delta },$$
(55)
solutions can increase unbounded or decrease bounded by value $`ϵ=0`$. Regarding that $`\tau `$ and cosmic time have opposite signs, there is some time interval where $`ϵϵ_+`$, i.e., the solution asymptotically behaves like that of power-law. After integrating Eq. (17) for $`\delta <0`$ and inserting solution (54) in expression (15), the parametric potential is given by

$$V(\varphi )=\{\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \varphi (ϵ)& =& \frac{2(C+1)}{\sqrt{\kappa }}\frac{1}{\sqrt{14\delta }}[\sqrt{1+\sqrt{14\delta }}\mathrm{arctan}\left(\frac{\sqrt{2ϵ}}{\sqrt{1+\sqrt{14\delta }}}\right)\hfill \\ & & +\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{1+\sqrt{14\delta }}\mathrm{ln}\left|\frac{\sqrt{2ϵ}+\sqrt{1+\sqrt{14\delta }}}{\sqrt{2ϵ}\sqrt{1+\sqrt{14\delta }}}\right|]+\varphi _0,\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill V(ϵ)& =& V_0(3ϵ)\left|ϵ^2+ϵ+\delta \right|^{C+1}\left|\frac{2ϵ+1+\sqrt{14\delta }}{2ϵ+1\sqrt{14\delta }}\right|^{\frac{C+1}{\sqrt{14\delta }}}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(56)
The inflaton and corresponding potential as functions of $`ϵ`$ are respectively plotted in Fig. 7.

Note that the graph of the potential has also a maximum around

$`ϵ^{}{\displaystyle \frac{\left[(6C+5)+\sqrt{(6C+5)^24\delta (2C+3)}\right]}{(4C+6)}}0.4`$for $`\delta =0.01`$, not shown in the figure in order to observe the details for small values of $`ϵ`$. Hence, the analysis for $`\delta <0`$ should be done for three intervals of $`ϵ`$, namely, $`I_1=[0,ϵ_+)`$, $`I_2=(ϵ_+,ϵ^{}]`$, and $`I_3=(ϵ^{},1)`$.

Making use of criterion (23), consistent SLIP solutions are determined to exist in the intervals $`I_1`$ and $`I_2`$. Corresponding plots are presented in Fig. 8.

Here, the value of the constant $`V_0`$ could be chosen to make the potential flat enough for conditions of successful inflation to be satisfied. For $`ϵI_3`$, the solution fails to fulfill criterion (23).

The main difference between both solutions is the curvature of the inflaton potential near the origin, but is not a trivial one. For the same parametric expression of the potential we have two rather different realization of inflation depending not only on initial conditions for $`\varphi `$ but also for $`\dot{\varphi }`$ (i.e., depending on the initial conditions for $`ϵ`$). In the case corresponding to the left graph on Fig. 8, the term in Eq. (2) given by the first derivative of the potential will generically dominate during the inflationary epoch meanwhile, in the remaining case, the evolution of $`\varphi `$ will be dominated by the friction term due to Universe expansion, $`3H\dot{\varphi }`$.

For $`\delta <0`$, after integration of Eq. (39) we have that

$$k=k_0\left|ϵ^2+ϵ+\delta \right|^{\frac{C+1}{2}}\left|\frac{2ϵ+1+\sqrt{14\delta }}{2ϵ+1\sqrt{14\delta }}\right|^{\frac{3(C+1)}{2\sqrt{14\delta }}},$$
(57)
where $`k_0`$ is the integration constant. With $`\mathrm{\Delta }(ϵ)`$ given by Eq. (38), parametric plots for $`\mathrm{\Delta }(k)`$ corresponding to $`ϵI_1`$ and $`ϵI_2`$ are presented in Fig. 9.

Again, the scale range was chosen to allow details observation at lowest scales. Observe that in both cases the present error for $`n_S`$ (e.g., $`n_S=0.99\pm 0.09`$ in Refs. ) can mask the scale dependence at large $`k^1`$.

After integrating Eq. (42) for $`\delta <0`$, the logarithm of squared scalar amplitudes is given by

$`\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{A_S(ϵ)^2}{A_0^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\delta C1C}{C+1}}\mathrm{ln}ϵ+\delta \left(C+1\right)\mathrm{ln}\left|ϵ^2+ϵ+\delta \right|`$ (60)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{3\delta \left(C+1\right)}{\sqrt{14\delta }}}\mathrm{ln}\left|{\displaystyle \frac{2ϵ+1+\sqrt{14\delta }}{2ϵ+1\sqrt{14\delta }}}\right|`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ^3+2Cϵ^2+2C\delta }{2\left(C+1\right)ϵ}}.`$
As observed in Fig 10, where the parametric plots of scalar amplitudes for $`ϵI_1`$ and $`ϵI_2`$ is presented in the same figure, differences are almost impossible to note when the full range of scales is considered. Differences arise at large angular scales which could be out of reach for measurements. It means that, from the observational point of view, there could be not differences between these two realizations of inflation if the scales where differences arise are not probed or the resolution is not high enough to detect the scale dependence. These scales are precisely those where higher energies physics could leave an imprint.

Recalling the behavior of solution (43) for small $`\tau `$, i.e., large $`t`$ (see Fig. 6) and taking the limit $`ϵϵ_+`$ of Eqs. (38) and (57) it is found out that for small $`k^1`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\delta `$ (see also Fig. 9). That the scale interval where this behavior is observed corresponds to sufficient large number of e-folds to solve the Standard Model problems is provided by the asymptotic behavior of $`ϵ`$ near the value $`ϵ_+`$ .

These models have the desired feature of an almost negligible $`\delta =\mathrm{const}.`$ and the scalar index being nearly constant in a wide range of scales, with the possibility of choosing values that can accurately match current observations. In fact, the value $`\delta =0.01`$ chosen in the figures of this section corresponds (in the limit $`ϵϵ_+`$) to $`n_S=0.98`$ compatible with values given in Refs. . Any other constant value for $`n_S`$ arising from analysis similar to that of Refs. , except for blue spectra, can also be fitted with models given by Eq. (56). The weak scale-dependence of $`n_S`$ obtained is in good agreement with results in Ref. . Furthermore, the above mentioned value of $`\delta `$ approximately corresponds to $`r0.12`$ which is greater than $`r^{}=0.1`$, the value given in Ref.  as the lower limit for $`r`$ to be detectable with a 95-percent confidence regarding the error reported in Ref.  as the estimate for Planck measurements. Lower values for $`r`$ can be appropriately taken into account.

Because models given by Eq. (56) do not have a graceful exit to the Standard Model stage of Universe evolution ($`ϵ`$ converges to $`ϵ_+`$ not to $`1`$), $`\varphi `$ must be regarded here as the dominant scalar field in a hybrid scenario with $`ϵ_+`$ being the value corresponding to the critical value of $`\varphi `$ near which the false vacuum becomes unstable and the multiple scalar fields roll to the true potential minimum .

Finally, all of the statements done in this section with regards to solution (56) are also valid after changing $`\varphi (ϵ)`$ by $`\varphi (ϵ)`$ and using criterion (24).

## V Conclusions

We presented a version of Stewart-Lyth inverse problem using the first slow-roll parameter as the basic variable in the procedure of finding the inflaton potential. That allows us to analyze the solutions in the range of this parameter where inflation is feasible. A criterion was introduced to check for solutions consistent with the assumptions underlying the derivation of the Stewart-Lyth inverse problem equations.

It was shown that expressions related to Stewart-Lyth inverse problem can be used to determine inflationary models corresponding to given observations. We proved that power-law inflation is a trivial solution of this problem when constant spectral indices are used as input in related equations. Next-to-leading-order in the slow-roll expansion makes possible to consider more general scenarios where slow-roll parameters can slowly vary with time. In a near future, these scenarios could be more realistic than common assumption regarding slow-roll parameters as constants during inflation.

Looking for a potential generating the primordial perturbations able to grow into CMB anisotropies and matching current and future observations, we solved the Stewart-Lyth inverse problem with constant tensorial index as input. Inflationary models were found which, unlike power-law inflation, yield scalar modes characterized by a scale-dependent index. For negative tensorial index, solutions were given as an expression depending on the first slow-roll parameter.

The special case of a Harrison-Zeldovich spectrum of tensorial perturbations, i.e., constant amplitudes of gravitational waves, is ruled out by comparison of our results with current observations. It means that it seems to not exist inflationary models with scale dependent scalar index and null tensorial index. Hence, for any model exhibiting some degree of scale dependence of the index of curvature perturbations it must be expected a nonzero contribution of primordial gravitational waves to the amplitudes of the CMB spectrum.

Potentials obtained for strictly negative tensorial index fulfill the conditions for successful inflation. Evolution of the scalar field given by these potentials can be considered as the dynamical element in a hybrid inflation scenario, the value of the inflaton corresponding to power-law solution acting like the instability value for the false vacuum.

These models can be used as assumption on the origin of primordial perturbations to test for scale dependence of the scalar index. Using them to fit inflationary perturbations is almost as easy as using power-law inflation. Only one parameter, the constant tensorial index, need to be fitted. If CMB polarization fails to give a value of the tensor-scalar ratio greater than the threshold value $`r^{}=0.1`$, then the tensorial index must be fitted in the interval $`(0.02,0)`$. Otherwise, if some value for the tensor-scalar ratio is measured, then an approximated value for the tensorial index can be estimated to serve like pivot value for the fitting procedure.

We would like to stress that if any of the potentials here presented makes possible to reach an overall good fit for CMB anisotropies and to detect scale dependence of the scalar index from the next generation of observations, the conclusion to be drawn is that the actual inflaton potential is similar in the probed scale to the used one. In turn, if the quality of the overall fit is not improved compared to the result obtained using power-law inflation, either the scale dependence of the scalar index is practically negligible, or the information on the scale dependence of the tensorial index is fundamental in order to account for the features in the CMB anisotropies.

The spectra of scalar perturbations produced by these models differ from those of power-law inflation at scales corresponding to earlier times in the Universe evolution. Thus, if while increasing the quality of observations a good fit using any of these potentials is achieved, it could give some hints about physics taking place at very high energies.

###### Acknowledgements.

This research is supported in part by the CONACyT grant 32138-E. The work of CATE was also partially founded by the Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (SNI) and CINVESTAV. We want to thank Andrew Liddle and Dominik Schwarz for helpful discussions.


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# Signal velocity, causality, and quantum noise in superluminal light pulse propagation

## Abstract

We consider pulse propagation in a linear anomalously dispersive medium where the group velocity exceeds the speed of light in vacuum ($`c`$) or even becomes negative. A signal velocity is defined operationally based on the optical signal-to-noise ratio, and is computed for cases appropriate to the recent experiment where such a negative group velocity was observed. It is found that quantum fluctuations limit the signal velocity to values less than $`c`$.

It is well known that the group velocity $`v_g`$ of a light pulse can exceed $`c`$ in an anomalously dispersive medium. If there is no appreciable absorption or amplication, a sufficiently smooth initial pulse envelope $`E(t)`$ becomes simply $`e^{i\varphi }E(tL/v_g)`$ after the propagation distance $`L`$, where $`\varphi `$ is a (real) phase. $`E(tL/v_g)`$ in this case is the analytic continuation of $`E(tL/c)`$ over the time increment $`(1/c1/v_g)L>0`$ . This analytic continuation means that information is transferred at velocity $`c`$, not $`v_g`$, so that there is no violation of causality implied by the superluminal group velocity. As discussed many years ago by Sommerfeld and Brillouin , a group velocity greater than $`c`$ does not violate causality because it is not the velocity of information transmission . They noted that the “frontal velocity,” the velocity at which an infinitely sharp step-function-like disturbance of the light intensity propagates, can serve as a velocity of information transfer.

While a smoothly varying pulse is just an analytic continuation of the input pulse $`E(tL/c)`$, it is remarkable nonetheless that a very small leading edge enables one to predict the entire pulse. This small leading edge of the pulse can in principle extend infinitely far back in time.

These considerations are not immediately applicable in the laboratory. There is first of all the impossibility in principle of realizing the infinite bandwidth associated with a step-function “front.” But more subtle questions arise from the fact that a tiny leading edge of a smooth pulse determines the entire pulse. For one thing, it is not obvious how to define the “arrival time” of the signal . In practice, one cannot extend the “arrival time” to any time before the detection of the first photon. Furthermore, if the tiniest leading edge of a smooth “superluminal” pulse determines the entire pulse, we must account for the effect that quantum fluctuations at the leading edge might have on the detection of the pulse , .

We suggest here an operational definition of the signal velocity and apply it to the recently observed superluminal propagation of a light pulse in a gain medium . This experiment showed not only that a superluminal group velocity is possible without any significant pulse distortion, but also demonstrated that this can occur with no appreciable absorption or amplification . Previous considerations of quantum noise in this context focused on the motion of the peak of a wave packet, and on the observability of the superluminal velocity of the peak at the one- or few-photon level ,. Here we consider more generally the practical question of how a signal should be defined, and reach the conclusion that quantum noise impedes the observation of the superluminal signal velocity, regardless of the intensity of the input pulse.

The experimental situation of interest is illustrated in Figure 1 . A gas of atoms with a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-type transition scheme is optically pumped into state $`|1`$. Two cw Raman pump beams tuned off-resonance from the $`|1|0`$ transition with a slight frequency offset $`2\mathrm{\Delta }\nu `$, and a pulsed probe beam acting on the $`|0|2`$ transition, propagate collinearly through the cell. The common detuning $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ of the Raman and probe fields from the excited state $`|0`$ is much larger than any of the Rabi frequencies or decay rates involved, so that we can adiabatically eliminate all off-diagonal density-matrix terms involving state $`|0`$. Then we obtain the following expression for the linear susceptibility as a function of the probe detuning $`\nu `$ , :

$$\chi (\nu )=\frac{M}{\nu \mathrm{\Delta }\nu +i\gamma }+\frac{M}{\nu +\mathrm{\Delta }\nu +i\gamma },$$
(1)
where $`\gamma >0`$ and $`M>0`$ is a two-photon matrix element whose detailed form and numerical value are not required for our present purposes. We note only that the dispersion relation (1) satisfies the Kramers-Kronig relations and therefore that the pulse propagation described by it is causal.

Consider now the detection of a signal corresponding to a light pulse as indicated in Figure 1(a). We assign a time window $`T`$ centered about a pre-arranged time $`t_0`$ at the detector and monitor the photocurrent produced by the detector. We assume there is a background level of irradiation that causes a constant average photocurrent $`i_0`$ when no light pulse is received; there will be a nonvanishing $`i_0`$ whenever the medium exhibits gain. We assume further that an increased photocurrent $`i_1(t)`$ is registered when a light pulse is received, and assert that a signal has been received when the integrated photocurrent $`𝑑ti_1(t)`$ rises above the background level by a certain prescribed factor. The time at which this preset level of confidence is reached is then defined to be the time of arrival of this signal as recorded by an ideal detector.

The observable corresponding to this definition of the arrival time is

$$\widehat{S}(L,t)=C_{t_0T/2}^t𝑑t_1\widehat{E}^{()}(L,t_1)\widehat{E}^{(+)}(L,t_1),$$
(2)
where $`\widehat{E}^{(+)}(L,t_1)`$ and $`\widehat{E}^{()}(L,t_1)`$ are respectively the positive- and negative-frequency parts of the electric field operator at the exit point $`(z=L)`$ of the medium and $`T/2`$ is half the time window assigned to the pulse, typically a few times the pulse width. $`C`$ is a constant to be specified later. The expectation value $`\widehat{S}(L,t)`$ is proportional to the number of photons that have arrived at the detector at the time $`t`$. If $`\widehat{S}_1(L,t)`$ and $`\widehat{S}_0(L,t)`$ are respectively the expectation values of $`\widehat{S}(L,t)`$ with and without an input pulse, then the photocurrent difference for an ideal detector is $`\widehat{S}_1(L,t)\widehat{S}_0(L,t)`$. On the other hand, the second-order variance of the integrated photon number, $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2\widehat{S}(L,t)`$, gives the noise power due to quantum fluctuations. Hence it is appropriate to define an optical signal-to-noise ratio

$$SNR(L,t)=\frac{(\widehat{S}_1(L,t)\widehat{S}_0(L,t))^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }^2\widehat{S}(L,t)}.$$
(3)
As discussed above, we define the arrival time $`t_s`$ of a signal as the time at which $`SNR(L,t)`$ reaches a prescribed threshold level.

The positive-frequency part of the electric field operator can be written as

$$\widehat{E}^{(+)}(z,t)=e^{i\omega _o(tz/c)}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑kK(\omega )\widehat{a}(\omega )e^{i\omega (tz/v_g)},$$
(4)
where $`\omega _o`$ is the central frequency of the pulse, $`K(\omega )\omega ^{1/2}`$, and $`[\widehat{a}(\omega ),\widehat{a}^{}(\omega ^{})]=\delta (\omega \omega ^{})`$. Eq. (4) assumes plane-wave propagation in the $`z`$ direction and that the group-velocity approximation is valid. $`K(\omega )`$ may for our purposes be taken to be constant since the frequency range of the two gain lines are far smaller than the central frequency $`\omega _o`$. It is then convenient to define the constant $`C`$ in Eq. (2) to be $`1/(2\pi |K(\omega _o)|^2)`$.

In the experiment of interest the anomalously dispersive medium is a phase-insensitive linear amplifier for which

$$\widehat{a}_{\mathrm{out}}(\omega )=g(\omega )\widehat{a}_{\mathrm{in}}(\omega )+\sqrt{|g(\omega )|^21}\widehat{b}_{\mathrm{in}}^{}(\omega ),$$
(5)
where $`\widehat{a}_{\mathrm{in}}`$ and $`\widehat{a}_{\mathrm{out}}`$ refer respectively to the input ($`z=0`$) and output ($`z=L`$) ports of the amplifier and the operator $`\widehat{b}(\omega )`$ is a bosonic operator ($`[\widehat{b}(\omega ),\widehat{b}^{}(\omega ^{})]=\delta (\omega \omega ^{})`$) that commutes with all operators $`\widehat{a}_{\mathrm{in}}(\omega )`$ and $`\widehat{a}_{\mathrm{in}}^{}(\omega )`$ and whose appearance in Eq. (5) is required among other things to preserve the commutation relations for the field operators $`\widehat{a}_{\mathrm{out}}`$ and $`\widehat{a}_{\mathrm{out}}^{}`$. $`|g(\omega )|^2`$ is the power gain factor characterizing the amplifier.

Now we derive a rather general expression for the optical signal-to-noise ratio. Consider first the case of propagation over the distance $`L`$ in a vacuum ($`g(\omega )=1`$). We assume that the initial state $`|\psi `$ of the field is a coherent state such that $`\widehat{a}(\omega )|\psi =\alpha (\omega )|\psi `$ for all $`\omega `$, where $`\alpha (\omega )`$ is a c-number. For such a state we may write $`\widehat{E}^{(+)}(0,t)|\psi =\alpha (t)|\psi `$, where $`\alpha (t)\pi ^{1/4}(N_p/\tau _p)^{1/2}\mathrm{exp}((tT_c)^2/2\tau _p^2)`$, $`N_p`$ is the average number of photons in the initial pulse of duration $`\tau _p`$, and $`T_c`$ is the time corresponding to the pulse peak. We obtain after a straightforward calculation the result

$$SNR(L,t)=\widehat{S}_1(0,tL/c)_{\mathrm{vac}}=SNR(0,tL/c).$$
(6)
This expresses the expected result that the pulse propagates at the velocity $`c`$ with no excess noise arising from propagation.

Next we treat the case of pulse propagation over the distance $`L`$ in the anomalously dispersive medium, using Eq. (5) with $`g(\omega )1`$ and assuming again an initially coherent field. We obtain in this case

$$\widehat{S}_1(L,t)\widehat{S}_0(L,t)=|g(0)|^2\widehat{S}_1(0,tL/v_g)_{\mathrm{vac}}$$
(7)
where $`\widehat{S}_0(L,t)=(1/2\pi )_{T_cT/2}^t𝑑t_1𝑑\omega [|g(\omega )|^21]`$ is the photon number in the absence of any pulse input to the medium and $`T_c=t_0L/v_g`$. The fact that $`\widehat{S}_0(L,t)>0`$ is due to amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) ; in the experiment of interest the ASE is a spontaneous Raman process.

Before proceeding further with the calculation of the optical signal-to-noise ratio, we note here that the gain factor

$$|g(0)|^2=e^{4\pi M\gamma /(\mathrm{\Delta }\nu ^2+\gamma ^2)L/\lambda },$$
(8)
and that the effective signal $`\widehat{S}_1(L,t)\widehat{S}_0(L,t)`$ is proportional to the input signal $`\widehat{S}_1(0,tL/v_g)_{\mathrm{vac}}`$ with time delay $`L/v_g`$ determined by the group velocity $`v_g`$. In the anomalously dispersive medium $`v_g=c/(n+\nu dn/d\nu )`$ and can be $`>c`$ or even negative, resulting in a time delay

$$\frac{L}{v_g}=\frac{n_gL}{c}=\left[1\nu _oM\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\nu ^2\gamma ^2}{(\mathrm{\Delta }\nu ^2+\gamma ^2)^2}\right]\frac{L}{c},$$
(9)
which is shorter than the time delay the pulse would experience upon propagation through the same length in vacuum, or can become negative. In other words, the effective signal intensity can be reached sooner than in the case of propagation in vacuum.

In order to determine with confidence when a signal is received, however, one must evaluate the SNR. Again using the commutation relations for the field operators, we obtain for the fluctuating noise background

$`\mathrm{\Delta }^2\widehat{S}(L,t)`$ $``$ $`\widehat{S}^2(L,t)\widehat{S}(L,t)^2`$ (10)
$`=`$ $`|g(0)|^2\widehat{S}_1(0,tL/v_g)_{\mathrm{vac}}`$ (11)
$`+`$ $`2\mathrm{R}\mathrm{e}[|g(0)|^2{\displaystyle _{t_0T/2}^t}dt_1{\displaystyle _{t_0T/2}^t}dt_2`$ (12)
$`\times `$ $`\alpha ^{}(t_1L/v_g)\alpha (t_2L/v_g)F(t_1t_2)]`$ (13)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle _{t_0T/2}^t}𝑑t_1{\displaystyle _{t_0T/2}^t}𝑑t_2|F(t_1t_2)|^2.`$ (14)
Here

$$F(t)=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\omega [|g(\omega )|^21]e^{i\omega t}$$
(15)
is a two-time correlation function for the amplified spontaneous emission noise. The three terms in Eq. (14) can be attributed to amplified shot noise, beat noise, and ASE self-beat noise, respectively . The first two terms dominate in the presence of a strong input signal pulse, while the last term dominates if the input signal is small and the gain is large. In the case of a strong input signal and large gain, the second term gives the largest contribution to the noise and scales almost linearly with the signal strength $`\widehat{S}`$, the signal gain $`|g(0)|^2`$, and the peak gain $`|g(\mathrm{\Delta }\nu )|^2=\mathrm{exp}(4\pi ML/\gamma \lambda )`$. This large noise term effectively reduces the signal-to-noise ratio of the advanced light pulse, causing the effective signal arrival time to be retarded by a time delay that is far larger than the pulse advancement.

Finally, using Eqs. (7) and (14), we compute $`SNR^{(\mathrm{out})}(L,t)`$ for the propagation through the anomalously dispersive medium. In Figure 2 we plot the results of such computations for $`SNR^{(\mathrm{out})}(L,t)`$ as a function of time on the output signal. For reference we also show $`SNR`$ for the identical pulse propagating over the same length in vacuum. It is evident from the results shown that the pulse propagating in vacuum maintains a higher SNR. In other words, for the experiments of interest here ,, the actual arrival time of the signal is delayed, even though the pulse itself is advanced compared with propagation over the same distance in vacuum.

By requiring that at some time $`t^{}`$ the SNR of the output pulse be equal to that of the input pulse \[Eq. (6)\] at a time $`t`$, i.e.,

$$SNR^{(\mathrm{out})}(L,t^{})=SNR^{(\mathrm{in})}(0,t),$$
(16)
we obtain a time difference $`\delta t=t^{}t`$ that marks the propagation time of the light signal, and $`L/\delta t`$ gives the signal velocity. In Figure 3 we plot $`\delta t`$ as a function of gain for $`(tT_c)/\tau _p=1,2,`$ and $`3`$. This corresponds to cases where the signal point is set at 1,2, and 3 times the pulse width on the leading edge of the pulse. We also plot for reference the pulse advance $`L/v_g`$. It is evident that the retardation in the SNR far exceeds the pulse advancement. In other words, the quantum noise added in the process of advancing a signal effectively impedes the detection of the useful signal defined by the signal-to-noise ratio.

In this letter we have presented what in our opinion is a realistic definition, based on photodetections, of the velocity of the signal carried by a light pulse. We analyzed this signal velocity for the recently demonstrated superluminal light pulse propagation, and found that while the pulse and the effective signal are both advanced via propagation at a group velocity higher than $`c`$, or even negative, the signal velocity defined here is still bounded by $`c`$. The physical mechanism that limits the signal velocity is quantum fluctuation. Namely, because the transparent, anomalously dispersive medium is realized using closely-placed gain lines, the various amplified quantum fluctuations introduce additional noise that effectively reduces the SNR in the detection of the signals carried by the light pulse. This is related to the “no cloning” theorem ,, which was attributed to the quantum fluctuations in an amplifier, and which is a direct consequence of the superposition principle in quantum theory.

Finally we note that it is perhaps possible to find other definitions of a “signal” velocity for a light pulse, different from that we presented here. But such a definition should in our opinion satisfy two basic criteria. First, it must be directly related to a known and practical way of detecting a signal. Second, it should refer to the fastest practical way of communicating information. While it may be hard to prove that any definition meets the second criterion, it can be hoped that the recent interest in quantum information theory might lead to a generally accepted notion of the signal velocity of light.

###### Acknowledgements.

LJW wishes to thank R. A. Linke and J. A. Giordmaine for stimulating discussions.
* Email: Lwan@research.nj.nec.com


text:
# The INTEGRAL Burst Alert System

## 1 Introduction

The origin of gamma-ray bursts (GRB’s) remained one of the great mysteries of high energy astrophysics for more than 25 years after the publication of their discovery (Klebesadel et al. 1973). The puzzle became even more complicated after the first results obtained with the BATSE instrument. This detector, especially designed to significantly increase the GRB sample, led to the unexpected result of a non-euclidean LogN-LogS coupled with a uniform angular distribution in the sky (see, e.g., Fishman 1995, and references therein). It soon became clear that the only way to make a significant advance in the field was the possibility of identifying the counterparts of GRB at other wavelengths.

The instruments on board INTEGRAL, though not specifically optimized to observe GRB’s, offer the possibility of rapidly obtaining accurate positions of the GRB’s observed by chance in their large field of view. It was therefore proposed to implement a ”burst alert system” in order to allow rapid multi-wavelength follow-ups (Pedersen et al. 1997). Such a proposal was boosted by the exciting results obtained with the BeppoSAX satellite (Costa et al. 1997, van Paradijs et al. 1997), that clearly demonstrated the capabilities of a coded mask instrument, similar to the INTEGRAL ones, in quickly localizing GRB’s.

## 2 Overview of the INTEGRAL Burst Alert System (IBAS)

Since no on-board GRB detection system is foreseen on INTEGRAL, the search for GRB’s will be performed on ground by means of a near real time analysis running at the INTEGRAL Science Data Center (ISDC). The telemetry data, received at the MOC, will be transmitted on a 128 kbs dedicated line to the ISDC. Here the relevant data packets will be extracted and immediately fed into a dedicated software system called IBAS (Integral Burst Alert System), independent from the main data processing pipeline of the ISDC (Mereghetti et al. 1999).

It is expected that ISGRI, the first layer of the IBIS instrument, operating in the 15-300 keV energy range, will yield the best chances to detect a large number of GRB’s and to accurately determine their positions. The SPI instrument, with a similar sensitivity and large field of view, can also detect GRB’s, but its angular resolution is not as good as the IBIS one. Relatively strong bursts in the central part of the field of view will be detectable by SPI and IBIS, therefore a simultaneous trigger in both instruments could be used to increase the confidence in the reality of the event. However, due to the different sensitivity curves as a function of energy and source direction, it is likely that several GRB’s will trigger only in a single detector. For this reason the IBAS validation process will not require a multiple detection to confirm the occurrence of a GRB.

The first step of the GRB search will be based on a simple monitoring of the incoming count rates, without resorting to more complex image analysis. In practice this will be done by looking for significant excesses with respect to a running average, in a way similar to traditional on-board triggering algorithms. In fact any transient source strong enough to appear as a significant new peak in the deconvolved images will also produce a detectable excess in the overall count rate. The search will be simultaneously performed in many different time scales and energy ranges, to optimize the sensitivity to GRB’s with different characteristics.

When a candidate event is detected, a process of image analysis shall start to verify the origin of the count rate variation and to ensure that the event was not caused by an instrumental malfunctioning (e.g. a bad detector pixel) or by a background variation (see Figures 1, 2, 3). Images shall be accumulated for different time intervals, deconvolved with very fast algorithms, and compared to the pre-burst reference images in order to detect the appearance of the GRB as a new source. This last step is of fundamental importance, since in general different sources will be present in the field of view. The image analysis will be based on the time intervals, derived from the GRB light curve, that optimize the signal to noise ratio.

If the event is genuine, the satellite attitude information will be applied to derive a sky position that is then automatically transmitted, by e-mail and/or direct TCP/IP socket, to all the subscribed users. In addition, if the GRB is located in the sky region covered by the OMC, an appropriate telecommand will be generated and sent to the satellite to reconfigure its observing parameters (see Section 6). Because full event validation and localization might require a longer time, we foresee different levels of alert messages providing increasingly accurate and reliable information. These messages will be configured in such a way to allow an easy filtering by the users in order to react only to the situations that best fit their needs.

## 3 Number of expected GRB’s

A very simple estimate of the number of GRB’s expected within the field of view of the INTEGRAL instruments can be done by scaling the total rate of events measured by BATSE ($``$666 GRB year-1, Paciesas et al. 1999). For the field of view of IBIS ($``$30$`{}_{}{}^{}\times `$ 30), this yields 666 $`\times `$ (0.23 sterad / 4$`\pi `$) $``$ 12 GRB year-1.

A more accurate estimate must take into account the varying sensitivity within the IBIS field of view and the different energy range of the BATSE detectors. This can be done by convolving the IBIS sensitivity and solid angle as a function of off-axis angle with the BATSE LogN-LogP relations, converted to the appropriate energy range assuming an average GRB spectral shape. It turns out that such computations do not significantly change the above rough result. In fact we obtain expected rates of $``$13, 10 and 8 GRB year-1, within the ISGRI field of view, adopting respectively the LogN-LogP corresponding to BATSE trigger times $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$T of 1 s, 256 ms and 64 ms.

The major uncertainty on the derived GRB rates is related to the extrapolation of the BATSE LogN-LogP curves down to the ISGRI sensitivity ($``$0.1 ph cm-2 s-1, 50-300 keV peak flux for $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$T=1 s). Such an extrapolation depends on the poorly known spectral shape of very weak GRB’s.

It must be noted that these estimates do not take into account the likely existence of GRB’s with different characteristics than those observed by BATSE. For instance it is clear that BATSE had a limited sensitivity for events shorter than 64 ms, as well as a strong bias against the detection of long, slowly rising GRB’s. It it therefore very likely that the figures reported above will be an underestimate, and that a few events per month will be available through IBAS for rapid multi-wavelength follow-up observations.

## 4 Location Accuracy

The source location accuracy (SLA) of coded mask imaging systems depends on the signal to noise ratio of the source. For sources detected with a high statistical significance the SLA can be a small fraction of the angular resolution. Theoretical evaluations, confirmed by several independent simulations, have shown that for ISGRI a SLA smaller than 30′′ (90% confidence level) can be obtained for a signal to noise ratio of 30 (see Figure 4). In such cases, the final accuracy on the GRB location is also affected by the uncertainties on the satellite attitude (see below). Of course, most of the detected GRB’s will have relatively small signal to noise ratios, resulting in typical uncertainties, dominated by the photon statistics, of the order of $``$2-3.

The expected INTEGRAL attitude accuracy depends on three cases: (1) attitude during slews, (2) attitude at the start of a stable pointing period, and (3) attitude from about ten minutes after the start to the end of a stable pointing period.

For case (1) a slew path simulator generates predictions of the pointing direction every 10 seconds. In most circumstances these predictions should be accurate to within 10 (3 $`\sigma `$). The average slew rate during the Galactic Plane scans and during the normal dithering observations will be of the order of $``$1/min. Therefore, it will be possible to detect GRB’s even during slews, although their location accuracy will be worse.

For case (2) the attitude is based upon a prediction of the expected position with respect to the previously commanded slew. In most cases (i.e. slews shorter than 2) these predicted values will have an accuracy of the order of the star-tracker/instrument alignment uncertainty (30′′ or less). For larger slews the predicted attitude will have an error smaller than 5$`\pm `$1 (3$`\sigma `$).

Approximately 5 minutes after the start of a pointing (case 3) a “snapshot” attitude reconstruction will be completed based upon the first down-linked star-tracker map. The result shall be made available to the IBAS within a maximum delay of 10 minutes since the start of the stable pointing, yielding, as above, an attitude with accuracy $`\stackrel{<}{}`$30′′.

## 5 IBAS time performance

Using simulated telemetry data, we have obtained the following performance figures for the current prototype version of IBAS running on a SUN ULTRA 10 workstation (440 MHz clock, 256 Mbytes RAM). Of course the final version will run on a faster workstation exclusively dedicated to the IBAS system.

The first IBAS steps (telemetry receipt, extraction and sorting of the relevant data packets, photon binning for the trigger search) require less than 0.1 s.

The speed of the triggering algorithm depends on the duration of the smallest time interval considered and on the number of timescales. For example, sampling on bins of 1, 4, 16, 64 and 256 ms, with a resolution of 1 ms it is still possible to process the telemetry at a speed twice faster than that of the real-time incoming data.

The most time consuming tasks are those related to the image analysis. For this reason, the first part of imaging after a trigger is based on a detection algorithm able to discover new sources by only considering (ghost) peaks in the fully coded field of view. This can be done within $``$200 ms for ISGRI and it allows to discriminate between false triggers and true events. Only when a likely point source is detected, a more thorough analysis will be done to locate the GRB. The deconvolution of the whole (totally plus partially coded) field of view and localization of the true source peak currently requires $``$5 s (we expect to improve this performance with a new optimized version of the code).

Thus it should be possible to send the first GRB alert within a few seconds after the trigger time. The delay between the trigger time and the GRB onset is of course dependent on the intensity and time profile of the event, but the IBAS simultaneous sampling in different timescales should ensure a minimum delay in most cases.

To this time budget one has to add the time required for the telemetry transmission from the satellite to the ISDC, that under normal circumstances should be smaller than $``$30 s.

Thus, in many cases, we foresee to be able to generate first level alerts while the GRB is still ongoing.

## 6 Optical Monitor Recomanding

The Optical Monitor Camera (OMC) on board INTEGRAL has a field of view of 5$`{}_{}{}^{}\times `$5, but owing to the limited allocated telemetry ($``$1.7 kbit s-1) only the data from a number of preselected windows around sources of interest will be downloaded during normal operations. IBAS will check whether the derived GRB position falls within the OMC field of view. In such a case, the appropriate telecommand with the definition of a new window centered on the interesting region will be generated and sent to the satellite. This will allow to quickly observe the GRB/afterglow emission in the optical band. The OMC observation should consist of many frames with short integration times to permit variability studies and to increase the sensitivity for very intense but short outbursts. The expected limiting magnitude is of the order of V$``$14-15 for an integration time of 10 s, and V$``$12-13 for 1 s.

## Acknowledgments

We are grateful to several people that have contributed to the IBAS project, including G.Bazzaro, S.Brandt, D.Jennings, R.Hudec, H.Pedersen, A.Pellizzoni, M.Pohl, T.Courvoisier and R.Walter. The IBAS development is supported by the Italian Space Agency. JB was supported by the Polish Committee for Scientific Research (KBN) under grant No. 2P03C00619p02.