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# Antikaons in nuclei and dense nuclear matter

## 1 Introduction

Understanding the properties of kaons and antikaons in the nuclear medium is of especial relevance in the analysis of data from heavy-ion collisions, as well as in the physics of neutron stars interiors. In the latter case, a condensed phase of $`K^{}`$ mesons might appear if they develop enough attraction in the medium, such that it becomes more favorable to neutralize the positive proton charge with antikaons rather than with electrons . Analysis of kaonic atom data, sensitive to low densities, favor a strongly attractive $`K^{}`$ nucleus interaction , although recently weaker potentials have also been shown to describe the data appropriately . Information on the higher density regime can be inferred from the analysis of heavy-ion collisions data. For instance, the enhancement of the $`K^{}`$ yield measured recently at GSI  can be explained by a strong attraction in the medium for the K- , although an alternative mechanism, based on the in-medium enhanced $`\pi \mathrm{\Sigma }K^{}p`$ reaction, has also been suggested .

Although all experimental indications point at an attractive antikaon potential in the nuclear medium, the size of this attraction has not really been well constrained by the data. It is therefore interesting to explore what the theoretical models predict. A traditional perspective is that of mean field approaches, built within the modern framework of chiral lagrangians  or based on the relativistic Walecka model . However, an especially useful point of view is that provided by microscopic models , since they establish a bridge between the properties of the $`\overline{K}N`$ interaction in the medium and those in free space. This is the approach followed in the present contribution, where we will focus on the results obtained with two different $`\overline{K}N`$ interactions: one is taken from the modern chiral meson-baryon lagrangian in $`S`$-wave , and the other is the meson-exchange model of the Jülich group .

## 2 $`\overline{K}N`$ interaction in free space

The dynamics of $`\overline{K}N`$ scattering is dominated by the presence of an isospin zero $`S`$-wave resonance, the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)`$. In potential models the $`\overline{K}N`$ scattering observables ($`\overline{K}=K^{}`$ or $`\overline{K}^0`$) are derived from the scattering amplitude, obtained from the Bethe-Salpeter equation

$$T_{ij}=V_{ij}+V_{il}G_lT_{lj},$$
(1)
where the diagonal loop operator $`G_l`$ stands for the intermediate meson-baryon ($`MB`$) propagator and $`V`$ is a suitable $`MBM^{}B^{}`$ transition potential.

A connection with the chiral lagrangian was established in ref. , where the properties of the strangeness $`S=1`$ meson-baryon sector were studied in a potential model that, in Born approximation, had the same $`S`$-wave scattering length as the chiral lagrangian, including both the lowest order and the momentum dependent $`p^2`$ terms. Fitting five parameters, the scattering observables were reproduced and the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)`$ resonance was generated dynamically from a coupled-channels Lippmann-Schwinger equation which included the meson-baryon states opened at the $`\overline{K}N`$ threshold. In ref.  it was shown that the data could be reproduced using only the lowest order lagrangian and one parameter, the cut-off used to regularize the loop $`G_l`$. The value of the cut-off, $`q_{\mathrm{max}}=630`$ MeV, was chosen to reproduce the $`K^{}p`$ scattering branching ratios at threshold. The essential difference with respect to ref.  was the inclusion in ref.  of all ten meson-baryon states ($`K^{}p`$, $`\overline{K}^0n`$, $`\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`\pi ^+\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$, $`\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$, $`\pi ^{}\mathrm{\Sigma }^+`$, $`\eta \mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`\eta \mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$, $`K^+\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ and $`K^0\mathrm{\Xi }^0`$) that can be generated from the octet of pseudoscalar mesons and the octet of ground-state baryons, the $`\eta \mathrm{\Lambda }`$ state being the most relevant of the new included ones. The success of this method is analogous to that obtained in the meson-meson sector , an explanation of which is found by applying the Inverse Amplitude Method in coupled channels taking the lowest and next-to-lowest order meson-meson lagrangians . A more recent work corroborates the success of the lowest order meson-baryon lagrangian in reproducing the $`\overline{K}N`$ scattering observables from the point of subtracted dispersion relations .

We will also explore the antikaon properties as obtained from the $`\overline{K}N`$ Jülich interaction , which is based on a meson-exchange picture. Most of the parameters were taken from their $`KN`$ potential in the strangeness $`S=1`$ sector and the few free ones left were adjusted to reproduce the $`K^{}p`$ elastic and inelastic cross section data at low energies. The advantage of this interaction is that it contains all partial waves and allows for an investigation of their effect on the antikaon potential at the high momenta explored by heavy-ion collisions.

Although both $`\overline{K}N`$ interactions describe reasonably well the low energy $`K^{}p`$ elastic and inelastic cross sections, some of the scattering observables at threshold, summarized in Table 1, are not well reproduced. Clearly, some improvements can still be made for the Jülich $`\overline{K}N`$ interaction since the branching ratios were not used for adjusting the parameters of the model.

## 3 $`K^{}`$ deuteron scattering

The amplitudes of the chiral model were used in ref.  to study $`K^{}`$ scattering off the deuteron, the lightest nucleus. It is well known that the impulse approximation fails in describing the $`K^{}`$ scattering length and that more sophisticated approaches based on the solution of the Fadeev equations are required . In ref.  the coupled-channels Fadeev equations were solved in the so-called fixed center approximation (FCA) including the $`K^{}pn`$ and the charge exchange $`\overline{K}^0nn`$ channels, since those involving pions were found to give a small contribution. The resulting $`K^{}`$ deuteron scattering length is

$$A_{Kd}=\frac{M_d}{m_K+M_d}𝑑𝐫\phi _d(𝐫)^2\widehat{A}_{Kd}(r),$$
(2)
with

$$\widehat{A}_{Kd}(r)=\frac{\stackrel{~}{a}_p+\stackrel{~}{a}_n+(2\stackrel{~}{a}_p\stackrel{~}{a}_nb_x^2)/r2b_x^2\stackrel{~}{a}_n/r^2}{1\stackrel{~}{a}_p\stackrel{~}{a}_n/r^2+b_x^2\stackrel{~}{a}_n/r^3},$$
(3)
where $`\stackrel{~}{a}=a(1+m_K/m_N)`$, and $`b_x=\stackrel{~}{a}_x/\sqrt{1+\stackrel{~}{a}_n^0/r}`$ is the charge exchange amplitude renormalized due to the $`\overline{K}^0n`$ rescattering. Expanding Eq. (3) to different orders in $`(1/r)`$ gives rise to the different approximations, such as the impulse approximation (IA) (order zero) or the IA plus double rescattering (first order). In Table 2 we collect the results of ref.  obtained from the chiral elementary $`\overline{K}N`$ amplitudes calculated using the physical basis or the isospin basis at an energy $`W=m_K+m_N=1431.6`$ MeV.

We first observe that the results from the lowest orders differ appreciably from those obtained by summing the full Fadeev series in the FCA given by Eqs. (2), (3). Secondly, the $`K^{}`$ deuteron scattering length obtained from scattering amplitudes that rely on isospin symmetry differ appreciably from that obtained within the physical basis. Finally, the result $`A_{Kd}=1.62+i\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1.91}`$ fm differs from previous multichannel Fadeev approaches, $`A_{Kd}=1.47+i\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1.08}`$ fm  and $`A_{Kd}=1.34+i\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1.04}`$ fm , especially for the imaginary part. As observed in ref. , this is mainly due to the different elementary amplitudes used in the different works. In fact, taking the amplitudes of ref.  and using isospin symmetry, which leads to a particularly small imaginary part for the charge exchange $`K^{}p\overline{K}^0n`$ amplitude, one obtains the FCA result $`A_{Kd}=1.54+i\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1.29}`$ fm, very close to that quoted in ref. . The studies in ref. , together with the analysis performed in ref. , show that one can associate the remaining differences to the FCA which overestimates the full Fadeev calculation by about 15%.

Although the results described here show that it is not simple to extract the elementary scattering amplitudes from the deuteron data, it can nevertheless be expected that the experimental results from the DEAR experiment at Frascati will introduce a further check of consistency between elementary amplitudes and should bring some light into issues like chiral symmetry and partial isospin breakup.

## 4 $`\overline{K}`$ in nuclear matter

One source of medium modification of the $`\overline{K}N`$ amplitude is that induced by Pauli-blocking  which effectively shifts the intermediate $`\overline{K}N`$ states, and in turn the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)`$ resonance, to higher energies. Due to the strong energy dependence, this shift changes the $`\overline{K}N`$ amplitude around threshold from being repulsive in free space to being attractive in the medium. The $`\overline{K}`$ meson thus develops an attractive potential which, when incorporated in the equation determining the in-medium $`\overline{K}N`$ amplitude, compensates the repulsive effect of Pauli blocking. When these effects are considered self-consistently, it is observed that the position of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)`$ remains unchanged . Since the $`\pi \mathrm{\Sigma }`$ states have a strong influence in the dynamics of $`\overline{K}N`$ scattering, the dressing of pions was also considered in the study of ref. , together with mean-field potentials for the baryons participating in the coupled-channels problem. These medium effects are incorporated by replacing the free baryon and meson propagators by dressed ones in the meson-baryon loop-function which then reads

$`G(P^0,\stackrel{}{P},\rho )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _{\stackrel{}{q}<q_{\mathrm{max}}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d^3q}{(2\pi )^3}}{\displaystyle \frac{M}{E(\stackrel{}{q})}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑\omega S(\omega ,\stackrel{}{q},\rho )`$ (4)
$`\times `$ $`\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{1n(\stackrel{}{q}_{\mathrm{lab}})}{\sqrt{s}\omega E(\stackrel{}{q})+iϵ}}+{\displaystyle \frac{n(\stackrel{}{q}_{\mathrm{lab}})}{\sqrt{s}+\omega E(\stackrel{}{q})iϵ}}\right\},`$
where $`(P^0,\stackrel{}{P})`$ is the total four-momentum in the lab frame, $`n(\stackrel{}{q}_{\mathrm{lab}})`$ is the nucleon occupation probability, and $`S(\omega ,\stackrel{}{q},\rho )=\mathrm{Im}D(\omega ,\stackrel{}{q},\rho )/\pi `$ is the $`\overline{K}`$ spectral density, which in free space reduces to $`\delta (\omega \omega (\stackrel{}{q}))/2\omega (\stackrel{}{q})`$. The in-medium antikaon propagator, $`D(\omega ,\stackrel{}{q},\rho )`$, is determined from the antikaon self-energy, $`\mathrm{\Pi }_K(\omega ,\stackrel{}{q},\rho )`$, which is obtained by summing the in-medium $`\overline{K}N`$ interaction, $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}(P^0,\stackrel{}{P},\rho )`$, over the nucleons in the Fermi sea

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_K(q^0,\stackrel{}{q},\rho )=2\underset{N=n,p}{}\frac{d^3p}{(2\pi )^3}n(\stackrel{}{p})T_{\mathrm{eff}}(q^0+E(\stackrel{}{p}),\stackrel{}{q}+\stackrel{}{p},\rho ).$$
(5)
Note that a self-consistent approach is required since one calculates the $`\overline{K}`$ self-energy from the effective interaction $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ which uses $`\overline{K}`$ propagators which themselves include the self-energy being calculated.

The free $`\overline{K}N`$ amplitude in the $`I=0`$, $`L=0`$ channel is shown in Fig. 1, where it is compared with the in-medium one at two nuclear densities, $`\rho =\rho _0=0.17`$ fm-1 and $`\rho =0.5\rho _0`$. Results are shown for two different calculations, that of ref. , based on the chiral lagrangian model , and that of ref. , based on the meson-exchange $`\overline{K}N`$ interaction . We observe that the medium modified amplitudes show the same qualitative trends. Note also how the real part of the amplitude (upper panels) at the $`K^{}p`$ threshold ($`\sqrt{s}=1433`$ MeV) is repulsive in free space and attractive in the medium. The thick solid line on the left panels show the additional effect on the $`\overline{K}N`$ amplitude of dressing the pions in the intermediate states .

Most of the available models study the in-medium $`\overline{K}N`$ amplitude in $`S`$-wave. However, if one aims at extracting the properties of antikaons through the analysis of heavy-ion collisions, one must keep in mind that they are created at a finite momentum of around $`250500`$ MeV/c, hence the effect of higher partial waves might be relevant. The meson-exchange $`\overline{K}N`$ potential of the Jülich group  is given in partial waves and allows a straightforward analysis of the importance of the $`L>0`$ components. From the chiral perspective, the $`P`$-wave amplitudes up to the next-to-leading order $`\overline{K}N`$ chiral lagrangian have been identified and the parameters have been fitted to reproduce a large amount of low energy data . However, a nuclear medium application of this model is not available yet.

As an example on the importance of dressing the antikaon, we show in Fig. 3 the spectral function of a $`K^{}`$ meson of zero momentum obtained with the chiral model of ref.  for various densities: $`\rho _0`$ (solid line), $`\rho _0/2`$ (short-dashed line) and $`\rho _0/4`$ (long-dashed line). The upper pannel corresponds to a calculation in which the antikaons are dressed selfconsistently but the pions are free. At $`\rho _0/4`$ one sees two excitation modes. The left one corresponds to the $`K^{}`$ pole branch, appearing at an energy smaller than the kaon mass, $`m_K`$, due to the attractive $`\overline{K}N`$ amplitude. The peak on the right corresponds to the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)`$-hole excitation mode, which appears around $`m_K`$. As density increases, the $`K^{}`$ feels an enhanced attraction while the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)`$-hole peak loses strength and dissolves in the dense nuclear medium. When the dressing of the pion is also incorporated, the effective interaction $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ becomes even smoother and the resulting $`K^{}`$ spectral function is displayed in the bottom panel of Fig. 3. Even at very small densities one can no longer distinguish the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)`$-hole peak from the $`K^{}`$ pole one. As density increases, the attraction felt by the $`K^{}`$ is more moderate and the $`K^{}`$ pole peak appears at higher energies than before. However, more strength is found at very low energies, especially at $`\rho _0`$, due to the particle-hole ($`ph`$) components of the pionic strength, which couple the $`\overline{K}N`$ pair to $`ph\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ states. It is precisely the opening of the $`\pi \mathrm{\Sigma }`$ channel, on top of the already opened $`ph\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ one, which causes a cusp around 400 MeV. The calculation of ref.  using the Jülich $`\overline{K}N`$ interaction, shown in Fig. 3, obtains qualitatively similar results as those in the upper panel of Fig. 3, where only antikaons are dressed. We notice an additional structure in the spectral function to the left of the quasiparticle peak at energies of the $`\overline{K}`$ around $`320360`$ MeV, which is not present when only the $`L=0`$ component of the $`\overline{K}N`$ interaction is retained (dotted line). This peak is indicating the physical in-medium excitation of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }h`$ states with antikaon quantum numbers coming from the $`L=1`$, $`I=1`$ component of the $`\overline{K}N`$ interaction.

A non-relativistic antikaon potential can be obtained from the self-energy at the quasiparticle energy via the relation

$$U_K(\stackrel{}{q})=\frac{\mathrm{\Pi }_K(\epsilon _{qp}(\stackrel{}{q}),\stackrel{}{q},\rho )}{2m_K}.$$
(6)
The momentum dependence of the potential obtained from the chiral model of ref.  at $`\rho =\rho _0`$ is shown in Fig. 5 for two approximations, one in which only the antikaons are dressed self-consistently (thin solid lines) and another in which the self-energy of the pions is also included (thick solide line). Note that the antikaon potential obtained when the pions are also dressed has much less structure. This is due in part to the smoother in-medium amplitude, but also to the different quasiparticle energy at which the antikaon self-energy is evaluated. This quasiparticle energy is more attractive when only antikaons are dressed and, hence, the amplitude is explored at lower energy regions, closer to the position of the in-medium $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)`$ resonance. Results from the model of ref.  using the Jülich $`\overline{K}N`$ potential are shown in Fig. 5, where the effect of including the higher partial waves can be seen. Already at zero momentum, Fermi motion induces some small contribution of partial waves higher than $`L=0`$. Clearly, the effect of the higher partial waves increases with increasing $`\overline{K}`$ momentum, flattening out the real part of the potential and producing more structure to the imaginary part. At an antikaon momentum of around 500 MeV/c, the inclusion of the higher partial waves practically doubles the size of the antikaon potential with respect to the $`S`$-wave value.

## 5 Kaonic atoms

Since in kaonic atoms the $`K^{}`$ is bound with a small (atomic) energy, their study requires the knowledge of the antikaon self-energy at $`(q^0,\stackrel{}{q})=(m_K,\stackrel{}{0})`$. The density-dependent self-energy obtained with the chiral model has been recently used to study kaonic atoms in the framework of a local density approximation , which amounts to replace the nuclear matter density $`\rho `$ by the density profile $`\rho (r)`$ of the particular nucleus. The results, displayed in Fig. 6, show that both the energy shifts and widths of kaonic atom states agree well with the bulk of experimental data . Recent investigations that respect the low density theorem  show that the non-local corrections, coming from the energy and momentum dependence of the potential, from the $`P`$-wave terms of the meson-baryon lagrangian and from Fermi motion, are small and lead to changes in the widths and shifts smaller than the experimental errors.

Reproducing kaonic atom data with the moderately attractive antikaon nucleus potential of $`45`$ MeV obtained from the chiral model  is in contrast with the depth of around $`200`$ MeV obtained from a best fit to $`K^{}`$ atomic data with a phenomenological potential that includes an additional non-linear density dependent term . A clarifying quantitative comparison of kaonic atom results obtained with various $`K^{}`$-nucleus potentials can be found in ref. . It is shown there that adding to the chiral potential a phenomenological piece, which is fitted to the data, the $`\chi ^2/d.o.f.`$ is reduced from 3.8 to 1.6. The resulting potential is slightly more attractive ($`50`$ MeV at $`\rho _0`$) and the imaginary part is reduced by about a factor 2. The work of ref.  reemphasizes that kaonic atoms only explore the antikaon potential at the surface of the nucleus. Therefore, although all models predict attraction for the $`K^{}`$-nucleus potential, the precise value of its depth at the center of the nucleus, which has important implications for the occurrence of kaon condensation, is still not known. It is then necessary to gather more data that could help in disentangling the properties of the $`\overline{K}`$ meson in the medium. Apart from the valuable information that can be extracted from the production of $`K^{}`$ in heavy-ion collisions, one could also study deeply bound kaonic states, which have been predicted to be narrow  and could be measured in $`(K^{},\gamma )`$  or $`(K^{},p)`$ reactions .

## Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge financial support from the DGICYT (Spain) under contracts PB96-0753, PB98-1247, from the Generalitat de Catalunya under grant SGR2000-24, and from the EU TMR network Eurodaphne contract ERBFMRX-CT98-0169. L.T. acknowledges support from a doctoral fellowship of the Ministerio de Educación y Cultura (Spain).


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# Suppression of weak localization effects in low-density metallic 2D holes

## Abstract

We have measured the resistivity $`R`$ in a gated high-mobility GaAs two dimensional hole sample with densities in the range (7-17)$`\times `$109 cm-2 and at hole temperatures down to 5$`\times `$10-3EF. We measure the weak localization corrections to the conductivity $`gR^1e^2/h`$ as a function of magnetic field ($`\mathrm{\Delta }g=0.019\pm `$0.006 at $`g`$=1.5 and $`T`$=9 mK) and temperature ($`\mathrm{ln}g/T<0.0058`$ and 0.0084 at $`g=1.56`$ and 2.8). These values are less than a few percent of the value 1/$`\pi `$ predicted by standard weak localization theory for a disordered 2D Fermi liquid.

Established theory predicts that all two-dimensional systems of non-interacting fermions in zero magnetic field and with finite disorder become insulating as they approach zero temperature \[1-5\]. Experiments, on the other hand, have shown a range of 2D carrier densities for which the resistivity $`R(T)`$ decreases with decreasing temperature $`T`$ at the lowest temperatures measured . At lower densities $`R(T)`$ increases with decreasing $`T`$ and at a particular density $`R(T)`$ is found to be nearly $`T`$ independent . While the experiments could indicate the existence of a new metallic state at $`T=0`$ separated from the insulating state by a $`T=0`$ (quantum) phase transition, the data could also be explained within conventional theory by including the effects of $`T`$ dependent impurity scattering . Exploring this phenomenon in a high mobility hole doped GaAs sample, we have reached temperatures low enough to show that the temperature independence of $`R(T)`$ extends over a wide range of densities. The difficulty of explaining, within a conventional theory, a temperature independent $`R(T)`$ over a range of densities leaves open the possibility of the new metallic state of matter suggested by the original experiments .

The essential idea of weak localization theory is that constructive interference of time reversed paths (coherent backscattering) for current carrying particles moving in the presence of random impurities reinforces the probability amplitude of the particles staying near their initial positions, and thus reduces the conductivity. The set of constructively interfering paths is confined by the rate of loss of phase coherence $`\tau _\phi ^1`$ to paths of length $`(D\tau _\phi )^{1/2}`$, and is further restricted by the phase accumulated due to the vector potential if a magnetic field is present. For a single band of noninteracting fermions in 2D with a 2-fold spin degeneracy, the predicted change in electrical conductivity g (expressed throughout this paper in units of $`e^2/h`$), assuming $`g1`$, is \[9-12\],

$$\mathrm{\Delta }g(1/\pi )[\psi (\frac{1}{2}+\beta /x)\psi (\frac{1}{2}+y/x)].$$
(1)
Here $`\psi (z)\mathrm{ln}z(2z)^1(12z^2)^1`$ is the digamma function; $`x=g^2H/H_1`$; $`H`$ is the magnetic field; $`H_1=phc/e`$; and $`p`$ is the hole density. The momentum scattering rate is $`\tau ^1=4\pi E_F/hg`$, where $`E_F=kT_F`$ is the Fermi energy; and the ratio of the coherence loss and momentum scattering rates is $`y=\tau /\tau _\phi `$. The total elastic scattering rate is $`\tau _0^1`$, with $`\beta =(\tau /\tau _0)1`$ for short ranged potential scattering and $`\beta >1`$ otherwise.

The largely geometrical effect which is the basis for Eq 1 makes contact with a real physical system when we attempt to insert the temperature dependence of the coherence loss rate, $`\tau _\phi ^1(T)`$. If we assume, as is usually done, that $`\tau _\phi ^1T^q`$, Eq 1 exhibits the well known logarithmic dependence on temperature at low values of the magnetic field, with $`\mathrm{\Delta }g(q/\pi )\mathrm{ln}(\mathrm{T})`$. In the simplest model, in which electron-electron interactions cause dephasing, $`\tau _\phi =\tau _\phi ^{ee}(T)hg/[4\pi ^2kT\mathrm{ln}(g/2)]`$, and $`y=\pi \mathrm{ln}(g/2)(kT/E_F)T/T_\phi `$. For $`x1`$ we then have

$$\mathrm{\Delta }g(1/\pi )[\mathrm{ln}\{T/T_\phi \}\mathrm{ln}\{\beta \}+f_2(H/H_\phi )+\mathrm{}]$$
(2)
where $`H_\phi =H_1g^2T/T_\phi `$ and the function $`f_2(x)=\mathrm{ln}(x)+\psi (\frac{1}{2}+1/x)=x^2/24+\mathrm{}`$. Since $`H_\phi `$ is a function of temperature, the ln$`T`$ dependence of $`\mathrm{\Delta }g`$ in Eq 2 ceases for $`T<T_{min}=g^2T_\phi H/H_1`$. At constant $`HH_1/g^2`$ we may write

$$\mathrm{\Delta }g(T)\mathrm{\Delta }g(T_\phi )\frac{1}{\pi }[\psi (\frac{1}{2}+T/T_{min})+\mathrm{ln}(g^2H/H_1)]$$

Perturbation theory shows that the effect of interactions tends to make a 2D system more metallic, but the perturbation expansion is only valid for interaction strengths characterized by $`r_s<1`$ , where $`r_s`$ is the Wigner-Seitz radius, the mean spacing between particles in units of the effective Bohr radius. Thus at present there are no clear predictions of what interaction effects there might be in our low density system for which $`r_s15\times [m^{}/0.18]\times [10^{10}cm^2/p]^{1/2}>11`$, $`m^{}`$ being the hole effective mass.

In this paper we will interpret our measurements as follows: First, the magnetic field dependence of the conductivity allows us to deduce $`H_\phi `$ and hence $`\tau _\phi `$, with the latter being consistent with$`\tau _\phi =\tau _\phi ^{ee}(T)`$, as expected in the simple model of electron-electron dephasing. Second, we find that the magnetic field dependent weak localization correction, while definitely present, is suppressed by a factor of $``$30. Third, we find that the weak localization temperature dependence of the conductivity, expected based on the measured value of $`\tau _\phi `$, is suppressed by at least the same amount.

Our measurements were performed on a back-gated hole-doped GaAs sample made from one of the wafers used in our previous study , a (311)A GaAs wafer using AlxGa1-xAs barriers (typical $`x=0.10`$) and symmetrically placed Si delta-doping layers above and below a pure GaAs quantum well of width 30 nm. The sample was thinned to $``$150 $`\mu `$m and prepared in the form of a Hall bar, of approximate dimensions (2.5$`\times `$9) mm2, with diffused In(5%Zn) contacts. The hole-density was varied from 3.8 to 17$`\times `$109 cm-2 by means of a gate at the back of the sample. The zero gate bias density was 1.2$`\times `$1010 cm-2 and the density at which we observe the zero magnetic field ($`H=0`$) metal-to-insulator (MI) transition is roughly 6$`\times `$109 cm-2. The measurement current ($``$100 pA, 2 Hz) was applied along the  direction. Independent measurements of the longitudinal resistance per square, $`R_{xx}`$, from contacts on both sides of the sample were made simultaneously as the temperature or applied magnetic field was varied. The sample has a low temperature hole mobility for zero gate bias $`\mu =2\times 10^5`$ cm2V-1s-1. The sample was mounted in a top-loading dilution refrigerator.

The most critical part of our experiment is the determination of the temperature $`T_H`$ of the 2D holes for a given sample lattice temperature $`T_L`$. The refrigerator temperature $`T_R`$ was measured by a germanium resistance thermometer calibrated from the 4 mK base temperature to 320 mK by in situ He-3 capacitance thermometry, the primary standard at such temperatures . With commercial electronics, we were unable to obtain measurements on the sample at such temperatures. We used instead, spatially compact, well-shielded low power custom instrumentation. With this instrumentation we observed that at low carrier densities, for which the sample exhibits insulating behavior, the sample resistivity $`R(T`$) keeps increasing as $`T_R`$ is decreased to the base temperature \[see Fig. 1\]. From this we infer that $`T_L`$ is not significantly different from $`T_R`$ at sufficiently low measurement power levels. According to the calculation of Chow et al. , the power radiated by the 2D hole gas at temperature $`T_H`$ and zero lattice temperature is $`P=(T^4/g)\times 6.75\times 10^6`$ W cm-2 K-4. From this we would infer that at our base temperature $`T_L`$= 4mK, the hole gas temperatures for $`g=1`$ and $`g=10`$ are 5.6 and 9.4 mK respectively at our measurement power level of less than 5$`\times `$10-15 W cm-2. Our measurements  suggest that the Chow et al. estimate is about a factor of two too large for our sample, but that there is an additional cooling rate proportional to $`T^2`$ . This revises the estimated minimum hole temperatures to 5.0 and 7.5 mK at $`g=1`$ and 10 respectively.

The noise power delivered to the sample due to its being connected to the measuring apparatus is calculated as follows. The Johnson noise power from each of the six measurement leads attached to the sample is $`P_J=4kT_{lead}fR_{lead}/R_{samp}=[R_{lead}/R_{\mathrm{}}]\times 6.4\times 10^{14}`$ W, where $`R_{lead}=3.2\mathrm{\Omega }`$ per lead, $`T_{lead}`$200K, $`f`$=8MHz and where the sample resistance is about twice the sample resistivity $`R_{\mathrm{}}`$ given in ohms per square. Normalizing to the 0.23 cm2 total sample area, the total Johnson noise input to the sample from the six leads is $`P_J=[3k\mathrm{\Omega }/R_{\mathrm{}}]\times 1.1\times 10^{15}`$ W/cm2. This is the only significant source of Johnson noise and raises the temperature of the holes in the quantum well of our sample by less than 2 mK for all values of $`R`$ encountered in this study.

We determined our carrier density from Shubnikov-de Haas (SdH) magnetoresistance measurements obtained by averaging the longitudinal resistances per square $`R_{xx1}`$ and $`R_{xx2}`$ obtained from both sides of the sample. We plot the SdH minima vs. gate bias and fit the data using a straight line $`P(V_{gate})=p_0\alpha V_{gate}`$ and the relation $`P(V_{gate})=(2.418\times 10^{10}`$ cm$`{}_{}{}^{2})\times H_{\nu =1}(V_{gate}`$). The measured slope is $`\alpha `$=(0.420$`\pm `$0.005)$`\times `$109 cm-2V-1 independent of sample history and the gate capacitance is $`e\alpha `$=(67.3$`\pm `$0.7)pF cm-2. The zero gate bias density is $`p_0`$=(12.0$`\pm `$0.5) $`\times `$109 cm-2, where the variation reflects a gradual increase over the course of six months time.

We exhibit in Fig 2 the low field magnetoresistance of our sample at hole temperatures of $``$9 mK and for gate biases of 0, +6, +9 and +12V. The data were obtained over 14 sweeps of the magnetic field over the range $`\pm `$400G and averaged into 10G bins . At the lowest density $`p=7\times `$109 cm-2 there is a clear peak near zero field. We model the data using the function

$$R(H)=R_0R_c\left[\frac{(H/H_c)^2}{1+(H/H_c)^2}\right]+\mathrm{\Delta }Rf_2(H/H_\phi )+\eta H$$

shown as the solid grey lines in Fig 2. The second term on the right hand side is a Lorentzian representing the classical magnetoresistance . The third term has the form expected from weak localization according to Eq 2. The last term is included to account for the drift associated with temporal fluctuations of $`R_0`$ . The field $`H`$ is measured relative to the residual field $`H_0`$. The data for $`V_{gate}`$=+12V was fitted to obtain the following values of the free parameters: $`R_0`$=(17365$`\pm `$14) $`\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{}`$; $`H_0`$=(24.8$`\pm `$2.9) G; $`R_c`$=(4995$`\pm `$1270) $`\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{}`$; $`H_c`$=(777$`\pm `$155) G; $`\eta `$=(0.36$`\pm `$0.03) ($`\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{}`$)G-1; $`H_\phi `$=(7.8$`\pm `$3.2) G; and $`\mathrm{\Delta }R`$=(215$`\pm `$68) $`\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{}`$. The data in the remaining panels of Fig 1 were fitted with the thus determined value of $`H_0`$(24.8G) and with $`H_\phi `$ scaled from $`H_\phi `$=7.8G as $`H_\phi p/g^2`$. The fitted values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }g`$ are consistent with a constant $`\mathrm{\Delta }g`$=0.01, much less than the weak localization prediction $`\mathrm{\Delta }g=\pi ^1`$. The expected value of $`H_\phi =H_1g^2T/T_\phi `$ using $`T_\phi =(E_F/k)/(\pi `$ln$`\{g/2\})`$ is not well defined for the conditions of Fig 1a where $`g=1.50`$. We use the results of Ref 16 to approximate $`g/`$ln$`\{g/2\}`$4.16 and obtain $`H_\phi `$=12 G. This result implies that the shape of the weak localization magnetoresistance correction is approximately as expected for an ordinary 2D metal, although the magnitude of the weak localization correction is more than an order of magnitude smaller than expected.

The fact that the fitted value of $`H_\phi `$ agrees roughly with the expectation that $`T_\phi =(E_F/k)/(\pi `$ln$`\{g/2\})`$, implies that the simple model of electron-electron interaction causing dephasing $`\tau _\phi =\tau _\phi ^{ee}(T)`$ is roughly correct. We may then also compute the temperature $`T_{min}=g^2T_\phi H/H_1=[1`$mK$`][H/8.436G][0.18/m^{}][g^2/\mathrm{ln}\{g/2\}]`$ below which the weak localization correction to the resistivity stops being proportional to ln$`T`$. For $`H<`$2G, $`T_{min}<`$16 mK at $`g`$=10 and $`<6`$ mK at $`g`$=5. This means that we should be able to see a weak localization contribution to the conductivity given the precision of our knowledge of the magnetic field zero from Fig 2.

Fig 3 shows a measurement of $`R(T)`$ over the range 5 to 100 mK for gate biases of 0, +6, +9, and +12V. The data were obtained with the 25G residual field of the superconducting solenoid cancelled to within the $`\pm `$2.5 G precision of our fitted value of $`H_0`$. The excitation levels were in all cases 5 fW/cm2 or less, thus ensuring that the minimum hole temperature is less than 6 mK for the highest resistivity curve. Likewise, the minimum hole temperature is less than 8 mK for the 3 k$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$/ measurement. The dashed lines, calculated by simply adding $`(1/\pi )\mathrm{log}(T/20\mathrm{m}\mathrm{K})`$ to the low temperature conductivity $`g(20\mathrm{m}\mathrm{K})`$, are clearly at variance with the measurements. Rather, at temperatures well below the characteristic temperature 0.2$`T_F`$ associated with the activated resistance bump, the resistance becomes nearly constant. Fitting an expression $`g(T)=e^2/(hR(T_0))+b`$ln$`\{T/T_0`$}to the data for $`T<T_020`$ mK, we find 99% confidence upper limits of $`b<0.0058`$, 0.0084, 0.018, 0.015, and 0.033 for densities $`p=`$ 7.0, 8.2, 9.5, 12, and 14.5$`\times `$109 cm-2, and corresponding $`R(T_0)`$=16500, 9290, 6000, 3100, and 1950 $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. These upper limits for $`b`$ are one to nearly two orders of magnitude smaller than the $`b=1/\pi `$ expected according to Eq 2.

At this time there is no satisfactory explanation for a suppression of weak localization effects in a 2D electron gas. Weak localization effects in $`R(T)`$ of the expected magnitude have been observed in a Si MOSFET sample at electron densities of order 3$`\times `$1012 cm-2 by Pudalov et al. , and in a GaAs sample at hole densities of order 1011 cm-2 by Hamilton et al. . This suggests that interaction effects associated with the large value of rs in our experiment may be playing an important role .

The first author is grateful to C. M. Varma for encouraging him to pursue these experiments and for useful conversations. The authors benefited greatly from the assistance of D. S. Greywall in calibrating the Ge resistance temperature scale using He-3 melting curve thermometry.


text:
# S17(0) Determined from the Coulomb Breakup of 83 MeV/nucleon 8B

## Abstract

A kinematically complete measurement was made of the Coulomb dissociation of 8B nuclei on a Pb target at 83 MeV/nucleon. The cross section was measured at low relative energies in order to infer the astrophysical S factor for the 7Be(p,$`\gamma `$)8B reaction. A first-order perturbation theory analysis of the reaction dynamics including $`E1`$, $`E2`$, and $`M1`$ transitions was employed to extract the $`E1`$ strength relevant to neutrino-producing reactions in the solar interior. By fitting the measured cross section from $`E_{rel}`$ = 130 keV to 400 keV, we find $`S_{17}(0)`$ = 17.8 $`{}_{1.2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+1.4}`$ eV b.

The $`\beta ^+`$ decay of 8B is the predominant source of high-energy solar neutrinos. These neutrinos produce the most events in the chlorine radiochemical detector at Homestake and the water and heavy water Cerenkov solar neutrino detectors SuperKamiokande and SNO. In the Sun, 8B is produced via the 7Be(p,$`\gamma `$)8B reaction. Since 1964, the rate of this reaction has been the most uncertain input to the calculated solar neutrino fluxes, and the predicted event rates in solar neutrino detectors . Precise knowledge of this reaction rate is essential not only for a detailed understanding of solar neutrino experiments, but also for constraining fundamental properties of neutrinos themselves. Direct measurements of the cross section are difficult because the target is radioactive, and the cross section small.

Radiative capture cross sections are often characterized in terms of an energy-dependent cross section factor, $`S(E)=E\sigma (E)exp[2\pi Z_1Z_2e^2/(\mathrm{}v)]`$, where the $`Z_i`$ are the charges and $`v`$ the relative velocity of the nuclei involved. Hammache et al.  discuss the discrepancies in the overall normalizations of the direct measurements of the astrophysical S factor for the 7Be(p,$`\gamma `$)8B reaction, $`S_{17}`$. The disagreements among the direct measurements make an independent approach desirable. Peripheral transfer reactions that yield asymptotic normalization coefficients  and Coulomb breakup  permit the extraction of S factors with different systematic uncertainties. In the Coulomb breakup of 8B, a virtual photon emitted by a heavy target nucleus such as Pb dissociates an incident 8B projectile into 7Be + p. This is the inverse of the radiative capture reaction. The two reaction rates are related by the detailed balance theorem for photons of a given multipolarity.

As illustrated in , there is a disagreement in the energy dependence of the S factors extracted from the Coulomb dissociation experiments at RIKEN and GSI. Furthermore, the radiative capture reaction proceeds almost exclusively by $`E1`$ transitions at solar energies ($``$ 20 keV), but $`E2`$ and $`M1`$ transitions also play a role in Coulomb breakup for relative energies less than 1 MeV. $`E2`$ transitions are particularly important at low and intermediate beam energies, while $`M1`$ transitions are most significant at high incident beam energies. The contributions of these multipolarities to measured Coulomb dissociation cross sections must be correctly accounted for in order to obtain the $`E1`$ yield relevant to the production of 8B in the Sun. The size of the $`M1`$ contribution at low relative energies can be gauged from the direct measurement of the radiative capture cross section near the 0.64 MeV 1+ resonance . The $`E2`$ contribution to Coulomb dissociation cross sections was determined in an experiment by Davids et al.  in which the longitudinal momentum distributions of 7Be fragments emitted in the Coulomb dissociation of intermediate energy 8B projectiles on a Pb target were measured. In that experiment, we observed an asymmetry in the longitudinal momentum distribution of the emitted 7Be fragments characteristic of interference between $`E1`$ and $`E2`$ transition amplitudes . In this Letter, we report an exclusive breakup measurement that confirms the presence of $`E2`$ transitions in the Coulomb breakup, and quantitatively account for the measured $`E2`$ contribution in inferring $`S_{17}`$(0).

We made a kinematically complete measurement of the cross section for the Coulomb dissociation of 8B on a Pb target at low relative energies. An 83 MeV/nucleon 8B beam delivered by the A1200 fragment separator  at the National Superconducting Cyclotron Lab impinged on a 47 mg cm-2 Pb target. The 8B beam intensity was approximately 104 s-1; nearly 4 billion nuclei struck the target. A 1.5 T dipole magnet separated the breakup fragments 7Be and p from each other and from the elastically scattered 8B nuclei, and dispersed the fragments according to their momenta. Four multiwire drift chambers (MWDCs) were used to measure the positions and angles of the breakup fragments after they passed through the magnet. An array of 16 plastic scintillators was used for particle identification. A thin scintillator at the exit of the A1200 provided continuous measurements of the beam intensity. In conjunction with the plastic scintillator array, it was also used to measure times-of-flight and to make intermittent beam transmission and purity measurements. A stainless steel plate prevented most of the direct 8B beam from reaching the detectors. Using the ion optics code cosy infinity , we reconstructed the 4-momenta of the breakup fragments from the measured positions in the four detectors and the known magnetic field. The momentum calibration obtained from 7Be and proton beams of known momenta was verified by checking that the fragment velocity distributions were centered about the beam velocity.

The detection efficiency and experimental resolution were determined by means of a Monte Carlo simulation, accounting for the beam emittance, energy loss and multiple scattering in the target and detectors, and the detector position resolution. The 1$`\sigma `$ relative energy resolution ranged e.g. from 100 keV at $`E_{rel}`$ = 300 keV to 250 keV at $`E_{rel}`$ = 1.5 MeV. The 1$`\sigma `$ resolution in the reconstructed angle of the dissociated 8B projectile was 4.5 mrad. The dominant contribution to the experimental resolution was the position resolution of the MWDCs. The simulation of the angular distribution of the breakup fragments included both $`E1`$ and $`E2`$ transitions and anisotropic breakup in the 8B center-of-mass system. Such an anisotropic angular distribution was predicted by the model of Ref. , and was required to fit the longitudinal momentum distributions of protons measured in the present experiment, and of 7Be fragments measured in . This point is addressed in detail below. The anisotropy is a consequence of interference between $`E1`$ and $`E2`$ transition amplitudes.

The results of  imply that a proper theoretical description of a 8B Coulomb breakup experiment must include $`E2`$ transitions. In Ref. , the analysis of the measured 7Be momentum distributions assumed first-order perturbation theory using the point-like projectile approximation for the Coulomb dissociation, and neglecting nuclear-induced breakup. This was reasonable for the experimental conditions considered, namely, for relatively small scattering angles of the 8B center-of-mass. The analysis employed the $`E1`$ and $`E2`$ matrix elements predicted by the model of Ref. , scaled independently in order to reproduce the data. The best fits for both incident beam energies, 44 and 81 MeV/nucleon, were obtained when the ratio of the $`E2`$ and $`E1`$ matrix element scaling factors was 0.7. This was incorrectly reported as the ratio of the scaling factors for the $`E2`$ and $`E1`$ strength distributions; the correct value for this ratio is 0.72 = 0.49. As a consequence, the reported  ratio of $`E2`$ and $`E1`$ S factors at $`E_{rel}`$ = 0.6 MeV should be replaced by 4.7$`{}_{1.3}{}^{+2.0}\times 10^4`$. The $`E2`$ strength extracted from the inclusive breakup measurement  is a factor of 10 to 100 larger than the upper limits reported in other experimental studies . However, it is only slightly smaller than or in good agreement with recent theoretical calculations of $`E2`$ strength , and is consistent with the measurement of . That the extracted experimental value should be somewhat smaller than the theoretical values is consistent with the idea that first-order perturbation theory overestimates the $`E2`$ contribution to the cross section .

In order to minimize the role of $`E2`$ transitions and possible nuclear diffraction dissociation contributions to the breakup cross section measured in this experiment, only events with 8B scattering angles of 1.8 or less were analyzed, corresponding classically to an impact parameter of 30 fm. Eikonal model  and distorted-wave Born approximation  calculations find that nuclear-induced breakup is negligible up to the grazing angle ($``$ 4), so the severe scattering angle cut imposed here gives confidence that nuclear effects are small, and that the point-like projectile approximation is valid. A first-order perturbation theory analysis neglecting nuclear-induced breakup was employed to interpret the results of this experiment. Such an approach is justified by the high beam energy and the restricted angular range covered in the experiment. Higher-order effects are most important at large scattering angles and low incident beam energies . Recent continuum-discretized coupled channels calculations  suggest that nuclear excitations account for less than 4 % of our measured breakup cross section below 500 keV, and that higher-order electromagnetic processes have little effect on $`d\sigma /dE_{rel}`$ for the angles and energies covered in this experiment .

A particular strength of our analysis is that it includes all of the relevant electromagnetic multipole contributions, $`E1`$, $`E2`$, and $`M1`$. The procedure was the following. The $`E1`$ and $`E2`$ contributions were calculated using the structure model of Ref. , quenching the $`E2`$ matrix elements as discussed earlier. The $`M1`$ contribution at the 0.64 MeV 1+ resonance was calculated by folding the measured $`M1`$ S factor  with the $`M1`$ photon spectrum calculated in 1st-order perturbation theory . The contributions of the different multipolarities and their sum is shown in Fig. 1 (a). By requiring $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{{}_{}{}^{8}B}`$ $`1.8^{}`$ and E$`{}_{rel}{}^{}`$ 130 keV, we have ensured the dominance of $`E1`$ transitions. Except for a narrow range surrounding the $`M1`$ resonance, $`E1`$ transitions represent over 90% of the cross section in first-order perturbation theory. Fig. 1(b) shows the fraction of the measured cross section accounted for by $`E1`$ transitions in the present experiment.

The measured longitudinal momentum distribution of protons emitted in the Coulomb breakup of 83 MeV/nucleon 8B on Pb with 8B scattering angles of 1.8 or less is shown in Fig. 2. The 1$`\sigma `$ proton momentum resolution was estimated from the simulation to be 4 MeV/c. Since the statistical significance of these data is less than that of the inclusive measurement reported in Ref. , we shall not use them to extract the $`E2`$ strength. Nevertheless, the asymmetry of this distribution is manifest. Also shown in the figure are calculations done with the model of Ref. , one with the full $`E2`$ strength, one with the $`E2`$ matrix elements scaled as described above, and another with no $`E2`$ matrix elements. The asymmetry observed in , taken together with momentum conservation, implies that the proton longitudinal momentum distribution must have a complementary asymmetry. We observed such an asymmetry for the first time in this measurement, confirming the presence of $`E2`$ transitions in the Coulomb breakup of 8B.

In analyzing the measured decay energy spectrum, we convoluted the sum of the calculated $`E1`$, $`E2`$, and $`M1`$ contributions with the experimental resolution, and scaled the magnitude of the $`E1`$+$`E2`$ contribution in order to minimize $`\chi ^2`$ for the data points within two energy intervals, 130 keV to 2 MeV, and 130 to 400 keV. The factor by which the $`E1`$+$`E2`$ contribution was multiplied will be referred to as the normalization factor. The data above 2 MeV were excluded from the fit due to the presence of a 3+ resonance at 2.2 MeV that was not included in the theoretical calculation, and because the statistics there are poor. At energies below 100 keV, our calculations show that the $`E2`$ component dominates, so these data were also excluded from the fit. A correction to the data for the feeding of the 429 keV excited state of 7Be was made using the results of . This correction is small, ranging from less than a percent at the lowest relative energies to about 10% around 2 MeV.

The best-fit normalization factor obtained for the data between 130 keV and 2 MeV with this procedure was 1.00 $`{}_{0.06}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+0.02}`$. The 1$`\sigma `$ error includes energy-dependent contributions from statistics, momentum and angular acceptance, detector efficiency, and the 7Be excited state feeding correction. The various sources of systematic uncertainties include beam intensity (1%), target thickness (2.6%), momentum calibration (4.2%), and the theoretical uncertainty (5.6%), resulting in a total systematic uncertainty of 7.5%. The theoretical uncertainty includes contributions from the size of the $`E2`$ component (2.5%) and from the extrapolation to zero energy (5%). Hence the result of the perturbation theory analysis of data from 130 keV to 2 MeV is $`S_{17}`$(0) = 19.1 $`{}_{1.8}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+1.5}`$ eV b.

A more reliable result can be obtained by analyzing a smaller relative energy range. Jennings et al.  point out that nuclear structure uncertainties increase significantly above $`E_{rel}`$ = 400 keV. In order to minimize this model dependence, we also fit only the data between 130 keV and 400 keV. The theoretical extrapolation uncertainty is only 1% for this energy range . The best-fit normalization factor for these data was 0.93 $`{}_{0.04}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+0.05}`$, resulting in $`S_{17}(0)`$ = 17.8 $`{}_{1.2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+1.4}`$ eV b, with all sources of uncertainty added in quadrature. This result is consistent with the value extracted from all the data up to 2 MeV, implying that the simple potential model of Ref.  describes the physics well even at large relative energies, within the uncertainties. The data and the best-fit 1st-order perturbation theory calculations for all the data between 130 keV and 2 MeV, and for the data from 130 to 400 keV, convoluted with the experimental resolution, are shown in Fig. 3.

The present result is in good agreement with three of the capture measurements , and with the RIKEN (18.9 $`\pm `$ 1.8 eV b) and GSI (20.6 $`\pm `$ 1.2 $`\pm `$ 1.0 eV b) Coulomb breakup measurements . It is also in excellent agreement with the results of asymptotic normalization coefficient determinations (17.3 $`\pm `$ 1.8 eV b) . Although the results agree within the errors, the $`E1`$ strength found here is about 15% smaller than reported in the GSI Coulomb breakup measurement . This might be ascribed to the neglect of $`E2`$ transitions in the analysis of the GSI measurement. The fraction of the breakup cross section attributable to $`E2`$ transitions depends on the energies and angles covered. In the present measurement, the experimental conditions were tailored to minimize the role of $`E2`$ transitions. The GSI measurement probed smaller impact parameters, implying in first-order perturbation theory a $`\sigma _{E2}/\sigma _{E1}`$ ratio about 4 times larger than in this measurement throughout the relative energy range used to extract the S factor. Since the $`E2`$ contribution to the present measurement is about 5%, this could account for the difference between the extracted $`E1`$ components. Similarly, the S factor inferred from the RIKEN Coulomb breakup measurement  must be reduced by 4-15%  in order to account for the $`E2`$ contribution in 1st-order perturbation theory.

In summary, a kinematically complete measurement of the Coulomb dissociation of 83 MeV/nucleon 8B on a Pb target was carried out using a dipole magnet to separate the breakup fragments from the beam. The Coulomb breakup cross section was measured at low relative energies and small 8B scattering angles in order to infer the astrophysical S factor for the 7Be(p,$`\gamma `$)8B reaction with minimal complications from nuclear-induced breakup, $`E2`$ transitions, and higher-order electromagnetic effects. A first-order perturbation theory description of the reaction that included $`E1`$, $`E2`$, and $`M1`$ transitions, and a simple, single-particle 8B structure model were used to interpret the measurement. The longitudinal momentum distribution of the emitted protons was measured and found to be asymmetric, consistent with our prior inclusive measurement of the 7Be fragments, confirming the role of $`E2`$ transitions in the Coulomb breakup. Although we obtained data below 100 keV, they were excluded from the analysis because $`E2`$ transitions dominate at these energies. In order to minimize the theoretical uncertainties, the $`E1`$ strength in the Coulomb breakup was extracted from 130 to 400 keV, yielding $`S_{17}(0)`$ = 17.8 $`{}_{1.2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+1.4}`$ eV b. Having for the first time properly accounted for the $`E2`$ component, the dominant theoretical uncertainty in 8B Coulomb breakup measurements, we have shown that direct radiative capture, Coulomb breakup and asymptotic normalization coefficient determinations give consistent values of $`S_{17}(0)`$.

This work was supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation; two of us (C.N.D. and H.E.) were supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Nuclear Physics Division, under Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38.