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# Introduction

## Introduction

The results of this paper give an effective tools to integrate some class of quantum physical systems. Such systems play a prominent role in quantum many-body physics, nuclear physics as well as quantum optics. More information about these models and their physical content can be found in many papers and monographs on this subject and among others one may consult \[A-I\], \[J1\], \[J2\], \[Kar1\], \[Kar2\], \[M-G\], \[Odz\].

This paper is devoted to a detailed study of the mathematical structures underlying the multi-boson hamiltonian systems, whose dynamics is generated by the operators of the general form given in (1.1).

In the first section, it is shown, that the reduction procedure applied to the multiboson hamiltonian system leads to some interesting operator algebras $`𝒜_{}`$ (parametrized by a structural function $``$) which generalize in a natural way Heisenberg algebra as well as $`sl_q(2)`$ and $`SU_q(2)`$ quantum algebras. It was demonstrated \[Odz\] that the algebras $`𝒜_{}`$ are on the one hand side strictly related to the integration of the quantum systems. Their description in terms of the coherent states leads on the other hand to the connection of these algebras with the theory of basic hypergeomeric series and orthogonal polynomials.

In Section 2 we establish the explicit relation between the spectral realization of the algebra $`𝒜_{}`$ in the space $`L^2(,d\sigma )`$ and the representation in the space of holomorphic function.

According to the spectral theorem, the problem of integration of the dynamical system is equivalent to the construction of the spectral measure $`d\sigma `$ for the corresponding Hamiltonian. Under some assumptions on its form (see Section 3) the problem of this construction can be explicitly solved within the framework of q-Hahn’s polynomials theory. The measure is then uniquely determined by the solution of $`q`$-difference Pearson equation.

For the sake of completeness some elementary facts from $`q`$-analysis are presented in the Appendix A. The Appendix B contains the proofs of some fundamental properties of q-Hahn’s polynomials.

## 1 The multi-boson systems

This section is devoted to the detailed analysis of the symmetry properties of ($`N+1`$)-boson systems. The dynamics of these systems is assumed to be governed by the Hamiltonian operator of the form:

$$\begin{array}{c}H=h_0(a_0^{}a_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_N)+g_0(a_0^{}a_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_N)a_0^{k_0}\mathrm{}a_N^{k_N}+\\ +a_0^{k_0}\mathrm{}a_N^{k_N}\overline{g}_0(a_0^{}a_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_N),\end{array}$$
(1.1)
where $`a_0,\mathrm{},a_N`$ and $`a_0^{},\mathrm{},a_N^{}`$ are bosonic annihilation and respectively creation operators with standard Heisenberg commutation relations:

$$[a_i,a_j^{}]=\delta _{ij},[a_i,a_j]=0,[a_i^{},a_j^{}]=0.$$
(1.2)
The following notational convention is assumed in (1.1)

$$a_i^{k_i}=\{\begin{array}{c}a_i^{k_i}fork_i>0\hfill \\ 1fork_i=0\hfill \\ a_i^{k_i}=\left(a_i^{}\right)^{k_i}fork_i<0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(1.3)
The monomial

$$a_0^{k_0}\mathrm{}a_N^{k_N},k_0,\mathrm{},k_N$$
(1.4)
can be thought of as an operator which describes the subsequent creation and annihilation of the clusters of the bosonic modes.
The operator

$$g_0(a_0^{}a_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_N)$$
(1.5)
is a kind of generalization of the coupling constant. The coupling constant is replaced in our case by a function depending on the occupation number operators of the bosonic modes. The operator

$$h_0(a_0^{}a_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_N)$$
(1.6)
can always be chosen as a free Hamiltonian being a weighted sum of the occupation number operators of elementary modes $`a_0^{}a_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_N`$:

$$h_0^{free}=\omega _0a_0^{}a_0+\mathrm{}+\omega _Na_N^{}a_N.$$
(1.7)
The considerations at this paper will be by no means restricted to this free case however. The Hamiltonian under consideration (1.1) is an elementary ingredient of the most general Hamiltonian operator

$$H=\underset{k_0,\mathrm{},k_N}{}g_{k_0\mathrm{}k_N}(a_0^{}a_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_N)a_0^{k_0}\mathrm{}a_N^{k_N},$$
(1.8)
with the functions $`g_{k_0\mathrm{}k_N}`$ connected by the following conjugation rule.

$$\left[g_{k_0\mathrm{}k_N}(a_0^{}a_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_N)\right]^{}=g_{k_0\mathrm{}k_N}(a_0^{}a_0k_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_Nk_N).$$
(1.9)
The class of model hamiltonians (1.1) corresponds to many important quantum physical systems. Their dynamics is generated by specific operators of the form (1.1) \[J1\], \[J2\], \[Kar1\], \[Kar2\], \[A-I\]. For this reason the analysis of the system (1.1) seems to be important and may shed new light on the unsolved problems of quantum physics.

In order to analyze the quantum system described by the Hamiltonian (1.1), it is convenient to introduce the following operators:

$$A:=g_0(a_0^{}a_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_N)a_0^{k_0}\mathrm{}a_N^{k_N}.$$
(1.10)
and

$$A_i=A_i^{}:=\underset{j=0}{\overset{N}{}}\alpha _{ij}a_j^{}a_j,$$
(1.11)
where $`i=0,1,2,\mathrm{},N`$. One assumes that real $`\left(N+1\right)\times \left(N+1\right)`$-matrix
$`\alpha =\left(\alpha _{ij}\right)`$ satisfies the conditions

$`det\alpha `$ $``$ $`0`$ (1.12)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{j=0}{\overset{N}{}}}\alpha _{ij}k_j`$ $`=`$ $`\delta _{i0}.`$ (1.13)
The operators $`A_0,A_1,\mathrm{},A_N,A`$ and $`A^{}`$ do satisfy the following commutation relations

$$[A_0,A]=A,[A_0,A^{}]=A^{}$$
(1.14)
$$[A,A_i]=0=[A^{},A_i]$$
(1.15)
for $`i=1,\mathrm{}N`$, and

$$[A_i,A_j]=0$$
(1.16)
for $`i,j=0,1,\mathrm{},N`$.

One has in addition

$`A^{}A`$ $`=`$ $`\left|g_0(a_0^{}a_0k_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_Nk_N)\right|^2𝒫_{k_0}\left(a_0^{}a_0k_0\right)\mathrm{}𝒫_{k_N}\left(a_N^{}a_Nk_N\right)`$ (1.17)
$`AA^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\left|g_0(a_0^{}a_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_N)\right|^2𝒫_{k_0}\left(a_0^{}a_0\right)\mathrm{}𝒫_{k_N}\left(a_N^{}a_N\right),`$ (1.18)
where $`𝒫_{k_0}\left(a_0^{}a_0\right),\mathrm{},𝒫_{k_N}\left(a_N^{}a_N\right)`$ are polynomials:

$$𝒫_k\left(a^{}a\right):=a^ka^k=\{\begin{array}{c}a^k\left(a^{}\right)^k=\left(a^{}a+1\right)\mathrm{}\left(a^{}a+k\right)fork>0\hfill \\ 1fork=0\hfill \\ \left(a^{}\right)^ka^k=a^{}a\left(a^{}a1\right)\mathrm{}\left(a^{}ak+1\right)fork<0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(1.19)
The operators $`A^{}A`$ and $`AA^{}`$ are diagonal in the standard Fock basis

$$|n_0,n_1,\mathrm{},n_N=\frac{1}{\sqrt{n_0!\mathrm{}n_N!}}\left(a_0^{}\right)^{n_0}\mathrm{}\left(a_N^{}\right)^{n_N}|0,$$
(1.20)
where $`(n_0,n_1,\mathrm{},n_N)_+^{N+1}:=\left(_+\left\{0\right\}\right)\times \mathrm{}\times \left(_+\left\{0\right\}\right)`$ ($`N+1`$ times).

Let us note that operators $`A_0,\mathrm{},A_N`$ are unbounded. Whether $`A`$ and $`A^{}`$ are bounded or not depends on the choice of the structural function $`g_0`$. All of them are defined on the common domain $`D`$ spanned by finite linear combinations

$$|v=\underset{(i_0,i_1,\mathrm{},i_N)F}{}c_{i_0,i_1,\mathrm{},i_N}|n_{i_0},n_{i_1},\mathrm{},n_{i_N}$$
(1.21)
of the Fock basis elements, where $`F`$ is some finite set of multi indices.

Identifying the 1-dimensional spaces $`|n_0,n_1,\mathrm{},n_N`$ with the elements of $`_+^{N+1}`$ we obtain the action of $`A`$ and $`A^{}`$ (and their natural powers) on $`_+^{N+1}`$. It is easy to see that the orbits of these actions are located on one dimensional lines which are parallel to the vector $`(k_0,k_1,\mathrm{},k_N)^{N+1}`$.

If the function $`g_0`$ of ( 1.1) is regular and nonvanishing in all points of $`_+^{N+1}`$, we can make some simple but useful observations. The first one is that if $`\frac{k_i}{k_j}<0`$ for some $`i,j\{0,1,\mathrm{},N\}`$ then for any element $`|n_0,n_1,\mathrm{},n_N`$ of the Fock basis there exists $`M`$ such that

$$A^M|n_0,n_1,\mathrm{},n_N=0and\left(A^{}\right)^M|n_0,n_1,\mathrm{},n_N=0.$$
(1.22)
This means that orbits of $`A`$ and $`A^{}`$ in $`_+^{N+1}`$ are finite. In the opposite case the orbits contain infinitely many points.

The second observation is that $`A|n_0,n_1,\mathrm{},n_N=0`$ if and only if there exists $`i\{0,1,\mathrm{},N\}`$ such that $`k_i>0`$ and $`n_i\{0,1,\mathrm{},k_i1\}`$. Hence each orbit of $`A`$ and $`A^{}`$ in $`_+^{N+1}`$ has exactly one vacuum (the point anihilated by $`A`$). It is then natural to introduce the parametrization of the Fock basis which is in agreement with the above orbit decomposition of $`_+^{N+1}`$.

Replacing the occupation number operators $`a_0^{}a_0,\mathrm{},a_N^{}a_N`$ by the operators $`A_0,A_1,\mathrm{},A_N`$ in (1.17) and (1.18) one obtains:

$`A^{}A`$ $`=`$ $`𝒢(A_01,A_1,\mathrm{},A_N)`$ (1.23)
$`AA^{}`$ $`=`$ $`𝒢(A_0,A_1,\mathrm{},A_N)`$ (1.24)
with the function $`𝒢`$ uniquely determined by $`g_0`$, polynomials $`𝒫_{k_0},\mathrm{},𝒫_{k_N}`$ and the linear map (1.11).

The Hamiltonian (1.1) can be reexpressed in terms of (1.10) and (1.11) in the following form:

$$H=H_0(A_0,A_1,\mathrm{},A_N)+A+A^{}$$
(1.25)
It is clear that it admits $`N`$ commuting integrals of motion $`A_1,\mathrm{},A_N`$: $`[A_i,H]=0`$ for $`i=1,\mathrm{},N`$. They commute with the operator $`A_0`$ too. This maximal system of commutative observables is diagonalized in the Fock basis and the eigenvalues of $`A_0,A_1,\mathrm{},A_N`$ on $`|n_0,n_1,\mathrm{},n_N`$ are given by

$$\lambda _i=\underset{j=0}{\overset{N}{}}\alpha _{ij}n_ji=0,1,\mathrm{},N.$$
(1.26)
The eigenvalues $`(\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)`$ form a discrete convex cone $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_+^{N+1}`$. It is spanned by the columns of the matrix $`\left(\alpha _{ij}\right)`$ with entries from $`\left(_+\left\{0\right\}\right)`$: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_+=\alpha \left(_+^{N+1}\right)`$. The sequences $`(\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)\mathrm{\Lambda }_+`$ will be used as a new parametrization $`\left\{|\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N\right\}`$ of the Fock basis elements.

In order to integrate the system (1.1) one can reduce it to the eigen subspaces $`_{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _N}`$ spanned by the eigenvectors $`|\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$ with fixed $`\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$. This subspace is invariant with the respect to the algebra $`𝒜_{red}`$, which is generated by the operators $`A,A^{},`$ $`A_0`$. These operators do satisfy the following relations (1.23),(1.24),(1.14):

$`[A_0,A]`$ $`=`$ $`A,[A_0,A^{}]=A^{},`$ (1.27)
$`A^{}A`$ $`=`$ $`𝒢(A_01,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N),`$ (1.28)
$`AA^{}`$ $`=`$ $`𝒢(A_0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N).`$ (1.29)
Hence one can conclude that the problem of integration of the system (1.1) amounts to the integration of the system described by the reduced Hamiltonian:

$$H_{red}=H_0(A_0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)+A+A^{}$$
(1.30)
being an element of the algebra $`𝒜_{red}`$.

The orthonormal basis of the Hilbert subspace $`_{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _N}`$ is formed by the vectors $`|\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$ with $`\lambda _0`$ such that $`(\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)\mathrm{\Lambda }_+`$. From (1.27-1.29) it follows that

$`A_0|\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$ $`=`$ $`\lambda _0|\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$ (1.31)
$`A|\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{𝒢(\lambda _01,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)}|\lambda _01,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$ (1.32)
$`A^{}|\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{𝒢(\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)}|\lambda _0+1,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N.`$ (1.33)
Let us note here that if $`(\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)\mathrm{\Lambda }_+`$ then either $`(\lambda _01,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)\mathrm{\Lambda }_+`$
($`(\lambda _0+1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)\mathrm{\Lambda }_+`$) or

$$A|\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N=0\left(A^{}|\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N=0\right).$$
(1.34)
Because of (1.28-1.29) the conditions (1.34) are equivalent to

$$𝒢(\lambda _01,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)=0\left(𝒢(\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N)=0\right).$$
(1.35)
Since $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_+`$ is a discrete convex cone we can easily see that the representation of $`𝒜_{red}`$ in $`_{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _N}`$ splits into irreducible components. These components are generated out of vacuum (or antivacum) states $`|\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$. The vacuum states are parametrized by the solutions $`\lambda _0`$ of the equations (1.35). In all cases under consideration the operator $`A_0`$ is diagonal while the operator $`A`$ is weighted unilateral shift operator. One does not exclude the case when the irreducible representations generated by $`|\lambda _0,\lambda _{1,}\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$ are of finite dimension.

We can give now the following

###### Proposition 1.1

If the structural function $`𝒢`$ is regular then:

1. $`dim_{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _N}<\mathrm{}`$ if and only if there exists a pair $`i,j\{0,1,\mathrm{},N\}`$ such that $`\frac{k_i}{k_j}<0`$.
2. if $`k_0>0`$ then the equation $`A|\lambda _0,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N=0`$ is solved by

$$\lambda _{0,l}:=\frac{l}{k_0}\frac{1}{k_0}\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}\beta _{0j}\lambda _j$$
(1.36)
where $`\beta _{ij}`$ are matrix elements of $`\alpha ^1,lL:=\{0,\frac{1}{\kappa }k_0,\frac{2}{\kappa }k_0,\mathrm{},\frac{\kappa 1}{\kappa }k_0\}`$ and $`\kappa `$ is the biggest common divisor of the numbers ($`k_0,k_1,\mathrm{},k_N`$). Moreover $`_{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _N}`$ splits onto the irreducible components

$$_{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _N}=\underset{lL}{}_{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _N}^l$$
(1.37)
where $`_{\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N}^l`$ are generated by $`𝒜_{red}`$ out of the states $`|\lambda _{0,l},\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$.
3. $`dim_{\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N}=\mathrm{}`$ if and only if $`dim_{\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N}^l=\mathrm{}`$ for all $`l`$.

Proof : follows immediately from the observations above. Irreducibility of $`_{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _N}^l`$ is a consequence of the fact that $`|\lambda _{0,l},\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N`$ is the unique vacuum in this space. QED

The construction presented above generalizes the one of \[Kar1\],\[Kar2\], where the models with $`𝒢`$ being a polynomial of special type are considered. In these papers the approximative methods of integration of the models were used.

As it was mentioned in the Introduction, our aim is to study some integrable family of Hamiltonians (1.30). Therefore, instead of the operator $`A_0`$, we will use the Hermitian operator

$$Q:=q^{A_0\lambda _{0,l}},$$
(1.38)
where $`0<q<1`$.

The structural relations (1.27-1.29) acquire the following form in terms of the operators $`A,A^{}`$ and $`Q`$

$`QA^{}`$ $`=`$ $`qA^{}Q,qQA=AQ`$ (1.39)
$`A^{}A`$ $`=`$ $`\left(Q\right)`$ (1.40)
$`AA^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(qQ\right),`$ (1.41)
where structural function $``$ is given by

$$\left(Q\right)=𝒢(\frac{\mathrm{log}Q}{\mathrm{log}q}+\lambda _{0,l}1,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N).$$
(1.42)
The function $``$ takes positive values in all points $`\left\{q^n\right\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ and moreover $`\left(1\right)=0`$. The algebras of the type above were analyzed in \[Odz\]. The reduced Hamiltonian (1.30) can be rewritten as

$$H_{red}=𝒟\left(Q\right)+A+A^{},$$
(1.43)
with the function $`𝒟`$ given by

$$𝒟\left(Q\right)=H_0(\frac{\mathrm{log}Q}{\mathrm{log}q}+\lambda _{0,l},\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N).$$
(1.44)
by the use of (1.38).

The analysis below is restricted to infinite-dimensional case only. The discussion of finite dimensional case will be presented in the separate paper.

## 2 Spectral and holomorphic representations

Let $`𝒜_{}`$ be the operator algebra generated by the operators $`A`$, $`A^{}`$ and $`Q`$. In this section we describe two natural and, important from physical point of view, representations of the algebra $`𝒜_{}`$.

The first representation, which we will call a holomorphic one, is related to the coherent states $`|z,\left|z\right|<\left(0\right)`$, of the anihilation operator $`A𝒜_{}`$

$$A|z=z|z.$$
(2.1)
Let us consider the case when the orthonormal basis of the Hilbert space $`_{red}:=_{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _N}^l`$

$$|n:=|\lambda _{0,l}+n,\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _N,n\left\{0\right\}$$
(2.2)
is infinite. The basis vectors are generated by the operator $`A^{}`$ out of the vacuum state $`|0`$. The action of the algebra generators on the vectors of this basis is:

$`Q|n`$ $`=`$ $`q^n|n`$ (2.3)
$`A|n`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{\left(q^n\right)}|n1`$ (2.4)
$`A^{}|n`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{\left(q^{n+1}\right)}|n+1.`$ (2.5)
The coherent state $`|z`$ is thus given by

$$|z:=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{z^n}{\sqrt{\left(q\right)\mathrm{}\left(q^n\right)}}|n,$$
(2.6)
where $`z𝔻=\{z:\left|z\right|<\left(0\right)\}`$. The states $`|z`$, $`z𝔻`$ form a linearly dense subset in $`_{red}`$. Therefore, the map

$$I\left(v\right)\stackrel{def}{=}v|z$$
(2.7)
where $`v_{red}`$ and $`z𝔻`$ , is an antilinear and one-to-one map of the Hilbert space $`_{red}`$ into the vector space $`𝒪\left(𝔻\right)`$ of holomorphic functions on the disc $`𝔻`$ . It was shown in \[Odz\] that the image $`I\left(_{red}\right)`$ is isomorphic to the Hilbert space $`L^2𝒪(𝔻,d\mu _{})`$ containing holomorphic functions on $`𝔻`$ which are square integrable with respect to the measure

$$d\mu _{}(z,\overline{z})=\frac{1}{2\pi }\frac{1}{Exp_{}\left(x\right)}\frac{1}{\left(1q\right)(q;q)_{\mathrm{}}}\gamma \left(\frac{1}{x}\right)\underset{a\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{a^{\frac{\mathrm{log}x}{\mathrm{log}q}}(a;q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(ax;q)_{\mathrm{}}}d_qxd\phi ,$$
(2.8)
where $`z=\sqrt{x}e^{i\phi },d_qx`$ is the Jackson measure (see Appendix A), $`d\phi `$ is the Lebesque measure on the circle $`S^1`$. The $``$-exponential function $`Exp_{}`$ (see \[Odz\]) and the function $`\gamma `$ are defined by

$$Exp_{}\left(x\right):=z|z=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{x^n}{\left(q\right)\mathrm{}\left(q^n\right)},$$
(2.9)
$$\gamma \left(z\right):=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(\underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{(q;q)_{nk}}{(q;q)_k}\left(1\right)^kq^{({}_{2}{}^{k})}\right)z^k,$$
(2.10)
with

$$(q;q)_k:=(q)(q^2)\mathrm{}(q^k),$$
(2.11)
$$(q;q)_k:=(1q)(1q^2)\mathrm{}(1q^k),$$
(2.12)
$$(x;q)_{\mathrm{}}:=\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(1q^kx\right).$$
(2.13)
Let us remark here, that the existence of the morphism (2.7) is equivalent to the existence of the resolution of the unity of the type:

$$_𝔻|zz|𝑑\mu _{}(z,\overline{z})=1.$$
(2.14)
By holomorphic representation of the algebra $`𝒜_{}`$ we will understand the representation in the Hilbert space $`L^2𝒪(𝔻,d\mu _{})`$. Straightforward calculation shows that:

$`A\phi \left(z\right)`$ $`=`$ $`_{}\phi \left(z\right)`$ (2.15)
$`A^{}\phi \left(z\right)`$ $`=`$ $`z\phi \left(z\right)`$ (2.16)
$`Q\phi \left(z\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\phi \left(qz\right)`$ (2.17)
$`H_{red}\phi \left(z\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\left(𝒟\left(Q\right)+z+_{}\right)\phi \left(z\right),`$ (2.18)
where $`\phi L^2𝒪(𝔻,d\mu _{})`$ and $`_{}`$ is a $``$-difference operator given by

$`_{}\phi \left(z\right)`$ $`:=`$ $`\left(qQ\right)_0\phi \left(z\right),`$ (2.19)
$`_0\phi \left(z\right)`$ $`:=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\phi \left(z\right)\phi \left(0\right)}{z}},`$ (2.20)
see \[Odz\]. In the cases with

$$\left(x\right)=\frac{1x}{1q}$$
(2.21)
$`_{}`$ is a $`q`$-derivative $`_q`$, and the standard derivative $`\frac{d}{dz}`$ is obtained from $`_q`$ in the limit $`q1`$. The quantum algebra $`𝒜_{}`$ of $``$ given by (2.21) is a $`q`$ -deformation of the Heisenberg algebra. Hence the analytic realization of $`𝒜_{}`$ introduced above is a natural generalization of the Bergman-Fock-Segal representation of the Heisenberg algebra.

The second representation of $`𝒜_{}`$ is related to the spectral measure of a selfadjoint extension of the Hamiltonian (1.43). The action of $`H_{red}`$ on the elements of the orthonormal basis $`\left\{|n\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is given in terms of three-diagonal (Jacobi) matrix

$$H_{red}|n=\sqrt{\left(q^n\right)}|n1+𝒟\left(q^n\right)|n+\sqrt{\left(q^{n+1}\right)}|n+1.$$
(2.22)
We will call this matrix the Jacobi matrix of the operator $`H_{red}`$.

The operator $`H_{red}`$ is symmetric and its domain $`D_{H_{red}}`$ contains all finite linear combinations of the basis elements $`\left\{|n\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$. The theory of such type operators is strictly related with the theory of orthogonal polynomials \[A-G\],\[A\],\[Ch\],\[Su\].

Let $`𝒦_\omega `$ denote the deficiency subspace of $`H_{red}`$ for $`\omega `$ and $`Im\omega 0`$

$$𝒦_\omega :=\left(\left(H_{red}\omega 1\right)D_{H_{red}}\right)^{}.$$
(2.23)
The deficiency indices $`(n_+,n_{})`$:

$`n_+`$ $`=`$ $`dim𝒦_\omega ,forIm\omega >0`$ (2.24)
$`n_{}`$ $`=`$ $`dim𝒦_\omega ,forIm\omega <0`$ (2.25)
of the operator $`H_{red}`$ are $`(0,0)`$ or $`(1,1)`$. In order to show this property, one should observe that $`|v𝒦_{\overline{\omega }}`$ if and only if

$$H_{red}^{}|v=\omega |v.$$
(2.26)
where $`H_{red}^{}`$ is the Hermitian conjugate of $`H_{red}`$. The vector

$$|v=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}P_n\left(\omega \right)|n_{red},$$
(2.27)
solves (2.26) if and only if coefficients $`P_n\left(\omega \right)`$ do satisfy the three term recurrence equation

$$\omega P_n\left(\omega \right)=\sqrt{\left(q^n\right)}P_{n1}\left(\omega \right)+𝒟\left(q^n\right)P_n\left(\omega \right)+\sqrt{\left(q^{n+1}\right)}P_{n+1}\left(\omega \right)$$
(2.28)
$`n`$, with the initial conditions

$$P_0\left(\omega \right)1,P_1\left(\omega \right)=\frac{\omega 𝒟\left(1\right)}{\left(q\right)}$$
(2.29)
and

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left|P_n\left(\omega \right)\right|^2<+\mathrm{}$$
(2.30)
Hence $`n_+`$ and $`n_{}`$ are equal to $`0`$ or $`1`$.

Because every $`P_n\left(\omega \right)`$ is a real polynomial of degree $`n`$ of the complex variable $`\omega `$ one has $`n_+=n_{}`$.

Following \[A\] we will call the Jacobi matrix of $`H_{red}`$ to be of the type $`D`$ or $`C`$ if the deficiency indices of $`H_{red}`$ are $`(0,0)`$ or $`(1,1)`$ respectively.

###### Proposition 2.1

1. If

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{\left(q^n\right)}}=+\mathrm{}$$
(2.31)
then the operator $`H_{red}`$ has deficiency indices $`(0,0)`$.This is equivalent to its essential selfadjointnes.
2. If the set of the coherent states $`|z`$ of the annihilation operator $`A`$ is parametrized by the disc $`𝔻`$ of finite radius $`\left(0\right)<+\mathrm{}`$ then $`H_{red}`$ is essentially selfadjoint.
3. If the deficiency indices of $`H_{red}`$ are $`(1,1)`$ then coherent states $`|z`$ of $`A`$ exist for any $`z`$.

Proof :

1. Let $`\left\{Q_n\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be an another solution of the recurrence (2.28) with the initial conditions given by :

$$Q_0\left(\omega \right)0,Q_1\left(\omega \right)\frac{1}{\sqrt{\left(q\right)}}.$$
(2.32)
One then has

$$P_{k1}\left(\omega \right)Q_k\left(\omega \right)P_k\left(\omega \right)Q_{k1}\left(\omega \right)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\left(q^k\right)}}$$
(2.33)
where $`k`$. Applying Schwartz inequality to (2.33), one finds

$$\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{\left(q^n\right)}}2\left(\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left|P_n\left(\omega \right)\right|^2\right)\left(\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left|Q_n\left(\omega \right)\right|^2\right).$$
(2.34)
Moreover one can prove (see \[A\]) that if $`\left\{P_n\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ satisfies (2.30), then $`\left\{Q_n\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ satisfies it too. Therefore $`_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{\left(q^n\right)}}<+\mathrm{}`$. This contradicts (2.31). Thus, one has

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left|P_n\left(\omega \right)\right|^2=\mathrm{},$$
(2.35)
meaning that $`n_+=n_{}=0`$. We apply Th.VIII.3 from \[R-S\] vol.1.
2. If $`\left(0\right)<+\mathrm{}`$ then the condition (2.35) follows immediately from (2.31). The statement ii) follows from the statement i).
3. One proves it ad absurdum using the previous statement. QED

Let $`\widehat{H}_{red}`$ be some selfadjoint extension of $`H_{red}`$. In the case of type $`C`$ such extensions are parametrized by points of $`S^1`$ see \[R-S\] whereas in the case of type $`D`$ the extension is unique. Let $`dE_{,𝒟}\left(\omega \right)`$ be the spectral measure of $`\widehat{H}_{red}`$.

By the spectral representation of $`𝒜_{}`$ we will call the representation in the space $`L^2(,d\sigma _{,𝒟})`$ where the measure $`d\sigma _{,𝒟}`$ is given by

$$d\sigma _{,𝒟}\left(\omega \right):=0|dE_{,𝒟}\left(\omega \right)0$$
(2.36)
and the operator $`\widehat{H}_{red}`$ acts by multiplication with the identity function on $``$. Let $`U_{PN}:_{red}L^2(,d\sigma _{,𝒟})`$ denote the intertwining operator for these two representations. Because the polynomials $`\left\{P_n\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ form an orthonormal basis in $`L^2(,d\sigma _{,𝒟})`$, it is convenient to write the intertwining operator using the physical notation of Dirac

$$U_{PN}=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}P_n\left(\omega \right)n|.$$
(2.37)
The convergence is understood in the sense of weak topology. The relation of the holomorphic representation and the spectral representation is given by the isomorphism of Hilbert spaces

$$U_{PZ}:L^2𝒪(𝔻,d\mu _{})L^2(,d\sigma _{,𝒟})$$
(2.38)
and $`U_{PZ}`$ one can be written as

$$U_{PZ}=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}P_n\left(\omega \right)\frac{z^n}{\sqrt{\left(q\right)\mathrm{}\left(q^n\right)}},$$
(2.39)
where $`\left\{\frac{z^n}{\sqrt{\left(q\right)\mathrm{}\left(q^n\right)}}\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is an orthonormal basis in $`L^2𝒪(𝔻,d\mu _{})`$. Similarly let

$$U_{ZN}:_{red}L^2(𝔻,d\mu _{})$$
(2.40)
be given by

$$U_{ZN}:=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{z^n}{\sqrt{\left(q\right)\mathrm{}\left(q^n\right)}}n|.$$
(2.41)
We are thus getting the following commutative diagram

$`_{red}`$
$`\stackrel{U_{PZ}}{}`$ $`\stackrel{U_{ZN}}{}`$ (2.42)
$`L^2(,d\sigma _{,𝒟})`$ $`\stackrel{U_{PN}}{}`$ $`L^2𝒪(𝔻,d\mu _{})`$
of Hilbert space isomrphisms.

If the series

$$V(\omega ,z):=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}P_n\left(\omega \right)\frac{z^n}{\sqrt{\left(q\right)\mathrm{}\left(q^n\right)}}$$
(2.43)
is pointwise convergent for all $`\omega [a,b]`$ and $`z𝔻`$, the isomorphism $`U_{PZ}`$ can be represented as the integral transform

$$\left(U_{PZ}\phi \right)\left(\omega \right)=_𝔻V(\omega ,z)\phi \left(z\right)𝑑\mu _{}(z,\overline{z}).$$
(2.44)
The kernel $`V(\omega ,z)`$ of this transform satisfies the $``$-difference equation

$$\left(\omega z\right)V(\omega ,z)=𝒟\left(Q\right)V(\omega ,z)+_{}V(\omega ,z).$$
(2.45)
Of course, from the orthogonal polynomials theory point of view $`V(\omega ,z)`$ is nothing else than the generating function for the family of orthogonal polynomials under consideration.

The function $`V(\omega ,z)`$ is useful to calculate many important physical quantities of the system described by the Hamiltonian $`H_{red}`$.
First of all, note that using (2.44) and (2.45) one obtains

$$v|H_{red}^nz=_{}\overline{V(\omega ,v)}\omega ^nV(\omega ,z)𝑑\sigma _{,𝒟}\left(\omega \right)=\left(z+𝒟\left(Q\right)+_{}\right)^nExp_{}\left(\overline{v}z\right).$$
(2.46)
Putting in particular $`n=0`$ we have

$$Exp_{}\left(\overline{v}z\right)=_{}\overline{V(\omega ,v)}V(\omega ,z)𝑑\sigma _{,𝒟}\left(\omega \right)$$
(2.47)
which is the integral representation of the $``$-exponential function $`Exp_{}\left(\overline{v}z\right)`$. This function satisfies the equation

$$_{}Exp_{}\left(\overline{v}z\right)=\overline{v}Exp_{}\left(\overline{v}z\right).$$
(2.48)
Let us recall that $`Exp_{}(\overline{v})L^2𝒪(𝔻,d\mu _{})`$ is the expression of the coherent state in holomorphic representation.

The evolution operator $`U\left(t\right):=e^{i\widehat{H}_{red}t}`$ acts on the function from $`L^2(,d\sigma _{,𝒟})`$ as multiplication by phase factors:

$$U\left(t\right)\psi \left(\omega \right)=e^{i\omega t}\psi \left(\omega \right).$$
(2.49)
It enables us to calculate the transition amplitudes between coherent states :

$$v|U\left(t\right)z=_{}\overline{V(\omega ,v)}e^{i\omega t}V(\omega ,v)𝑑\sigma _{,𝒟}\left(\omega \right).$$
(2.50)
The vacuum - vacuum transition amplitude is also important for physicists. It is given by:

$$0|U\left(t\right)0=_{}e^{i\omega t}𝑑\sigma _{,𝒟}\left(\omega \right)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{\left(it\right)^n}{n!}\mu _n$$
(2.51)
where $`\mu _n`$ is the n-th moment of the measure $`d\sigma _{,𝒟}`$.

The above shows that the measure $`d\sigma _{,𝒟}`$ plays a significant role in the description of our physical system. The construction $`d\sigma _{,𝒟}`$ is one of the most important problems which has to be solved in order to recover the dynamics.
In order to give an example see \[A\] of the solution of this problem, let us recall the notion of a simple symmetric operator.

The Hilbert subspace $`_1`$ is a reducible subspace of the linear operator $`T:`$ if $`_1`$ and $`_2:=_1^{}`$ are invariant subspaces for $`T`$ and for orthogonal projection $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1:_1`$ one has $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1\left(D_T\right)D_T`$. The symmetric operator $`T`$ is simple if there does not exist the irreducible subspace of $`T`$ such that $`T__1`$ has selfadjoint extension in $`_1`$.

If the Jacobi matrix of the reduced Hamiltonian $`H_{red}`$ is of type $`C`$ then the series

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left|P_n\left(\omega \right)\right|^2\&\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left|Q_n\left(\omega \right)\right|^2$$
(2.52)
are almost uniformly convergent on $``$. Thus the functions $`A\left(\omega \right),B\left(\omega \right),C\left(\omega \right)`$ and $`D\left(\omega \right)`$ defined by

$`A\left(\omega \right)`$ $`=`$ $`\omega {\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}Q_k\left(0\right)Q_k\left(\omega \right),`$
$`B\left(\omega \right)`$ $`=`$ $`1+\omega {\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}Q_k\left(0\right)P_k\left(\omega \right),`$
$`C\left(\omega \right)`$ $`=`$ $`1+\omega {\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}P_k\left(0\right)Q_k\left(\omega \right),`$ (2.53)
$`D\left(\omega \right)`$ $`=`$ $`\omega {\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}P_k\left(0\right)P_k\left(\omega \right)`$
are entire functions. If in addition $`H_{red}`$ is simple and closed operator then the spectral measure $`dE_{,𝒟}\left(\omega \right)`$ of its arbitrary selfadjoint extension $`\widehat{H}_{red}`$ is localized at the nulls $`\omega _i,i=1,2,\mathrm{}`$, of the function $`q\left(\omega \right)=B\left(\omega \right)tD\left(\omega \right)`$ for some $`t`$. The steps $`\mu _i,i=1,2,\mathrm{}`$ of the measure $`d\sigma _{,𝒟}\left(\omega \right):=0|dE_{,𝒟}\left(\omega \right)0`$ satisfy the following conditions

$`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mu _i\left(1+\omega _i^2\right)\left|q^{}\left(\omega _i\right)\right|^2}}<\mathrm{}`$ (2.54)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mu _i\left|q^{}\left(\omega _i\right)\right|^2}}=\mathrm{}.`$ (2.55)
From the identity

$$|n=P_n\left(H_{red}\right)|0$$
(2.56)
it follows that if the Jacobi matrix of $`H_{red}`$ is of type $`D`$ then $`H_{red}`$ has simple spectrum. Conversely, one can prove (see \[St\]) that every selfadjoint operator $`H=H^{}`$ with simple spectrum may be represented in some orthonormal basis by the formula (2.22) where the Jacobi matrix is of the type $`D`$.

Using (2.3-2.5) we can associate with it the algebra $`𝒜_{}`$ with the proper structural function $``$. This fact indicates that the algebras of this kind are important tools to investigate the symmetry structures of the physical systems with dynamics generated by Hamiltonians with simple spectrum.

In the next section we will describe the situation when neither coherent states nor the kernel $`V(\omega ,z)`$ do exist.

## 3 The integrable systems related to q-Hahn’s polynomials

We will integrate quantum systems related to the algebras $`𝒜_{}`$ and Hamiltonian $`H_{red}=:H_{AB}`$ with the corresponding structural functions of the form

$`_{AB}\left(x\right)=\left(1q\right)x\left[_q\eta \left(x\right)\beta \left(x\right)_q\beta \left(x\right)\right]`$ (3.1)
$`𝒟_{AB}\left(x\right)=\left(1q\right)x_q\beta \left(x\right).`$ (3.2)
where

$$\beta \left(x\right)=\frac{q\left(1x\right)\left[\left(a_0\left(1q\right)b_1\right)x+b_1q\right]}{\left(1q\right)\left[\left(a_1\left(1q\right)b_2\right)x^2+b_2q^2\right]}$$
(3.3)
$$\eta \left(x\right)=\{\frac{\left[\left(a_0\left(1q\right)b_1\right)x+b_1q^2\right]\left[\left(a_0\left(1q\right)b_1\right)x+b_1q\right]}{\left[\left(a_1\left(1q\right)b_2\right)x^2+b_2q^2\right]\left[\left(a_1\left(1q\right)b_2\right)x^2+b_2q^3\right]}+$$
(3.4)
$$+\frac{b_0\left(1q\right)}{\left(a_1\left(1q\right)b_2\right)x^2+b_2q^3}\}\frac{q^3\left(1x\right)\left(1q^1x\right)}{\left(1q\right)^2\left(1+q\right)}.$$

These functions depend on five real parameters $`a_0,a_1`$ and $`b_0,b_1,b_2`$. It will appear later on that it is natural to introduce the following two polynomials:

$`A\left(\omega \right)`$ $`=`$ $`a_1\omega +a_0`$ (3.5)
$`B\left(\omega \right)`$ $`=`$ $`b_2\omega ^2+b_1\omega +b_0.`$ (3.6)
It is clear from (3.3-3.4) that the pairs of polynomials $`(A\left(\omega \right),B\left(\omega \right))`$ of degree one and two respectively, taken up to common overall real factor $`c0`$, parametrize the models under consideration. The only condition we will impose on the pair $`(A\left(\omega \right),B\left(\omega \right))`$ is the one given by $`_{AB}\left(q^n\right)>0`$ for any $`n`$.

Analogously to the theory of classical orthogonal polynomials there is a $`q`$-difference equation (an analog of Pearson equation \[Su\]):

$$_q\left(\varrho B\right)\left(\omega \right)=\left(\varrho A\right)\left(\omega \right)$$
(3.7)
associated with the pair ($`A\left(\omega \right),B\left(\omega \right)`$).

We will look for the solutions $`\varrho \left(\omega \right)`$ of (3.7) which do satisfy the boundary conditions

$$\varrho \left(a\right)B\left(a\right)=\varrho \left(b\right)B\left(b\right)=0,$$
(3.8)
for some fixed $`a,b`$ such that $`\mathrm{}a<b\mathrm{}`$. We thus have so called Pearson data $`(A\left(\omega \right),B\left(\omega \right))`$ on the interval $`(a,b)`$.

###### Proposition 3.1

Let $`\varrho \left(\omega \right)`$ be the solution of the $`q`$-Pearson equation (3.7) defined by $`(A\left(\omega \right),B\left(\omega \right))`$ and satisfying (3.8). Then $`\varrho ^{\left(k\right)}\left(\omega \right):=\varrho \left(q^k\omega \right)B\left(q\omega \right)\mathrm{}B\left(q^k\omega \right)`$ is the solution of Pearson $`q`$-equation (3.7) associated with the pair

$`A^{(k)}(\omega )`$ $`:=`$ $`q^kA(q^k\omega )+{\displaystyle \frac{1q^kQ^k}{1q}}_qB(\omega )`$ (3.9)
$`B^{\left(k\right)}\left(\omega \right)`$ $`:=`$ $`B\left(\omega \right).`$ (3.10)
where $`k`$. If $`\varrho (\omega )`$ satysfies the boundary conditions (3.8) then $`\varrho ^{(k)}(\omega )`$ satysfies (3.8) too.

Proof : By straight forward calculation. QED

Let $`L^2([a,b],d\sigma _{AB})`$ be the Hilbert space of square-integrable functions with respect to the measure

$$d\sigma _{AB}\left(\omega \right)=\varrho \left(\omega \right)d_q\omega $$
(3.11)
where

$$d_q\omega =\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(1q\right)q^k\left[b\delta \left(\omega q^kb\right)a\delta \left(\omega q^ka\right)\right]d\omega $$
(3.12)
is the Jackson measure on the interval $`[a,b]`$. It will be assumed that the weight function $`\varrho \left(\omega \right)`$ does satisfy the Pearson $`q`$-equation (3.7) supplemented with boundary condition (3.8).

Applying the orthonormalization procedure to the monomials $`\left\{\omega ^n\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}L^2([a,b],d\sigma _{AB})`$ we obtain the system of orthonormal polynomials (OPS) $`\left\{P_n\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$

$$_a^bP_n\left(\omega \right)P_m\left(\omega \right)𝑑\sigma _{AB}\left(\omega \right)=\delta _{nm}$$
(3.13)
which is uniquely determined by the pair $`(A\left(\omega \right),B\left(\omega \right))`$ and interval. The polynomials $`\left\{P_n\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ are called q-Hahn’s polynomials, see \[G-R\], \[H\]. Let us denote by $`\left\{\stackrel{~}{P_n}\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ the monic OPS associated with $`\left\{P_n\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$. (e.i. $`\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)=\frac{1}{\alpha _n}P_n\left(\omega \right)`$ where $`\alpha _n`$ is the coefficient of the higest power in $`P_n\left(\omega \right)`$).

###### Theorem 3.1

If $`\left\{\stackrel{~}{P_n}\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is the monic OPS corresponding to the Pearson data $`(A\left(\omega \right),B\left(\omega \right))`$ then the family of polynomials:

$$\left\{\frac{1}{\left[n\right]\left[n1\right]\mathrm{}\left[nk\right]}_q^k\stackrel{~}{P_n}\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}$$
(3.14)
where

$$\left[k\right]:=\frac{1q^k}{1q},$$

forms the monic OPS corresponding to $`(A^{\left(k\right)}\left(\omega \right),B^{\left(k\right)}\left(\omega \right))`$, with the same boundary conditions (3.8).

Proof : For $`kn2`$ we have

$$_a^b\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\omega ^kA\left(\omega \right)\varrho \left(\omega \right)d_q\omega =0.$$
(3.15)
Using Leibnitz rule, (3.7) and (3.8) we obtain

$`0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _a^b}\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\omega ^k\left(_qB\varrho \right)\left(\omega \right)d_q\omega =`$
$`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\omega ^kB\left(\omega \right)\varrho \left(\omega \right)|_a^b{\displaystyle _a^b}_q\left(\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\omega ^k\right)B\left(q\omega \right)\varrho \left(q\omega \right)d_q\omega =`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _a^b}_q\left(\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\omega ^k\right)\left(B\left(\omega \right)\left(1q\right)\omega A\left(\omega \right)\right)\varrho \left(\omega \right)d_q\omega =`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _a^b}_q\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\left(q\omega \right)^k\left(B\left(\omega \right)\left(1q\right)\omega A\left(\omega \right)\right)\varrho \left(\omega \right)d_q\omega `$
$``$ $`{\displaystyle _a^b}\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\left[k\right]\omega ^{k1}\left(B\left(\omega \right)\left(1q\right)\omega A\left(\omega \right)\right)\varrho \left(\omega \right)d_q\omega .`$
The degree of polynomial

$$\left[k\right]\omega ^{k1}\left(B\left(\omega \right)\left(1q\right)\omega A\left(\omega \right)\right)$$
(3.16)
is $`k+1<n`$, and from (3.9-3.10) one finds that:

$$_a^b_q\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\omega ^k\varrho ^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)d_q\omega =0$$
(3.17)
for $`kn2`$. This shows that the polynomials $`\left\{\frac{1}{\left[n\right]}_q\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ form a monic OPS for the Pearson data $`(A^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right),B^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right))`$ given by (3.9-3.10). QED

Since, for the rational function $`_{AB}\left(x\right)`$ of (3.1) one has $`_{AB}\left(0\right)=0`$ the Proposition 2.1 and it’s consequences described in the previous section imply that in the case under consideration the following statements are true:

1. the operator $`\overline{H}_{AB}`$ is selfadjoint and has simple spectrum;
2. the coherent states do not exist for $`𝒜_{_{AB}}`$
3. the Hilbert space $`_{red}`$ is unitary isomorphic to $`L^2([a,b],d\sigma _{AB})`$, with the isomorphism given by (2.37).

Hence, the Hahn’s polynomials $`\left\{P_n(\omega )\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ form an orthonormal basis in $`L^2([a,b],d\sigma _{AB})`$. The measure $`d\sigma _{AB}`$ is the expectation value of the spectral measure $`dE_{AB}`$ in the vacuum state $`|0`$.

It is then clear that the properties of Hahn’s polynomials are crucial for better understanding of the physical systems corresponding the algebra $`𝒜_{_{AB}}`$. The proposition below gives a description of some important properties of these polynomials, namely

###### Theorem 3.2 (Hahn)

Fix a Pearson data $`(A(\omega ),B(\omega ))`$ on the interval $`[a,b]`$. Then the following statements are equivalent:

1. The family of polynomials $`\left\{\stackrel{~}{P_n}\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ forms the monic OPS with respect to $`(A\left(\omega \right),B\left(\omega \right))`$.
2. The polynomials are given by formula of Rodriques:

$$\stackrel{~}{P_n}\left(\omega \right)=c_n\frac{1}{\varrho \left(\omega \right)}_q^n\left[\varrho \left(\omega \right)B\left(\omega \right)B\left(q^1\omega \right)\mathrm{}B\left(q^{\left(n1\right)}\omega \right)\right]$$
(3.18)
$`n`$, where $`c_n`$ is a normalization constant.
3. The polynomials $`\left\{\stackrel{~}{P_n}\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ do satisfy the following $`q`$-difference equation (Hahn equation)

$$\left(A\left(\omega \right)_q+B\left(\omega \right)_qQ^1_q\right)\stackrel{~}{P_n}\left(\omega \right)=\lambda _n\stackrel{~}{P_n}\left(\omega \right)$$
(3.19)
where

$`\lambda _n`$ $`=`$ $`a_1\left[n\right]+b_2\left[n\right]\left[n1\right]q^{\left(n1\right)};n=2,3,\mathrm{}`$ (3.20)
$`\lambda _1`$ $`=`$ $`a_1.`$
4. Every polynomial of the system $`\left\{\stackrel{~}{P_n}\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is given by

$$\stackrel{~}{P_n}\left(\omega \right)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}\frac{1}{a_1^{\left(k\right)}b_2\left[n+1+k\right]}\left(A^{\left(0\right)}\left(\omega \right)+B\left(\omega \right)_qQ^1\right)\mathrm{}\left(A^{\left(k1\right)}\left(\omega \right)+B\left(\omega \right)_qQ^1\right)1$$
(3.21)
where the linear functions

$$A^{\left(k\right)}\left(\omega \right)=a_1^{\left(k\right)}\omega +a_0^{\left(k\right)}$$
(3.22)
are defined in (3.9).
5. The polynomials of the system $`\left\{\stackrel{~}{P_n}\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ are related by the three term recurrence formula

$$\stackrel{~}{P}_{n+1}\left(\omega \right)+_{AB}\left(q^n\right)\stackrel{~}{P}_{n1}\left(\omega \right)=\left(\omega 𝒟_{AB}\left(q^n\right)\right)\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)$$
(3.23)
with the initial condition $`P_0\left(\omega \right)1`$.

The proofs of the equivalence of $`A,B,C`$ may be found in the original paper of Hahn \[H\]. The recurrence formula (3.23) is considered there without specification of the form of the structural functions $`_{AB},𝒟_{AB}`$. The only assumption made is that they are rational functions of the parameter $`q`$. A complete proof of this theorem is given in the Appendix B.

From the considerations of Section 2, it follows that the problem of integration of the multiboson system described in $`L^2([a,b],d\sigma _{AB})`$, is reduced to the construction of the measure $`d\sigma _{AB}`$. According to (3.11) the measure $`d\sigma _{AB}`$ is given by the density function $`\varrho \left(\omega \right)`$ which is a solution of the $`q`$-difference Pearson equation (3.7). Let us therefore present all possible solutions of (3.7) from the class of the meromorphic functions. Using (3.5-3.6) we can rewrite (3.7) in the form

$$\varrho (\omega )=\frac{B(q\omega )}{B(\omega )(1q)\omega A(\omega )}\varrho (q\omega )=\frac{b_2q^2\omega ^2+b_1q\omega +b_0}{\left(b_2\left(1q\right)a_1\right)\omega ^2+\left(b_1\left(1q\right)a_0\right)\omega +b_0}\varrho \left(q\omega \right)$$
(3.24)
and after standard calculations we obtain the following classes of solutions depending on the values of the parameters $`b_2,b_1,b_0,a_1,a_0`$:

###### Proposition 3.2

One has the following subcases of the solutions of the $`q`$-difference Pearson equation (3.7):

1. If $`b_00`$ and $`b_2(1q)a_10`$, then

$$\varrho (\omega )=\frac{(\frac{q\omega }{a};q)_{\mathrm{}}(\frac{q\omega }{b};q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(\frac{\omega }{c};q)_{\mathrm{}}(\frac{\omega }{d};q)_{\mathrm{}}},$$
(3.25)
where $`a0,b0`$ are roots of the polynomial $`B(\omega )`$ and$`c0,d0`$ are roots of the polynomial $`B(\omega )(1q)\omega A(\omega )`$.
2. If $`b_00`$ and $`b_1(1q)a_00`$ and $`b_2(1q)a_1=0`$, then

$$\varrho (\omega )=\frac{(\frac{q\omega }{a};q)_{\mathrm{}}(\frac{q\omega }{b};q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(\frac{\omega }{c};q)_{\mathrm{}}},$$
(3.26)
where $`a0,b0`$ are roots of the polynomial $`B(\omega )`$ and$`c0`$ is the root of the polynomial $`B(\omega )(1q)\omega A(\omega )`$.
3. If $`b_00`$ and $`b_1(1q)a_0=0`$ and $`b_2(1q)a_1=0`$, then

$$\varrho (\omega )=(\frac{q\omega }{a};q)_{\mathrm{}}(\frac{q\omega }{b};q)_{\mathrm{}},$$
(3.27)
where $`a0,b0`$ are roots of the polynomial $`B(\omega )`$.
4. If $`b_0=0,b_10`$ and $`b_1\left(1q\right)a_00`$and $`b_2\left(1q\right)a_10`$ and $`b_20`$, then

$$\varrho (\omega )=\omega ^r\frac{(\frac{q\omega }{a};q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(\frac{\omega }{c};q)_{\mathrm{}}},$$
(3.28)
where $`a0`$ is the root of the polynomial $`B(\omega )`$, $`c0`$ is the root of the polynomial $`B(\omega )(1q)\omega A(\omega )`$ and $`q^r=\left|\frac{qb_1}{b_1\left(1q\right)a_0}\right|`$.
5. If $`b_0=0,b_10`$ and $`b_1\left(1q\right)a_00`$and $`b_2\left(1q\right)a_1=0`$ and $`b_20`$, then

$$\varrho (\omega )=\omega ^r(\frac{q\omega }{a};q)_{\mathrm{}},$$
(3.29)
where $`a0`$ is the root of the polynomial $`B(\omega )`$ and $`q^r=\left|\frac{qb_1}{b_1\left(1q\right)a_0}\right|`$.
6. If $`b_0=b_1\left(1q\right)a_0=0,b_10,b_20`$ and $`b_2(1q)a_10`$, then
7. $$\varrho (\omega )=\omega ^r\frac{(\frac{q\omega }{a};q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(\omega ;q)_{\mathrm{}}(q\omega ^1;q)_{\mathrm{}}}$$
(3.30)
for $`q^r=\frac{qb_1}{b_2\left(1q\right)a_1}>0`$;
8. $$\varrho (\omega )=\omega ^r\frac{(\frac{q\omega }{a};q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(\omega ;q)_{\mathrm{}}(q\omega ^1;q)_{\mathrm{}}}$$
(3.31)
for $`q^r=\frac{qb_1}{b_2\left(1q\right)a_1}<0`$,
where $`a0`$ is the root of the polynomial $`B(\omega )`$.
9. If $`b_0=b_1=0,b_1(1q)a_00`$ and $`b_20`$, then
10. $$\varrho (\omega )=\omega ^r\frac{(\omega ;q)_{\mathrm{}}(q\omega ^1;q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(\frac{\omega }{c};q)_{\mathrm{}}}$$
(3.32)
for $`q^r=\frac{q^2b_2}{b_1\left(1q\right)a_0}>0`$;
11. $$\varrho (\omega )=\omega ^r\frac{(\omega ;q)_{\mathrm{}}(q\omega ^1;q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(\frac{\omega }{c};q)_{\mathrm{}}}$$
(3.33)
for $`q^r=\frac{q^2b_2}{b_1\left(1q\right)a_0}<0`$,
where $`c0`$ is the root of the polynomial $`B(\omega )(1q)\omega A(\omega )`$.
12. If $`b_0=b_1=b_1\left(1q\right)a_0=0,`$ and $`b_2(1q)a_10`$and $`b_20`$, then

$$\varrho (\omega )=\omega ^r$$
(3.34)
for $`q^r=\left|\frac{q^2b_2}{b_2\left(1q\right)a_1}\right|`$.

Proof : The subcases i), ii) and iii) are easily obtained by iteration. The points iv)- viii) are proved by calculation of Laurent expansion coefficient and application of the Ramanujan’s identities (see \[G-R\]). QED

We can now determine the interval of integration in (3.13) and determine the conditions on polynomials $`A(\omega )`$ and $`B(\omega )`$ such that the measure $`d\sigma _{AB}`$ is positive (ie $`R(q^n)>0`$ for $`n`$). It will be convenient to express the conditions on $`A(\omega )`$ and $`B(\omega )`$ in terms of roots of the polynomials $`B(\omega )`$ and $`B(\omega )(1q)\omega A(\omega )`$.

###### Proposition 3.3

The measure $`d\sigma _{AB}`$ is positive and the condition (3.8) is fulfilled if and only if (in the notation and classification of Proposition 3.2)

1. The integration interval is $`[a,b]`$ with $`a<0<b`$ and $`c,d`$ satisfies one of the following conditions:

$`\alpha `$) $`c=\overline{d}`$,

$`\beta `$) $`c<a`$ and $`d>b`$,

$`\gamma `$) $`c,d<a`$,

$`\delta `$) there exists $`K`$ such that $`q^{K1}a<c,d<q^Ka`$,

$`ϵ`$) $`c,d>b`$,

$`\zeta `$) there exists $`K`$ such that $`q^Kb<c,d<q^{K1}b`$.
2. The integration interval is $`[a,b]`$ with $`a<0<b`$ and $`c<a`$ or $`c>b`$.
3. The integration interval is $`[a,b]`$ with $`a<0<b`$.
4. This case splits into two subcases:

1) For $`a>0`$ the integration interval is $`[0,a]`$ and $`c<0`$ or $`c>a`$.

2) For $`a<0`$ the integration interval is $`[a,0]`$ and $`c<a`$ or $`c>0`$ and $`r`$ has to be such that $`a^r>0`$.
5. This case splits into two subcases:

1)For $`a>0`$ the integration interval is $`[0,a]`$.

2)For $`a<0`$ the integration interval is $`[a,0]`$ and $`r`$ has to be such that $`a^r>0`$.
6. This case splits into two subcases:

1)For $`a>0`$ the integration interval is $`[0,a]`$.

2)For $`a<0`$ the integration interval is $`[a,0]`$ and $`r`$ have to be such that $`a^r>0`$.
7. In this case $`_{AB}(q^n)`$ are not positive for $`n`$ large anough.
8. In this case $`_{AB}(q^n)=0`$ and $`𝒟_{AB}(q^n)=0`$ for $`n`$.

Proof :

1. The equation $`B(\omega )\varrho (\omega )=0`$ is solved by $`aq^{k+1}`$ and by $`bq^{k+1}`$ for $`k`$. For any function $`f(\omega )`$ and any $`k,l`$, using (3.11) and (3.12) one can obtain

$$_{aq^{l+1}}^{aq^{k+1}}f(\omega )𝑑\sigma _{AB}(\omega )=0=_{bq^{l+1}}^{bq^{k+1}}f(\omega )𝑑\sigma _{AB}(\omega )$$
(3.35)
and

$$_a^bf(\omega )𝑑\sigma _{AB}(\omega )=_{aq^{k+1}}^{bq^{l+1}}f(\omega )𝑑\sigma _{AB}(\omega ).$$
(3.36)
Hence have the integration interval is $`[a,b]`$. The condition of positivity of $`d\sigma _{AB}(\omega )`$

$$_a^bf(\omega )𝑑\sigma _{AB}(\omega )>0forf>0$$
(3.37)
is equivalent to

$$a\varrho (q^ia)<0andb\varrho (q^ib)>0fori=0,1,\mathrm{}.$$
(3.38)
The continuity of $`\varrho `$ at $`\omega =0`$ gives $`a<0<b`$ and the inequalities

$$\varrho (q^ia)>0,\varrho (q^ib)>0fori=0,1,\mathrm{}.$$
(3.39)
which are solved by $`\alpha `$)-$`\zeta `$).
The proofs of ii)-viii) are similar to the one above. QED

The above class of orthogonal polynomials, which we call the q-Hahn polynomials, contains, as a special cases the families of orthogonal polynomials well known from literature. Using a very good paper \[K-S\] we obtain the following identification:

1. Putting in i)$`\beta `$) $`d=1`$ we have the Big q-Jacobi polynomials. If in addition we put $`b=q`$ and $`c=\frac{a}{q}`$ we obtain the Big q-Legendre polynomials.
2. Putting in ii) $`b<1`$ and $`c=1`$ we obtain the Big q-Laguerre polynomials.
3. Putting in iii) $`b=1`$ we obtain the Al-Salam-Carlitz I polynomials. If in addition we assume $`a=1`$ we obtain the Discrete q-Hermite I polynomials.
4. Putting in iv)1) $`a=1`$ we obtain the Little q-Jacobi polynomials. If in addition we put $`c=\frac{1}{q}`$ and $`r=0`$ we obtain the Little q-Legendre polynomials.
5. Putting in v)1) $`a=1`$ we obtain the Little q-Laguerre/Wall polynomials.
6. Putting in vi)1) $`r=0`$ we obtain the Alternative q-Charlier polynomials.

We will find now the equations for the moments

$$\mu _n=_a^b\omega ^n𝑑\sigma _{AB}\left(\omega \right)$$
(3.40)
of the measure $`d\sigma _{AB}`$.

From Section 2 it is clear that once the moments are known one may determine many important physical characteristic of the system under consideration.

Multiplying $`q`$-difference Pearson equation (3.7) by $`\omega ^nq^n`$ and using Lebnitz rule for $`q`$-derivative we obtain the following three-term recurrence equation

$$\left[n\right]\left(b_2\mu _{n+1}+b_1\mu _n+b_0\mu _{n1}\right)=q^n\left(a_1\mu _{n+1}+a_0\mu _n\right)$$
(3.41)
for $`n1`$, and

$$a_1\mu _1+a_0\mu _0=0.$$
(3.42)
The initial rule $`\mu _0=_a^b𝑑\sigma _{AB}(\omega )`$ for this recurrence can be calculated in straightforward way. In terms of the notation and classification introduced in Proposition 3.2 we have

1. $`\mu _0`$ $`=`$ $`(1q)(ba){\displaystyle \frac{(q;q)_{\mathrm{}}(q\frac{b}{a};q)_{\mathrm{}}(q\frac{a}{b};q)_{\mathrm{}}(\frac{ab}{cd};q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(\frac{a}{c};q)_{\mathrm{}}(\frac{a}{d};q)_{\mathrm{}}(\frac{b}{c};q)_{\mathrm{}}(\frac{b}{d};q)_{\mathrm{}}}}`$ (3.43)
2. $`\mu _0`$ $`=`$ $`(1q)(ba){\displaystyle \frac{(q;q)_{\mathrm{}}(q\frac{b}{a};q)_{\mathrm{}}(q\frac{a}{b};q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(\frac{a}{c};q)_{\mathrm{}}(\frac{b}{c};q)_{\mathrm{}}}}`$ (3.44)
3. $`\mu _0`$ $`=`$ $`(1q)(ba)(q;q)_{\mathrm{}}(q{\displaystyle \frac{b}{a}};q)_{\mathrm{}}(q{\displaystyle \frac{a}{b}};q)_{\mathrm{}}`$ (3.45)
4. $`\mu _0`$ $`=`$ $`(1q)a^{r+1}{\displaystyle \frac{(q;q)_r}{(\frac{a}{c};q)_{r+1}}}`$ (3.46)
5. $`\mu _0`$ $`=`$ $`(1q)a^{r+1}(q;q)_r`$ (3.47)
6. a)

$`\mu _0`$ $`=`$ $`(1q)a^{r+1}{\displaystyle \frac{(q;q)_{\mathrm{}}(aq^{r+1};q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(a;q)_{\mathrm{}}(\frac{q}{a};q)_{\mathrm{}}}}`$ (3.48)
b)

$`\mu _0`$ $`=`$ $`(1q)a^{r+1}{\displaystyle \frac{(q;q)_{\mathrm{}}(aq^{r+1};q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(a;q)_{\mathrm{}}(\frac{q}{a};q)_{\mathrm{}}}}.`$ (3.49)

Let us note that replacing in iv)-vi) $`r`$ by $`r+n,n`$ we obtain the moments $`\mu _n`$ for the corresponding cases.

In order to consider the cases i)-iii) let us introduce a real function $`\mu `$ satisfying the equation

$$\left(1\omega \right)B\left(Q\right)\mu \left(\omega \right)+\left(1q\right)\omega QA\left(Q\right)\mu \left(\omega \right)=0.$$
(3.50)
It is easy to check that $`\mu \left(q^{n+1}\right)`$ satisfies the recurrence equation (3.41), hence $`\mu (q^{n+1})=\mu _n`$.
Reexpressing (3.50) in the form

$$\left(\frac{B\left(Q\right)}{B\left(q^1Q\right)\left(1q\right)q^1QA\left(q^1Q\right)}\omega \right)\mu \left(\omega \right)=0$$
(3.51)
and the equation (3.7) in the form

$$\left(\frac{B\left(q\omega \right)}{B\left(\omega \right)\left(1q\right)\omega A\left(\omega \right)}Q\right)\varrho \left(\omega \right)=0$$
(3.52)
one may observe some symmetry between the equation on $`\varrho `$ and the equation for the moment function $`\mu `$. After the substitution of the form $`Qq\omega `$ and $`\omega Q`$ the operator from (3.51) transforms into the one of (3.52). The equation (3.51) as well as the equation (3.52) can be easily solved.

For example, if we assume that $`B(1)=0`$ then (3.51) can be written in the form

$$_{}\mu (\omega )=\mu (\omega ),$$
(3.53)
where $`_{}`$ is $``$-derivative. The function $``$ is here given by

$$(\omega )=\frac{B(\omega )}{B(q^1\omega )(1q)q^1\omega A(q^1\omega )}.$$
(3.54)
Then one of the two linearly independent solutions of (3.51) is simply $``$-exponential $`Exp_{}`$. In this case it is given as the basic hypergeometric series

$$\mu _1\left(\omega \right)=Exp_{}(\omega )={}_{3}{}^{}\mathrm{\Phi }_{2}^{}({}_{\frac{1}{c},\frac{1}{d}}{}^{\frac{1}{a},\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}1},q};q;\omega )$$
(3.55)
where $`a1`$ is the root of the polynomial $`B(\omega )`$ and $`c,d`$ are roots of the polynomial $`B(q^1\omega )(1q)q^1\omega A(q^1\omega )`$. The function $`{}_{3}{}^{}\mathrm{\Phi }_{2}^{}`$ is defined in \[G-R\], \[K-S\].
The second solution $`\mu _2\left(\omega \right)`$ is related to $`\mu _1\left(\omega \right)`$ by the following formula ($`q`$-version of Wronskian):

$$\mu _2\left(\omega \right)\mu _1\left(q\omega \right)\mu _2\left(q\omega \right)\mu _1\left(\omega \right)=x^\lambda \frac{(\alpha q;q)_{\mathrm{}}}{(\omega ;q)_{\mathrm{}}}$$
(3.56)
where $`q^\lambda =\frac{b_2}{b_0},\alpha =\frac{(1q)a_1b_2}{b_0}`$.

Any solution $`\mu \left(\omega \right)`$ is a linear combination of $`\mu _1\left(\omega \right)`$ and $`\mu _2\left(\omega \right)`$. We are then getting the following formulae for moments

$$\mu _n=\mu \left(q^{n+1}\right)=c_1\mu _1\left(q^{n+1}\right)+c_2\mu _2\left(q^{n+1}\right)$$
(3.57)
where the constants $`c_1,c_2`$ are determined by

$`\mu _0={\displaystyle _a^b}𝑑\sigma _{AB}=c_1\mu _1\left(q\right)+c_2\mu _2\left(q\right)`$ (3.58)
$`a_0\left(c_1\mu _1\left(q\right)+c_2\mu _2\left(q\right)\right)+a_1\left(c_1\mu _1\left(q^2\right)+c_2\mu _2\left(q^2\right)\right)=0.`$ (3.59)
## Appendix A <br>The affine difference calculus and q-Hahn’s orthogonal polynomials

In this section we present the preliminary considerations related to the calculus generated by the action of the affine group $`A_+`$ on the real line. Let us define the linear representation of $`A_+`$

$`\left(𝔏_{q,h}\phi \right)\left(x\right):=\phi \left(qx+h\right),(q,h)A_+=\{(q,h):q>0,h\}`$ (A.1)
acting on the functions $`\phi `$ from the algebra $`𝔉`$. Since our consideration will be formal in its character we do not impose any additional conditions on $`𝔉`$.

According to \[H\] we introduce the derivative operator

$$\left(_{q,h}\phi \right)\left(x\right):=\frac{\phi \left(x\right)\phi \left(qx+h\right)}{x\left(qx+h\right)}$$
(A.2)
as a natural generalization of the q- derivative $`_q:=_{q,0}`$ and of the difference derivative $`_h:=_{1,h}`$.

The Leibnitz rule for the derivative $`_{q,h}`$ is

$$\left(_{q,h}\phi \psi \right)\left(x\right)=\left(_{q,h}\phi \right)\left(x\right)\psi \left(x\right)+\left(𝔏_{q,h}\phi \right)\left(x\right)\left(_{q,h}\psi \right)\left(x\right)$$
(A.3)
There is also the following equivariance property:

$$𝔏_{c,t}^1_{q,h}𝔏_{c,t}=c_{q,ch+\left(1q\right)t}$$
(A.4)
and enables us to reduce $`(q,h)`$analysis to $`q`$analysis. We have for example

$$_{q,h}=𝔏_{1,\frac{h}{1q}}^1_q𝔏_{1,\frac{h}{1q}}.$$
(A.5)
Let us now solve the equation

$$_{q,h}\phi =\varrho $$
(A.6)
for the given function $`\varrho 𝔉`$. In the order to do this, we apply the operator $`𝔏_{q,h}^k`$ to (A.6), and we find that

$$𝔏_{q,h}^k\phi \left(x\right)𝔏_{q,h}^{k+1}\phi \left(x\right)=q^k\left[\left(1q\right)xh\right]𝔏_{q,h}^k\varrho \left(x\right).$$
(A.7)
Summing up both sides of the identity (A.7) with respect to $`k`$ we get

$$\phi \left(x\right)\phi \left(x^{\mathrm{}}\right)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left[x\left(qx+h\right)\right]q^k\varrho \left(q^kx+\frac{1q^k}{1q}h\right)$$
(A.8)
where

$$x^{\mathrm{}}=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}\left(q^kx+\frac{1q^k}{1q}h\right)=\frac{h}{1q}.$$
(A.9)
The equation (A.8), justifies the following definition of the $`(q,h)`$integral

$$_{q,h}\varrho \left(x\right)=_x^{\mathrm{}}^x\varrho \left(t\right)d_{q,h}t:=\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left[x\left(qx+h\right)\right]q^k\varrho \left(q^kx+\frac{1q^k}{1q}h\right).$$
(A.10)
The $`(q,h)`$integral operator is the right inverse of the $`(q,h)`$derivative operator

$$_{q,h}_{q,h}=id,$$
(A.11)
and, moreover,

$$_{q,h}_{q,h}=id\delta _{1,\mathrm{}}.$$
(A.12)
The oprerator $`\delta _{1,\mathrm{}}`$ is an idempotent operator defined by

$$\left(\delta _{1,\mathrm{}}\phi \right)\left(x\right)=\phi \left(x^{\mathrm{}}\right),$$
(A.13)
projecting the function on the constants.

Like in (A.5) we have

$$_{q,h}=𝔏_{1,\frac{h}{1q}}^1_q𝔏_{1,\frac{h}{1q}},$$
(A.14)
which reduces (by the translation authomorfism $`𝔏_{1,\frac{h}{q1}}`$) the $`(q,h)`$integral to the Jackson integral $`_q=_{q,0}`$. The integration on the interval $`[a,b]`$ can be defined by

$$_a^b\varrho \left(t\right)d_{q,h}t=_b_{\mathrm{}}^b\varrho \left(t\right)d_{q,h}t_a_{\mathrm{}}^a\varrho \left(t\right)d_{q,h}t.$$
(A.15)
If $`q1`$, the calculus presented above corresponds to the difference calculus. For $`h0`$ one obtains $`q`$difference calculus. The differential calculus will be obtained when $`q1`$$`h0`$.

Let us mention finally that the identities (A.5) and (A.14) enable us to reduce $`(q,h)`$-calculations to the $`q`$-calculations. This property motivates us to discuss the case of the $`q`$ analysis in this paper.

## Appendix B <br>Proof of the Theorem 3.2

$`AB`$

The monic OPS $`\left\{P_n\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is uniquely defined by the weight function $`\varrho \left(\omega \right)`$ and the interval $`[a,b]`$. In order to prove the equivalence of the properties $`A`$ and $`B`$ it is sufficient to show that the system of polynomials defined by ( 3.18) is a monic OPS. In order to do that let us reexpress the function

$$F_k(\omega ;n):=_q^k\left[\varrho \left(\omega \right)B\left(\omega \right)B\left(q^1\omega \right)\mathrm{}B\left(q^{\left(n1\right)}\omega \right)\right]$$
(B.1)
in the following way

$$F_k(\omega ;n)=\varrho \left(\omega \right)B\left(\omega \right)B\left(q^1\omega \right)\mathrm{}B\left(q^{\left(n1k\right)}\omega \right)R_{k,n}\left(\omega \right)k=0,1,\mathrm{},n1$$
(B.2)
$$F_n(\omega ;n)=\varrho \left(\omega \right)R_{n,n}\left(\omega \right)$$
(B.3)
where $`R_{k,n}\left(\omega \right)`$ is a polynomial of degree not greater than $`kn`$. These polynomials do and satisfy the recurrence formula

$$R_{k+1,n}\left(\omega \right)=A\left(\omega \right)R_{k,n}\left(q\omega \right)+B\left(q^{\left(n1k\right)}\omega \right)_qR_{k,n}\left(\omega \right)+\frac{B\left(q^{\left(n1k\right)}\omega \right)B\left(\omega \right)}{\left(1q\right)\omega }R_{k,n}\left(q\omega \right),$$
(B.4)
for $`k=0,1,\mathrm{},n1`$ with the initial condition $`R_{0,n}\left(\omega \right)1`$.

For $`k<n`$, applying (B.2) we have:

$`{\displaystyle _a^b}q^{\frac{k\left(k+1\right)}{2}}\omega ^k\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\varrho \left(\omega \right)d_q\omega =c_n{\displaystyle _a^b}q^{\frac{k\left(k+1\right)}{2}}\omega ^k_q^nF_0(\omega ;n)d_q\omega =`$
$`=c_nq^{\frac{k\left(k+1\right)}{2}}\omega ^kF_{k1}(\omega ;n)|_a^bc_n\left[k\right]{\displaystyle _a^b}q^{\frac{k\left(k+1\right)}{2}}\omega ^{k1}_q^{n1}F_0(\omega ;n)d_q\omega =`$
$`=c_nq^{\frac{k\left(k+1\right)}{2}}\omega ^k\varrho \left(\omega \right)B\left(\omega \right)B\left(q^1\omega \right)\mathrm{}B\left(q^{\left(n1\left(k1\right)\right)}\omega \right)R_{k1,n}\left(\omega \right)|_a^b`$ (B.5)
$`c_n\left[k\right]{\displaystyle _a^b}q^{\frac{k\left(k+1\right)}{2}}\omega ^{k1}_q^{n1}F_0(\omega ;n)d_q\omega =\mathrm{}=`$
$`=\left(1\right)^k\left[k\right]\left[k1\right]\mathrm{}\left[1\right]c_n{\displaystyle _a^b}_q^{nk}F_0(\omega ;n)d_q\omega =`$
$`=\left(1\right)^k\left[1\right]\mathrm{}\left[k\right]\varrho \left(\omega \right)B\left(\omega \right)B\left(q^1\omega \right)\mathrm{}B\left(q^{\left(n1\left(k1\right)\right)}\omega \right)|_a^b=`$
$`=0.`$
This shows, that polynomials $`\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)`$ , $`n\left\{0\right\}`$, form an OPS. By the proper choice of the normalizing constants $`c_n`$ one can obtain the monic OPS.

$`BC`$

We have proved the validity of the $`q`$ Rodrigues formula for any Pearson data. So by Theorem 3.1, we have

$$\frac{1}{\left[n\right]}_q\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)=c_{n1}^{\left(1\right)}\frac{1}{\varrho ^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)}_q^{n1}\left[\varrho ^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)B^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)B^{\left(1\right)}\left(q^1\omega \right)\mathrm{}B^{\left(1\right)}\left(q^{\left(n2\right)}\omega \right)\right]$$
(B.6)
for the Pearson data $`(A^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right),B^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right))`$ given by (3.9-3.10). Using now the equality

$$Q\varrho \left(\omega \right)B\left(\omega \right)\mathrm{}B\left(q^{\left(n1\right)}\omega \right)=\varrho ^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)B^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)B^{\left(1\right)}\left(q^1\omega \right)\mathrm{}B^{\left(1\right)}\left(q^{\left(n2\right)}\omega \right)$$
(B.7)
and substituting (B.6) into (3.18) we find

$$\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)=c_n\frac{1}{\varrho \left(\omega \right)}_q^n\left[Q^1\varrho ^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)B^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)B^{\left(1\right)}\left(q^1\omega \right)\mathrm{}B^{\left(1\right)}\left(q^{\left(n2\right)}\omega \right)\right]=$$
(B.8)
$`=`$ $`c_nq^{\left(n1\right)}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\varrho \left(\omega \right)}}_qQ^1_q^{n1}\left[\varrho ^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)B^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)B^{\left(1\right)}\left(q^1\omega \right)\mathrm{}B^{\left(1\right)}\left(q^{\left(n2\right)}\omega \right)\right]=`$
$`=`$ $`c_nq^{\left(n1\right)}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\varrho \left(\omega \right)}}_qQ^1{\displaystyle \frac{\left[n\right]\varrho ^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)}{c_{n1}^{\left(1\right)}}}_q\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)=`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{c_n}{c_{n1}^{\left(1\right)}}}q^{\left(n1\right)}\left[n\right]{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\varrho \left(\omega \right)}}_q\varrho \left(\omega \right)B\left(\omega \right)Q^1_q\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)=`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{c_n}{c_{n1}^{\left(1\right)}}}q^{\left(n1\right)}\left[n\right]\left[A\left(\omega \right)_q\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)+B\left(\omega \right)_qQ^1_q\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\right].`$
We have proved (3.19). In order to show (3.20) we compare the coefficients of $`x^n`$ on both sides of (3.19). Additionally we find the formula

$$\frac{c_{n1}^{\left(1\right)}}{c_n}=\left[n\right]q^{\left(n1\right)}\lambda _n$$
(B.9)
for the normalizing coefficients. Later we will use (B.9) for the calculation of $`c_n`$.

$`CB`$

The proof goes by the induction. It is easy to see that for $`n=1`$ (3.18)follows from (3.19). Let us assume that it is true for $`n1`$. We prove it for $`n`$:

From our assumption and Theorem 3.1 we have

$$\frac{1}{\left[n\right]}_q\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)=c_{n1}^{\left(1\right)}\frac{1}{\varrho ^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)}_q^{n1}\left(\varrho ^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right)B\left(\omega \right)\mathrm{}B\left(q^{\left(n2\right)}\omega \right)\right).$$
(B.10)
Using (3.18) and the Proposition 3.1, we obtain thesis after a simple calculations.

$`CD`$

From (3.20) we have

$$\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)=\frac{\left[n\right]}{\lambda _n}\left(A\left(\omega \right)+B\left(\omega \right)_qQ^1\right)\frac{1}{\left[n\right]}_q\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right).$$
(B.11)
According to the Theorem 3.1, the polynomials $`\left\{\frac{1}{\left[n\right]}_q\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ form the monic OPS with respect to the data $`(A^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right),B^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right))`$ given by (3.9-3.10). We can thus apply the formula (B.11) with $`(A^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right),B^{\left(1\right)}\left(\omega \right))`$ to the polynomial $`\frac{1}{\left[n\right]}_qP_n\left(\omega \right)`$. Repeating this procedure $`n`$-times and using the formula

$$\lambda _n^{\left(k\right)}=a_1^{\left(k\right)}\left[n\right]+b_2\left[n\right]\left[n1\right]q^{\left(n1\right)}$$
(B.12)
where $`a_1^{\left(k\right)}`$ is defined by (3.22), we obtain (3.21).

$`BE`$

In order to prove that the recurrence formula (3.23) holds we use the identity

$$_q^k\left[\varrho \left(\omega \right)B\left(\omega \right)B\left(q^1\omega \right)\mathrm{}B\left(q^{\left(n1\right)}\omega \right)\right]=\varrho \left(\omega \right)B\left(\omega \right)B\left(q^1\omega \right)\mathrm{}B\left(q^{\left(n1k\right)}\omega \right)R_{k,n}\left(\omega \right)$$
(B.13)
where the polynomial $`R_{k,n}\left(\omega \right)`$ satisfies the recurrence equation (B.4). From the eq. (B.13) and Rodrigues formula one has

$$\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)=c_nR_{n,n}\left(\omega \right).$$
(B.14)
Let us denote by $`\alpha _k`$$`\beta _k`$ and $`\gamma _k`$ the three highest coefficients of the polynomial

$$R_{k,n}\left(\omega \right)=\alpha _k\omega ^k+\beta _k\omega ^{k1}+\gamma _k\omega ^{k2}+\mathrm{}.$$
(B.15)
After substituting (B.15) into (B.14) and comparing the coefficients of the monomials $`\omega ^{k+1}`$$`\omega ^k`$ and $`\omega ^{k1}`$ we obtain the following system of the recurrence equations

$`\alpha _{k+1}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(a_1b_2\left[2n+2+k\right]\right)q^k\alpha _k`$
$`\beta _{k+1}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(a_0b_1\left[n+1\right]\right)q^k\alpha _k+\left(a_1b_2\left[2n+3+k\right]\right)q^{k1}\beta _k`$ (B.16)
$`\gamma _{k+1}`$ $`=`$ $`b_0\left[k\right]\alpha _k+\left(a_0b_1\left[n+2\right]\right)q^{k1}\beta _k+\left(a_1b_2\left[2n+4+k\right]\right)q^{k2}\gamma _k.`$
One can solve them by iteration:

$$\alpha _k=q^{\frac{k\left(k1\right)}{2}}\underset{l=0}{\overset{k}{}}1\left(a_1b_2\left[2n+2+l\right]\right)$$
(B.17)
$$\beta _k=\frac{\left[n\right]}{q^{n1}}\frac{a_0b_1\left[n+1\right]}{a_1b_2\left[2n+2\right]}\alpha _k$$
(B.18)
$$\gamma _k=\frac{\left(1q^n\right)\left(1q^{n1}\right)}{\left(1q\right)^2\left(1+q\right)}\frac{\left(a_0b_1\left[n+2\right]\right)\left(a_0b_1\left[n+1\right]\right)+b_0\left(a_1b_2\left[2n+2\right]\right)}{\left(a_1b_2\left[2n+2\right]\right)\left(a_1b_2\left[2n+3\right]\right)}\alpha _k$$
(B.19)
Thus for the monic polynomial

$$\stackrel{~}{P}_n\left(\omega \right)=\omega ^n+\beta \left(q^n\right)\omega ^{n1}+\gamma \left(q^n\right)\omega ^{n2}+\mathrm{}$$
(B.20)
we find that the coefficients

$`\beta \left(q^n\right)`$ $`:=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\beta _n}{\alpha _n}}`$
$`\gamma \left(q^n\right)`$ $`:=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\gamma _n}{\alpha _n}}`$
are given by the rational functions (3.3-3.4). Using the three terms recurrence relation (3.24) and (B.15) we obtain the formula (3.1-3.2) for the structural functions $``$ and $`𝔇`$ .

$`EA`$

The recurrence formula (3.23) rewriten for the orthonormal polynomials $`\left\{P_n\left(\omega \right)\right\}_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}`$ takes the form (2.28) which means that the Hamiltonian $`H_{red}`$ (2.22) has the Jacobi matrix of the type $`D`$. Thus (see \[A\]) this Hamiltonian is essentially selfadjoint and has simple spectrum. This shows that there is a unique measure $`d\sigma _{AB}`$ such that

$$_a^bP_n\left(\omega \right)P_m\left(\omega \right)𝑑\sigma _{AB}\left(\omega \right)=\delta _{nm}.$$
(B.21)
## Acknowledgements

Two of the authors (A.O., A.T.) would like to thanks M.Rahman for his interest to the subject and for discussions on orthogonal polynomials. The discussions with Z. Hasiewicz on possible applications were also important.


format: text

text:
# Dynamical Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking in Quantum Chromodynamics

\[

## Abstract

The longstanding problems of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) as an $`SU(3)_C`$ gauge theory, the confinement mechanism and $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum, can be resolved by dynamical spontaneous symmetry breaking (DSSB), which is essential in generating masses of gauge bosons and hadrons. The confinement mechanism is the result of massive gluons and the Yukawa potential provides hadron formation. The evidences for the breaking of discrete symmetries (C, P, T, CP) during DSSB appear explicitly: baryons and mesons without their parity partners, the conservation of vector current and the partial conservation of the axial vector current, the baryon asymmetry $`\delta _B10^{10}`$, and the neutron electric dipole moment $`\mathrm{\Theta }10^9`$.

\]

Quantum chromodynamics (QCD)  with quarks and gluons as fundamental constituents is recognized as the fundamental dynamical theory for strong interactions. One of the longstanding problems is however how to manage QCD in the low energy region. The difficulty in treating QCD at low energy or long range comes from the fact that the coupling constant becomes so strong that conventional perturbation theory fails and confinement takes place in this limit so that the free quark and gluon particles are not observed. Another longstanding problem of QCD is the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum , which is a superposition of the various false vacua, violating CP symmetry. This paper attempts to solve the problems nonperturbatively in terms of dynamical spontaneous symmetry breaking (DSSB) from QCD, to demonstrate that QND as an $`SU(2)_N\times U(1)_Z`$ gauge theory for nuclear interactions originates from QCD as an $`SU(3)_C`$ gauge theory, and to propose that QND for nuclear interactions is the analogous dynamics of the Glashow-Weinberg-Salam (GWS) model as an $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ gauge theory . The DSSB mechanism is here adopted to strong interactions characterized by gauge invariance, physical vacuum problem, and discrete symmetry breaking. The DSSB mechanism is different from the Higgs mechanism in the GWS model, which has the problem in generating the fermion mass. In this scheme, the only free parameter is the strong coupling constant and several evidences for the violation of discrete symmetries during DSSB are explicitly shown: baryons and mesons without their parity partners, the conservation of vector current and the partial conservation of the axial vector current, the baryon asymmetry $`\delta _B10^{10}`$ , and the neutron electric dipole moment $`\mathrm{\Theta }10^9`$ . Furthermore, the mechanism of fermion mass generation and the quantization of intrinsic quantum number are proposed as consequences of DSSB due to the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum.

The gauge invariant Lagrangian density for QCD with the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum  is given by

$$_{QCD}=\frac{1}{2}TrG_{\mu \nu }G^{\mu \nu }+\underset{i=1}{}\overline{\psi }_ii\gamma ^\mu D_\mu \psi _i+\mathrm{\Theta }\frac{g_s^2}{16\pi ^2}TrG^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{G}_{\mu \nu },$$
(1)
where the subscript $`i`$ stands for the classes of pointlike spinors, $`\psi `$ for the spinor, and $`D_\mu =_\mu ig_sA_\mu `$ for the covariant derivative with the strong coupling constant $`g_s`$. Particles carry the local charges and the gauge fields are denoted by $`A_\mu =_{a=0}A_\mu ^a\lambda ^a/2`$ with matrices $`\lambda ^a`$, $`a=0,..,8`$. The field strength tensor is given by $`G_{\mu \nu }=_\mu A_\nu _\nu A_\mu ig_s[A_\mu ,A_\nu ]`$ and its dual is $`\stackrel{~}{G}_{\mu \nu }`$. In the Lagrangian density, the explicit quark mass term is not contained but the bare $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum term is added as a nonperturbative term to the perturbative term. Since the $`G\stackrel{~}{G}`$ term is a total derivative, it does not affect the perturbative aspects of the theory. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ term apparently odd under P, T, and CP operation. An axial current anomaly  is taken into account and is linked to the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum in QCD .

The $`SU(3)_C`$ symmetry for strong force is dynamically spontaneously broken to the $`SU(2)_N\times U(1)_Z`$ symmetry and then to the $`U(1)_f`$ symmetry . The combination of the confinement mechanism and $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum explains the DSSB mechanism in QCD analogous to the Higgs mechanism in electroweak theory . The Lagrangian density with the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum term possesses all the known interaction symmetries perturbatively but it does not conserve discrete symmetries (P, C, T, and CP) . The physical vacuum is not completely symmetric and DSSB from the normal to physical vacuum takes place. This scheme uses dynamical symmetric breaking triggering the axial current anomaly  without introducing elementary scalar fields. It aims to have DSSB with gauge interactions alone such as the motivation of technicolor models . The concept of DSSB plays an important role in mass generation in gauge theory which does not have essentially free parameter. DSSB consists of two simultaneous mechanisms; the first mechanism is the explicit symmetry breaking of gauge symmetry, which is represented by the color factor $`c_f`$ and the strong coupling constant $`g_s`$, and the second mechanism is the spontaneous symmetry breaking of gauge fields, which is represented by the condensation of color singlet gauge fields. Gauge fields are generally decomposed by charge nonsinglet-singlet on the one hand and by even-odd discrete symmetries on the other hand: they have dual properties in charge and discrete symmetries.

Four singlet gauge boson interactions in (1), apart from nonsinglet gauge bosons, are parameterized by the $`SU(3)`$ symmetric scalar potential:

$$V_e(\varphi )=V_0+\mu ^2\varphi ^2+\lambda \varphi ^4$$
(2)
which is the typical potential with $`\mu ^2<0`$ and $`\lambda >0`$ for spontaneous symmetry breaking. The first term of the right hand side corresponds to the vacuum energy density representing the zero-point energy by even parity singlets. The odd-parity vacuum field $`\varphi `$ is shifted by an invariant quantity $`\varphi `$, which satisfies $`\varphi ^2=\varphi _0^2+\varphi _1^2+\mathrm{}+\varphi _N^2`$ with the condensation of odd-parity singlet gauge bosons: $`\varphi =(\frac{\mu ^2}{2\lambda })^{1/2}`$. DSSB is relevant for the surface term $`\mathrm{\Theta }\frac{g_s^2}{16\pi ^2}TrG^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{G}_{\mu \nu }`$, which explicitly breaks down the $`SU(3)_C`$ gauge symmetry for QCD through the condensation of odd-parity singlet gauge bosons. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ can be assigned by an dynamic parameter by $`\mathrm{\Theta }=10^{61}\rho _G/\rho _m`$ with the matter energy density $`\rho _m`$ and the vacuum energy density $`\rho _G=V_e=M_G^4`$.

The interaction amplitude in the presence of the gauge boson mass is given by

$$=\frac{c_fg_s^2}{4}\frac{1}{k^2M_G^2}J^\mu J_\mu ^{}$$
(3)
where the gauge boson mass $`M_G`$ is inserted in the gauge boson propagator. Parity or charge conjugation violations due to the condensation of the singlet gauge boson must be taken into account for current densities $`J^\mu =[\overline{u}\gamma ^\mu u](c_3^{}\lambda ^ac_1)`$ and $`J_\mu ^{}=[\overline{v}\gamma _\mu v](c_2^{}\lambda _ac_4)`$ where $`c_i`$ with $`i=14`$ represent local color charges. The color vector current is conserved (CVC) but the color axial vector current is partially conserved (PCAC) for strong interactions just as the (V - A) current is conserved but the (V + A) current is not conserved for weak interactions. The effective coupling constant at the strong scale is expressed in analogy with the phenomenological, electroweak coupling constant $`G_F=\frac{\sqrt{2}g_w^2}{8M_G^2}`$ with the weak coupling constant $`g_w`$:

$$\frac{G_R}{\sqrt{2}}=\frac{c_fg_s^2}{8(k^2M_G^2)}\frac{c_fg_s^2}{8M_G^2}$$
(4)
where $`k`$ denotes the four momentum. Similarly and $`c_f`$ denotes the color factor $`c_f`$. The gauge boson mass is generally reduced by the singlet gauge boson condensation $`\varphi `$:

$$M_G^2=M_H^2c_fg_s^2\varphi ^2=c_fg_s^2[A_0^2\varphi ^2]$$
(5)
where $`M_H=\sqrt{c_f}g_sA_0`$ is the gauge boson mass at the grand unification scale, $`A_0`$ is the singlet gauge boson, and $`\varphi `$ represents the condensation of the axial singlet gauge boson. The charge factor $`c_f`$ used in (5) becomes the symmetric factor with even parity for singlet gauge boson and is the asymmetric factor with odd parity for axial singlet gauge boson. The vacuum energy due to the zero-point energy, represented by the gauge boson mass, is thus reduced by the decrease of the charge factor and the increase of the axial singlet gauge boson condensation as temperature decreases. The essential point is that both the charge coupling constant $`c_f\alpha _s`$ and the vacuum expectation value $`\varphi `$ make the initially massive gauge boson lighter. The confinement for the charge electric field can be illustrated more rigorously by considering the Yukawa potential  due to massive gauge boson. The Yukawa potential associated with the massive gauge boson is given by $`V(r)=\sqrt{\frac{c_fg_s^2}{4\pi }}\frac{e^{M_G(rl_{QCD})}}{r}`$ which shows the short range interaction for low energy gauge bosons. Gauge boson masses are respectively given by $`M_{EW}10^2`$ GeV at the weak scale and $`M_{QCD}10^1`$ GeV at the strong scale. Effective coupling constants are respectively given by $`G_F10^5\text{GeV}^2`$ at the weak scale and $`G_R10^5\text{GeV}^2`$ at the strong scale. The effective coupling constant for strong interactions $`G_R`$ and Fermi weak coupling constant for weak interactions $`G_F`$ has the ratio $`G_R/G_F=(\mathrm{\Lambda }_{EW}/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD})^210^6`$. The gauge boson number density is given by $`n_G=M_G^3`$: $`n_{EW}10^6\text{GeV}^310^{47}\text{cm}^3`$ at the weak scale and $`n_{QCD}10^2\text{GeV}^310^{39}\text{cm}^3`$ at the strong scale.

DSSB stages are given by $`SU(3)_CSU(2)_N\times U(1)_ZU(1)_f`$ symmetry for strong force. The electric charge quantizations are $`\widehat{Q}_e=\widehat{I}_3+\widehat{Y}/2`$ for the weak force and $`\widehat{Q}_f=\widehat{C}_3+\widehat{Z}_c/2`$ for the strong force. The mixing angle for strong interactions $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _R`$ is the indication to the DSSB of the $`SU(2)_N\times U(1)_Z`$ to the $`U(1)_f`$ gauge symmetry just as the Weinberg angle for weak interactions $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W`$ is the indication to the DSSB of the $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ to the $`U(1)_f`$ gauge symmetry. These mixing angles relate the strong coupling constant to the coupling for massless gauge boson dynamics, $`\alpha _f=\alpha _n\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _R=\alpha _n/4`$ with the nuclear coupling constant $`\alpha _n`$, and the weak coupling constant to the coupling for photon dynamics, $`\alpha _e=\alpha _w\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=\alpha _w/4`$ with the weak coupling constant $`\alpha _w`$, respectively. The charge mixing angle is closely related to massive gauge boson and massless gauge boson generation. In the phase transition process of the $`SU(3)_CSU(2)_N\times U(1)_ZU(1)_f`$ symmetry, there are massive bosons $`A_\mu ^\pm =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(A_\mu ^1iA_\mu ^2)`$ and $`B_\mu ^0=\mathrm{cos}\theta _RA_\mu ^3\mathrm{sin}\theta _RA_\mu ^8.`$ The fourth vector orthogonal to $`B_\mu `$ is identified as massless gauge boson: $`C_\mu =\mathrm{sin}\theta _RA_\mu ^3+\mathrm{cos}\theta _RA_\mu ^8`$ with the mass $`M_C=0`$. Two gauge fields $`B_\mu `$ and $`C_\mu `$ are orthogonal combinations of the gauge fields $`A_\mu ^3`$ and $`A_\mu ^8`$ with the mixing angle $`\theta _R`$. The generators of this scheme satisfy the relation

$$\widehat{Q}_f=\widehat{C}_3+\widehat{Z}_c/2$$
(6)
with the longitudinal component of the colorspin operator $`\widehat{C}_3`$ and the hyper-color charge operator $`\widehat{Z}_c`$ so that the corresponding current density is presented by $`j_\mu ^f=J_\mu ^3+j_\mu ^8/2.`$ The interaction in the mixing charge current can provide the relation $`g_f=g_n\mathrm{sin}\theta _R=g_z\mathrm{cos}\theta _R=g_b\mathrm{cos}\theta _R\mathrm{sin}\theta _R`$ is used.

During phase transition, the discrete symmetries of time reversal (T), parity (P), and charge conjugation (C) are violated so as to make matter particles massive: since the product symmetry CPT remains intact, CP symmetry is violated. These violations are analogous to the nonconservation of the (V + A) current in weak interactions and the axial vector current in strong interactions. The breaking of discrete symmetries through the condensation of singlet gauge bosons causes the baryon-antibaryon asymmetry with $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{QCD}10^{12}`$ at the strong scale. Discrete symmetries are in general not broken perturbatively but is broken nonperturbatively. The breaking of discrete symmetries is supported by looking at the observation of pseudoscalar and vector mesons while their parity partners, scalar and pseudovector mesons, are not observable at the strong scale; similarly, there is no baryon octet and decuplet parity pairs. This resolves the $`U(1)_A`$ problem; the absence of the $`U(1)_A`$ particle is due to the nonconservation of the color axial vector current. Singlet gauge bosons condense in the formation of the hadron and the condensation is relevant for the partial conservation of axial vector current (PCAC)

$$_\mu J_\mu ^5=\frac{N_fc_fg_s^2}{16\pi ^2}TrG^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{G}_{\mu \nu }$$
(7)
with the flavor number $`N_f`$ and the conservation of vector current (CVC) $`_\mu J_\mu =0`$: this is an example of parity violation. $`C`$ violation in baryon as three quark combination is shown in the number difference of the proton and antiproton as observed in the baryon asymmetry of the present universe; the baryon asymmetry $`\delta _B10^{10}`$ requires C, T, and CP violations. Based on observation, there is the tiny CP violation in the nonvanishing electric dipole moment for the neutron $`d_n=2.75.2\times 10^{16}\mathrm{\Theta }e\text{cm}`$ , which is reflected by the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum problem $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{QCD}10^9`$.

Massless gauge bosons (photons) as Nambu-Goldstone (NG) bosons  are created during the DSSB. Massless gauge bosons are the quanta of the radiation field that describes classical light. Phase transition from $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ to $`U(1)_e`$ gauge symmetry and phase transition from $`SU(2)_N\times U(1)_Z`$ to $`U(1)_f`$ gauge symmetry produce massless photons with two transverse polarizations. They are massless excited modes associated with the generators of the $`U(1)_e`$ gauge symmetry for weak force and with the generators of the $`U(1)_f`$ gauge symmetry for strong force. The explicit examples of massless gauge bosons for strong force are the intrinsic vibration modes in nuclear excitation with the typical energies $`0.110`$ MeV as noticed by the gamma decays. Massless gauge mode (photon) for the $`U(1)_f`$ gauge theory originated from color charges has the coupling constant $`\alpha _f=\alpha _s/16=\alpha _n\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _R1/34`$, which is distinct from the coupling constant $`\alpha _e=\alpha _w\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W1/137`$ mediated by the photon for the $`U(1)_e`$ gauge theory. However, the massless photon produced by the combination of color and isospin charges has the coupling constant $`\alpha _e1/137`$ at strong scale; the conservation of the proton number is the analogy of the conservation of the electron number. The analogy carriers over to a correspondence between the theory of electromagnetic radiation in thermal equilibrium and the theory of color radiation in thermal equilibrium. Each harmonic oscillator of frequency $`\omega `$ can only have the energies $`(n+1/2)\omega `$, where $`n=0,1,2`$. This fact leads to the concept of massless gauge bosons as quanta of the color field whose state is specified by the number $`n`$ for each of the oscillators known as massive gauge bosons. Massless gauge bosons mediate the Coulomb potential ($`1/r`$) and the condensation of singlet gauge bosons makes the confinement potential. The average photon occupation number in the thermal equilibrium is given by $`f_p=1/(e^{E/T}1)`$. Massless photons are quantized by the maximum wavevector mode $`N_\gamma 10^{29}`$ and the total photon number $`N_{t\gamma }=4\pi N_\gamma ^3/310^{88}`$. The number density of massless gauge bosons is given by $`n_\gamma =2\zeta (3)T^3/\pi ^3`$: $`n_{t\gamma }^{QCD}10^{36}\text{cm}^3`$ at the strong scale.

The fine structure constant $`\alpha _s`$ for strong interactions is measured by several experiments : $`\alpha _s(M_Z)0.12`$ at the momentum of the $`Z`$ boson mass $`q=M_Z`$ and $`\alpha _s(q)0.48`$ at the momentum of nuclear energy $`q300`$ MeV. Strong coupling constants for baryons are $`\alpha _b=c_f^b\alpha _s=\alpha _s/3`$, $`\alpha _n=c_f^n\alpha _s=\alpha _s/4`$, $`\alpha _z=c_f^z\alpha _s=\alpha _s/12`$, and $`\alpha _f=c_f^f\alpha _s=\alpha _s/16`$ as symmetric color interactions and $`2\alpha _s/3`$, $`\alpha _s/2`$, $`\alpha _s/6`$, and $`\alpha _s/8`$ as asymmetric color interactions: $`c_f^n=\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _R`$ and $`c_f^f=\mathrm{sin}^4\theta _R`$. The color factors introduced are $`c_f^s=(c_f^b,c_f^n,c_f^z,c_f^f)=(1/3,1/4,1/12,1/16)`$ for symmetric interactions and $`c_f^a=(2/3,1/2,1/6,1/8)`$ for asymmetric interactions. The symmetric charge factors reflect intrinsic even parity with repulsive force while the asymmetric charge factors reflect intrinsic odd parity with attractive force. Asymmetric configuration for attractive force is confined inside particle while symmetric configuration for repulsive force is appeared on scattering or decay processes. The color factors described above are pure color factors due to color charges but the effective color factors used in nuclear dynamics must be multiplied by the isospin factor $`i_f^w=\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W=1/4`$ since the proton and neutron are an isospin doublet as well as a color doublet. Nucleons as spinors possess up and down colorspins as a doublet just like up and down strong isospins:

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{}{}\right)_c,=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{1}{0}\right)_c,=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{0}{1}\right)_c.$$
(8)
This implies that conventional, global $`SU(2)`$ strong isospin symmetry introduced by Heisenberg  is postulated as the combination of local $`SU(2)`$ colorspin and local $`SU(2)`$ weak isospin symmetries . Therefore, the effective color factors are given by

$$c_f^{eff}=i_f^wc_f=i_f^w(c_f^b,c_f^n,c_f^z,c_f^f)=(1/12,1/16,1/48,1/64)$$
(9)
for symmetric configurations. For example, the electromagnetic color factor for the $`U(1)_f`$ gauge theory becomes $`\alpha _f^{eff}=\alpha _s/641/137`$ when $`\alpha _s0.48`$ at the strong scale .

Matter mass generation has features represented by the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum, dual Meissner effect, and constituent particle mass . The matter mass is attributed from the dual pairing process due to dielectric mechanism, which violates the gauge symmetry and discrete symmetries. The relation between the gauge boson mass and the fermion mass is given by

$$M_G=\sqrt{\pi }m_fc_f\alpha _s\sqrt{N_{sd}}$$
(10)
where $`N_{sd}`$ is the difference number of even-odd parity singlet fermions in intrinsic two-space dimensions. The above relation stems from the dual pairing mechanism $`M_G=g_{sm}^2|\psi (0)|^2/m_f,`$ in analogy with electric superconductivity, where $`|\psi (0)|^2=(m_fc_f\alpha _s)^3`$ is the particle probability density and $`g_{sm}=2\pi n/\sqrt{c_f}g_s=2\pi \sqrt{N_{sd}}/\sqrt{c_f}g_s`$ is the color magnetic coupling constant according to the Dirac quantization condition . The particle number $`N_{sd}`$ is the difference number between the number $`N_{ss}`$ of singlet particles interacting with charge symmetric configurations and the number $`N_{sc}`$ of condensed particles interacting with charge asymmetric configurations: $`N_{sd}=N_{ss}N_{sc}`$. The fermion mass formed as the result of confinement mechanism is composed of constituent particles: $`m_f=_i^Nm_i`$ where $`m_i`$ is the constituent particle mass. In the above, $`N`$ depends on the intrinsic quantum number of constituent particles: $`N=N_{sd}^{3/2}`$. For examples, $`N=1/B`$ with the baryon number $`B`$ for the constituent quark in the formation of a baryon and $`N=1/M`$ with the meson number $`M`$ for the constituent quark in the formation of a meson. A fermion mass term in the Dirac Lagrangian has the form $`m_f\overline{\psi }\psi =m_f(\overline{\psi }_A\psi _V+\overline{\psi }_V\psi _A)`$ where the mass term is equivalent to a helicity flip. Vector fermions are put into $`SU(2)`$ doublets and axial-vector ones into $`SU(2)`$ singlets. In the dual pairing mechanism, discrete symmetries P, C, T, and CP are dynamically broken due to massive gauge bosons . Electric monopole, magnetic dipole, and electric quadrupole remain in the matter space but magnetic monopole, electric dipole, and magnetic quadrupole condense in the vacuum space as the consequence of P violation. Antibaryon particles condense in the vacuum space while baryon particles remain in the matter space as the result of C and CP violation at the strong scale: the baryon asymmetry $`\delta _B10^{10}`$ . The electric dipole moment of the neutron and no parity partners in hadron spectra are the typical examples for P, T, and CP violation at the strong scale. The fine or hyperfine structures of a fermion mass include spin-spin, isospin-isospin, and colorspin-colorspin interactions due to intrinsic angular momenta of $`SU(2)`$ gauge theories:

$$\mathrm{}E\alpha _m\frac{\stackrel{}{s}_i\stackrel{}{s}_j}{m_im_j}|\psi (0)|^2+\alpha _i\frac{\stackrel{}{i}_i\stackrel{}{i}_j}{m_im_j}|\psi (0)|^2+\alpha _s\frac{\stackrel{}{\zeta }_i\stackrel{}{\zeta }_j}{m_im_j}|\psi (0)|^2$$
(11)
where $`\alpha _m`$, $`\alpha _i`$, and $`\alpha _s`$ are respectively coupling constants. The approach can be applied to investigate the masses of hadrons, which justify the constituent quark model as an effective model of QCD at low energies from this viewpoint. If interactions due to colorspin and isospin contributions are absorbed to the constituent quark mass, the meson mass of the conventional constituent quark model is obtained:

$$m_m=m_1+m_2+A\frac{\stackrel{}{\sigma }_1\stackrel{}{\sigma }_2}{m_1m_2}$$
(12)
where $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }_1\stackrel{}{\sigma }_2=4\stackrel{}{s}_1\stackrel{}{s}_2=1`$ for vector mesons and $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }_1\stackrel{}{\sigma }_2=3`$ for pseudoscalar mesons are given and $`A=\frac{8\pi g_s^2|\psi (0)|^2}{9}`$. By the same token, the baryon mass of the conventional constituent quark model is obtained:

$$m_b=m_1+m_2+m_3+A^{}\underset{i>j}{}\frac{\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_j}{m_im_j}$$
(13)
where $`A^{}=\frac{4\pi g_s^2|\psi (0)|^2}{9}`$. Since $`\sigma _i\sigma _j=4s_is_j=2[s(s+1)3s(s+1)]`$ with the total spin $`\stackrel{}{S}=\stackrel{}{s}_1+\stackrel{}{s}_2+\stackrel{}{s}_3`$, $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_j=3`$ for decuplet baryons and $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }_i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_j=3`$ for octet baryons are given. The constituent quark model illustrates reasonable agreement in hadron spectra within a few percent deviation.

This study proposes that the longstanding problems of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) as an $`SU(3)_C`$ gauge theory, the confinement mechanism and $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vacuum, can be resolved by dynamical spontaneous symmetry breaking (DSSB) through the condensation of singlet gluons and quantum nucleardynamics (QND) as an $`SU(2)_N\times U(1)_Z`$ gauge theory is produced. DSSB in QCD is essential in generating masses of gauge bosons and hadrons. During DSSB, common features in gauge theories appear: massive gauge boson, massless gauge boson (photon) as the NG boson, nonperturbative spontaneous breaking of discrete symmetries, charge mixing angle, and coupling constant hierarchy. $`G_R`$ is realized as the effective coupling constant for a massive gluon, $`G_R/\sqrt{2}=c_fg_s^2/8M_G^210\text{GeV}^2`$ with the gauge boson mass $`M_G=M_{QCD}10^1`$ GeV, the strong coupling constant $`g_s`$, and the color factor $`c_f`$. The condensation of the singlet gauge field $`\varphi `$ triggers the current anomaly and subtracts the gauge boson mass, $`M_G^2=M_H^2c_fg_s^2\varphi ^2=c_fg_s^2[A_0^2\varphi ^2]`$, as the vacuum energy. Spontaneous symmetry breaking in gauge theories is in this work extended to dynamical spontaneous symmetry breaking mechanism, which has only one free coupling constant, to generate gauge boson masses and fermion masses as well as to explain nonperturbative discrete symmetry breaking in strong interactions.