text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

We begin from the usual definition of a differential calculus on a noncommutative algebra. The derivations on the algebra are used to substitute for the vector fields in the commutative case. Then we can define an interior product and Lie derivative, and prove noncommutative analogues of the standard results in classical differential geometry. The proofs are almost identical to the classical ones. The caveat is that we must consider only those derivations which are compatible with the relations in the differential structure.

From a closed 2-form $`\omega `$ we define a map $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }`$ from the collection of derivations to the 1-forms. Classically this would be a 1-1 correspondence if $`\omega `$ was nondegenerate. We shall just assume that $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }`$ is 1-1, and as a result only certain elements of the algebra (called Hamiltonian elements) will correspond to derivations. The variety of examples of differential calculi on noncommutative algebras means that to insist on comparable sizes for the set of derivations and the 1-forms would be over restrictive, and the fact that $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }`$ might not be onto will not cause major problems. For Hamiltonian elements we can define a Poisson bracket, which is antisymmetric and satisfies the Jacobi identity. It may be suprising that a noncommutative differential geometry can have antisymmetric Poisson brackets. However the reader should note that we do not achieve this by imposing any sort of asymmetry on the differential forms, but by imposing asymmetry on the interior product $``$, by insisting that it is a signed derivation.

Then there are the examples. For the noncommutative torus $`T_\rho ^2`$ (with $`uv=e^{2\pi i\rho }vu`$) we take $`\omega =u^1dudvv^1`$. If $`\rho `$ is rational there is a class of Hamiltonian elements with non-zero Poisson brackets, although the Hamiltonian elements commute in the algebra multiplication. For the matrix algebra $`M_n(R)`$ with $`\omega =_{ij}dE_{ij}dE_{ij}`$ we see that the antisymmetric matrices are Hamiltonian elements, and the corresponding derivations are just the adjoint maps of the antisymmetric matrices. The Poisson bracket is just the matrix commutator. The Cuntz algebra $`𝒪_n`$ provides another example. We conclude by examining Hamiltonian dynamics on the algebra of matrix valued functions on $`R^2`$.

It is time for a public health warning: Differential calculi on $`C^{}`$ algebras frequently require passing to a smaller ‘smooth’ subalgebra to make things work. For an example see the calculation of cyclic cohomology in . We shall work purely algebraically in what follows, without worrying about the topology.

The author would like to thank Tomasz Brzeziński for much useful advice.

## 2 Differential calculus and derivations

###### Definition 2.1

A differential calculus on an algebra $`A`$ is a collection of $`A`$-bimodules $`\mathrm{\Omega }^n`$ for $`n0`$ and a signed derivation $`d:\mathrm{\Omega }^n\mathrm{\Omega }^{n+1}`$, i.e. $`d(\omega \tau )=d(\omega )\tau +(1)^{|\omega |}\omega d(\tau )`$. Here $`|\omega |=n`$ if $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$. We set $`\mathrm{\Omega }^0=A`$ and suppose that the subspace spanned by elements of the form $`\omega db`$ ( for all $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$ and $`bA`$) is dense in $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{n+1}`$. We also impose $`d^2=0`$.

###### Definition 2.2

Define $`V`$ to be a vector space of derivations on the algebra $`A`$, i.e. $`\theta (ab)=\theta (a)b+a\theta (b)`$ for $`\theta V`$. We suppose that $`V`$ is closed under the commutator $`[\theta ,\varphi ]=\theta \varphi \varphi \theta `$. This will take the place of the vector fields in commutative differential geometry.

Now that we have the analogue of vector fields, we can define the following operations.

###### Definition 2.3

We define the evaluation map or ‘interior product’ $`:V\mathrm{\Omega }^1A`$ by $`\theta da=\theta (a)`$. To be consistent with the rule $`d(ab)=dab+adb`$ we set $`\theta (dab)=\theta (a)b`$ and $`\theta (adb)=a\theta (b)`$. Extend this definition recursively to $`:V\mathrm{\Omega }^{n+1}\mathrm{\Omega }^n`$ as a signed derivation, i.e. $`\theta (\omega \tau )=(\theta \omega )\tau +(1)^{|\omega |}\omega (\theta \tau )`$.

###### Definition 2.4

We define the Lie derivative $`_\theta :\mathrm{\Omega }^1\mathrm{\Omega }^1`$ in the direction $`\theta V`$ of a 1-form by $`_\theta (da)=d(\theta (a))`$, and extend it as a derivation, i.e. $`\theta (adb)=\theta (a)db+ad(\theta (b))`$. This is compatible with the rule $`d(ab)=dab+adb`$. Now we extend the definition to $`_\theta :\mathrm{\Omega }^n\mathrm{\Omega }^n`$ as a derivation, i.e. $`_\theta (\omega \tau )=\omega _\theta (\tau )+_\theta (\omega )\tau `$.

The problem with these operations is that they may not be well defined, that is there may be a linear combination of elements of the form $`adb\mathrm{\Omega }^1`$ which vanishes, but for which the corresponding sum of $`\theta (adb)`$ or $`_\theta (adb)`$ would not be zero. If the differential calculus is given in terms of generators and relations, we must check that the interior product and the Lie derivative vanish on all the relations. If necessary we must restrict the set $`V`$ of derivations so that these operations are well defined. In what follows, we assume that these operations are well defined.

###### Proposition 2.5

For all $`\theta V`$ and $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$, $`d(\theta \omega )+\theta (d\omega )=_\theta (\omega )`$.

Proof By induction on the degree of $`\omega `$. The statement is true for 0-forms (elements of $`A`$). Now we suppose that the statement is true for $`n`$-forms, and take $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$ and $`bA`$.

$`d(\theta (\omega db))`$ $`=`$ $`d((\theta \omega )db+(1)^n\omega \theta (b))`$
$`=`$ $`d(\theta \omega )db+(1)^nd\omega \theta (b)+\omega d\theta (b),`$
$`\theta (d(\omega db))`$ $`=`$ $`\theta (d\omega db)=(\theta d\omega )db+(1)^{n+1}d\omega \theta (b).`$
Now add these together to get

$`d(\theta (\omega db))+\theta (d(\omega db))`$ $`=`$ $`(d(\theta \omega )+\theta d\omega )db+\omega d\theta (b)`$
$`=`$ $`_\theta (\omega )db+\omega d\theta (b)=_\theta (\omega db).\mathrm{}`$
###### Proposition 2.6

For all $`\theta V`$ and $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$, $`d_\theta (\omega )=_\theta (d\omega )`$.

Proof By induction on the degree of $`\omega `$. The statement is true for 0-forms (elements of $`A`$). Now we suppose that the statement is true for $`n`$-forms, and take $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$ and $`bA`$.

$`d_\theta (\omega db)`$ $`=`$ $`d((_\theta (\omega ))db+\omega d\theta (b))`$
$`=`$ $`(d_\theta (\omega ))db+d\omega d\theta (b)`$
$`=`$ $`_\theta (d\omega )db+d\omega _\theta (db)=_\theta (d\omega db)=_\theta (d(\omega db)).\mathrm{}`$
###### Proposition 2.7

For all $`\theta ,\varphi V`$ and $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$, $`_\varphi (\theta \omega )=\theta _\varphi (\omega )+[\varphi ,\theta ]\omega `$.

Proof By induction on the degree of $`\omega `$. The statement is true for 0-forms (elements of $`A`$). Now we suppose that the statement is true for $`n`$-forms, and take $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$ and $`bA`$. Then

$`_\varphi (\theta (\omega db))`$ $`=`$ $`_\varphi ((\theta \omega )db+(1)^n\omega \theta (b))`$
$`=`$ $`_\varphi (\theta \omega )db+(\theta \omega )d\varphi (b)+(1)^n_\varphi (\omega )\theta (b)+(1)^n\omega \varphi \theta (b),`$
$`\theta (_\varphi (\omega db))`$ $`=`$ $`\theta (_\varphi (\omega )db+\omega d\varphi (b))`$
$`=`$ $`(\theta _\varphi (\omega ))db+(1)^n_\varphi (\omega )\theta (b)+(\theta \omega )d\varphi (b)+(1)^n\omega \theta \varphi (b),`$
and on subtraction we get

$`_\varphi (\theta \omega db)\theta (_\varphi (\omega db))`$ $`=`$ $`_\varphi (\theta \omega )db(\theta _\varphi (\omega ))db+(1)^n\omega [\varphi ,\theta ](b)`$
$`=`$ $`([\varphi ,\theta ]\omega )db+(1)^n\omega [\varphi ,\theta ](b)`$
$`=`$ $`[\varphi ,\theta ](\omega db).\mathrm{}`$
###### Proposition 2.8

For all $`\theta ,\varphi V`$ and $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$,

$$\varphi (\theta \omega )=\theta (\varphi \omega ).$$

Proof By induction on the degree of $`\omega `$. The statement is true for 0-forms (elements of $`A`$). Now we suppose that the statement is true for $`n`$-forms, and take $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$ and $`bA`$.

$`\varphi (\theta (\omega db))`$ $`=`$ $`\varphi ((\theta \omega )db+(1)^n\omega \theta (b))`$
$`=`$ $`(\varphi (\theta \omega ))db+(1)^{n1}(\theta \omega )\varphi (b)+(1)^n(\varphi \omega )\theta (b).`$
Now just add this formula to the one with $`\varphi `$ and $`\theta `$ swapped to get zero. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Proposition 2.9

For all $`\theta ,\varphi V`$ and $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$,

$$_\theta _\varphi (\omega )_\varphi _\theta (\omega )=_{[\theta ,\varphi ]}(\omega ).$$

Proof By induction on the degree of $`\omega `$. The statement is true for 0-forms (elements of $`A`$). Now we suppose that the statement is true for $`n`$-forms, and take $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^n`$ and $`bA`$.

$`_\theta _\varphi (\omega db)`$ $`=`$ $`_\theta (_\varphi (\omega )db+\omega d\varphi (b))`$
$`=`$ $`_\theta _\varphi (\omega )db+_\theta (\omega )d\varphi (b)+_\varphi (\omega )d\theta (b)+\omega d\theta \varphi (b),`$
and if we swap $`\theta `$ and $`\varphi `$ and subtract we get

$$(_\theta _\varphi _\varphi _\theta )(\omega db)=(_\theta _\varphi _\varphi _\theta )(\omega )db+\omega d[\theta ,\varphi ](b)=_{[\theta ,\varphi ]}(\omega db).\mathrm{}$$

## 3 Hamiltonian dynamics

In this section we take a specified $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }^2`$ which is closed, i.e. $`d\omega =0`$. From proposition 2.5 we see that $`_\theta (\omega )=0`$ if and only if $`d(\theta \omega )=0`$. Take the subset $`V^\omega `$ to consist of those $`\theta V`$ for which $`_\theta (\omega )=0`$, and $`Z^1`$ to be the set of closed 1-forms. Define the map $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }:V^\omega Z^1`$ by $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }(\theta )=\theta \omega `$. We say that $`\omega `$ is nonsingular if $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }`$ is 1-1, and we suppose this for the rest of the section.

###### Definition 3.1

We say that $`aA`$ is a Hamiltonian element if $`daZ^1`$ is in the image of $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }`$. If $`a`$ is Hamiltonian, we define $`X_aV^\omega `$ by $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }(X_a)=da`$. If both $`a`$ and $`b`$ are Hamiltonian, we define their Poisson bracket by $`\{a,b\}=X_a(db)=X_a(b)A`$.

###### Proposition 3.2

If both $`a`$ and $`b`$ are Hamiltonian, then $`\{a,b\}=\{b,a\}`$, i.e. the Poisson bracket is antisymmetric.

Proof From proposition 2.8,

$$X_a(X_b\omega )=X_adb=X_a(b)=X_b(X_a\omega )=X_b(a).\mathrm{}$$

###### Proposition 3.3

If both $`a`$ and $`b`$ are Hamiltonian, then $`\{a,b\}`$ is Hamiltonian, and further $`X_{\{a,b\}}=[X_a,X_b]`$.

Proof First $`[X_a,X_b]V`$ as $`V`$ is closed under commutator. Then $`_{[X_a,X_b]}=0`$ by 2.9, so $`[X_a,X_b]V^\omega `$. Finally from proposition 2.7,

$$[X_a,X_b]\omega =_{X_a}(X_b\omega )X_b_{X_a}(\omega )=_{X_a}(db)=dX_a(b)=d\{a,b\}.\mathrm{}$$

###### Proposition 3.4

If $`a,b`$ and $`c`$ are Hamiltonian, then $`\{c,\{a,b\}\}+\{b,\{c,a\}\}+\{a,\{b,c\}\}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$, i.e. the Poisson bracket satisfies the Jacobi identity.

Proof By using proposition 2.7,

$`X_c\{a,b\}`$ $`=`$ $`X_cd\{a,b\}=X_cdX_a(b)=X_c_{X_a}(db)`$
$`=`$ $`_{X_a}(X_cdb)[X_a,X_c]db.`$
From this we deduce, using 3.3,

$`\{c,\{a,b\}\}+\{\{a,c\},b\}`$ $`=`$ $`_{X_a}(X_cdb)=_{X_a}\{c,b\}=\{a,\{c,b\}\}.\mathrm{}`$
###### Proposition 3.5

If $`a,b,c`$ and $`bc`$ are Hamiltonian, then $`\{a,bc\}=\{a,b\}c+b\{a,c\}`$, i.e. the Poisson bracket is a derivation.

Proof Use the result $`\{a,bc\}=X_a(bc)`$, where $`X_a`$ is a derivation. $`\mathrm{}`$

Now we can formally extend a derivation to an automorphism by the following procedure (we make no attempt to verify convergence): If $`\theta `$ is a derivation on the algebra $`A`$, there is an action of $`(R,+)`$ by automorphisms on $`A`$ by $`a\mathrm{exp}(t\theta )a=a(t)`$ for $`aA`$ and $`tR`$. Then we get the usual relation for the time derivatives of functions $`a(t)A`$ generated by a Hamiltonian $`bA`$ and the Poisson bracket:

$$\dot{a}(t)=X_b(a(t))=\{b,a(t)\}.$$

(Note that strictly we should stop at $`X_b(a(t))`$ in the case where $`a`$ is not Hamiltonian, as we did not define the Poisson brackets for non-Hamiltonian elements.)

## 4 Example: the noncommutative torus

We take the algebra $`T_\rho ^2`$ generated by invertible elements $`u`$ and $`v`$, subject to the conditions $`uv=qvu`$, where $`q=e^{2\pi \rho }`$ is a unit norm complex number. This can be completed to form a $`C^{}`$ algebra, or a smooth algebra , but we will not consider such completions here. The simplest differential calculus on $`T_q^2`$  is generated by $`\{u,v,du,dv\}`$, subject to the relations

$`dudv=qdvdu`$ , $`udv=qdvu,vdu=q^1duv,`$ (1)
$`[u,du]=[v,dv]=0`$ , $`(du)^2=(dv)^2=0.`$ (2)
As there are no non-zero 3-forms, all 2-forms are closed.

We will now try to carry out the construction given in the previous sections. Note that a derivation $`\theta `$ is uniquely specified by giving $`\theta (u)`$ and $`\theta (v)`$. This is because we can deduce $`\theta (u^1)=u^1\theta (u)u^1`$ from the relation $`\theta (uu^1)=\theta (1)=0`$, and likewise for $`v^1`$. The set of derivations $`V`$ which we use must be consistent with the relations on the algebra and on the differential structure.

###### Proposition 4.1

Suppose that we are in the rational case where $`q`$ has order $`p`$. Then the derivations $`\theta `$ consistent with the differential structure (1) are of the form

$$\theta (u)=\underset{s,tZ}{}b_{ts}u^{1+sp}v^{tp},\theta (v)=\underset{s,tZ}{}c_{ts}u^{sp}v^{1+tp},$$

for some constants $`b_{ts}`$, $`c_{ts}C`$

Proof By applying $`\theta `$ to $`[u,du]=[v,dv]=0`$ we see that $`[u,\theta (u)]=[v,\theta (v)]=0`$. By applying $`\theta `$ to $`udv=qdvu`$ we see that $`u\theta (v)=q\theta (v)u`$. By applying $`\theta `$ to $`vdu=q^1duv`$ we see that $`v\theta (u)=q^1\theta (u)v`$. By combining these we see that the consistent derivations are those for which are of the form above. Now we check with the algebra relation $`\theta (uv)=q\theta (vu)`$ to get

$$\underset{s,tZ}{}c_{ts}u^{1+sp}v^{1+tp}+\underset{s,tZ}{}b_{ts}u^{1+sp}v^{1+tp}=q\underset{s,tZ}{}c_{ts}u^{sp}v^{1+tp}u+qv\underset{s,tZ}{}b_{ts}u^{1+sp}v^{tp},$$

which is automatically satisfied. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Example 4.2

Set $`\omega =u^1dudvv^1`$, and suppose that we are in the rational case where $`q`$ has order $`p`$. Then for $`\theta V`$ we have $`\theta \omega =u^1\theta (u)dvv^1u^1du\theta (v)v^1`$, so if we know $`\theta \omega `$ we can recover $`\theta (u)`$ and $`\theta (v)`$ uniquely, so $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }`$ is 1-1. Proceeding on the assumption that $`aT_\rho ^2`$ is a Hamiltonian element, we set

$$a=\underset{nm}{}a_{nm}u^nv^m$$

for some numbers $`a_{nm}`$. We now examine the equation

$`X_a(u^1dudvv^1)`$ $`=`$ $`da={\displaystyle \underset{nm}{}}\left(na_{nm}u^{n1}duv^m+ma_{nm}u^nv^{m1}dv\right),`$
and deduce that

$$X_a(u)=\underset{nm}{}ma_{nm}u^{n+1}v^m\mathrm{and}X_a(v)=\underset{nm}{}na_{nm}u^nv^{m+1}.$$

For $`X_a`$ to be a derivation consistent with our given differential structure, we can only have nonzero $`a_{nm}`$ when $`n`$ and $`m`$ are multiples of $`p`$. The Hamiltonian functions are linear combinations of elements of the form $`u^{sp}v^{tp}`$ for $`t,sZ`$. The corresponding derivations are

$$X_{u^{sp}v^{tp}}(u)=tpu^{sp+1}v^{tp}\mathrm{and}X_{u^{sp}v^{tp}}(v)=spu^{sp}v^{tp+1},$$

and the Poisson brackets are given by

$$\{u^{sp}v^{tp},u^{s^{}p}v^{t^{}p}\}=(ts^{}t^{}s)p^2u^{(s+s^{})p}v^{(t+t^{})p}.$$

Note that the Hamiltonian elements in this case are exactly the central elements of the algebra.

## 5 Example: the algebra of matrices

We take $`A=M_n(R)`$, and then we define $`\mathrm{\Omega }^1`$ to be the kernel of the multiplication map $`\mu :M_nM_nM_n`$ . The map $`d:\mathrm{\Omega }^0=A\mathrm{\Omega }^1`$ is defined as $`da=1aa1`$. Also

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^2=\{\tau M_nM_nM_n:(\mu \mathrm{id})(\tau )=(\mathrm{id}\mu )(\tau )=0\}.$$

The map $`d:\mathrm{\Omega }^1\mathrm{\Omega }^2`$ is defined by $`d(ab)=1aba1b+ab1`$. In case the reader is concerned that the interior product is not well defined on this model of the differential calculus, note that $`\theta :\mathrm{\Omega }^1\mathrm{\Omega }^0=M_n`$ is $`\theta (ab)=a\theta (b)`$, and $`\theta :\mathrm{\Omega }^2\mathrm{\Omega }^1`$ is $`\theta (abc)=a\theta (b)cab\theta (c)`$. The Lie derivative $`_\theta :\mathrm{\Omega }^1\mathrm{\Omega }^1`$ is given by $`_\theta (ab)=\theta (a)b+a\theta (b)`$, and $`_\theta :\mathrm{\Omega }^2\mathrm{\Omega }^2`$ is given by $`_\theta (abc)=\theta (a)bc+a\theta (b)c+ab\theta (c)`$.

Set $`\omega =\frac{1}{2}_{ij}dE_{ij}dE_{ij}`$, where $`E_{ij}`$ is the matrix with 1 in the row $`i`$ column $`j`$ position and 0 elsewhere. Take a derivation $`\theta `$ on $`M_n(R)`$ given by coefficients $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{klij}R`$:

$$\theta (E_{ij})=\underset{kl}{}\mathrm{\Theta }_{klij}E_{kl}.$$

Then we calculate

$`\theta \omega `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{ijkl}{}}\mathrm{\Theta }_{klij}\left(E_{kl}dE_{ij}dE_{ij}E_{kl}\right)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{ijkl}{}}\mathrm{\Theta }_{klij}\left(E_{kl}E_{ij}E_{kl}E_{ij}1\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}E_{ij}E_{kl}+E_{ij}E_{kl}\right)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{ijkl}{}}\left(\mathrm{\Theta }_{klij}+\mathrm{\Theta }_{ijkl}\right)E_{kl}E_{ij}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{ijkl}{}}\mathrm{\Theta }_{klij}E_{kl}E_{ij}1{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{ijkl}{}}\mathrm{\Theta }_{ijkl}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}E_{kl}E_{ij}.`$
Given a matrix $`SM_n(R)`$, take the adjoint map $`\mathrm{ad}_S(C)=[S,C]`$, which is a derivation. Now

$$\mathrm{ad}_S(E_{ij})=[S,E_{ij}]=\underset{k}{}S_{ki}E_{kj}\underset{l}{}E_{il}S_{jl},$$

so the coefficients corresponding to $`\theta =\mathrm{ad}_S`$ are $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{klij}=S_{ki}\delta _{jl}S_{jl}\delta _{ik}`$. If S is an antisymmetric matrix, then $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{klij}+\mathrm{\Theta }_{ijkl}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$, so

$`\mathrm{ad}_S\omega `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{ijkl}{}}\mathrm{\Theta }_{klij}\left(1E_{kl}E_{ij}E_{kl}E_{ij}1\right)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{ijkl}{}}\left(S_{ki}\delta _{jl}S_{jl}\delta _{ik}\right)\delta _{li}\left(1E_{kj}E_{kj}1\right)=1SS1.`$
Now we see that $`\mathrm{ad}_S\omega =dS`$, so the antisymmetric matrices are Hamiltonian, and $`X_S=\mathrm{ad}_S`$. If $`S`$ and $`T`$ are antisymmetric, then $`\{S,T\}=\mathrm{ad}_S(T)=[S,T]`$, so the Poisson bracket is just the commutator.

## 6 Example: the Cuntz algebra

The Cuntz algebra $`𝒪_n`$  is the unital $`C^{}`$ algebra with $`n`$ generators $`\{s_1,\mathrm{},s_n\}`$ and relations

$$s_i^{}s_j=\delta _{ij},\underset{i=1,\mathrm{},n}{}s_is_i^{}=1.$$

Linear combinations of the form $`s_\mu s_\nu ^{}`$ are dense in the algebra, where $`\mu `$ and $`\nu `$ are words for the alphabet $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$. For example if $`\mu =12`$ and $`\nu =123`$, then $`s_\mu s_\nu ^{}=s_1s_2s_3^{}s_2^{}s_1^{}`$.

Now we have to decide what differential calculus to equip $`𝒪_n`$ with. The forms would be generated by $`s_i`$, $`s_i^{}`$, $`ds_i`$ and $`ds_i^{}`$. We must have relations given by applying $`d`$ to the relations for the algebra, i.e.

$`ds_i^{}s_j+s_i^{}ds_j=0,{\displaystyle \underset{i=1,\mathrm{},n}{}}(ds_is_i^{}+s_ids_i^{})=0.`$ (3)
If $`u`$ is any unitary in $`𝒪_n`$, then the map $`s_ius_i`$ extends to a unital \*-endomorphism $`\alpha _u`$ of $`𝒪_n`$. Conversely, suppose that $`\alpha `$ is a unital \*-endomorphism of $`𝒪_n`$. If we define $`u=\alpha (s_i)s_i^{}`$, we see that $`u`$ is a unitary in $`𝒪_n`$, and that $`\alpha (s_i)=us_i`$. We shall use this to define a derivation on $`𝒪_n`$ by taking the infinitesimal version of this construction. For $`h𝒪_n`$ we define a derivation by $`\theta _h(s_i)=hs_i`$ and $`\theta _h(s_i^{})=s_i^{}h`$. If this were to be a \*-derivation, we would find that $`h`$ had to be antiHermitian, but we shall not suppose this. Now we should check that these derivations preserve the relations (3):

$`\theta _h(ds_i^{}s_j+s_i^{}ds_j)`$ $`=`$ $`s_i^{}hs_j+s_i^{}hs_j=0,`$
$`\theta _h{\displaystyle }_{i=1,\mathrm{},n}(ds_is_i^{}+s_ids_i^{})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1,\mathrm{},n}{}}(hs_is_i^{}s_is_i^{}h)=hh=0,`$
$`_{\theta _h}(ds_i^{}s_j+s_i^{}ds_j)`$ $`=`$ $`ds_i^{}hs_jd(s_i^{}h)s_js_i^{}hds_j+s_i^{}d(hs_j)`$
$`=`$ $`s_i^{}dhs_j+s_i^{}dhs_j=0,`$
$`_{\theta _h}{\displaystyle \underset{i=1,\mathrm{},n}{}}(ds_is_i^{}+s_ids_i^{})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1,\mathrm{},n}{}}(d(hs_i)s_i^{}ds_is_i^{}hs_id(s_i^{}h)+hs_ids_i^{})`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1,\mathrm{},n}{}}(dhs_is_i^{}s_is_i^{}dh)=0.`$
Now we choose $`\omega =_ids_ids_i^{}`$, and note that $`d\omega =0`$. If we choose $`h=s_ks_l^{}`$, then

$`\theta _{s_ks_l^{}}\omega `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}(s_ks_l^{}s_ids_i^{}+ds_is_i^{}s_ks_l^{})`$
$`=`$ $`s_kds_l^{}+ds_ks_l^{}=d(s_ks_l^{}).`$
The set of derivations spanned by $`\theta _{s_ks_l^{}}`$ for $`1k,ln`$ is closed under commutator, and we call it $`V`$. We see that the Hamiltonian element corresponding to the derivation $`\theta _{s_ks_l^{}}`$ is $`s_ks_l^{}`$, and that the Poisson brackets are given by

$$\{s_ks_l^{},s_rs_m^{}\}=\theta _{s_ks_l^{}}(s_rs_m^{})=\delta _{l,r}s_ks_m^{}\delta _{m,k}s_rs_l^{}.$$

## 7 An example of tensor products and interactions

Consider the algebra $`A=C^{\mathrm{}}(R^2,M_2(R))`$, where we use coordinates $`x,y`$ for $`R^2`$. The calculus we use will be the standard tensor product one, i.e.

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^n(C^{\mathrm{}}(R^2)M_2(R))=\underset{p+q=n}{}\mathrm{\Omega }^p(C^{\mathrm{}}(R^2))\mathrm{\Omega }^q(M_2(R)),$$

with $`d`$ operator and multiplication given by

$`d(\tau \eta )`$ $`=`$ $`d\tau \eta +(1)^{|\tau |}\tau d\eta ,`$ (4)
$`(\tau \eta )(\tau ^{}\eta ^{})`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{|\eta ||\tau ^{}|}\tau \tau ^{}\eta \eta ^{}.`$ (5)
The $`d`$ operator on $`M_2(R)`$ is the one we defined earlier (we use $`d_{M_2}`$ to avoid confusion later), and the $`d`$ operator on $`C^{\mathrm{}}(R^2)`$ is the usual one:

$$d\tau =dx\frac{\tau }{x}+dy\frac{\tau }{y}.$$

There are derivations on the algebra given, for $`f:R^2M_2(R)`$, by

$$\theta (f)=\theta _x\frac{f}{x}+\theta _y\frac{f}{y}+[\theta _S,f],$$

where $`\theta _x`$ and $`\theta _y`$ are real valued functions times the identity matrix on $`R^2`$, and $`\theta _S`$ is an antisymmetric matrix valued function on $`R^2`$. This has evaluations on the 1-forms given by $`\theta dx=\theta _x`$, $`\theta dy=\theta _y`$ and $`\theta dE_{ij}=[\theta _S,E_{ij}]`$. We shall take the 2-form

$$\omega =dxdy+\frac{1}{2}\underset{ij}{}dE_{ij}dE_{ij}+dx(dE_{12}dE_{21}),$$

where we have added the last term to ensure some interaction between the vector field and the antisymmetric matrix parts of the derivations. Then we calculate

$$\theta \omega =\theta _xdy\theta _ydx+d_{M_2}\theta _S+\theta _x(dE_{12}dE_{21})dx[\theta _S,E_{12}E_{21}].$$

The last term here vanishes, since in $`M_2(R)`$ any antisymmetric matrix is a multiple of $`E_{12}E_{21}`$, so

$$\theta \omega =\theta _xdy\theta _ydx+d_{M_2}(\theta _S+\theta _x(E_{12}E_{21})).$$

It is now reasonably simple to see that $`\omega `$ is non-degenerate for all derivations of the form we are considering.

Given an element of the algebra $`aC^{\mathrm{}}(R^2,M_2(R))`$ we have

$$da=\frac{a}{x}dx+\frac{a}{y}dy+d_{M_2}a,$$

so if $`\theta \omega =da`$ then $`d_{M_2}(\theta _S+\theta _x(E_{12}E_{21}))=d_{M_2}a`$, $`\theta _x=\frac{a}{y}`$ and $`\theta _y=\frac{a}{x}`$. We see that if we put $`a(x,y)=T+f(x,y)I_2`$, where $`T`$ is a constant antisymmetric matrix and $`f(x,y)`$ is a real valued function, then $`(X_a)_x=\frac{f}{y}I_2`$, $`(X_a)_y=\frac{f}{x}I_2`$ and $`(X_a)_S=T\frac{f}{y}(E_{12}E_{21})`$. Now we can calculate the Poisson bracket of two such Hamiltonian functions:

$`\{T+f(x,y)I_2,R+g(x,y)I_2\}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{f}{y}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x}}I_2{\displaystyle \frac{f}{x}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{y}}I_2+[T{\displaystyle \frac{f}{y}}(E_{12}E_{21}),R+gI_2]`$
$`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{f}{y}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x}}{\displaystyle \frac{f}{x}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{y}}\right)I_2.`$


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# Pygmy resonances in artificial nuclei: far-infrared absorption by electron-hole droplets

## A Figure captions:

Figure 1. GDR and pigmy resonance excitation energies at $`\beta =1`$ as a function of the number of pairs, $`N`$, in the dot. Dashed and solid line correspond to the linear fit for GDR and average pigmy resonance energy as a function of $`N`$. The linear fit y=b\*X+a parameters for GDR energy are a=1,75+/-0,01 and b=-0,105+/-0,007 and for average pigmy resonance energy are a=1,717+/-0,005 and b=0,394+/-0,003 correspondingly.

Figure 2. Dipole matrix elements squared at $`\beta =1`$ as a function of the number of electron-hole pairs, $`N`$.