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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The gamma-ray universe in the energy band above 0.1 MeV provides a rich ground to study nucleosynthesis and physics of particle acceleration beyond thermal emission. However, the energy band between 0.1 MeV and 100 MeV is poorly explored due to difficulties associated with the detection of such photons. The Compton telescope COMPTEL\[(1)\] abroad CGRO (Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory) demonstrated that a gamma-ray instrument based on the Compton scattering is useful for the detection of the gamma-ray in this energy band. COMPTEL provided us with rich information on a variety of gamma-ray emitting objects either in continuum and line emission. The continuum sources include spin-down pulsars, stellar black-hole candidates, supernovae remnants, interstellar clouds, active galactic nuclei (AGN), gamma-ray bursts (GRB) and solar flares. Detection has also been made of the nuclear gamma-ray lines from 26Al (1.809 MeV), 44Ti (1.157 MeV), and 56Co (0.847 and 1.238 MeV).

Although COMPTEL performed very well as the first Compton telescope in space for MeV gamma-ray astrophysics, it suffered severely from large background, poor angular resolution, and complicated image decoding.\[(2)\] In 1987, T. Kamae et al. proposed a new Compton telescope based on a stack of silicon strip detectors (SSD).\[(3), (4)\] This technology presents very attractive possibilities to overcome the weaknesses of COMPTEL as described later in this document. This idea of using silicon strip detectors stimulated new proposals for the next generation Compton telescope.\[(5), (6), (7)\]

Recently, a new semiconductor detector based on CdTe (Cadmium Telluride) emerged as a promising detector technology for detection of MeV gamma-rays.\[(8)\] Taking advantage of significant development in CdTe technology, we have proposed a new generation of Compton telescope, a Semiconductor Multiple-Compton Telescope (SMCT). The SMCT is a hybrid semiconductor gamma-ray detector which consists of silicon and CdTe detectors. Excellent energy resolution is the key feature of the SMCT to achieve high angular resolution and background rejection capability. In addition, the ability to measure polarization, a wide energy band (0.1–20 MeV), a wide field of view ($``$60) and light weight are important features of the SMCT. Low noise Double-sided Silicon Strip Detectors (DSSDs) are fundamental elements of the SMCT. In this paper, we describe the optimization of the detector components to realize the fine energy resolution and the test results with prototype modules. Other applications for such low noise DSSD system and hybrid Si-CdTe system are described elsewhere.\[(9)\]

## 2 Multiple-Compton technique

A simple Compton telescope consists of two components, a scatterer and an absorber. The direction of the gamma-ray can be confined in a cone by measuring the energy loss and position of the scattering in the scatterer and those of photoelectric-absorption in the absorber. In order to increase the detection efficiency of the gamma-ray, the scatterer has to be thicker and/or more dense. However, it also increases the probability of multiple-Compton scatterings in the scatterer, which was considered to be impossible to resolve. In order to solve this problem, a stack of many thin scatterers is used to record individual Compton scatterings in the Multiple-Compton technique. The order of the interaction sequences, hence the correct energy and direction of the incident photon, can be reconstructed by examination of the energy-momentum conservation for all possible sequences. This technique has proven to be a very powerful method to suppress backgrounds.

Figure 1 (a) illustrates a case with two Compton scatterings in the scatterer and one photoelectric-absorption in the absorber. In this situation, both scattering angles $`\theta _1`$ and $`\theta _2`$ can be obtained from the recoil electron energies as

$$\mathrm{cos}\theta _1=1+\frac{m_ec^2}{E_1+E_2+E_3}\frac{m_ec^2}{E_2+E_3},\mathrm{cos}\theta _2=1+\frac{m_ec^2}{E_2+E_3}\frac{m_ec^2}{E_3},$$
(1)
where $`E_1`$, $`E_2`$ and $`E_3`$ are the energy deposits in each photon interaction. It is worthwhile noticing that $`\theta _2`$ can be reconstructed from the hit positions of the three interactions. This over-constraint provides stringent background suppression that is crucial to observe faint or diffuse gamma-ray sources. Note that the photon does not have to be absorbed completely in this multiple-Compton technique since the incident photon energy can be inferred when three or more Compton scatterings are recorded, which means no need for a heavy calorimeter in the telescope. Another possible advantage of this technique is that recoil electrons with energies more than 250 keV penetrate a 300-$`\mu `$m silicon detector and deposit energies in two layers of silicon detectors. Although the angular resolution is very poor for such low energy electrons due to multiple-Coulomb scattering, this information can still be used to constrain the direction of the incident photon to a partial cone.

High energy resolution for the recoil electron is the critical characteristic of Compton telescope since it determines the angular resolution of the incident photon, and background rejection capability using Compton kinematics. Figures 1 (b) and (c) illustrate processes to reconstruct gamma-ray source locations with different angular resolutions to demonstrate the importance of angular resolution. In these figures, a circle represents a projection of a cone reconstructed by the Compton kinematics onto a sky map for each photon candidate.The projection is not actually a circle. We use a circle for simplicity. The width of the circles in figure 1 (b) is 10 times narrower than that in figure 1 . We can clearly identify two gamma-ray sources in figure 1 (b). In figure 1 (c), it is difficult to resolve them because ghost spots cannot be rejected due to poor resolution. In addition, the dashed circle can belong to two spots from different sources, further complicating the matter. Since the circle radius can be very large depending on the Compton scattering angle, we may suffer large background from any bright source in the field of view. Therefore, precise angular resolution is essential to resolve source locations and to suppress background from bright sources.

The DSSD is a primary candidate for the scatterer because Compton scattering dominates over other processes in sub-MeV range and the Doppler-broadening effect is small in silicon. Such double-sided devices are required to provide two dimensional measurement of the interaction position. Weak stopping power of the silicon detector at the upper end of the energy band can be supplemented by employing the CdTe detectors in the back portion of the layers. Figure 2 shows the probability of various photon interactions in 500 $`\mu `$m thick silicon and CdTe devices as a function of the photon energy. This figure clearly illustrates the advantage of a Si-CdTe hybrid approach to detect photons in a wide energy-band. For the photon energies below 0.5 MeV, silicon is a better scatterer since the Compton scattering cross section is larger than that of the photoelectric absorption. Note that photoelectric absorption does not provide information on the incident photon direction. The DSSD layers measure the recoil electron energy of the first Compton scattering with maximal energy resolution while the CdTe layers enhance the probability of Compton scattering and/or photoelectric absorption in the back section. At higher energies, silicon becomes more or less transparent and CdTe detector becomes the dominant detector. Pair creation can also be utilized to measure both the energy and direction of gamma-rays above several MeV. However, the efficiency is significantly reduced above 20 MeV since the gamma-ray cannot be completely absorbed. In this case, a higher Z material is required to enhance photon absorption.

As discussed above, precise energy resolution is a crucial feature of the DSSDs to gain high pointing accuracy and large background rejection capability, utilizing the over-constraint from the kinematics of multiple-Compton scattering. Low electronics noise is required to accomplish such fine energy resolution by exploiting the small Doppler-broadening effect in silicon. A target noise value in equivalent noise charge (ENC) for the DSSD system is 100 $`e^{}`$ (RMS, Root Mean Squared), which corresponds to 1 keV (FWHM, Full-Width Half Maximum) for the silicon detector. This equates to an angular resolution of 1 at 30 keV or 0.3 at 2 MeV. Angular resolution at the upper end of the energy band is dominated by the position resolution of the detector.

Possible instrument configurations and expected performance are discussed in ref 9.

## 3 Low Noise SSD System

We have developed prototype modules for a low noise DSSD system in order to understand all noise sources in detail, which is fundamental to achieve the best possible energy resolution. A low noise DSSD system consists of a DSSD, an RC chip and a VA32TA front-end VLSI chip. The DSSD does not employ an integrated AC capacitor in order to maintain a strip yield close to 100%. The RC chip provides detector bias voltage via polysilicon bias resistors, as well as AC-coupling between strips and preamplifier channel inputs. Since the RC chip is a small device, the yield of the AC-coupling capacitor is not a concern. The VA32TA front-end VLSI is a 32-channel, low noise CMOS device which includes on a per-channel basis a preamplifier, shaper, sample/hold, analog multiplexer and discriminator. The DSSDs and RC chips are manufactured by Hamamatsu Photonics, Japan and the VA32TA is manufactured by Ideas ASA, Norway. Detailed description of each component is given below.

The p+-strips are implanted on an n- silicon substrate to form p-n junctions. This side is called junction side. The n+-strips are implanted orthogonal to the p-strips on the other side to provide second coordinate measurement. This side is called ohmic side. The p+-implant surrounds the individual n+-strip to provide separation of n+-strips. Figure 3 shows pictures of the junction and ohmic sides of the DSSD. Because the strip geometry is more complex on the ohmic side than on the junction side, the strip capacitance is larger on the ohmic side. For this reason, the primary function of the ohmic side is to provide position information of the second coordinate, and its noise performance is not measured in this test. We have produced five types of strip geometries in four types of devices (400-1, 400-2, 800-1, 800-2) as listed in Tables 1 and 2 to understand the noise dependence on parameters such strip pitch, strip gap and strip length. Wider strip pitch gives larger capacitance to the backplane and larger leakage current. Wider strip gap gives smaller capacitance to the adjacent strips although the risk of junction breakdown increases at high bias voltage. The 400-2a $``$ 400-2c configurations are implemented on the junction side of a single-sided SSD. (Ohmic side does not have strip structure.) All four types of devices are implemented on one silicon wafer. The thickness of the silicon wafer is fixed at 300 $`\mu `$m. Here we present results on the basic characteristics for types 400-2a, 400-2b and 400-2c SSDs. The C-V curve measurement yields the depletion voltage of 65 V, therefore the following measurements are performed at 70 V.

A bias voltage of up to 200 V was applied to test junction breakdown and no breakdown was observed. Leakage current is measured to be 0.5 nA/strip at 20C and 0.05 nA/strip at 0C. The strip capacitance is measured to be $`6.3\pm 0.2`$ pF for 400-2a, $`5.7\pm 0.2`$ pF for 400-2b and $`5.2\pm 0.2`$ pF for 400-2c, which is somewhat larger than the values calculated based upon geometry of 5.1 pF, 4.8 pF and 4.5 pF, respectively. In the capacitance calculations, we take into account only capacitance to the backplane and adjacent strips. Measured values of the strip capacitance are used for the subsequent noise analysis.

The RC chip consists of bias resistors and AC-coupling capacitors. We employ 1 G$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ polysilicon resistor for the bias resistor. A resistance value of 1 G$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is chosen to minimize thermal noise without compromising production stability. A MOS capacitor is employed for AC-coupling to ensure high voltage tolerance, since it needs to withstand the bias voltage of the DSSD and to protect the preamplifiers. The size of this MOS capacitor is 1.2 mm $`\times `$ 0.14 mm in order to obtain sufficient coupling capacitance while presenting a capacitance load to the preamplifier of less than 1 pF.

We have developed the VA32TA front-end ASIC based on the VA32C amplifier VLSI and the TA32C trigger VLSI that are originally developed by Ideas. A detailed description of Viking-architecture chip is given elsewhere.VA91 ; VA94  The VA32TA is fabricated in the AMS 0.35 $`\mu `$m technology, which is measured to be radiation tolerant to 20 MRad or more.Yokoyama01  A VA32TA consists of 32 channels of signal-readout. Each channel includes a charge sensitive preamplifier-slow CR-RC shaper-sample/hold-analog multiplexer chain (VA section) and fast shaper-discriminator chain (TA section) as illustrated in the block diagram of Figure 4. The front-end MOSFET size for the preamplifier is optimized for small capacitance load, to attain optimal noise performance. Expected noise performance is $`(45+19\times C_d)/\sqrt{\tau }e^{}`$ (RMS) in ENC or $`(0.37+0.16\times C_d)/\sqrt{\tau }`$ keV (FWHM), where $`C_d`$ is the load capacitance and $`\tau `$ is the peaking time, which can be varied from 1 to 4 $`\mu `$s. Feedback resistors for the preamplifier, as well as slow and fast shapers are realized with MOSFETs. Gate voltages of the feedback MOSFETs are controlled by internal DACs (Digital-to-Analog Converters) on chip. Bias currents for various components are also controlled by the internal DACs. Threshold levels can be adjusted for each channel using individual DACs to minimize threshold dispersion. A 200-bit register is required to hold the values for all internal DACs. Majority selector logic circuitry has been utilized for these registers to ensure the tolerance against Single-Event Upset (SEU), which is important for space applications. This majority selector circuitry uses three flip-flops for each bit and takes a majority of the three when they become inconsistent. This logic also generates a signal when such inconsistencies are detected.

We have assembled two prototype modules, one consists of SSD, RC chip and VA32TA (AC module) and the other module consists of SSD and VA32TA (DC module). Type 400-2 SSD is used for both modules. Figures 5 (a) and (b) show pictures of the AC and DC modules, respectively. Only 400-2b and 400-2c strips are connected to the readout system because of geometric constraints. Only the junction side is connected to the readout system in this test since energy resolution is determined by the noise performance on the junction side. The ohmic side is known to give worse noise performance due to larger strip capacitance and used primarily to provide the coordinate information and a trigger coincidence.

## 4  Noise Performance

We have taken into account the following noise sources in our analysis to optimize the component parameters:

* Preamplifier noise: linear dependence on the capacitance load and $`1/\sqrt{\tau }`$ dependence on the peaking time. Noise level varies from 0.8 keV (DC, $`\tau =4`$ $`\mu `$s) to 1.4 keV (AC, $`\tau =2`$ $`\mu `$s).
* Shot noise: $`\sqrt{I}`$ dependence on the leak current and $`\sqrt{\tau }`$ dependence on the peaking time. Noise level varies from 0.3 keV (0C, $`\tau =2`$ $`\mu `$s) to 1.2 keV (20C, $`\tau =4`$ $`\mu `$s).
* Thermal noise (bias resistor): $`1/\sqrt{R}`$ dependence on the bias resistance and $`\sqrt{\tau }`$ dependence on the peaking time. Noise level varies from 0.3 keV ($`\tau =2`$ $`\mu `$s) to 0.4 keV ($`\tau =4`$ $`\mu `$s).

We have also considered the thermal noise from the implant resistance of the RC chip and found it is less than 0.1 keV, hence considered negligible. Total noise is fairly independent of the peaking time beyond 2 $`\mu `$s because amplifier noise and other noise sources show opposite peaking time dependence and compensate each other.

Noise performance of the prototype system is measured at temperatures of 0C and 20C and at peaking times of 2 $`\mu `$s and 4 $`\mu `$s. This is useful to differentiate the noise contributions. Absolute gain of the system is calibrated using the X-ray spectra obtained below. Table 3 summarizes the measurement results and compares them with calculation results. This table does not include the result for the DC configuration at 20C since it cannot be operated at optimum condition due to the effect of leak current from the SSD flowing into the preamplifier. Since the results for 400-2b and 400-2c do not show significant difference (less than 5% though the 400-2c consistently gives better noise performance), the average of the two types are shown in this paper.

These results confirm that the shot noise due to the leakage current becomes negligible at 0C. In the DC configuration, the measured and expected noise values are in a good agreement for the measurements at either peaking time, which demonstrates that the noise sources from the SSD and the VA32TA are well understood. On the other hand, slight disagreement between measurement and calculation is observed for the AC configuration at 0C, indicating additional noise sources in the RC chip which are not accounted for in the noise analysis. At 20C the shot noise from the leak current becomes large and the disagreement becomes less significant. Further studies are required to identify the origin of the excess noise observed in the RC chip in this measurement.

## 5  X-ray energy resolution

The energy resolution for the X-ray detection is investigated using the 59.54 keV X-ray line from 241Am and the 122.06 keV X-ray line from 57Co. Absolute gain is calibrated for each channel using the same X-ray sources in such way that all channels give the correct peak height. We also correct for the gain dependence on the“common mode shift” where common mode shift refer to the voltage shift common to all channels in one chip.The coomon mode shift is calculated and subtracted for each event taking the average of the pulse height for every channel, excluding the channels with signal. We attribute the origin of this dependence to the nonlinearity of the amplifier gain. A correction of approximately 0.2 keV is made for a 1 keV common mode shift. This correction is critical to operate the system at 20C, since the magnitude of the common mode noise is $`610`$ keV at 20C and 1.6 keV at 0C. Larger common mode noise is observed for the longer peaking time at 20C, implying a low frequency nature of the common mode noise. It should be noted that the peaking time of the fast shaper in the TA section is 0.3 $`\mu `$s, which helps to suppress the contribution from common mode noise.

Figures 6 (a) and 7 (a) show the sum of the energy spectra for all channels, except for the first and last strips where we observe larger noise. We observe a clear Compton edge just below 40 keV in the 57Co spectrum. Peak positions other than 59.5 keV and 122.1 keV are somewhat shifted since gain calibration has not been performed for these energy points yet. In order to obtain the energy resolution, we fit the energy spectrum to a sum of two Gaussian functions to describe the peak and one threshold type function§§§This function is expressed as $`f(E)=p_1(E_0E)^{p_2}e^{p_3(E_0E)},(E<E_0)`$. to describe the continuum spectrum. The mean value of the second Gaussian is shifted by $`12`$ keV due to missing charge. The fraction of the second Gaussian is in general less than 15%. Figures 6 (b) and 7 (b) show the magnified energy spectra around the peak and the fit results.

Table 3 summarizes the results of the energy resolution measurements. Energy resolution is worse than the intrinsic noise performance of the system predominantly due to uncertainties of the gain calibration. Gain uncertainty can also explain the fact that the energy resolution is worse for higher energy.

This result demonstrates that the energy resolution of 1 keV is an achievable goal for the SCMT, considering the planned improvements discussed below.

## 6 Conclusions and future prospect

We have fabricated prototype modules for a DSSD system which is a crucial element of the SCMT. Intrinsic noise performance is measured to be 1.0 keV (FWHM) at 0C in the DC configuration, which is in good agreement with the analytically calculated noise value of 0.9 keV. The energy resolution is measured to be 1.3 keV (FWHM) in the same configuration, demonstrating that the energy resolution of 1 keV is within our reach.

It is still of great importance to establish that the multiple-Compton technique can be used to measure the photon direction and polarization, as well as the energy by using a stacked DSSD setup. This is the logical step for us to pursue next.

Moreover, we also plan to develop a full-size DSSD module based on the information obtained with the present prototype. The size of the DSSDs will be 5 cm $`\times `$ 5 cm, which is the largest size possible with 4-inch wafers. This size translates into twice the capacitance load for amplifier in the DC configuration. Since the noise performance is dominated by the amplifier noise, improvements in the amplifier performance and reduction of the load capacitance is essential to achieve 1 keV energy-resolution. Further improvement in the amplifier noise performance is expected by further optimizing the front-end MOSFET geometry in the 0.35 $`\mu `$m processThe current MOSFET geometry is optimized in the AMS 1.2 $`\mu `$m process. or by employing a JFET as the front-end FET instead of a MOSFET. We also plan to employ a thicker DSSD to reduce the capacitance to the backside.

In conclusion, we have demonstrated that energy resolution of a DSSD system is as low as 1.3 keV with the possibility of the future improvements. Such an ultra low noise DSSD system presents great possibilities for future hard X-ray and gamma-ray telescopes, such as the SMCT.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work has been carried out under support of U.S. Department of Energy, contract DE-AC03-76SF00515, Grantin-Aid by Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (12554006, 13304014), and “Ground-based Research Announcement for Space Utilization” promoted by Japan Space Forum.


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# Current detection of superradiance and induced entanglement of double quantum dot excitons

## Abstract

We propose to measure the superradiance effect by observing the current through a semiconductor double-dot ststem. An electron and a hole are injected separately into one of the quantum dots to form an exciton and then recombine radiatively. We find that the stationary current shows oscillatory behavior as one varies the inter-dot distance. The amplitude of oscillation can be increased by incorporating the system into a microcavity. Furthermore, the current is suppressed if the dot distance is small compared to the wavelength of the emitted photon. This photon trapping phenomenon generates the entangled state and may be used to control the emission of single photons at predetermined times.

PACS: 03.65.Ud, 03.67.Mn, 42.50.Fx, 71.35.-y

Since Dicke proposed the phenomenon of superradiance1 , the coherent radiation phenomena for atomic systems were intensively investigated. In semiconductor systems, the electron-hole pair is naturally a candidate for examining the spontaneous emission. The decay rate of the exciton is superradiantly enhanced by a factor of $`(\lambda /d)^2`$ for a 2D exciton-polariton system2 , where $`\lambda `$ is the wave length of the emitted photon and $`d`$ is the lattice constant of the thin film. In the past decades, the superradiance of excitons in these quantum well structures has been investigated intensively3 . For lower dimensional systems, the decay rate of the exciton is enhanced by a factor of $`\lambda /d`$ in a quantum wire4 . In the quantum dots, although the decay rate is shown to be proportional to R2.15  which confirms the theoretical prediction6 , acceptable experimental data on quantum dot superradiance are still not plentiful owing to the difficulty of techniques in observing the enhanced spontaneous emission optically.

In recent years, great attention has been focused on the entanglement issue since generation of highly entangled states is one of the fundamental requirements for quantum information processing7 . Lots of works have been associated with quantum-optic and atomic systems8 . However, due to the scalability of the quantum processor, solid-state realizations of such phenomena are the favored choices9 . In fact, the superradiance effect can also generate entanglement by spontaneous emission. Therefore, a different way is proposed to observe the superradiant effect and generate the entangled states in this work. By injecting electrons and holes into one of the quantum dots of a double dot system and controlling the gate voltage of one of the dots, a photon is then generated by the coherent recombination of the exciton. This process not only allows one to determine the superradiant effect by measuring the stationary current, but also induces the entangled states in this double-dot system.

In our model, we consider a p-i-n junction, similar to the device proposed by Benson et al 10 , but with *two spatially separated* quantum dots. The novel feature here is the dissipative creation of entanglement over relatively large distances, and its readout via the stationary current The device structure is shown in Fig.1.

One of the obstacles in measuring superradiance between the quantum dots comes from the random size of the dots which result in a random distribution of energy gap and thus diminishes the coherent radiation. This can be overcome by constructing a gate voltage over one of the quantum dots. The energy gap and the orientation of the dipole moments of one of the quantum dots, thus can be controlled well. Both the hole and electron reservoirs are assumed to be in thermal equilibrium. For the physical phenomena we are interested in, the current is conducted through dot 1 only, and the fermi level of the p(n)-side hole (electron) is slightly lower (higher) than the hole (electron) subband in the dot. After a hole is injected into the hole subband in the quantum dot, the n-side electron can tunnel into the exciton level because of the Coulomb interaction between the electron and hole. In our calculation, we also neglect the Forster process which may have some influences on the results if the two dots are close to each other. The validity of this assumption will be discussed later. Thus, we may assume four dot states $`|0=|0,h;0,0`$, $`|U_1=|e,h;0,0`$, $`|U_2=|0,0;e,h`$, and $`|D=|0,0;0,0`$, where $`|0,h;0,0`$ means there is one hole in dot 1 and $`|0,0;0,0`$ represents the ground state with no hole and electron in the quantum dots. The exciton states $`|e,h;0,0`$ (in dot 1) can be converted to $`|0,0;e,h`$ (in dot 2) through the exciton-photon interactions. One might argue that one can not neglect the state $`|e,0;0,0`$ for real device since the tunable variable is the applied voltage. However, this can be resolved by fabricating a thicker barrier on the electron side so that there is little chance for an electron to tunnel in advance. By transforming $`|U_1`$ and $`|U_2`$ into Dicke states: $`|S_0=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|U_1|U_2\right)`$ and $`|T_0=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|U_1+|U_2\right)`$, we can now define the dot-operators $`\stackrel{}{n_S}|S_0S_0|,\stackrel{}{n_T}|T_0T_0|,`$ $`\stackrel{}{n_D}|DD|,`$ $`\stackrel{}{p_s}|S_0D|,`$ $`\stackrel{}{p_T}|T_0D|,\stackrel{}{s_{U_1}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|0S_0|+|0T_0|),`$ $`\stackrel{}{s_D}|0D|`$. The total hamiltonian $`H`$ of the system consists of three parts:$`H_0`$ (dot, photon bath $`H_p`$, electron (hole) reservoirs $`H_{res}`$), $`H_T`$ (dot-photon coupling), and the dot-reservoir coupling $`H_V`$:

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`H_0+H_T+H_V`$
$`H_0`$ $`=`$ $`\epsilon _U\stackrel{}{n_S}+\epsilon _U\stackrel{}{n_T}+\epsilon _D\stackrel{}{n_D}+H_p+H_{res}`$
$`H_T`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}g\{D_𝐤b_𝐤[\stackrel{}{p_S}(1+e^{i𝐤𝐫})`$
$`+\stackrel{}{p_T}(1e^{i𝐤𝐫})]+c.c.\}`$
$`=`$ $`g(\stackrel{}{p_S}X_S+\stackrel{}{p_S}^{}X_S^{}+\stackrel{}{p_T}\overline{X_T}+\stackrel{}{p_T}^{}\overline{X_T}^{})`$
$`H_p`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}\omega _𝐤b_𝐤^{}b_𝐤`$
$`H_V`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}(V_𝐪c_𝐪^{}\stackrel{}{s_{U_1}}+W_𝐪d_𝐪^{}\stackrel{}{s_D}+c.c.)`$
$`H_{res}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}\epsilon _𝐪^Uc_𝐪^{}c_𝐪+{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}\epsilon _𝐪^Dd_𝐪^{}d_𝐪.`$ (1)
In the above equation, $`b_𝐤`$ is the photon operator, $`gD_𝐤`$ is the dipole coupling strength, $`𝐫`$ is the position vector between two quantum dot, $`X_S=_𝐤(1+e^{i𝐤𝐫})D_𝐤b_𝐤`$ , $`\overline{X_T}=_𝐤(1e^{i𝐤𝐫})D_𝐤b_𝐤`$, and $`c_𝐪`$ and $`d_𝐪`$ denote the electron operators in the left and right reservoirs, respectively. The dipole approximation is not used in our calculation since we keep the full $`e^{i𝐤𝐫}`$ terms in the operators $`X_S`$ and $`\overline{X_T}`$. Here, $`g`$ is a constant with a unit of the tunneling rate. The couplings to the electron and hole reservoirs are given by the standard tunnel hamiltonian $`H_V,`$ where $`V_𝐪`$ and $`W_𝐪`$ couple the channels $`𝐪`$ of the electron and the hole reservoirs. If the couplings to the electron and the hole reservoirs are weak, then it is reasonable to assume that the standard Born-Markov approximation with respect to these couplings is valid. In this case, one can derive a master equation from the exact time-evolution of the system. The equations of motion can be expressed as (cp. )

$`\stackrel{}{n_\sigma }_t\stackrel{}{n_\sigma }_0`$ $`=`$ $`ig{\displaystyle _0^t}𝑑t^{}\{\stackrel{}{p_\sigma }_t^{}\stackrel{}{p_\sigma ^{}}_t^{}\}`$
$`+\mathrm{\Gamma }_U{\displaystyle _0^t}𝑑t^{}(1\stackrel{}{n_S}_t^{}\stackrel{}{n_T}_t^{}\stackrel{}{n_D}_t^{})`$
$`\stackrel{}{n_D}_t\stackrel{}{n_D}_0`$ $`=`$ $`ig{\displaystyle _0^t}dt^{}\{\stackrel{}{p_S}_t^{}\stackrel{}{p_S^{}}_t^{}+\stackrel{}{p_T}_t^{}`$
$`\stackrel{}{p_T^{}}_t^{}\}2\mathrm{\Gamma }_D{\displaystyle }_0^tdt^{}\stackrel{}{n_D}_t^{}`$
$`\stackrel{}{p_S}_t\stackrel{}{p_S_t^0}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_D{\displaystyle _0^t}𝑑t^{}e^{i\epsilon (tt^{})}X_tX_t^{}^{}\stackrel{~}{p_S}(t^{})_t^{}`$
$`ig{\displaystyle _0^t}dt^{}e^{i\epsilon (tt^{})}\{\stackrel{}{n_S}X_tX_t^{}^{}_t^{}`$
$`\stackrel{}{n_D}X_t^{}^{}X_t_t^{}\}`$
$`\stackrel{}{p_T}_t\stackrel{}{p_T_t^0}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_D{\displaystyle _0^t}𝑑t^{}e^{i\epsilon (tt^{})}\overline{X}_t\overline{X}_t^{}^{}\stackrel{~}{p_T}(t^{})_t^{}`$ (2)
$`ig{\displaystyle _0^t}dt^{}e^{i\epsilon (tt^{})}\{\stackrel{}{n_T}\overline{X}_t\overline{X}_t^{}^{}_t^{}`$
$`\stackrel{}{n_D}\overline{X}_t^{}^{}\overline{X}_t_t^{}\}`$
, where the index $`\sigma =S`$ or $`T`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_U`$ $`=\pi _𝐪V_𝐪^2\delta (\epsilon _U\epsilon _𝐪^U)`$ , $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_D=\pi _𝐪W_𝐪^2\delta (\epsilon _D\epsilon _𝐪^D)`$, and $`\epsilon =\epsilon _U\epsilon _D`$ is the energy gap of the quantum dot exciton. Here, $`\stackrel{~}{p_S}(t^{})=p_Se^{i\epsilon t}X_t^{}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{p_T}(t^{})=p_Te^{i\epsilon t}\overline{X}_t^{}`$, and $`X_t^{}`$ ($`\overline{X}_t^{}`$) denotes the time evolution of $`X`$ ($`\overline{X}`$) with $`H_p`$. The expectation value $`\stackrel{}{p_\sigma ^{}_t^0}`$ describes the decay of an initial polarization of the system and plays no role for the stationary current. Therefore, we shall assume the initial expectation value of $`\stackrel{}{p}_\sigma ^{()}`$ vanishes at time $`t=0`$.

As can be seen from Eq. (2), there are terms like $`\stackrel{}{n_\sigma }X_tX_t^{}^{}_t^{}`$ which contain products of dot operators and photon operators. If we are interested in small coupling parameters here, a decoupling of the reduced density matrix $`\stackrel{~}{\rho _\sigma }(t^{})`$ can be used, $`\stackrel{~}{\rho _\sigma }(t^{})\rho _{ph}^0Tr_{ph}\stackrel{~}{\rho _\sigma }(t^{})`$. Products of these operators can then be obtained. For spontaneous emission, the photon bath is assumed to be in equilibrium. The expectation values $`X_tX_t^{}^{}_0C(tt^{})`$ and $`\overline{X}_t\overline{X}_t^{}^{}_0\overline{C}(tt^{})`$ are functions of the time difference only. We can now define the Laplace transformation for real $`z,`$

$`C_\epsilon (z)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑te^{zt}e^{i\epsilon t}C(t)`$
$`n_\sigma (z)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}dte^{zt}\stackrel{}{n_\sigma }_t\text{ }etc.,\text{ }z>0`$ (3)
and transform the whole equations of motion into $`z`$-space. The tunnel current $`\widehat{I}`$ can be defined as the change of the occupation of $`\stackrel{}{n_D}`$ and is given by $`\widehat{I}ig_\sigma (\stackrel{}{p_\sigma }\stackrel{}{p_\sigma }^{}),`$ where we have set the electron charge $`e=1`$ for convenience. The time dependence of the expectation value $`\stackrel{}{I}_t`$ can be obtained by performing the inverse Laplace transformation. For time $`t\mathrm{},`$ the result is

$$\stackrel{}{I}_t\mathrm{}=\frac{4g^2\gamma _+\gamma _{}}{\gamma _{}+\gamma _+[1+2\gamma _{}(g^2/\mathrm{\Gamma }_D+g^2/\mathrm{\Gamma }_U+\mathrm{\Gamma }_D)]}$$
(4)
, where $`g^2\gamma _+`$ and $`g^2\gamma _{}`$ are the superradiant and subradiant decay rate of the exciton, respectively.11  The derivation of the current equation is closely analogous to the spontaneous emission of phonons in double dots12 , in which the correlation functions $`X_tX_t^{}^{}_0`$ is given by the electron-phonon interaction.

The corresponding decay rate for superradiant and the subradiant channels is given by

$$g^2\gamma _\pm =\gamma _0(1\pm \frac{\mathrm{sin}(2\pi d/\lambda _0)}{2\pi d/\lambda _0}),$$
(5)
where $`d`$ is the inter-dot distance and $`\gamma _0`$ is the exciton decay rate in a quantum dot. To display the dependence of the stationary current through the quantum dot on the dot distance $`d`$, we present the results of two identical quantum dots in Fig. 2.

In plotting the figure, the current is in terms of 100 pA. Furthermore, the tunneling rates, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_U`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_D`$, are assumed to be equal to $`0.2\gamma _0`$ and $`\gamma _0,`$ respectively. Here, a value of 1/1.3ns for the free-space quantum dot decay rate $`\gamma _0`$ is used in our calculations13 . As shown in Fig. 2, the current is suppressed as the dot distance $`d`$ is much smaller than the wavelength ($`\lambda _0`$) of the emitted photon. This corresponds to the trapping state in the two-ion system. As long as we choose only one of the dots to be coupled to reservoirs, the generated photon is reabsorbed immediately by the other dot and vice versa. The current is then blocked by this exchange process. For small rates limit ($`g^2\gamma _\pm `$) one can approximate equation (4) by $`I4[1/g^2\gamma _{}+1/g^2\gamma _+]^1`$. The rates $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{U,D}`$ drop out completely and the current is only determined by the (smaller) radiative decay rates. In this approximate form, the current looks identical to the expression for the conductance $`G[1/\mathrm{\Gamma }_L+1/\mathrm{\Gamma }_R]^1`$ from a left lead through a single level to a right lead with tunnel rates $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{L,R}`$. This implies that the superradiant and the subradiant channel are in series (and not in parallel) in this limit. This is because once the exciton is formed in dot 1, time evolution of this state is proportional to $`e^{g^2\gamma _+t}+e^{g^2\gamma _{}t}`$ not $`e^{g^2(\gamma _++\gamma _{})t}`$14 . It means the two decay channels in our system are not in parallel. For long time behavior $`t\mathrm{}`$ and $`\gamma _+>>\gamma _{}`$, the function $`e^{g^2\gamma _+t}+e^{g^2\gamma _{}t}`$ approaches the limit of $`e^{g^2\gamma _{}t}`$, which is identical to the same limit of the function $`e^{\frac{g^2\gamma _+\gamma _{}}{\gamma _++\gamma _{}}t}`$(in series).

Similar to the two-ion superradiance11 , the current also exhibits oscillatory behavior as a function of dot distance. To observe the interference effect clearly, one may incorporate the system inside a microcavity since semiconductor cavities with strong electron-photon coupling have been realised experimentally by, e.g., Gérard et al.15 . Reduction of the allowed $`k`$-state is expected to increase the magnitude of the oscillation. For example, if the system is placed inside a rectangular microcavity with length $`\lambda _0`$, the decay rate for the two channels can be worked out straightforwardly:

$$g^2\gamma _{cav,\pm }=\frac{\gamma _0}{\pi }\left|1\pm e^{i2\pi d/(\sqrt{2}\lambda _0)}\right|^2.$$
(6)
The stationary current is plotted in the inset of Fig. 2, where a perfect (lossless) cavity is assumed. As we mentioned above, the amplitude of oscillation is larger than that in free space. However, the oscillation period is not half of the wavelength, but $`\lambda _0/\sqrt{2}`$. This is because the interference term is only influenced by the wave vector in the unconfined direction. Excluding the contributions from fundamental cavity modes, the effective wave vector can be expressed as

$$k_{eff}=\sqrt{(\frac{2\pi }{\lambda _0})^22(\frac{\pi }{\lambda _0})^2}=\frac{k_0}{\sqrt{2}}.$$
(7)
The oscillation period of the decay rate and the current is therefore increased by a factor of $`\sqrt{2}`$.

In Fig. 3, we plot the expectation value of $`n_{S\text{ }}`$ ($`n_T`$) as a function of the dot distance. The maximum entangled state ($`|S_0`$) is reached as $`d<<`$ $`\lambda _0`$. This is remarkable as the steady state is independent of the initial state. The entanglement is induced by the cooperative decoherence in the system. In a recent paper by Schnider et al.16 , the authors consider the behavior of an ion trap with all ions driven simultaneously and coupled collectively to a heat bath. They also found that the steady state of the ion trap can exhibit quantum entanglement. However, the concurrence of their system is below the value of unity (maximum entanglement). On the contrary, in our system the maximum entangled state can be generated by tuning the band gap of dot 2 (linear stark effect), i.e. control the on/off of the superradiance. Another advantage of our scheme is shown in the inset of Fig. 3. If the double-dot system is incorporated inside a rectangular microcavity, the maximum entangled states repeat as a function of inter-dot distance. This means even for remote separation, the entanglement can still be achieved. The reason can be attributed to that the creation of entanglement in our model is governed by the interaction with a common heat bath, while conventional creation of entanglement depends on the direct interaction between two subsystems17 . When two dots are coupled to the common photon fields, the collective decay process drives the system into the entangled states. The novel feature of the effect predicted here is that entanglement in fact can be controlled electrically (without applying a laser field) and read out in the form of a transport property, i.e., the electron *current* (as a function of the dot distance or, alternatively, the cavity length).

Another possible application of this effect is that by tuning the coherence of the dots, one can control the emission of single photon at predetermined times, which is important for the field of quantum information technology. However, one should note that the biexciton effect is not included in our present model. Therefore, a low injection limit is required in the experiment18 . One might argue that for small inter-dot distance the Forster process may play some role in our system19 ; nevertheless, this only causes small energy splitting between state $`|S_0`$ and $`|T_0`$. Comparing to the large energy difference in the III-V semiconductor material, its effect on the decay rate $`g^2\gamma _\pm `$ is negligible. As for the problem of dissipation, decoherence due to interaction with other bosonic excitations (phonons and electron-hole pairs in the leads) is inevitable but can in principle be (partly) controlled by variation of the dot energies, or control of the mechanical degree of freedom20 . In addition, scattering due to impurities are negligible since there is no interdot transport in our system.

In conclusion, we have proposed a method of detecting the superradiant effect in a semiconductor double-dot system. By incorporating the InAs quantum dots between a p-i-n junction, the superradiant effect on the stationary tunnel current can be examined by tuning the band gap of the quantum dot. Moreover, the interference effects between two dots can be seen more clearly by incorporating the system inside a microcavity. The oscillation period of the decay rate and current is also increased because of the microcavity. Besides, the maximum entangled state is induced as the inter-dot distance is much smaller than the wavelength of the emitted photon. Our model provides a new way to generate the entanglement in solid-state systems.

We would like to thank to Prof. Y. C. Lee at SUNYAB for helpful discussions. This work is supported partially by the National Science Council, Taiwan under the grant number NSC 91-2112-M-009-012.


text:
# Links of symbolic powers of prime ideals

## 1 Introduction

Let $`R`$ be a Noetherian ring. Two proper ideals $`I`$ and $`L`$ of height $`g`$ are said to be directly linked, $`IL`$, if there exists a regular sequence $`𝐳=z_1,\mathrm{},z_gIL`$ such that $`I=(𝐳):L`$ and $`L=(𝐳):I`$. If $`R`$ is Cohen-Macaulay and $`I`$ is an unmixed ideal of height $`g`$ with $`R_P`$ Gorenstein for every minimal prime $`P`$ of $`I`$, then one can always produce a link $`LI`$ by choosing a regular sequence $`𝐳=z_1,\mathrm{},z_gI`$ and setting $`L=(𝐳):I`$ (). The linkage class of a proper ideal $`I`$ is the set of all ideals $`K`$ obtained by a sequence of links $`I=L_0L_1\mathrm{}L_n=L`$, where $`n0`$. The algebraic foundations of linkage theory were established in  and .

In , Polini and Ulrich investigated when an ideal is the unique maximal element of its linkage class, in the sense that it contains every ideal of the class. They showed that if $`(R,𝔪)`$ is a Gorenstein local ring of dimension $`d2`$, with $`d3`$ if $`R`$ is regular, then every ideal in the linkage class of $`𝔪^t`$ is contained in $`𝔪^t`$ provided that $`gr_𝔪(R)`$ is Cohen-Macaulay, or $`R`$ is a complete intersection, or $`ecodimR3`$, or $`t3`$. They pointed out that $`𝔪^t`$ will be the maximal element of its linkage class if the following conjecture holds.
Conjecture 1: Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a local Gorenstein ring of dimension $`d2`$, with $`d3`$ if $`R`$ is regular, and let $`t1`$ be an integer; then every ideal directly linked to $`𝔪^t`$ is contained in $`𝔪^t`$.
In the same paper, they also showed that Conjecture 1 is equivalent to the following question: Is a two-dimensional local Gorenstein ring $`(R,𝔪)`$ regular if and only if there exists an integer $`t1`$ and a regular sequence $`\alpha =\alpha _1,\alpha _2`$ contained in $`𝔪^t`$ so that $`(\alpha ):𝔪^t`$ is not contained in $`𝔪^t`$? In this paper, we settle the conjecture in the affirmative by showing the following:

###### Theorem 1.1

Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a Cohen-Macaulay local ring of dimension $`d2`$, with $`d3`$ if $`R`$ is regular. Let $`t2`$ be a positive integer. If $`\{\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _d\}`$ is a regular sequence contained in $`𝔪^t`$, then

$$(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _d):𝔪^t𝔪^t.$$

Let $`R`$ be a Noetherian ring. Recall that an ideal $`I`$ of $`R`$ of height $`g`$ is said to be equi-multiple of reduction number 1 if there exists a $`g`$ generated ideal $`J`$ contained in $`I`$ so that $`I^2=JI`$. Ideals that are equi-multiple of reduction number 1 enjoy some nice properties: For example, it is shown in  that if $`R`$ is a Cohen-Macaulay local ring and $`I`$ is an equi-multiple Cohen-Macaulay ideal of reduction number 1, then the associated graded ring $`gr_I(R)`$ of $`I`$ is Cohen-Macaulay. Therefore, it is of great interest to search for such classes of ideals. In  and , Corso, Polini and Vasconcelos proved that the links of prime ideals in Cohen-Macaulay rings are equi-multiple ideals of reduction number 1 under certain assumptions. Moreover, Corso and Polini  addressed the following conjecture.
Conjecture 2: Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a Cohen-Macaulay local ring and $`P`$ a prime ideal of height $`g2`$. Let $`J=(z_1,\mathrm{},z_g)`$ be an ideal generated by a regular sequence contained in $`P^{(s)}`$, where $`s`$ is a positive integer $`2`$. For any $`k=1,\mathrm{},s`$ set $`I_k=J:P^{(k)}`$. Then

$$I_k^2=JI_k$$

if one of the following two conditions holds:

($`IL_1`$) $`R_P`$ is not a regular local ring;

($`IL_2`$) $`R_P`$ is a regular local ring and two of the $`z_i`$’s lie in $`P^{(s+1)}`$.

With the help of Theorem 1.1 and Theorem 3.2, we are able to give a positive answer to Conjecture 2.

###### Theorem 1.2

Let $`R`$ be a Noetherian ring. Let $`P`$ be a prime ideal of height $`g2`$, $`J=(z_1,\mathrm{},z_g)`$ an ideal generated by a regular sequence contained in $`P^{(k)}`$, where $`k2`$ is a positive integer. Set $`I_k=J:P^{(k)}`$. Then $`I_k^2=I_kJ`$ if one of the following conditions holds:

(i) $`R_P`$ is not a regular local ring.

(ii) $`R_P`$ is a regular local ring and $`g3`$.

(iii) $`R_P`$ is a regular local ring, $`g=2`$, and $`z_iP^{(k+1)}`$ for every $`i`$.

## 2 Main Theory

In this section, we study Conjecture 1 stated in section 1. We are able to prove it in a more general form.

###### Theorem 2.1

Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a Cohen-Macaulay local ring of dimension $`d2`$. Let $`I`$ be an ideal of $`R`$ of height 2 and $`\stackrel{~}{I}=((\alpha ,\beta ):I)`$, where the sum is taken over all regular sequences $`\{\alpha ,\beta \}`$ in $`I`$. Let $`t`$ be a positive integer. If $`\{\alpha ,\beta \}`$ is a regular sequence contained in $`I^t`$, then

$$(\alpha ,\beta ):I^tI^{t1}\stackrel{~}{I}.$$

###### Remark 2.2

*(i) $`I\stackrel{~}{I}R`$.
(ii) Conjecture 1 follows if we set $`d=2`$ and $`I=𝔪`$ in Theorem 2.1 and observe that $`\stackrel{~}{I}=I=𝔪`$ if $`R`$ is not regular.
(iii) One can see from the proof of Theorem 2.1 that the assumption that $`R`$ is Cohen-Macaulay can be removed if the grade of $`I`$ is 2.*

To show Theorem 2.1, we begin with the following lemmas.

###### Lemma 2.3

Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a Noetherian local ring. Let $`\{x_1,\mathrm{},x_{t1},y_1,\mathrm{},y_{t1}\}𝔪`$ such that $`\{x_i,y_j\}`$ is a regular sequence $`i,j`$, where $`t2`$. Then

$$\begin{array}{cc}& _{i=1}^{t1}(x_1\mathrm{}x_i,y_1\mathrm{}y_{ti})\hfill \\ \hfill =& <\{x_1\mathrm{}x_{i1}y_1\mathrm{}y_{ti}|1it\}>\hfill \end{array}.$$

Proof. It is enough to show that

$$\begin{array}{cc}& _{i=1}^k(x_1\mathrm{}x_i,y_1\mathrm{}y_{ti})\hfill \\ \hfill =& (x_1\mathrm{}x_k)+<\{x_1\mathrm{}x_{i1}y_1\mathrm{}y_{ti}|1ik\}>\hfill \end{array}$$

for $`1kt1`$. By induction on $`k`$, suppose that the equality holds for $`k`$. Then

$$\begin{array}{cc}& _{i=1}^{k+1}(x_1\mathrm{}x_i,y_1\mathrm{}y_{ti})\hfill \\ \hfill =& ((x_1\mathrm{}x_k)+<\{x_1\mathrm{}x_{i1}y_1\mathrm{}y_{ti}|1ik\}>)(x_1\mathrm{}x_{k+1},y_1\mathrm{}y_{tk1})\hfill \\ \hfill =& (x_1\mathrm{}x_k)(x_1\mathrm{}x_{k+1},y_1\mathrm{}y_{tk1})+<\{x_1\mathrm{}x_{i1}y_1\mathrm{}y_{ti}|1ik\}>\hfill \\ \hfill =& (x_1\mathrm{}x_{k+1})+<\{x_1\mathrm{}x_{i1}y_1\mathrm{}y_{ti}|1ik+1\}>.\hfill \end{array}$$

###### Lemma 2.4

Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a Cohen-Macaulay local ring of dimension $`d2`$. Let $`I`$ be an ideal of $`R`$ of height 2 and $`\stackrel{~}{I}=((\alpha ,\beta ):I)`$, where the sum is taken over all regular sequences $`\{\alpha ,\beta \}`$ in $`I`$. Let $`t1`$ and $`\{x_1,\mathrm{},x_t,y_1,\mathrm{},y_t\}I`$ such that $`\{x_i,y_j\}`$ is a regular sequence $`i,j`$. Then

$$(x_1\mathrm{}x_t,y_1\mathrm{}y_t):I^tI^{t1}\stackrel{~}{I}.$$

Proof. We may assume that $`t2`$. First observe that

$$(x_1\mathrm{}x_t,y_1\mathrm{}y_t):I^t_{i=1}^{t1}(x_1\mathrm{}x_i,y_1\mathrm{}y_{ti}).$$

This is because that

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill (x_1\mathrm{}x_t,y_1\mathrm{}y_t):I^t& (x_1\mathrm{}x_t,y_1\mathrm{}y_t):x_{i+1}\mathrm{}x_ty_{ti+1}\mathrm{}y_t\hfill \\ & =(x_1\mathrm{}x_i,y_1\mathrm{}y_{ti})\hfill \end{array}$$

for $`1it1`$. By Lemma 2.3, every element in $`(_ix_i,_iy_i):I^t`$ is of the form

$$\underset{i=1}{\overset{t}{}}a_ix_1\mathrm{}x_{i1}y_1\mathrm{}y_{ti}.$$

Therefore, to show the lemma, it is enough to show that $`a_i\stackrel{~}{I}`$ for every $`i`$. For this, let $`zI`$; then

$$(\underset{j=1}{\overset{t}{}}a_jx_1\mathrm{}x_{j1}y_1\mathrm{}y_{tj})zx_{i+1}\mathrm{}x_ty_{ti+2}\mathrm{}y_t(x_1\mathrm{}x_t,y_1\mathrm{}y_t).$$

Observe that

$$(a_jx_1\mathrm{}x_{j1}y_1\mathrm{}y_{tj})zx_{i+1}\mathrm{}x_ty_{ti+2}\mathrm{}y_t(x_1\mathrm{}x_t,y_1\mathrm{}y_t)$$

if $`ji`$. Therefore

$$a_izx_1\mathrm{}\widehat{x}_i\mathrm{}x_ty_1\mathrm{}\widehat{y}_{ti+1}\mathrm{}y_t(x_1\mathrm{}x_t,y_1\mathrm{}y_t).$$

It follows that $`a_iz(x_i,y_{ti+1})`$, which implies that $`a_i(x_i,y_{ti+1}):I\stackrel{~}{I}`$.

Proof of Theorem 2.1: We first prove the following statement: If $`y_iIi`$ and $`\{\alpha ,y_1\mathrm{}y_t\}`$ is a regular sequence contained in $`I^t`$, then

$$(\alpha ,y_1\mathrm{}y_t):I^tI^{t1}\stackrel{~}{I}.$$

Observe that the following set generates $`I^t`$:

$$S_t=\{z_1\mathrm{}z_t|z_jI,\{y_i,z_j\}isaregularsequencei,j\}.$$

Let $`a(\alpha ,y_1\mathrm{}y_t):I^t`$. Let $`z_1\mathrm{}z_tS_t`$; then there are elements $`u(z),v(z)R`$ such that

$$az_1\mathrm{}z_t=u(z)\alpha +v(z)(y_1\mathrm{}y_t).$$
(1)
Therefore if $`z_1^{}\mathrm{}z_t^{}`$ is any element in $`S_t`$ then

$$az_1^{}\mathrm{}z_t^{}=u(z^{})\alpha +v(z^{})(y_1\mathrm{}y_t).$$
(2)
From (1), (2) and the fact that $`\{\alpha ,y_1\mathrm{}y_t\}`$ is a regular sequence, we see that $`u(z)z_1^{}\mathrm{}z_t^{}(z_1\mathrm{}z_t,y_1\mathrm{}y_t)`$. Since $`z_1^{}\mathrm{}z_t^{}`$ is an arbitrary element in $`S_t`$,

$$u(z)(z_1\mathrm{}z_t,y_1\mathrm{}y_t):I^tI^{t1}\stackrel{~}{I}$$

by Lemma 2.4. Since $`z_1\mathrm{}z_t`$ is an arbitrary element in $`S_t`$ and $`\alpha I^t`$, there are elements $`u,vR`$ with $`uI^{t1}\stackrel{~}{I}`$ such that $`a\alpha =u\alpha +v(y_1\mathrm{}y_t)`$, which implies that $`au(y_1\mathrm{}y_t)`$. It follows that $`aI^{t1}\stackrel{~}{I}`$ and this completes the proof of the statement.
In general, if $`\{\alpha ,\beta \}`$ is a regular sequence contained in $`I^t`$, then we can use the same argument the above to conclude that every element in $`(\alpha ,\beta ):I^t`$ is in $`I^{t1}\stackrel{~}{I}`$.

###### Corollary 2.5

Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a Cohen-Macaulay local ring of dimension $`d2`$. Suppose that either $`R`$ is not regular or $`R`$ is regular with $`d3`$. Let $`t2`$ be a positive integer. If $`\{\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _d\}`$ is a regular sequence contained in $`𝔪^t`$, then

$$(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _d):𝔪^t𝔪^t.$$

Proof. We prove by induction on $`d`$. The case $`d=2`$ follows from Theorem 2.1.
Assume that $`d3`$. Let $`a(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _d):𝔪^t`$. Since $`R/(\alpha _d)`$ is Cohen-Macaulay and is not regular, $`a𝔪^t(mod(\alpha _d))`$ by induction. It follows that $`a𝔪^t`$ as $`\alpha _d𝔪^t`$.

The following result will be used in section 3.

###### Corollary 2.6

Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a Cohen-Macaulay local ring of dimension $`d2`$. Suppose that either $`R`$ is not regular or $`R`$ is regular with $`d3`$. Let $`t2`$ be a positive integer and $`\{\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _d\}`$ be a regular sequence contained in $`𝔪^t`$. Then for every $`a(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _d):𝔪^t`$ and every element $`f𝔪^t`$, if $`af=_{i=1}^du_i\alpha _i`$ then $`u_i𝔪^t`$ for every $`i`$.

Corollary 2.6 follows from the next lemma.

###### Lemma 2.7

Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a Cohen-Macaulay local ring of dimension $`d2`$. Let $`t2`$ be a positive integer. Assume that for any regular sequence $`\{\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _d\}`$ contained in $`𝔪^t`$, $`(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _d):𝔪^t𝔪^t`$. Then for every $`a(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _d):𝔪^t`$ and every element $`f𝔪^t`$, if $`af=_{i=1}^du_i\alpha _i`$ then $`u_i𝔪^t`$ for every $`i`$.

Proof. It is easy to see that the following set generates the ideal $`𝔪^t`$:

$$S_t=\{z_1\mathrm{}z_t|z_j𝔪,\{\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\widehat{\alpha }_i,\mathrm{},\alpha _d,z_j\}isaregularsequencei,j\}.$$

Let $`z_1\mathrm{}z_tS_t`$; then there are $`u_i(z)R`$ such that

$$az_1\mathrm{}z_t=\underset{i=1}{\overset{d}{}}u_i(z)\alpha _i.$$

From the proof of Theorem 2.1, we see that $`u_i(z)(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\widehat{\alpha }_i,\mathrm{},\alpha _d,z_1\mathrm{}z_t):𝔪^t`$ for every $`i`$. Therefore $`u_i(z)𝔪^t`$ by assumption. This shows that if $`f𝔪^t`$ then $`af`$ can be expressed as $`_{i=1}^du_i\alpha _i`$ for some $`u_i𝔪^t`$ for every $`i`$. If $`af=_{i=1}^du_i^{}\alpha _i`$ for some $`u_i^{}R`$, then $`u_iu_i^{}(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\widehat{\alpha }_i,\mathrm{},\alpha _d)𝔪^t`$, it follows that $`u_i^{}𝔪^t`$ for every $`i`$.

## 3 Ideals of reduction number 1

The goal of this section is to study the following conjecture:
Conjecture: Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a Cohen-Macaulay local ring and $`P`$ a prime ideal of height $`g2`$. Let $`J=(z_1,\mathrm{},z_g)`$ be an ideal generated by a regular sequence contained in $`P^{(s)}`$, where $`s`$ is a positive integer $`2`$. For any $`k=1,\mathrm{},s`$ set $`I_k=J:P^{(k)}`$. Then

$$I_k^2=JI_k$$

if one of the following two conditions holds:

($`IL_1`$) $`R_P`$ is not a regular local ring;

($`IL_2`$) $`R_P`$ is a regular local ring and two of the $`z_i`$’s lie in $`P^{(s+1)}`$.

There are some partial answers to this conjecture in  and . The following result solves the conjecture completely.

###### Theorem 3.1

Let $`R`$ be a Noetherian ring. Let $`P`$ be a prime ideal of height $`g2`$, $`J=(z_1,\mathrm{},z_g)`$ an ideal generated by a regular sequence contained in $`P^{(k)}`$, where $`k2`$ is a positive integer. Set $`I_k=J:P^{(k)}`$. Then $`I_k^2=I_kJ`$ if one of the following conditions holds:

(i) $`R_P`$ is not a regular local ring.

(ii) $`R_P`$ is a regular local ring and $`g3`$.

(iii) $`R_P`$ is a regular local ring, $`g=2`$, and $`z_iP^{(k+1)}`$ for every $`i`$.

To show Theorem 3.1, we need the following result.

###### Theorem 3.2

Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a Cohen-Macaulay local ring of dimension $`d2`$. Let $`k2`$ be a positive integer. If $`𝐳=z_1,\mathrm{},z_d`$ is a regular sequence contained in $`𝔪^{k+1}`$, then

$$(𝐳):𝔪^k(𝔪^{2k+1}:𝔪^k)$$

if depth$`gr_𝔪(R)2`$.

Proof. It is not difficult to see that the following set generates the ideal $`𝔪^k`$.

$$S_k=\{\underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}y_i|y_i𝔪,\{y_i^{},y_j^{}\}isaregularsequenceingr_𝔪(R)\}.$$

Let $`a(𝐳):𝔪^k`$ and $`f={\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}}y_iS_k`$; then

$$af=\underset{i=1}{\overset{d}{}}u_iz_i$$
(3)
for some $`u_iR`$. To show the theorem it is enough to show that $`u_i𝔪^k`$ as $`z_i𝔪^{k+1}`$ for every $`i`$. Without loss of generality, we only prove that $`u_1𝔪^k`$ as an example.
Choose $`y𝔪`$ so that $`\{y_j^{},y^{}\}`$ form a regular sequence in $`gr_𝔪(R)`$ for every $`j`$. Let $`f_j=yf/y_j`$; then $`fS_k`$, therefore there are $`u_{ij}R`$ such that

$$af_j=\underset{i=1}{\overset{d}{}}u_{ij}z_i.$$
(4)
From (3) and (4), we obtain that

$$(u_1yu_{1j}y_j)z_1(z_2,\mathrm{},z_d).$$

Moreover, since $`\{z_1,\mathrm{},z_d\}`$ is a regular sequence and $`z_i𝔪^{k+1}`$ by assumption,

$$(u_1yu_{1j}y_j)𝔪^{k+1}.$$

It follows that

$$u_1(y_j)+𝔪^k$$

for every $`j`$ by the choice of $`y`$. Now one can conclude that $`u_1(y_l\mathrm{}y_k)+𝔪^k`$ by the facts that $`\{y_l^{},y_j^{}\}`$ is a regular sequence in $`gr_𝔪(R)`$ if $`j>l`$ for $`l=k1,k2,\mathrm{}`$, in particular, $`u_1𝔪^k`$.

###### Corollary 3.3

Let $`(R,𝔪)`$ be a 2-dimensional regular local ring. Let $`k2`$ and $`𝐳=z_1,z_2`$ be regular sequence contained in $`𝔪^{k+1}`$. Then the following hold.

(i) $`(𝐳):𝔪^k𝔪^k`$;

(ii) For every element $`a(𝐳):𝔪^k`$ and every element $`f𝔪^k`$, if $`af=_{i=1}^2u_iz_i`$ then $`u_i𝔪^k`$.

Proof. (i) follows from the fact that $`gr_𝔪(R)`$ is Cohen-Macaulay and $`𝔪^{2k+1}:𝔪^k=𝔪^{k+1}𝔪^k`$. (ii) follows from the proof of Theorem 3.2.

Before proving Theorem 3.1, we need one more lemma.

###### Lemma 3.4

Let $`R`$ be a Noetherian ring. Let $`H`$ be an ideal of height $`g2`$, $`J=(z_1,\mathrm{},z_g)`$ an ideal generated by a regular sequence contained in $`H`$. Set $`I=J:H`$. If $`I=(a_1,\mathrm{},a_t)`$, $`a_iHJH`$ for every $`i`$, and $`I^2J`$, then $`I^2=IJ`$.

Proof. Since $`I^2J`$, there are $`u_{ij}^{(k)}R`$ such that $`a_ia_j=_{k=1}^gu_{ij}^{(k)}z_k`$. To complete the proof it suffices to show that $`u_{ij}^{(k)}I`$,i.e., $`u_{ij}^{(k)}HJ`$ for every $`k`$. For this let $`bH`$; then by assumption,

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill _{k=1}^g(u_{ij}^{(k)}b)z_k& =& a_ia_jb\hfill \\ & & a_iJH\hfill \\ & & J^2H\hfill \\ & & (z_1,\mathrm{},z_g)^2.\hfill \end{array}$$

Since $`z_1,\mathrm{},z_g`$ is a regular sequence (although not necessarily permutable), we see that $`u_{ij}^{(k)}b(z_1,\mathrm{},z_g)`$ for every $`k`$.

Proof of Theorem 3.1: Let $`I=I_k=J:P^{(k)}`$. Then $`IP^{(k)}`$ by Corollary 2.5 and Corollary 3.3(i), it follows that $`I^2IP^{(k)}J`$. To complete the proof, by Lemma 3.4, we need only to prove that if $`aI`$, $`fP^{(k)}`$ and $`af=_{i=1}^gu_iz_i`$, then $`u_iP^{(k)}`$ for every $`i`$. However this follows by Corollary 2.6 and Corollary 3.3(ii).

## 4 The case $`t=1`$

We study the links of unmixed radical ideals in a Noetherian ring in this section. The main result Theorem 4.2 will generalize \[1, Theorem 2.3\] and \[3, Theorem 2.1\].

Throughout, let $`R`$ be a Noetherian ring of depth $`dg`$, $`H`$ an unmixed radical ideal of height $`g`$, and let $`𝐳=z_1,\mathrm{},z_gH`$ be a regular sequence. Set $`J=(𝐳)`$ and $`I=J:H`$. Suppose that for every minimal prime $`P`$ of $`H`$, one of the following two conditions holds:
$`(L_1)`$ $`R_p`$ is not a regular local ring.
$`(L_2)`$ $`R_P`$ is a regular local ring of dimension at least 2 and two elements in the sequence $`𝐳=z_1,\mathrm{},z_g`$ lie in the symbolic square $`P^{(2)}`$.
An easy observation is the following.

###### Lemma 4.1

$`IH`$ and $`I^2J`$.

Proof. To show $`IH`$, it suffices to show that $`IP`$ for every minimal prime $`P`$ of $`H`$. However, if $`I`$ is not a subset of $`P`$ then $`P_P=J_P`$, which contradicts to $`L_1`$ or $`L_2`$. Thus $`IH`$ is fulfilled. Moreover, $`I^2IHJ`$.

###### Theorem 4.2

Let $`R`$ be a Noetherian ring of depth $`dg`$, $`H`$ an unmixed radical ideal of height $`g`$, and $`𝐳=z_1,\mathrm{},z_gH`$ a regular sequence. Set $`J=(𝐳)`$ and $`I=J:H`$. Suppose that for every minimal prime $`P`$ of $`H`$, either $`L_1`$ or $`L_2`$ holds. Then $`I^2=JI`$.

Proof. Write $`H=P_1\mathrm{}P_l`$. For $`1jl`$, let

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill T_j& =& _iAss(R/(z_1,\mathrm{},\widehat{z}_i,\mathrm{},z_g))Spec(R_{P_j})\hfill \\ & =& _iMin(R/(z_1,\mathrm{},\widehat{z}_i,\mathrm{},z_g))Spec(R_{P_j}).\hfill \end{array}$$

Since $`I`$ is not a subset of every prime in $`_jT_j`$, we can choose a generating set $`\{a_1,\mathrm{},a_t\}`$ of $`I`$ so that $`a_i_jT_j`$ for every $`i`$.
Now, to finish the proof, it is enough to show that $`a_iHJH`$ for every $`i`$ by Lemma 3.4. For this, let $`bH`$ and $`a`$ be any $`a_i`$; then there are elements $`u_jR`$ such that

$$ab=\underset{j=1}{\overset{g}{}}u_jz_j.$$
(5)
To show $`u_jH`$, we can prove it locally. Without loss of generality, we will prove that $`u_1PR_P`$ for every minimal prime $`P`$ of $`H`$.
Let $`b^{}`$ be an arbitrary element in $`H`$; then there are elements $`u_j^{}R`$ such that

$$ab^{}=\underset{j=1}{\overset{g}{}}u_j^{}z_j.$$
(6)
From (5) and (6), we obtain that

$$a(b^{}u_1bu_1^{})(z_2,\mathrm{},z_g).$$

Let $`P`$ be any minimal prime of $`H`$; then $`\{a,z_2,\mathrm{},z_g\}`$ is a regular sequence in $`R_P`$. Since $`b^{}`$ is arbitrary, $`u_1P_P=u_1H_P(b,z_2,\mathrm{},z_g)R_P`$. From the fact that $`R_P`$ is not regular or at least one element in $`\{z_2,\mathrm{},z_g\}`$ is in $`P^{(2)}`$, we conclude that $`u_1PR_P`$.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank C. Huneke for helpful suggestion which improved the exposition of Theorem 2.1.


text:
# Wide field CCD photometry of the globular cluster M92

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Globular clusters are good laboratories for testing theories of stellar dynamics and galactic structure. All globular clusters ultimately decay, through a combination of internal (two body relaxation, and stellar evolution) and external (gravitational shocks due to the Galactic bulge and disk, and dynamical friction) processes (Aguilar, Hut, & Ostriker 1988). Lee & Goodman (1995) and Gnedin & Ostriker (1997) predicted that possibly as many as half of the present-day Galactic globular clusters would be disrupted in another Hubble time. Many previous studies have shown that tidal shocks play a very important role in cluster evolution by accelerating the destruction of the cluster (e.g. Ostriker, Spitzer, & Chevalier 1972; Gnedin & Ostriker 1997; Gnedin, Lee, & Ostriker 1999). Lee & Ostriker (1987) predicted that, for a given tidal field, the outer structure of a globular cluster will be more populated than that of a King model, since the density at the tidal radius would not be exactly zero. In addition, the cluster is expected to have tidal tails because the equipotential surface is not spherical. The presence of tidal tails from globular clusters has begun to be explored only recently because of difficulties in obtaining accurate wide field photometry. The development of computing power and wide field digital detectors now allows us to study these very interesting parts of globular clusters in detail. Indications of tidal tails around globular clusters were found in several previous studies of globular cluster radial density profiles. Grillmair et al. (1995) examined the outer structure of 12 Galactic globular clusters, and found that 10 of their sample clusters showed extra-tidal wings in their surface density profiles. Later, Lehmann & Scholz (1997) reported the discovery of tidal tails in 5 out of 7 globular clusters. Evidence of tidal extensions are even found in four globular clusters in M31 (Grillmair 1996; Holland, Fahlman, & Richer 1997). Leon, Meylan, & Combes (2000) investigated 20 Galactic globular clusters with Schmidt plates and films, and found that all of the clusters that do not suffer from strong observational biases, show tidal tails. On the theoretical side, Combes, Meylan, & Leon (1999) used N-body simulations to show that two giant tidal tails are expected to exist along the galactic orbit of a globular cluster. Yim & Lee (2002) also examined the general evolution of the clusters using N-body simulation and showed that the cluster density profiles appear to become somewhat shallower just outside the tidal boundary, and that the directions of the tidal tails depend on the location in the Galaxy as well as the cluster orbit.

Recently, Odenkirchen et al. (2001) reported the discovery of two well defined tidal tails emerging from the sparse, remote globular cluster Palomar 5. They used the CCD images from Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). Except for this study (and those of the clusters in M31), all the previous observational works on globular cluster tidal tails were based on data from photographic plates. However, such data generally are not deep enough to examine the low mass stars which dominate the outer parts of globular clusters, and the photographic photometry tends to show greater scatter than that based on CCD data.

In the specific case of M92, Testa et al. (2000) investigated the dynamical structure using plates from the Digitized Second Palomar Sky Survey (DPOSS). Although they found some evidence for an elongation in the extra-tidal extension from their surface density map, the significance of their result was low. In this paper, we report the results of a similar analysis using deep CCD images. We surveyed a $`2^{}\times 2^{}`$ region centered on M92 with CFH12K in order to study the dynamical structure and tidal tails of the cluster. We also performed a very detailed analysis of the main sequence mass function, which was impossible to do in the study using photographic plates.

M92 (NGC 6341) is a very metal poor (\[Fe/H\] = $`2.24`$)globular cluster located at a distance from the galactic center of $`R_{GC}=9.1`$ kpc, and is $`Z_{GC}=4.3`$ kpc above the galactic plane (Harris 1996).

This paper is organized as follows. Sect. 2 presents the data and the reduction procedures. In Sect. 3, we show CMDs and discuss the blue straggler stars. The radial profiles of stars in different magnitude ranges are obtained in Sect. 4. The resulting LFs and MFs are presented and discussed in Sect. 5, and the photometric mass is estimated in Sect. 6. In Sect. 7, the surface density maps are discussed. Final results are summarized in Sect. 8.

## 2 OBSERVATION AND DATA REDUCTION

The observations were made with the 3.6 m Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) during 2000 June 27-29, using CFH12K, a $`6\times 2`$ mosaic of $`2048\times 4096`$ CCDs. The instrument has an angular scale of $`0.\mathrm{}206`$/pixel at the f/4 prime focus of the CFHT, giving a field of view of $`42\mathrm{}\times 28\mathrm{}`$. The CFH12K camera is well suited for this study as it covers a large area on the sky with well sampled images. A total of 10 fields through V and I filters were observed covering a field of $`120\mathrm{}\times 120\mathrm{}`$, significantly larger than the tidal radius of M92, $`15.\mathrm{}2`$, estimated by Trager et al. (1995). The positions of the observed fields relative to the center of M92 are shown in Fig. 1, and pertinent observational information is given in Table 1. All of the science images were obtained under good seeing conditions (FWHM of $`0.\mathrm{}8`$). We also obtained frames of fields containing Landolt (1992) standard stars for photometric calibration, and several twilight (flat-field), bias and dark frames were also taken to permit removal of the instrument signature from the science data.

All pre-processing, bias and dark subtraction and flat fielding, was performed using the FITS Large Images Processing software (FLIPS), a very efficient package developed by Jean-Charles Cuillandre for the reduction of CCD mosaic images (see Kalirai et al. 2001 for more information). Instrumental magnitudes of the point sources in the images were derived using the programs DAOPHOT II/ALLSTAR (Stetson 1994). The point-spread function (PSF) is different for each of the 12 CCDs on the mosaic, so the analysis is done separately for each chip. In those cases where we have 3 images in the same band (F3, F4, F5, F6 and F7 in V), we averaged them using the ALIGN and IMCOMBRED commands within FLIPS. For the other fields, we analyzed each image separately and then averaged the photometry to get mean instrumental magnitudes. We used the stellarity index of SExtractor (Bertin & Arnouts 1996) for separating stars from background galaxies and, as an example, Fig. 2 shows this parameter for sources detected in F3. Those objects with a stellarity index greater than 0.8 were considered to be stars. This process has excluded most of the background galaxies. After further cuts, based on the two DAOPHOT parameters, the magnitude error ($`<0.2`$) and the PSF fitting parameter, $`\chi ^2`$ ($`<2`$), were made to eliminate spurious measurements, the data sets in each filter were matched and the positions, instrumental magnitudes, and colors were obtained for all the stars.

The instrumental magnitudes were then transformed to the standard Johnson-Cousins photometric system by using the photometric standard stars in SA113 (Landolt 1992). The standard values for the color term and the atmospheric extinction coefficient given on the CFHT home page were used to to find the zero points of each chip separately. The instrumental zero points for the chips were almost identical (within a range of 0.1 mag) because FLIPS normalizes the background sky value to the chip with the highest sky value (lowest gain). Fig. 3 shows the differences between our photometry of the Landolt (1992) standard stars and the standard values.

## 3 The COLOR-MAGNUTUDE DIAGRAM

The derived CMD for the central region of the cluster is shown in Fig. 4. and is based on the data obtained by merging the long and short exposure data. The short exposure data were used to cover the center ($`r<2^{}`$) of the cluster where bright stars were totally saturated in long exposure data, and to show the evolved sequences of the cluster. The inner core of the cluster ($`r<1^{}`$) is too crowded to resolve stars even in short exposure data. The solid line is a fiducial line from the previous study by Harris et al. (1997), showing a good agreement between the two. Our primary concern is the properties of the cluster main sequence stars, so we will deal with mainly this part of the CMD in the following.

The CMD of the distant fields was used for first-step of removing background/foreground field contamination. For comparison we show CMDs of inner ($`2^{}<r<15^{}`$) and outer ($`r>45^{}`$) regions separately in Fig. 5. We selected stars within the illustrated color band ($`\mathrm{\Delta }(VI)=0.5`$) centered on the fiducial magnitude as candidate main sequence stars. Our selection criteria is wide enough to include all members of cluster main sequence but it will also include some contribution from field stars that can only be removed statistically.

Twelve stars in the box of Fig. 4 are thought to be blue straggler (BS) stars. BS stars are known to be more centrally concentrated than others in globular clusters (Bailyn 1995). In Fig. 6, we compared the radial distribution of BS stars with that of subgiant branch (SGB) star. Though the sample of BS stars is very small, we find no evidence that the BS stars are more concentrated than SGB stars. But further discussions on the BS stars are beyond the scope of this study.

## 4 THE RADIAL DENSITY PROFILE

### 4.1 Incompleteness Correction

The stars within the specified range in the CM diagram are likely to be members of the cluster. However, because of crowding effect, we cannot recover all the members of cluster. In order to study the spatial distribution of stars, we need to correct for the crowding. This is called incompleteness correction. Usually, the completeness depends on the level of crowding which depends on location with respect to the cluster center. An increasing contribution of the sky background also reduces the detection probability for faint stars. To correct for incompleteness, we ran artificial star tests on the V frames, using DAOPHOT/ADDSTAR. We chose 22 chips in four directions from the cluster center. The tests were applied on each chip separately. First, we added artificial stars in each 0.5 mag bin randomly on original images. The number of added stars was designed not to exceed 10% of the total number of stars that is actually present in that bin so as not to enhance original crowding. The new frames obtained in this way were then reduced in an identical manner used on the original frame. In Fig. 7, we showed the plots of the differences between input and output magnitudes for recovered artificial stars selected by the same criteria which were applied to original image reduction. The stars, which have magnitude differences smaller than 0.3 mag are considered as recovered stars. We repeated these procedures 10 times on each chip to obtain meaningful statistics in each magnitude bin. Finally, the incompleteness correction factor $`f`$ is obtained by $`f=n_{rec}/n_{add}`$, where $`n_{add}`$ is the number of added stars and $`n_{rec}`$ is the number of recovered stars. The resulting incompleteness correction factors applied to correct luminosity functions are listed in Table 2.

### 4.2 Field Subtraction

Although we have used CMD selection to reduce background/foreground field contribution, there are still many field stars within the defined main sequence band on the CMD (Fig. 5). To build accurate radial density profiles and luminosity functions of the cluster, this contamination needs to be statistically removed. Since the length of tidal tails is an order of 5 tidal radii, or greater (Combes et al. 1999), which is larger than the region surveyed here, a determination of the field density using all the outermost regions could lead to an overestimate. Therefore, in order to estimate the backgroun level as a first step, we selected those regions showing no overdensities in the outermost parts in each magnitude bins after constructing the surface densigy maps (see section 6 for details). The stellar densities in the selected regions were then averaged with weighting factors proportional to the area of the selected regions. The determined background densities are $`0.18\pm 0.03`$arcmin-2 for $`18.5<V<20.5`$, $`0.40\pm 0.04`$arcmin-2 for $`22<V<23.5`$, and $`0.85\pm 0.05`$arcmin-2 for $`18.5<V<23.5`$.

### 4.3 Radial Density Profile

The cluster’s radial density profile was obtained by counting all the main sequence stars in annuli with widths of $`23`$ arcminutes. These numbers were then corrected for field contamination and incompleteness as described in previous sections. The final surface density of $`i`$’the annulus was then derived, using:

$$SDP_i=2.5\times \mathrm{log}(N_{i,i+1}/A_{i,i+1})+2.5\times \mathrm{log}f+C,$$

where $`N_{i,i+1}`$ indicates the background subtracted number of stars in the annulus between $`r_i`$ and $`r_{i+1}`$, $`A_{i,i+1}`$ the area of the annulus and $`f`$ the incompleteness correction factor. The constant, C, was chosen to match the profile with that of Trager et al. (1995) in the overlapping region. The effective radius of each annulus is given by:

$$r_i^{eff}=\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}\times (r_i^2+r_{i+1}^2)}.$$

The final radial density profile of M 92 using the entire main sequence sample of stars ($`18.5<V<23.5`$) is shown in Fig. 8. In the central region ($`r<2^{}`$), the short exposure data were used with smaller radial steps (10 arcseconds). However, the points for the inner most region ($`r<1^{}`$), where the stars are not resolved, were obtained not by counting stars but by surface photometry of the short exposure data. The flux measurements from surface photomtery were shifted to match with star counts. These points are shifted to match with the results from outer region. The measured surface density profile is listed in Table 3. In Fig. 8 we see that our result agrees very well with that of Trager et al. (1995). The best fitting single-mass isotropic King model profile is shown on Fig. 8 as a solid line (W0 = 8, c = 1.85). The tidal radius of the best-fit King model is $`r_t=840\mathrm{}`$, which lies between the $`r_t=740\mathrm{}`$ by Testa et al. (2000), and $`r_t=912\mathrm{}`$ of Trager et al. (1995). The data exhibits a noticeable deviation from the King model in the outer region. This is a sign of the presence of extra-tidal material.

Grillmair et al. (1995) examined the density profiles of 12 Galactic globular clusters and found that most of them had extra-tidal stars. They described the radial distribution of extra-tidal stars by a power law $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(r)r^\gamma `$ with $`5<\gamma <1.6`$. Using numerical simulations, Johnston, Sigurdsson, & Hernquist (1999) showed that the extra-tidal population is expected to have $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(r)r^1`$, and that there should be a break in the slope of the surface density profile due to stars being stripped from the cluster. On the other hand, Combes et al. (1999) deduced a slope around $`\gamma =4`$ from their N-body simulations. They explain the shallower slope in the observations as the contamination of background-foreground populations. Combes et al. (1999) also predicted that the escaped stars would not be distributed homogeneously within the tails, but form clumps that mark the occurrence of the strongest gravitational shocks. Leon et al. (2000) investigated tidal tails of 20 Galactic globular clusters and computed the slopes of surface density of extra-tidal stars for their sample. The values are in the range of previous studies $`5.03<\gamma <0.35`$, but not all clusters showed a break in the slope.

Testa et al. (2000) obtained the surface density profile of M 92 using plates from the Digitized Second Palomar Sky Survey. They fitted the extra-tidal profile of the cluster to a power law and found $`\gamma =0.85\pm 0.08`$. From our surface density profile, shown in Fig. 9, we derive $`\gamma =0.82\pm 0.10`$ using only the bright stars ($`18.5<V<20.5`$), which we take to correspond with the stars in the study by Testa et al. (2000). Using the faint stars ($`22<V<23.5`$), we find a steeper slope of $`\gamma =1.31\pm 0.09`$, which is significantly different from that of the bright stars. Using the entire range of calibrated stars ($`18.5<V<23.5`$), we find $`\gamma =1.27\pm 0.08`$. We see a clear clump in the extra-tidal profile (around $`r=2100\mathrm{}`$), a feature similar to those predicted by Combes et al. (1999).

It is noteworthy that the slopes of the density profiles for stars in different magnitude bins, have different values in the outer part of the cluster. Since the tidal tails of globular clusters are preferentially formed by the lowest mass stars (Combes et al. 1999), it is difficult to study tidal tails of globular clusters using only bright stars. This implies that the study of globular clusters tidal tail should be performed using stars with the lowest possible mass that is detectable. It is possible that the difference in slopes of the density profiles in different magnitude bins is a real feature of the cluster. Deep CCD studies of other nearby clusters are needed to verify whether the mass dependence of the density profile slope is a common phenomenon.

## 5 THE LUMINOSITY AND MASS FUNCTION

A luminosity function (LF) was constructed by using the main sequence stars within the cluster’s tidal radius. To investigate any spatial difference, the LFs for an inner region ($`5^{}<r<9^{}`$) and an outer region ($`9^{}<r<15^{}`$) was constructed separately. The region of $`r<5^{}`$ was excluded here to avoid the uncertainty due to central crowding. As noted below, HST results are available for the region inside $`r<5^{}`$. To build correct LFs, we applied background subtraction and incompleteness corrections as described in the previous sections. The corrected number of stars in each magnitude bin and the incompleteness factors are given in Table 2, and the results are plotted in Fig. 10. The histogram in Fig. 10 is the LF for all stars within $`5^{}<r<15^{}`$. We find that the outer LF is steeper than the inner LF, a clear sign of mass segregation in the cluster. The solid line overlaid on the inner LF is the LF of M92 for $`r5^{}`$ derived from HST WFPC2 data by Piotto, Cool, & King (1997). Our result agrees very well with HST result.

The LFs were converted into mass functions (MFs) using the mass-luminosity relation of Baraffe et al. (1997) and a distance modulus of $`(mM)_V=14.82`$ (Gratton et al. 1997). The calculated MFs are shown in Fig. 11. Representing the MF by a power law,

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(M)dMM^{(1+x)}dM,$$

we derive slopes of $`x=1.2\pm 0.3`$ and $`x=1.8\pm 0.5`$ for the mass range $`0.35M_{}<M<0.8M_{}`$ in the inner($`5^{}<r<9^{}`$) and outer ($`9^{}<r<15^{}`$) regions, respectively. The slope for the entire region between $`5^{}<r<15^{}`$ is $`x=1.3\pm 0.2`$. For the mass range $`0.26M_{}<M<0.73M_{}`$, Andreuzzi et al. (2000) derived a slope of $`x=0.71`$ between $`2^{}<r<5^{}`$ from HST data. From these results, we conclude that the slope of the MF increases with distance from the cluster center, as expected from mass segregation in clusters.

McClure et al. (1986) suggested that the slope of MF is related to the metallicity of cluster. Djorgovski, Piotto, & Capaccioli (1993) demonstrated that the MF slopes are determined not only by the metallicity but also by the location in the Galaxy. The strongest dependence is on the Galactocentric distance ($`R_{GC}`$): clusters closer to the Galactic center have flatter MFs. At a given Galactocentric distance, clusters with a smaller distance from the Galactic plane ($`Z_{GC}`$) have flatter MFs, and at a given position, clusters with lower metallicity have steeper MFs. Capaccioli, Piotto, & Stiavelli (1993) interpreted the dependence on position as the effect of tidal shocks. Disk and bulge shocking act preferentially on stars located in the outer region of the cluster and lead to a loss of low mass stars. As a result the clusters near the Galactic plane, tend to have flatter MFs. Consequently, the relatively steep MF slope of M92 could be explained by its low metallicity (\[Fe/H\] = $`2.24`$) and large $`R_{GC}`$ (9.1 kpc) and $`Z_{GC}`$ (4.3 kpc).

Piotto et al. (1997) confirmed the relation between Galactocentric positions and MF slopes of globular clusters by comparing LFs of four metal poor globular clusters. They showed that three of four clusters (M15, M30, and M92) have nearly identical LFs, whereas NGC 6397, with the smallest $`R_{GC}`$ and $`Z_{GC}`$, has a distinctly different LF, especially the fainter part. They suggest that the three globular clusters, which have similar LFs, were formed with similar MFs that have changed little (or changed in similar ways), while NGC 6397 was more vulnerable to tidal shocks. Lee, Fahlman, & Richer (1991) showed that the slope of the cluster mass function can change rapidly only during the final stage of dynamical evolution and that one signature of highly evolved clusters is a significant flattening of the mass function (see also Lee & Goodman 1995, and Takahashi & Lee 2000). The relatively steep MF slope of M92, especially in the outer part of the cluster, suggests that this cluster, although it has experienced substantial mass segregation, has been little affected by tidal shocks.

## 6 MASS ESTIMATION

Since we have found nearly all the stars in the cluster outside of the central region with masses greater than $`0.35M_{}`$, we can estimate the total luminous mass of the cluster by combining our data with that in the HST archive for the cluster center. HST archival data covering $`r<5^{}`$ was obtained and analyzed using HSTphot (Dolphin, 2000). We counted stars within annuli of width $`14\mathrm{}`$. Since the HST archive data do not cover a full 360 degree azimuthal annulus, we complete the counts by assuming that the cluster has circular symmetry. All the star counts are corrected for completeness and converted to masses using the mass-luminosity relation of Baraffe et al. (1997). The limiting magnitude, defined to be the value where the completeness fraction drops below 50%, and the calculated mass above the limiting magnitude is listed in Table 4 for each annulus. Summing these estimates, we find that the measured luminous mass is $`7.4\times 10^4M_{}`$. This value is clearly only a lower limit to the luminous stellar mass of the cluster. The total mass of the fainter, uncounted stars must be estimated in some way.

We can estimate the total mass of the low mass stars by extrapolating the observed mass functions to the hydrogen burning limit, here taken to be $`0.08M_{}`$. Explicitly, we assume that the observed MF slope applies right to this limit. This may not be an unreasonable assumption because recently, Richer et al. (2002) found that the mass function of the nearby globular cluster M4, which rises slowly toward their lowest observed mass of 0.09$`M_{}`$, shows no convincing evidence of a turnover. In any case, the lowest mass stars ($`<0.09M_{}`$) contribute only small part of the cluster’s total mass (below 5%) even at the steepest slope ($`x=1.8`$). The extrapolated mass (that below the limiting magnitude) in each annulus is shown in Table 4. The last column in Table 4 lists the slope of the mass function that was used to calculate the extrapolated mass. These values are based on the results of Andreuzzi et al. (2000) for the region $`r<5^{}`$ and present study for the region $`5^{}<r<15^{}`$. As expected, the correction for uncounted stars is substantial within the inner arcminute of the cluster. The estimated total mass is $`1.6\times 10^5M_{}`$. This value is arguably an upper limit to the total main-sequence mass for two reasons. First, the mass function may not be constant to the limit of $`0.08M_{}`$, and second the MF slope in the core of the cluster ($`r<1^{}`$) is expected to be smaller than the value we used, which was derived from a somewhat more distant region. The luminous mass we determine is smaller than the estimated dynamical mass of $`2.1\times 10^5M_{}`$ by Pryor & Meylan 1993. The mass deficiency is probably due entirely to a remnant population in the cluster - white dwarfs and neutron stars. Our derivation of the luminous mass gives an uncertain result for the reasons discussed above and also because it depends on stellar models. The current theoretical models for low temperature stars of low metallicity do not fit the lower main-sequence very well, leading to another source of systematic uncertainty. With these caveats, we cautiously predict that the remnant population contributes at least 25% to the total mass of M92.

## 7 SURFACE DENSITY MAP

In order to characterize the distribution of the extra-tidal stars, we constructed surface number density maps as follows. The number counts of main-sequence stars in the surveyed region were binned on a grid of $`0.^{}5\times 0.^{}5`$. We then convolved the map with a Gaussian kernel of width $`2.^{}5`$. The resulting smoothed surface density maps are shown in Fig. 12. The two maps are constructed using: (a) bright stars (about 2 magnitudes below the main-sequence turn-off), and (b) the entire set of stars, which is dominated by faint objects. We overlaid contour levels and marked the tidal radius with a thick circle. The long arrow indicates the direction to the galactic center and the short arrow shows the proper motion ($`\mu _\alpha \mathrm{cos}\delta =3.30\pm 0.55`$ mas yr-1, $`\mu _\delta =0.33\pm 0.70`$ mas yr-1) compiled by Dinescu, Girard, & van Altena (1999).

From an inspection of the two maps, we see that the shape of the tidal halo is different between the bright and faint stars. In particular, a clump to the SE of the cluster appears in the bright star density map (it also appears in the Fig. 6 of Testa et al. 2000) is not seen in the map for faint stars. It is difficult to see an elongation of the tidal halo with the bright stars only because their number counts are typically too small. Deep CCD photometry is needed to define the shape of the tidal halo, especially for the halo clusters that is expected to have a weak extra-tidal extension.

From Fig. 12, we see a marginal elongation orthogonal to the direction to the Galactic center (NE to SW). Several models (Murali & Dubinski 1999; Combes et al. 1999; Yim & Lee 2002) predict that there may exist two giant tidal tails around the globular cluster. Combes et al. (1999) showed that the tidal tail follows the cluster orbit, but Yim & Lee (2002) showed that the directions of the tidal tails depend on the location in the Galaxy as well as the cluster orbit. Tidal tails have been detected around many globular clusters (Grillmair et al. 1995; Leon et al. 2000; Odenkirchen et al. 2001) and some dwarf spheroidal galaxies of the Local Group (Mateo, Olszewski, & Morrison 1998). Possible explanations of the weak tidal halo of M92 are that the tail may be compressed along the line of sight or the evaporating stars might not yet have been formed a tidal stream. According to the numerical simulation by Yim & Lee (2002), tidal tail is longest near the apogee and shortest near the perigee. Therefor M92 might be near perigee.

## 8 SUMMARY

We have carried out a wide field CCD survey of M92 and investigated the dynamical structure and stellar population of the cluster M92. The main results of our study are:

(i) We find some candidates of BS stars in the CMD. We can not find any evidence that the BS stars are more centrally concentrated than SGB stars.

(ii) The radial density profile of M92 reveals the presence of extra tidal material. From the King model fitting method, we derived a tidal radius for M92 of $`r_t=840\mathrm{}`$. We find that the extra-tidal density profile is shallower for the bright star when compared to the fainter stars.

(iii) We show that the slope of cluster MF increases toward the outer part of the cluster, as expected from mass segregation. The relatively steep MF slope of M92, especially in the outer part of the cluster, suggests that this cluster has not been strongly affected by tidal shocks.

(iv) From an estimation of the photometric mass of M92, we conclude that the maximum value of the cluster’s MS mass is $`1.6\times 10^5M_{}`$. At least 25% of the total cluster mass may be contributed by the remnant population.

(v) From the surface density map, we see a slight elongation of the cluster halo perpendicular to the direction to the Galactic center. Possible explanations of the weak tidal halo of M92 are that the tidal tail may be compressed along the line of sight, or the evaporating stars may not yet have been formed a tidal stream.

Finally, we note the need for deeper CCD photometry to investigate extra-tidal stars, especially for clusters, like M92, which have weak tidal extensions.