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# Multiparticle Landau-Zener problem.

## I Introduction.

Landau-Zener (LZ) theory  is one of the most important and influential results in non-stationary quantum mechanics. Last decade a generalization of LZ theory to more than two states attracted particular attention due to numerous applications in atomic and molecular physics , , nanomagnets , Bose-Einstein condensate  and systems with avoided band crossings , . The multi-state LZ problem (see for example  ) is concerned with finding of the transition amplitudes for a system with the Hamiltonian, whose matrix form reads:

$$H=Bt+A,$$
(1)
where $`B`$ is a diagonal matrix and the matrices $`A`$ and $`B`$ are independent of time. In its general form this problem is still unsolved, but a number of exact results for special choices of the matrices $`B`$ and $`A`$ were found .

In almost all available exact solutions the transition probabilities are expressed in terms of the genuine two-level LZ formula successively applied at each diabatic level intersection. In other physical problems such a procedure is often applied as an approximation. These problems include atomic and molecular collisions  and the transitions at crossing of two Rydberg multiplets of energy levels .

In this work we find very simple ansatz that generates new solvable models and may explain the properties of already known solutions. The main idea employs the single-particle Hamiltonian which acts independently in several two-dimensional subspaces of the Hilbert space. It is worth mentioning that while results in one-particle sector are trivial, the same Hamiltonian generates non-trivial solutions in the many particle spaces. Such a construction is akin to the group-theoretical method of finding higher irreducible representations as a symetrized direct product of the fundamental representation. Using this method we can study the problem of driven charge transport through a quantum dot and find new solutions in multistate LZ theory. Particularly, we derive the transition probabilities for a four state LZ problem which is very similar to the four state bow-tie model and for a problem of intersection of two bands of parallel levels.

This article is organized as follows: in section II we show how already known solutions of LZ models can generate new exactly solvable models with the Hamiltonian (1). We demonstrate how the exact solution for two independent two level systems can generate a new solution of a four-state LZ model. In III we generalize Demkov-Osherov solution to the case of many particles and use the result for derivation of master equations that describe a driven charge transport in quantum dots. In IV we provide an example of a solvable model that can be generated from the Demkov-Osherov solution.

## II Bosonic multi-state LZ models.

Lets consider a Hamiltonian that describes the interaction of four bosonic fields $`\widehat{a},\widehat{b},\widehat{c},\widehat{d}`$:

$$\begin{array}{c}\widehat{H}=(\beta _1t+E_1)\widehat{a}^+\widehat{a}+(\beta _3t+E_3)\widehat{d}^+\widehat{d}+(\beta _2t+E_2)\widehat{c}^+\widehat{c}+(\beta _4t+E_4)\widehat{b}^+\widehat{b}+\hfill \\ g(\widehat{a}^+\widehat{b}+\widehat{b}^+\widehat{a})+\gamma (\widehat{c}^+\widehat{d}+\widehat{d}^+\widehat{c})\hfill \end{array}$$
(2)
This Hamiltonian depends explicitly on time and conserves the total number of particles in the system. Therefore it can be considered independently in subspaces with fixed total number of particles. Let $`|0>`$ be the vacuum state. The Hamiltonian (2) describes the evolution of two disjointed systems. However, being projected onto the 2-particle sector, its matrix form looks less trivial. The complete two-particle sector is the 10-dimensional Hilbert space spanned onto direct products of any two single-particle states. The four-dimensional subspace $`R_4`$ of the 2-particle sector spanned onto vectors:

$$\begin{array}{c}|1>=\widehat{a}^+\widehat{c}^+|0>\hfill \\ |2>=\widehat{a}^+\widehat{d}^+|0>\hfill \\ |3>=\widehat{d}^+\widehat{b}^+|0>\hfill \\ |4>=\widehat{c}^+\widehat{b}^+|0>\hfill \end{array}$$
(3)
is invariant with respect to the action of the Hamiltonian (2). Hence, if the initial state belongs to this subspace, the state vector at any time remains in $`R_4`$:

$$|\psi (t)=c_1(t)|1+c_2(t)|2+c_3(t)|3+c_4(t)|4$$
(4)
In the basis (3) the Hamiltonian (2) has the following 4x4 matrix form:

$$H=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}(\beta _1+\beta _2)t+(E_1+E_2)\hfill & \gamma \hfill & 0\hfill & g\hfill \\ \gamma \hfill & (\beta _1+\beta _3)t+(E_1+E_3)\hfill & g\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & g\hfill & (\beta _3+\beta _4)t+(E_3+E_4)\hfill & \gamma \hfill \\ g\hfill & 0\hfill & \gamma \hfill & (\beta _2+\beta _4)t+(E_4+E_2)\hfill \end{array}\right)$$
(5)
The problem described by the Hamiltonian (5) belongs to the multistate Landau-Zener class (1).

We should point out that it cannot be mapped on the already known exactly solvable multistate LZ models.

In $`Fig.1`$ we show the adiabatic energies of the Hamiltonian (5) as functions of time for typical choice of parameters. It is clearly seen that there is a point of an exact adiabatic level crossing (diabolic point) on the figure.

In the Heisenberg representation the evolution equations decouple into two pairs of equations for bosonic operators:

$$\begin{array}{c}i\dot{\widehat{a}}=(\beta _1t+E_1)\widehat{a}+g\widehat{b}\hfill \\ i\dot{\widehat{b}}=(\beta _4t+E_4)\widehat{b}+g\widehat{a}\hfill \end{array}$$
(6)
and

$$\begin{array}{c}i\dot{\widehat{c}}=(\beta _2t+E_2)\widehat{c}+\gamma \widehat{d}\hfill \\ i\dot{\widehat{d}}=(\beta _3t+E_3)\widehat{d}+\gamma \widehat{c}\hfill \end{array}$$
(7)
Let $`\widehat{a}_0,\widehat{b}_0,\widehat{c}_0,\widehat{d}_0`$ denote the operators $`\widehat{a},\widehat{b},\widehat{c},\widehat{d}`$ at the initial moment of evolution. Then the solutions of equations (6) and (7) are:

$$\begin{array}{c}\widehat{a}(t)=S_{11}(t)\widehat{a}_0+S_{12}(t)\widehat{b}_0\hfill \\ \widehat{b}(t)=S_{21}(t)\widehat{a}_0+S_{22}(t)\widehat{b}_0\hfill \end{array}$$
(8)
$$\begin{array}{c}\widehat{c}(t)=S_{11}^{}(t)\widehat{c}_0+S_{12}^{}(t)\widehat{d}_0\hfill \\ \widehat{d}(t)=S_{21}^{}(t)\widehat{c}_0+S_{22}^{}(t)\widehat{d}_0\hfill \end{array}$$
(9)
Here $`S_{ij}`$ and $`S_{ij}^{}`$ are the matrix elements of the evolution operators for (6) and (7), respectively. Due to the linearity they are the same for the operator and numerical functions obeying these differential equations. Hence, we can extract them directly from the solution of the two-state LZ problem. For the evolution from $`t=\mathrm{}`$ to $`t=+\mathrm{}`$ their squares of modulus are:

$$\begin{array}{c}p_1|S_{11}|^2=|S_{22}|^2=e^{2\pi g^2/|\beta _1\beta _4|}\hfill \\ q_1|S_{12}|^2=|S_{21}|^2=1p_1\hfill \\ p_2|S_{11}^{}|^2=|S_{22}^{}|^2=e^{2\pi \gamma ^2/|\beta _2\beta _3|}\hfill \\ q_2|S_{12}^{}|^2=|S_{21}^{}|^2=1p_2\hfill \end{array}$$
(10)
Returning to the four-state LZ problem in the two-particle sector considered earlier, we first note that each state $`|\gamma `$ of this subspace is the direct product of states from two independent subspaces of the one-particle sector $`|j=|\alpha _j|\mu _j`$, $`\alpha _j=1,2;\mu _j=3,4`$ (note that here 1,2,3,4 enumerate single-particle state, for example $`|1=a^+|0`$). The evolution matrix is also the direct product of evolution matrices in the independent subspaces of the one-particle sectors: $`U(t)=U_\alpha (t)U_\mu (t)`$. Therefore transition matrix elements and probabilities $`P_{ij}`$ in the considered subspace are factorized:

$$P_{ij}=p_{\alpha _i\alpha _j}p_{\mu _i\mu _j}$$
(11)
In terms of the LZ probabilities for two-level problems introduced earlier the transition probability matrix $`P`$, whose elements are defined by equation (11), reads:

$$P=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}p_1p_2\hfill & p_1q_2\hfill & q_1q_2\hfill & p_1q_2\hfill \\ p_1q_2\hfill & p_1p_2\hfill & q_1p_2\hfill & q_1q_2\hfill \\ q_1q_2\hfill & p_2q_1\hfill & p_1p_2\hfill & p_1q_2\hfill \\ q_1p_2\hfill & q_1q_2\hfill & p_1q_2\hfill & p_1p_2\hfill \end{array}\right)$$
(12)
This result does not depend on the parameters $`E_i`$. It is interesting that scattering matrices $`S_{ij}(t)`$ and $`S_{ij}^{}(t)`$ are known for any $`t`$  which make it possible to find the evolution operator at any time in the Schrödinger representation.

## III Driven charge transport through quantum dots.

In similar fashion to the previous section the fermionic systems can lead to Heisenberg equations for annihilation operators that have the same structure as Shrödinger equation for amplitudes for some exactly solvable multistate Landau-Zener model. As we will show, in the Shrödinger representation such a Fermi system with fixed number of particle is equivalent to a new solvable multistate Landau-Zener model. The models that we will examine correspond to the driven charge transport in nanostructures.

Consider a quantum dot coupled to an external reservoir like the system shown in $`Fig2`$. Lets consider that initially some of the reservoir energy levels are filled with electrons, the others are empty. Lets assume the dot has only one electron bound state whose energy in real semiconductors can be regulated by the gate voltage; therefore the variation of the gate voltage with time generates time dependence of the dot’s electronic level.

The Hamiltonian of the electrons in the dot and reservoir reads:

$$H=\underset{n=1}{\overset{N}{}}E_n\widehat{c}_n^+\widehat{c}_n+E(t)\widehat{c}_0^+\widehat{c}_0+\underset{n}{}g_n(\widehat{c}_n^+\widehat{c}_0+\widehat{c}_0^+\widehat{c}_n)$$
(13)
Here $`\widehat{c_0}`$ is the fermionic operator that annihilates the electron on the dot level and $`\widehat{c}_n`$ is the annihilation operators for the level $`E_n`$ of the reservoir; $`E(t)`$ is the time-dependent energy of the dot state. In our treatment the last term in (13) describes the tunneling between the leads and the single level in the quantum dot. We ignore all interactions among electrons except the one due to Pauli principle.

Similar time-dependent single-particle problems for quantum dots have been already considered in . Though our system is simplified but rather it is interesting because it has an exact solution.

In the context of LZ theory, we approximate the dot energy by a linear function of time: $`E(t)=\beta t`$. The Heisenberg operator equations corresponding to Hamiltonian (13) are:

$$\begin{array}{c}i\dot{\widehat{c}}_0=\beta t\widehat{c}_0+\underset{n}{}g_n\widehat{c}_n\hfill \\ i\dot{\widehat{c}}_n=E_n\widehat{c}_n+g_n\widehat{c}_0\hfill \end{array}$$
(14)
Due to the linear structure of these equations the solution can be formally written in the matrix form:

$$\stackrel{}{\widehat{c}}(t)=\widehat{S}(t)\stackrel{}{\widehat{c}}(t_0)$$
(15)
where $`\stackrel{}{\widehat{c}}=(\widehat{c}_0,\widehat{c}_1,\mathrm{},\widehat{c}_n)`$

As in the previous section, the evolution matrix $`\widehat{S}(t)`$ is completely determined by the coefficients of the differential equations (14) and is the same for operator and c-function solutions. Hence, it is enough to solve (14) with all operators replaced by c-functions. Such a system of equations coincides with that of the Demkov-Osherov model . The latter provides transition amplitudes for a single energy level crossing an energy band consisting of time-independent levels.

In Demkov-Osherov model the Shrödinger equation for the amplitudes of different quantum states can be written as follows:

$$i\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}\dot{a}_0(t)& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ \dot{a}_1(t)& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ \mathrm{}& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ \dot{a}_n(t)& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}\beta t& \gamma _1& \mathrm{}& \gamma _n& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ \gamma _1^{}& \alpha _1& \mathrm{}& 0& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ \gamma _n^{}& 0& \mathrm{}& \alpha _n& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}a_0(t)& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ a_1(t)& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ \mathrm{}& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ a_n(t)& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right)$$
(16)
where $`\alpha _k`$ are ordered as follows $`\alpha _1<\alpha _2<\mathrm{}<\alpha _{N_a}`$ (assuming that none two of the $`\alpha _k`$ are equal; we also assume for definiteness that $`\beta >0`$).

The absolute values of the $`S`$-matrix components ($`S_{kl}=|a_k^{(l)}(\mathrm{})|/a_l^{(l)}(\mathrm{})|)`$  are:

$$\begin{array}{c}S_{00}=e^{\pi (z_1+\mathrm{}+z_n)}\hfill \\ S_{0l}=(1e^{2\pi z_l})^{1/2}e^{\pi (z_{l+1}+\mathrm{}+z_n)}\hfill \\ S_{k0}=e^{\pi (z_1+\mathrm{}+z_{k1})}(1e^{2\pi z_k})^{1/2},(k=1,\mathrm{},n)\hfill \\ S_{kl}=0,(1k<l)\hfill \\ S_{ll}=e^{\pi z_l}\hfill \\ S_{kl}=(1e^{2\pi z_l})^{1/2}e^{\pi (z_{l+1}+\mathrm{}+z_{k1})}(1e^{2\pi z_k})^{1/2},(k>l)\hfill \end{array}$$
(17)
(where the index $`l=1\mathrm{}n`$ and $`z_k=|\gamma _k|^2/\beta `$)

The probabilities to find an electron on a particular $`n`$-th level are.

$$\begin{array}{c}P_n=<\widehat{c}_n^+(t+\mathrm{})\widehat{c}_n(t+\mathrm{})>=_{n_1}_{n_2}S_{nn_1}^{}S_{nn_2}<\widehat{c}_{n_1}^+(t\mathrm{})\widehat{c}_{n_2}(t\mathrm{})>=\hfill \\ =\underset{n_f}{}|S_{n,n_f}|^2\hfill \end{array}$$
(18)
where $`S_{ij}=S_{ij}(t+\mathrm{})`$ and the summation is taken over the initially filled states only. The scattering matrix elements $`S_{n,n_f}`$ are given in (17). If the band of electron states in the external system is continuous then it is reasonable to use the approximation, in which $`g(E)=g_n0`$ while the value $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(E)=2\pi \rho (E)|g(E)|^2`$ is kept finite. Here $`\rho (E)`$ is the density of states in the band and the elements of scattering matrix become $`|S_{0l}|^2=\frac{2\pi g_l^2}{\beta }\mathrm{exp}\underset{E_l}{\overset{E_n}{}}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(E)}{\beta }𝑑E`$

Now lets consider a dot that is connected to two leads. The left lead is characterized by the coupling function $`g_L(E)`$ and the densities $`\rho _L^f(E)`$, $`\rho _L^e(E)`$ where f and e refer to the filled and empty states in the left lead ($`\rho _L(E)=\rho _L^f(E)+\rho _L^e(E)`$), analogously we can define the quantities $`g_R(E)`$, $`\rho _R^f(E)`$, $`\rho _R^e(E)`$ for the right lead. Moreover it is more convenient to introduce the following notations: $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_L^f(E)=2\pi \rho _L^f(E)|g_L(E)|^2`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_L^e(E)=2\pi \rho _L^e(E)|g_L(E)|^2`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_R^f(E)=2\pi \rho _R^f(E)|g_R(E)|^2`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_R^e(E)=2\pi \rho _R^e(E)|g_R(E)|^2`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^f=\mathrm{\Gamma }_R^f+\mathrm{\Gamma }_L^f`$, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^e=\mathrm{\Gamma }_R^e+\mathrm{\Gamma }_L^e`$.

If the dot state was initially empty and if this state crosses the region from energy $`E_1`$ to energy $`E_2`$, then in the continuous approximation (18) leads to the following probability for the dot level to be finally filled after all Landau-Zener transitions:

$$p_f(E_2)=P_0=\underset{E_1}{\overset{E_2}{}}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }^f(E^{})}{\beta }\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{1}{\beta }\underset{E^{}}{\overset{E_2}{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }^f(E)+\mathrm{\Gamma }^e(E))𝑑E\right]𝑑E^{}$$
(19)
If the dot level was initially filled, it is necessary to add $`|S_{00}|^2=e^{\frac{1}{\beta }\underset{E_1}{\overset{E_2}{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma }^f(E)+\mathrm{\Gamma }^e(E))𝑑E}`$ to (19). One can check that the result (19) is the solution of the following system of differential equations:

$$\begin{array}{c}\beta \frac{dp_f(E)}{dE}=\mathrm{\Gamma }^e(E)p_f(E)+\mathrm{\Gamma }^f(E)p_e(E)\hfill \\ \beta \frac{dp_e(E)}{dE}=\mathrm{\Gamma }^f(E)p_e(E)+\mathrm{\Gamma }^e(E)p_f(E)\hfill \end{array}$$
(20)
here $`p_e(E)=1p_f(E)`$ is the probability that the dot level will be empty when it has energy $`E`$. The equation for the charge that is transferred to the right lead can be derived in a similar way

$$\frac{dQ(E)}{dE}=(e/\beta )(\mathrm{\Gamma }_R^e(E)p_f(E)\mathrm{\Gamma }_R^f(E)p_e(E))$$
(21)
Note that equations (20),(21) were derived from the exact solution of the problem with microscopic Hamiltonian (13) rather than from random phase approximation or other type of phenomenology.

Let us calculate the total charge transferred through the dot from the left lead to the right lead at zero temperature and a fixed bias that leads to a difference of Fermi energies in the left and in the right leads. Lets assume that the dot level was initially much lower than both Fermi levels and it was filled. Then the energy of this state grows linearly with time crossing both Fermi levels during the evolution. Since transitions will proceed presumably when the dot level is between Fermi energies of the leads, we can apply the following approximations: $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_L^f(E)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_L(1\theta (Eϵ_F^L))`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_L^e(E)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_L\theta (Eϵ_F^L)`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_R^f(E)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_R(1\theta (Eϵ_F^R))`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_R^e(E)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_R\theta (Eϵ_F^L)`$ with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_R`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_L`$ are constant. To find the total charge that is transferred to the right lead we formally put the final dot state energy equal to infinity in the solution of the equations (20) and (21). In the result the total charge transfered to the right lead is

$$Q=e\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_R\mathrm{\Gamma }_L}{(\mathrm{\Gamma }_R+\mathrm{\Gamma }_L)}(\frac{ϵ_F^Lϵ_F^R}{\beta })+\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_R}{(\mathrm{\Gamma }_R+\mathrm{\Gamma }_L)}\right]$$
(22)
Clearly at $`ϵ_F^L=ϵ_F^R`$ we find $`Q=e\mathrm{\Gamma }_R/(\mathrm{\Gamma }_R+\mathrm{\Gamma }_L)`$, which can be interpreted as the electron charge $`e`$ multiplied by the probability for the electron that is initially placed into the dot to transfer to the right lead.

## IV Solvable model of bands crossing.

In this section we will construct a new solvable LZ model employing the fermionic Hamiltonian. The Hamiltonian (13) projected onto the $`k`$-particle sector generates the evolution in the Hilbert space of dimensionality $`(N+1)!/(k!(N+1k)!)`$. If we assume that the single-particle Hamiltonian laying in the background is the same as that of the Demkov-Osherov model, then all such models are reducible to this single-particle one.

Generalized Landau-Zener models that deal with intersections of bands of parallel levels are important in many applications such as in driven tunneling of nanomagnets coupled to nuclear spins  and in driven charge transport in quantum dots .

Up to now only two exact solutions of this type were known: Demkov-Osherov solution and the case of the infinite number of states in bands that equally interact with states of another band , . For an important case of a finite number of states in bands that is not equal to unity exact solutions for all transition probabilities have not been found yet though the absence of counterintuitive transitions was analytically proved . Nearly-exact solution valid in the quasidegeneracy approximation was found and investigated in . We will show that our method can be used to generate exactly solvable models with interband transitions.

Lets consider a system of two Fermi particles with the Hamiltonian

$$H=E_1\widehat{b}^+\widehat{b}+E_2\widehat{c}^+\widehat{c}+t\widehat{d}^+\widehat{d}+g_1(\widehat{a}^+\widehat{d}+\widehat{d}^+\widehat{a})+g_2(\widehat{b}^+\widehat{d}+\widehat{d}^+\widehat{b})+g_3(\widehat{c}^+\widehat{d}+\widehat{d}^+\widehat{c})$$
(23)
Let $`E_2>E_1>0`$. As we demonstrated previously, the solution of the operator evolution equation can be written in the form:

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}\widehat{d}(t)\hfill \\ \widehat{a}(t)\hfill \\ \widehat{b}(t)\hfill \\ \widehat{c}(t)\hfill \end{array}\right)=S(t,t_0)\left(\begin{array}{c}\widehat{d}(t_0)\hfill \\ \widehat{a}(t_0)\hfill \\ \widehat{b}(t_0)\hfill \\ \widehat{c}(t_0)\hfill \end{array}\right),$$
(24)
where $`S(t,t_0)`$ is the matrix of evolution for a 4-state Demkov-Osherov model. Lets restrict the Hilbert space to the subspace of only two particles. It includes six states: $`|1>=\widehat{d}^+\widehat{a}^+|0>`$, $`|2>=\widehat{d}^+\widehat{b}^+|0>`$, $`|3>=\widehat{d}^+\widehat{c}^+|0>`$, $`|4>=\widehat{a}^+\widehat{b}^+|0>`$, $`|5>=\widehat{a}^+\widehat{c}^+|0>`$ and $`|6>=\widehat{b}^+\widehat{c}^+|0>`$. Similarly to the bosonic case, this subspace is invariant during the evolution process. The Hamiltonian restricted to this subspace has the following matrix form:

$$H=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}t\hfill & 0\hfill & 0\hfill & g_2\hfill & g_3\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & t+E_1\hfill & 0\hfill & g_1\hfill & 0\hfill & g_3\hfill \\ 0\hfill & 0\hfill & t+E_2\hfill & 0\hfill & g_1\hfill & g_2\hfill \\ g_2\hfill & g_1\hfill & 0\hfill & E_1\hfill & 0\hfill & 0\hfill \\ g_3\hfill & 0\hfill & g_1\hfill & 0\hfill & E_2\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & g_3\hfill & g_2\hfill & 0\hfill & 0\hfill & E_1+E_2\hfill \end{array}\right)$$
(25)
Let $`P_{ij}`$ ($`i,j=1,\mathrm{},6`$) be the probability to transit from the state $`j`$ to the state $`i`$ after the band crossing. The transition probabilities can be expressed in terms of the fermi-operators in the Heisenberg representation at $`t\mathrm{}`$.

$$\begin{array}{c}P_{1n}=<n|\widehat{a}^+\widehat{a}\widehat{d}^+\widehat{d}|n>\hfill \\ P_{2n}=<n|\widehat{b}^+\widehat{b}\widehat{d}^+\widehat{d}|n>\hfill \\ P_{3n}=<n|\widehat{c}^+\widehat{c}\widehat{d}^+\widehat{d}|n>\hfill \\ P_{4n}=<n|\widehat{a}^+\widehat{a}\widehat{b}^+\widehat{b}|n>\hfill \\ P_{5n}=<n|\widehat{a}^+\widehat{a}\widehat{c}^+\widehat{c}|n>\hfill \\ P_{6n}=<n|\widehat{b}^+\widehat{b}\widehat{c}^+\widehat{c}|n>\hfill \end{array}$$
(26)
Substituting (24) into (26) and employing the elements of the evolution matrix from (17) we get the following result:

$$P=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}p_2p_3\hfill & q_1q_2p_3\hfill & q_1q_3\hfill & p_1q_2p_3\hfill & p_1q_3\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & p_1p_3\hfill & p_1q_2q_3\hfill & q_1p_3\hfill & q_1q_2q_3\hfill & p_2q_3\hfill \\ 0\hfill & 0\hfill & p_1p_2\hfill & 0\hfill & q_1p_2\hfill & q_2\hfill \\ q_2\hfill & q_1p_2\hfill & 0\hfill & p_1p_2\hfill & 0\hfill & 0\hfill \\ p_2q_3\hfill & q_1q_2q_3\hfill & q_1p_3\hfill & p_1q_2q_3\hfill & p_1p_3\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & p_1q_3\hfill & q_2p_3p_1\hfill & q_1q_3\hfill & q_1q_2p_3\hfill & p_2p_3\hfill \end{array}\right)$$
(27)
where

$$\begin{array}{c}p_i=e^{2\pi |g_i|^2}\hfill \\ q_i=1p_i,(i=1,2,3)\hfill \end{array}$$
(28)
## V Conclusions.

In conclusion, we presented the procedure that generates new exactly solvable multi-state LZ models. Some of them are useful for the description of driven charge transport in quantum dots and driven tunneling in nanomagnets. As an example, we derived two new solvable models and found the transition probability matrices for them.

There have been three known classes of solvable multi-state LZ models that provide transition probabilities for a finite number of states:

1. The Demkov-Osherov model.
2. The $`SU(2)`$ symmetry class that deals with an arbitrary spin in external magnetic field with the following Hamiltonian:

$$\widehat{H}=t\widehat{S}_z+g\widehat{S}_x$$
(29)
3. The generalized bow-tie model that treats the case when two levels are parallel while the other levels intersect at one point between the parallel ones.

This list can be extended with different generalizations of these models to the case of degenerate states. For example, it is possible to solve the LZ model for two degenerate levels by changing basis in such a way that all equations decouple into independent two state Landau-Zener transitions. It is worth mentioning that sometimes a few elements of transition probability matrix can be found while the others remain unknown , .

All these models provide very simple results. For example, transition probabilities in the Demkov-Osherov model coincide with those taken from successive application of the two state Landau-Zener formula. The same is true for the generalized bow-tie model. Finally in all models the transition probabilities are simple polynomials of $`z_k=\mathrm{exp}(\pi |g_k|^2)`$. This fact gives a strong feeling that there should be a common symmetry in the background of all these models. Our results demonstrate the same properties and we know that the reason for this was the symmetry that makes the Hamiltonian equivalent in some sense to the one for a much simpler problem.

We did not study deeply the relations between the known models and our new solutions but there are indications that such a relation can exist. For example the model (5) and the generalized bow-tie model are very similar. At $`g=\gamma `$ and $`\beta _1=\beta _2,\beta _3=\beta _4`$ the Hamiltonian (5) belongs to the class of generalized bow-tie models. Also we note that models of $`SU(2)`$ class  can be derived from the following bosonic Hamiltonian:

$$\widehat{H}=t\widehat{a}^+\widehat{a}t\widehat{b}^+\widehat{b}+g(\widehat{a}^+\widehat{b}+\widehat{b}^+\widehat{a})$$
(30)
In the single-particle sector the Hamiltonian (30) leads to the simple two-state LZ model. In the $`N`$-boson sector the Schrödinger equation for diabatic states coincides with ones for a spin $`S=N/2`$ in magnetic fields. This construction is an application of the Schwinger bosons  to the LZ problem.

It is interesting to check what models can be reduced to decoupled two level systems. Probably this can be done using of the group representation theory.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported by NSF under the grants DMR 0072115 and DMR 0103068 and by DOE under the grant DE-FG03-96ER45598. I thank M.A.Kayali and N.Prokof’ev for important remarks and I am very grateful to V.L. Pokrovsky for the encouragement, discussion and critical reading of this text.


text:
# Decoherence of Bose-Einstein condensates in microtraps

## Acknowledgements.

— S. A. G. acknowledges support from the BEC 2000+ programme of the European Science Foundation, the United Kingdom’s Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council and the Alexander von Humboldt foundation. C. H. enjoyed travel support from the European Union project “Atom Chip Quantum Processor” (contract no. IST-2001-38863) and thanks V. V. Konotop, Arkadi Pikovski, and the whole Quantum Optics group led by Martin Wilkens for encouraging comments.


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# Combinatorial Aspects of Nanoscale Magnetism

## I Introduction

Polynuclear clusters provide magnetic materials with a scale intermediate between that of isolated dimers or trimers and that of bulk materials nature . These magnetic materials exhibit features on a mesoscopic scale, so they may show quantum effects coexisting with classical behavior. In addition, large assemblies of spins are interesting as real objects on which one can test theoretical models with a finite number of spins. Polynuclear magnetic aggregates have well defined crystal structures nature , allowing quantitative comparison of theoretical results with experimental ones. Unlike other assemblies of small magnetic particles a typical sample of a molecular magnetic compound is composed of nominally identical non-interacting magnets with a unique set of chemically determined parameters. They are complex organometallic systems, too difficult to investigate them by ab initio methods, applicable to simple metal cluster.

The aim of this paper is to present and discuss combinatorial structure of finite spin models. Such investigation lead to general analytical formulas for the irreducible basis and matrix elements of any operator commuting with all symmetry operators $`P(g)`$, $`gG`$, The most important is a Hamiltonian of the system in question, but also other operators can be taken into account. Since $`𝐒^2`$ commutes with the isotropic Heisenberg Hamiltonian, then the total spin $`S`$ can be used as an additional label of states. Finite spin models have been used in condensed matter physics for many years BF  and have been applied to various models of magnetic materials: from the one-dimensional ferromagnetic Ising model to the three-dimensional Heisenberg antiferromagnets. Recent developments and discoveries have stimulated interests in finite spin models, since they can be applied to meso- and nanoscopic systems, especially magnetic macromolecules with well-determined symmetry groups like \[NaFe6(OCH3)12(C17H15O4)6\]ClO4 (Fe6), \[Fe10(OCH3)20(C2H2O2Cl)10\] (Fe10), Mn12acetate or \[Mn(hfac)2NITPh\]6 (Mn6) aff ; andrea ; can ; jpcm . Considering macromolecules with many magnetic centers and large spin numbers (up to $`s=5/2`$) one deals with a very large number of states even for a small number of magnetic ions $`N`$. Moreover, this number increases rapidly with increasing $`N`$ and $`s`$. However, group-theoretical and combinatorial methods yield decomposition of a space of states into subspaces with relatively small dimensions. Therefore, magnetic properties of macromolecules can be investigated very deeply and model parameters can be fitted in more accurate way. This paper, based on the results of some earlier papers oldwsf ; floirr , is one of the steps necessary in the study considerations of small (nanoscopic) rings with relatively large spin number.

It should be also stressed that the approach described and solutions suggested can be used in any problem where a Hamiltonian symmetry group $`G`$ (or, at least, its subgroup) permutes basis vectors. It means that a permutation representation $`P`$ of $`G`$ is determined or, in other words, a group action of $`G`$ on a basis $``$ of quantum space of states is introduced. This immediately gives rise to such structures and concepts as transitive representations, orbits, stabilizers, double cosets etc. Permutation representations themselves constitute a special case of induced representation and are applied in many branches of physics lul84 . Some problems related to permutation and transitive representations were studied by Lulek et al. floirr ; cow  and their results, in various extent, are used here.

## II Finite spin models and simple combinatorial objects

A system of $`N`$ spin $`s`$ gives rise to $`(2s+1)^N`$ Ising configurations

$$|m_1m_2\mathrm{}m_N,m_j\{s,s+1,\mathrm{},s\}.$$

They can be considered as mappings

$$\mu :\{1,2,\mathrm{},N\}\{s,s+1,\mathrm{},s\}:j\mu (j)m_j.$$

Magnetization of the system, $`M=_{j=1}^N\mu (j)=_{j=1}^Nm_j`$, is an example of an additive weight. Therefore, all combinatorial methods of enumeration with weights can be applied ker . Moreover, each mapping (configuration) is also characterized by a content, i.e. by numbers

$$[k]:=[k_s,k_{s1},\mathrm{},k_s]$$

being numbers of solutions of equations

$$\mu (j)=m;m\{s,s+1,\mathrm{},s\}.$$

In fact $`[k]`$ is a non-ordered partition of $`N`$. A number of configurations with the same content is given by a polynomial coefficient

$$n([k])=\frac{N!}{_{m=s}^sk_m!}=\frac{(_{m=s}^sk_m)!}{_{m=s}^sk_m!}.$$

Hence, a number of configurations (mappings) with a given weight (magnetization) is

$$n(N,M)=\underset{[k]{\scriptscriptstyle jk_j}=M}{}n([k]).$$
(1)
Let

$$\underset{N\mathrm{times}}{\underset{}{D^sD^s\mathrm{}D^s}}=\underset{S=0\mathrm{or}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}1}/2}{\overset{Ns}{}}n(S)D^S.$$

be a decomposition of the $`N`$th tensor power of the (spin) irrep $`D^s`$. Then

$$n(S=Ns)=n(N,M=Ns)=1;n(S)=n(N,M=S)n(N,M=S+1)\text{for}S<Ns.$$

Some recurrences for $`n([k])`$ and $`n(M)`$ can derived from those for polynomial coefficients and depicted by analogs of the Pascal triangle. In Fig. 1a the recurrence

$$n([k])=\underset{j=s}{\overset{s}{}}n([k_s,k_{s+1},\mathrm{},k_j1,\mathrm{},k_s])$$

is illustrated by arrows for $`n[1,1,1]=n[0,1,1]+n[1,0,1]+n[1,1,0]`$. Introducing this relation to Eq. (1) one obtains oldwsf :

$$n(N,M)=\underset{m=s}{\overset{s}{}}n(N1,Mm).$$

It is shown by arrows in Fig. 1b in the case $`N=3`$, $`M=1`$: $`n(3,1)=n(2,2)+n(2,1)+n(2,0)`$. The dotted lines in Fig. 1a indicate polynomial coefficients summed in Eq. (1). After summation one obtains numbers presented in the last row in Fig. 1b. Formal equations for the number of configurations with given $`N`$ and $`M`$ can be derived by methods presented in Kerber’s monograph ker .

## III Finite group action

For finite both a group $`G`$ and a set $`X`$ an action $`{}_{G}{}^{}X`$ of $`G`$ on $`X`$ is defined as a mapping (an external multiplication rule in $`X`$)

$$(G\times X)X:(g,x)gx\text{with}(g_1g_2)x=g_1(g_2)x\text{and}1_Gx=x.$$

A stabilizer $`G_x`$ of $`xX`$ is a subgroup of $`G`$ such that

$$G_x:=\{gGgx=x\}.$$

An orbit $`G(x)`$ of $`xX`$ is a subset of $`X`$ such that

$$G(x):=\{gxgG\};|G(x)||G_x|=|G|.$$

The action $`{}_{G}{}^{}X`$ can be raised to an action on the set $`Y^X`$ of all mappings $`f:XY`$ ($`|Y^X|=|Y|^{|X|}`$ for finite sets):

$$(G\times Y^X)Y^X:ff^{}=fg^1,i.e.f^{}(x)=f(g^1x).$$

Enumeration of mappings needs another subset of $`X`$ — the so-called fixed points:

$$X_g=\{xXgx=x\}.$$

This set is used, for example, to determine number of mappings with given weight and stabilizer by means of the so-called Pólya substitution ker .

## IV Transitive representations, double cosets and so on

Any action of $`G`$ on an orbit $`G(x)`$ is similar111The formal definition of similarity can be found in ker . to the action of $`G`$ on the set of left cosets

$$G/G_x=\{g_rG_x1r|G(x)|\},$$

where $`r`$ labels representatives $`g_r`$ of left cosets; this action is defined as

$$g(g_rG_x)=(gg_r)G_x.$$

If subgroups $`G_x`$ and $`G_y`$ are conjugated in $`G`$, then actions $`{}_{G}{}^{}(G/G_x)`$ and $`{}_{G}{}^{}(G/G_y)`$ are similar. It means that nonequivalent actions are labeled by subgroups $`U`$ representing classes of conjugated subgroups. These actions, $`{}_{G}{}^{}(G/U)`$, can be considered as building blocks of any action $`{}_{G}{}^{}X`$.

Let $`=\{|r1r|G/U|\}`$ be a basis of a (formal) unitary space $`L`$ constructed as a linear closure (over the field of complex numbers) of $``$. The vectors in $``$ are in a one-to-one correspondence with elements of an orbit $`G(U)`$, i.e. with left cosets $`g_rU`$. Moreover, a representation $`P`$ of $`G`$ in the space $`L`$ can be defined in a natural way alt :

$$P(g)|r=|s\text{if}gg_rg_sU.$$

This representation is denoted as $`R^{G:U}`$ and called transitive.

A transitive representation $`R^{G:U}`$ is, in a general case, reducible and can be decomposed into a direct sum of irreducible representations (irreps) of $`G`$:

$$R^{G:U}=n(\mathrm{\Gamma },U)\mathrm{\Gamma };0n(\mathrm{\Gamma },U)[\mathrm{\Gamma }],$$

where $`[\mathrm{\Gamma }]`$ denotes dimension of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Any action $`{}_{G}{}^{}X`$ determines a permutation representation of $`P`$ in a space spanned over vectors $`|xr`$, where $`x`$ labels orbits and $`r`$ labels representatives of cosets $`g_rG_x`$. Since each finite action can be decomposed into action on orbits, then a permutation representation is decomposed into transitive representations.

A double coset is determined by two subgroups of $`G`$ and is defined as

$$VgU=\{vguvV,uU\}.$$

Let us consider an action of $`G`$ on the Cartesian product $`G(y)\times G(x)`$ of two orbits with the stabilizers $`G_x=U`$ and $`G(y)=V`$. This action is defined as

$$(g,(y,x))(gy,gx)$$

and has the following properties ($`x`$ and $`y`$ are fixed):

* Each orbit contains an element of the form $`(y,gx)`$;
* The stabilizer of $`(y,gx)`$ is $`G_ygG_xg^1`$;
* The mapping $`G(y,gx)G_ygG_x`$ is a bijection, so orbits of the introduced action can be labeled by double coset representatives.

## V Equations for matrix elements

It can be shown cpc ; acta  that any operator $``$ commuting with all operators $`P(g)`$, $`gG`$, can be written in a quasi-diagonal form with blocks labeled by irreps $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. In each block rows (columns) are indexed by a stability group $`U`$ ($`V`$), representatives $`x`$ ($`y`$) of orbits with a stabilizer $`U`$ ($`V`$, respectively), and by indices of vectors $`|r`$ ($`|s`$) of the irrep $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. A general form of matrix elements is following:

$$h_{Uxr,Vys}(\mathrm{\Gamma })=\left(|U||V|\right)^{1/2}\underset{d=1}{\overset{|V\backslash G/U|}{}}|Vg_dU|Uxg_d||Vye_GB_{rs}^{UV\mathrm{\Gamma }}(g_d),$$
(2)
where $`B_{rs}^{UV\mathrm{\Gamma }}(g_d)`$ depends on the so-called reduction coefficients lul84  and can be treated as group-theoretical parameters of a model under considerations. Analytic formulas for these coefficients can be determined in the case of cyclic or dihedral group $`G`$ cyclic ; flonew . This equation simplifies for the unit representation $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$:

$$h_{Ux,Vy}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_0)=\left(\frac{|U|}{|V|}\right)^{1/2}\underset{j=1}{\overset{|G/U|}{}}Uxg_j||Vye_G,$$

If there is only one double coset, represented by $`e_G`$, then all left coset representatives belong to it and

$$h_{Ux,Vy}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_0)=\left(\frac{|G|}{|U||V|}\right)^{1/2}Uxe_G||Vye_G,$$

so it is enough to calculate matrix elements for orbit representatives.

## VI Some remarks on numerical problems

Application of the formula presented above is not immediate and easy. Of course, in very simple cases, e.g. $`N=4`$ and $`s=1`$, one can calculate all matrix elements by hand. Larger systems require proper construction and implementation of algorithms. Moreover, one can use additional quantum numbers (good quantum numbers as the magnetization and the total spin in the case of isotropic Heisenberg Hamiltonians) to obtain more detailed classification of states. Secondly, the labeling scheme of orbit representatives may include partitions of $`N`$, which, in fact, label orbits of the symmetric group $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_NG`$. The action of this group does not commute with the Hamiltonian, in a general case, but commutes with the operator $`S^z=_{j=1}^ns_j^z`$ of the total magnetization. Therefore, if one wants to use the quantum number $`M`$ as an additional index, then it is natural to include partitions in the labeling scheme.

One of advantages of the formula presented is a fact, that in some cases (especially for one-dimensional irreps $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) obtained matrix elements are integers. Therefore, considering the eigenproblems for $`𝐒^2`$, which has integer eigenvalues (for $`N`$ odd and half-integer $`s`$ one can consider $`4𝐒^2`$ instead), we obtain a set of homogeneous linear equations with integer coefficients. This set can be solved exactly, but we have to cope with very large numbers. This can be done by means of any multiple precision library, for example GMP gmp . Prototypes provided by this library can be also used to store configurations in compact (packed) form. Moreover, there are as well procedures for high-precision float calculations, so the Hamiltonian eigenproblem can be solved, too. More detailed discussion of numerical problems can be found in other papers cpc ; cmst .

## VII Examples

The proposed methods are especially useful in the case of ring-shaped magnetic molecules with cyclic of dihedral symmetry group. Below some results for two molecules are presented: (i) Ni12(O2CMe)12(chp)12(H20)6(THF)6 referred to as Ni12 and (ii) Fe6. The first one has the ferromagnetic ground state wit the total spin $`S=12`$ jpcm , whereas the second is an example of a molecular antiferromagnet with $`S=0`$ in the ground state aff .

The Ni12 cluster contains a ring of twelve $`s=1`$ spin carriers. There are $`3^{12}=531441`$ Ising configurations. Assuming isotropic interactions each subspace with a given magnetization $`12M12`$ can be considered separately. The largest dimension, 73789, has the subspace with $`M=0`$. Ising configurations spanning this space are labeled by the following non-ordered partitions of 12 into no more than three parts (number of configurations for each partition is given in the parenthesis):  (1),  (132),  (2970),  (18480),  (34650),  (16632), and  (924). In the next step orbit of the symmetric group $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{12}`$ are decomposed into orbits of the dihedral group D12, what leads to transitive representations; they are decomposed into irreps of D12. For each irrep one can construct a block of the Hamiltonian matrix according with Eq. (2). The dimensions of these blocks are collected in Table 1; the largest one is 6160 for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=E_4`$. All eigenvalues (for $`M0`$, too) of the Hamiltonian

$$=\underset{j=1}{\overset{12}{}}(J𝐬_j𝐬_{j+1}+g\mu _BBs_j^z)$$

can be calculated with high numerical precision and thermodynamic properties can be determined. The best fit to experimental results presented by Blake et al. blake  is achieved for the exchange integral $`J/k_B=8.5\pm 0.5K`$ and the gyromagnetic ratio $`g=2.23\pm 0.01`$ jpcm .

The antiferromagnetic ring Fe6 contains six magnetic ions with $`s=5/2`$, so there are 46656 Ising configurations. Numbers $`n(S)`$ and $`n(6,M)`$ for $`M0`$ are presented in Table 2. Considering the ground state one has to take into account 32 non-ordered partitions. Decomposition into orbits of the dihedral group involves only three stabilizers: C1, D1, and D3. Taking into account decompositions of transitive representations into irreps one obtains results collected in Table 3.

Our aim is to calculate spin correlation in the ground state assuming isotropic Heisenberg interactions. In the considered case ($`N=6`$, $`s=5/2`$) the ground state has symmetry $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=B_1`$, so the dimension of the eigenproblem is 385. However, we solve it in two steps: (i) at first we determine and orthonormalize eigenvectors of $`𝐒^2`$ operator with the eigenvalue zero; (ii) next we transform the Hamiltonian matrix to obtain a block labeled by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=B_1`$ and $`M=S=0`$. The eigenproblem for such small matrix ($`20\times 20`$) can be easily solved with high numerical precision. We determine not only eigenvalues, but eigenstates, too, what allows to calculate spin correlations. The first three low-lying states have energies per spin (in the unit of $`J`$): $`7.322`$, $`5.761`$, $`4.831`$, what agrees with the results presented by Lascialfari et al. lgbc . The spin correlations per bond $`\omega _z(r)=_js_j^zs_{j+r}^z/6`$ in these states are following:

$$\begin{array}{ccccc}r=1& & r=2& & r=3\\ & & & & \\ 2.440817& & +1.958689& & 1.952410\\ 1.920315& & +1.056202& & 1.188439\\ 1.610233& & +0.226289& & 0.148779\end{array}$$

Note that absolute value of the nearest-neighbor $`z`$-$`z`$ correlation in the ground state is smaller than in the Néel state $`|N=|s,s,s,s,s,s`$, when one obtains the value of 6.25. However, the total spin correlation, equal $`3\omega _z(1)`$, is stronger than in the Néel state, since $`x`$-$`x`$ and $`y`$-$`y`$ correlations are equal to zero in this state. This fact shows importance of other sates with $`M=0`$ and follows from quantum character of the model considered.

## VIII Final remarks

In this report we present briefly a way from (finite) group action to calculations of spin correlations. The group-theoretical and combinatorial object appearing in this course help us to label Ising configurations in the systematic way and to obtain relatively simple form of the matrix elements. To exploit all possible simplifications we have assume isotropic interactions. However, there is no limit imposed on its range: one can easily include next-nearest neighbors or biquadratic terms $`(𝐬_j𝐬_k)^2`$. In the case of uniaxial anisotropy the total spin $`S`$ is not a good quantum number, but even in this case thermodynamic properties of small magnetic macromolecules can be determined (the total spin $`S`$ was not used to obtain results presented in jpcm ). Such model is frequently assumed to achieve a better fit to experimental results, for example in the case of Mn12acetate molecule can . The $`XYZ`$ models, when the total magnetization is not a good number, are most difficult. However, the Ising configurations still can be labeled by partitions and stabilizers, but the Hamiltonian matrix cannot be decomposed into blocks labeled by $`M`$; of course the label $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ can be used as long as the Hamiltonian commutes with all operators $`P(g)`$. It should be also stressed that some results presented are obtained using procedures included in the GMP package. For example, we are able to solve exactly a set of homogeneous linear equation with integer coefficients. The methods proposed has been applied to magnetic macromolecules, however calculations in the thermodynamic limit are also very important, since there are still some open problems related with linear magnets (e.g. critical exponents near $`T=0`$ K in the case of ferro-magnetic ordering lechu ).

## Acknowledgments

This work is partially supported by the Committee for Scientific Research under the KBN grant No. 2 P03B 074 19. The numerical calculations were mainly carried out in the the Supercomputing and Networking Center in Poznań.


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# A quantum-geometrical description of fracton statistics

## I Introduction

We make out a review of some concepts introduced by us in the literature, such as: fractons, universal classes $`h`$ of particles, fractal spectrum, duality symmetry betwenn classes $`h`$ of particles, fractal supersymmetry, fractal distribution function, fractal von Neumann entropy, fractal index etc. We apply these ideas in the context of the FQHE and number theory.

Fractons are charge-flux systems which carry rational or irrational values of spin. These objects are defined in two-dimensional multiply connected space and are classified in universal classes $`h`$ of particles or quasiparticles, with the fractal parameter or Hausdorff dimension $`h`$ , defined in the interval $`1`$$`<`$$`h`$$`<`$$`2`$. It is related to the quantum paths and can be extracted from the propagators of the particles in the momentum space. The particles are collected in each class take into account the fractal spectrum

$`h1=1\nu ,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}0}<\nu <1;h1=\nu 1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}1}<\nu <2;`$ (1)
$`h1=3\nu ,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}2}<\nu <3;h1=\nu 3,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}3}<\nu <4;etc.`$ (2)
and the spin-statistics relation $`\nu =2s`$, valid for such fractons. The fractal spectrum establishes a connection between $`h`$ and the spin $`s`$ of the particles: $`h=22s`$, $`0s\frac{1}{2}`$. Thus, there exists a mirror symmetry behind this notion of fractal spectrum. Given the statistical weight for these classes of fractons

$$𝒲[h,n]=\frac{\left[G+(nG1)(h1)\right]!}{[nG]!\left[G+(nG1)(h1)nG\right]!}$$
(3)
and from the condition of the entropy be a maximum, we obtain the fractal distribution function

$`n[h]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{𝒴[\xi ]h}}`$ (4)
The function $`𝒴[\xi ]`$ satisfies the equation

$`\xi =\left\{𝒴[\xi ]1\right\}^{h1}\left\{𝒴[\xi ]2\right\}^{2h},`$ (5)
with $`\xi =\mathrm{exp}\left\{(ϵ\mu )/KT\right\}`$. We understand the fractal distribution function as a quantum-geometrical description of the statistical laws of nature, since the quantum path is a fractal curve and this reflects the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

We can obtain for any class its distribution function considering Eq.(4) and Eq.(5). For example, the universal class $`h=\frac{3}{2}`$ with distinct values of spin $`\{\frac{1}{4},\frac{3}{4},\frac{5}{4},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{3}{2}}`$, has a specific Fractal distribution

$`n\left[{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\right]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\frac{1}{4}+\xi ^2}}}.`$ (6)
We also have

$`\xi ^1=\left\{\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]\right\}^{h2}\left\{\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]\right\}^{h1}`$ (7)
where

$`\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]={\displaystyle \frac{𝒴[\xi ]2}{𝒴[\xi ]1}}`$ (8)
is the single-particle partition function. We verify that the classes $`h`$ satisfy a duality symmetry defined by $`\stackrel{~}{h}=3h`$. So, fermions and bosons come as dual particles. As a consequence, we extract a fractal supersymmetry which defines pairs of particles $`(s,s+\frac{1}{2})`$. In this way, the fractal distribution function appears as a natural generalization of the fermionic and bosonic distributions for particles with braiding properties. Therefore, our approach is a unified formulation in terms of the statistics which each universal class of particles satisfies: from a unique expression we can take out any distribution function. In some sense , we can say that fermions are fractons of the class $`h=1`$ and bosons are fractons of the class $`h=2`$.

The free energy for particles in a given quantum state is expressed as

$`[h]=KT\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴].`$ (9)
Hence, we find the average occupation number

$`n[h]`$ $`=`$ $`\xi {\displaystyle \frac{}{\xi }}\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴].`$ (10)
The fractal von Neumann entropy per state in terms of the average occupation number is given as

$`𝒮_G[h,n]`$ $`=`$ $`K\left[\left[1+(h1)n\right]\mathrm{ln}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{1+(h1)n}{n}}\right\}\left[1+(h2)n\right]\mathrm{ln}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{1+(h2)n}{n}}\right\}\right]`$ (11)
and it is associated with the fractal distribution function (Eq.4).

The entropies for fermions $`\{\frac{1}{2},\frac{3}{2},\frac{5}{2},\mathrm{}\}_{h=1}`$ and bosons $`\{0,1,2,\mathrm{}\}_{h=2}`$, can be recovered promptly

$`𝒮_G[1]=K\left\{n\mathrm{ln}n+(1n)\mathrm{ln}(1n)\right\}`$ (12)
and

$`𝒮_G[2]=K\left\{(1+n)\mathrm{ln}(1+n)n\mathrm{ln}n\right\}.`$ (13)
Now, as we can check, each universal class $`h`$ of particles, within the interval of definition has its entropy defined by the Eq.(11). Thus, for fractons of the self-dual class $`\{\frac{1}{4},\frac{3}{4},\frac{5}{4},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{3}{2}}`$, we have

$`𝒮_G\left[{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\right]=K\left\{(2+n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2+n}{2n}}}(2n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2n}{2n}}}\right\}`$ (14)
and for two more examples, the dual classes $`\{\frac{1}{3},\frac{2}{3},\frac{4}{3},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{4}{3}}`$ and $`\{\frac{1}{6},\frac{5}{6},\frac{7}{6},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{5}{3}}`$,

the entropies read as

$`𝒮_G\left[{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}\right]=K\left\{(3+n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt[3]{{\displaystyle \frac{3+n}{3n}}}(32n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt[3]{{\displaystyle \frac{32n}{3n}}}\right\}`$ (15)
and

$`𝒮_G\left[{\displaystyle \frac{5}{3}}\right]=K\left\{(3+2n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt[3]{{\displaystyle \frac{3+2n}{3n}}}(3n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt[3]{{\displaystyle \frac{3n}{3n}}}\right\}.`$ (16)
We have also introduced the topological concept of fractal index, which is associated with each class. As we saw, $`h`$ is a geometrical parameter related to the quantum paths of the particles and so, we define

$$i_f[h]=\frac{6}{\pi ^2}_{\mathrm{}(T=0)}^{1(T=\mathrm{})}\frac{d\xi }{\xi }\mathrm{ln}\left\{\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴(\xi )]\right\}.$$
(17)
We obtain for the bosonic class $`i_f[2]=1`$, for the fermionic class $`i_f[1]=0.5`$ and for some classes of fractons, we have $`i_f[\frac{3}{2}]=0.6`$, $`i_f[\frac{4}{3}]=0.56`$, $`i_f[\frac{5}{3}]=0.656`$. For the interval of the definition $`1`$$``$$`h`$$``$$`2`$, there exists the correspondence $`0.5`$$``$$`i_f[h]`$$``$$`1`$, which signalizes the connection between fractons and quasiparticles of the conformal field theories, in accordance with the unitary $`c`$$`<`$$`1`$ representations of the central charge. For $`\nu `$ even it is defined by

$`c[\nu ]=i_f[h,\nu ]i_f[h,{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\nu }}]`$ (18)
and for $`\nu `$ odd it is defined by

$`c[\nu ]=2\times i_f[h,\nu ]i_f[h,{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\nu }}],`$ (19)
where $`i_f[h,\nu ]`$ means the fractal index of the universal class $`h`$ which contains the statistical parameter $`\nu =2s`$ or the particles with distinct values of spin, which obey specific fractal distribution function. For example, we obtain the results

$`c[0]=i_f[2,0]i_f[h,\mathrm{}]=1;`$ (20)
$`c[1]=2\times i_f[1,1]i_f[1,1]=0.5;etc.`$ (21)
We have noted in, for the first time, an unsuspected connection betwenn fractal geometry and conformal field theories, which second our considerations is expressed by Eqs.(17,18,19).

In another way, the central charge $`c[\nu ]`$ can be obtained using the Rogers dilogarithm function, i.e.

$$c[\nu ]=\frac{L[x^\nu ]}{L[1]},$$
(22)
with $`x^\nu =1x`$, $`\nu =0,1,2,3,etc.`$ and

$$L[x]=\frac{1}{2}_0^x\left\{\frac{\mathrm{ln}(1y)}{y}+\frac{\mathrm{ln}y}{1y}\right\}𝑑y,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0}<x<1.$$
(23)
Thus, we have established a connection between fractal geometry and number theory, given that the dilogarithm function appears in this context, besides another branches of mathematics.

## II Fractional quantum Hall effect

Such ideas can be applied in the context of the FQHE. This phenomenon is characterized by the filling factor parameter $`f`$, and for each value of $`f`$ we have the quantization of Hall resistance and a superconducting state along the longitudinal direction of a planar system of electrons, which are manifested by semiconductor doped materials, i.e. heterojunctions, under intense perpendicular magnetic fields and lower temperatures.

The parameter $`f`$ is defined by $`f=N\frac{\varphi _0}{\varphi }`$, where $`N`$ is the electron number, $`\varphi _0`$ is the quantum unit of flux and $`\varphi `$ is the flux of the external magnetic field throughout the sample. The spin-statistics relation is given by $`\nu =2s=2\frac{\varphi }{\varphi _0}`$, where $`\varphi `$ is the flux associated with the charge-flux system which defines the fracton $`(h,\nu )`$. According to our approach there is a correspondence between $`f`$ and $`\nu `$, numerically $`f=\nu `$. This way, we verify that the filling factors observed experimentally appear into the classes $`h`$ and from the definition of duality between the equivalence classes, we note that the FQHE occurs in pairs of these dual topological quantum numbers

$`(f,\stackrel{~}{f})=(\frac{1}{3},\frac{2}{3}),(\frac{5}{3},\frac{4}{3}),(\frac{1}{5},\frac{4}{5}),(\frac{2}{7},\frac{5}{7}),(\frac{2}{9},\frac{7}{9}),(\frac{2}{5},\frac{3}{5}),(\frac{3}{7},\frac{4}{7}),(\frac{4}{9},\frac{5}{9})etc`$.

All the experimental data satisfy this symmetry principle. In this way, our formulatiom can predicting FQHE, that is, consider the duality symmetry discovered by us. Thus, each Hall state is described by a system of quasiparticles(fractons) such that for a given value of filling factor $`f`$, the spin of the objects which constitute the physical system is $`s=f/2`$. We understand here fractons as modelling collective excitations of a two-dimensional electron gas under special conditions like FQHE.

We also observe that our approach, in terms of equivalence classes for the filling factors, embodies the structure of the modular group as discussed in the literature . We have that the transitions allowed are those generated by the condition $`p_2q_1p_1q_2=1`$, with $`h_1=\frac{p_1}{q_1}`$ and $`h_2=\frac{p_2}{q_2}`$. For example, we have the transitions between the classes

$`\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}},{\displaystyle \frac{5}{3}},{\displaystyle \frac{7}{3}},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{5}{3}};\{{\displaystyle \frac{2}{5}},{\displaystyle \frac{8}{5}},{\displaystyle \frac{12}{5}},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{8}{5}};\{{\displaystyle \frac{3}{7}},{\displaystyle \frac{11}{7}},{\displaystyle \frac{17}{7}},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{11}{7}};`$

$`\{{\displaystyle \frac{4}{9}},{\displaystyle \frac{14}{9}},{\displaystyle \frac{22}{9}},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{14}{9}};\{{\displaystyle \frac{5}{11}},{\displaystyle \frac{17}{11}},{\displaystyle \frac{27}{11}},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{17}{11}};\{{\displaystyle \frac{6}{13}},{\displaystyle \frac{20}{13}},{\displaystyle \frac{32}{13}},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{20}{13}}etc.`$

This way, we define the universality classes of the quantum Hall transitions, which are labeled by the fractal parameter $`h`$. The topological character of these quantum numbers comes from the relation between $`h`$ and $`f`$, by the fractal spectrum.

## III Number theory

We observe again that our formulation to the universal class $`h`$ of particles with any values of spin $`s`$ establishes a connection between Hausdorff dimension $`h`$ and the central charge $`c[\nu ]`$. Besides this, we have obtained a relation between the fractal parameter and the Rogers dilogarithm function, through the concept of fractal index, which is defined in terms of the partition function associated with each universal class of particles. As a result, we have a connection between fractal geometry and number theory. Thus,

$`c[\nu ]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{L[x^\nu ]}{L[1]}}=i_f[h,\nu ]i_f[h,{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\nu }}],\nu =0,2,4,etc.`$ (24)
$`c[\nu ]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{L[x^\nu ]}{L[1]}}=2\times i_f[h,\nu ]i_f[h,{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\nu }}],\nu =1,3,5,etc.`$ (25)
Also we have established a connection between the fractal parameter $`h`$ and the Farey sequences of rational numbers. Now, the fractal curve is continuous and nowhere differentiable, it is self-similar, it does not depend on the scale and has fractal dimension just in the interval $`1`$$`<`$$`h`$$`<`$$`2`$. Given a closed path with length $`L`$ and resolution $`R`$, the fractal properties of this curve can be determined by $`h1=lim_{R0}\frac{\mathrm{ln}L/l}{\mathrm{ln}R}`$, where $`l`$ is the usual length for the resolution $`R`$ and the curve is covering with $`l/R`$ spheres of diameter $`R`$.

Farey series $`F_n`$ of order $`n`$ is the increasing sequence of irreducible fractions in the range $`01`$ whose denominators do not exceed $`n`$. They satisfy the properties

P1. If $`h_1=\frac{p_1}{q_1}`$ and $`h_2=\frac{p_2}{q_2}`$ are two consecutive fractions $`\frac{p_1}{q_1}`$$`>`$$`\frac{p_2}{q_2}`$, then $`|p_2q_1q_2p_1|=1`$.

P2. If $`\frac{p_1}{q_1}`$, $`\frac{p_2}{q_2}`$, $`\frac{p_3}{q_3}`$ are three consecutive fractions $`\frac{p_1}{q_1}`$$`>`$$`\frac{p_2}{q_2}`$$`>`$$`\frac{p_3}{q_3}`$, then $`\frac{p_2}{q_2}=\frac{p_1+p_3}{q_1+q_3}`$.

P3. If $`\frac{p_1}{q_1}`$ and $`\frac{p_2}{q_2}`$ are consecutive fractions in the same sequence, then among all fractions
between the two, $`\frac{p_1+p_2}{q_1+q_2}`$ is the unique reduced fraction with the smallest denominator.

We have the following

Theorem: The elements of the Farey series $`F_n`$ of the order $`n`$, belong to the fractal sets, whose Hausdorff dimensions are the second fractions of the fractal sets. The Hausdorff dimension has values within the interval $`1`$$`<`$$`h`$$`<`$$`2`$, which are associated with fractal curves.

We observe that the sets obtained are dual sets and, in particular, we have a fractal selfdual set, with Hausdorff dimension $`h=\frac{3}{2}`$. In this way, taking into account the fractal spectrum and the duality symmetry between sets, we can extract for any Farey series of rational numbers, fractal sets whose Hausdorff dimension is the second fraction of the set.

## IV Conclusions

We have introduced a unified description of particles with distinct values of spin in terms of their statistics. From a unique expression, the fractal distribution function, we can take out distribution functions for any universal class $`h`$ of particles. The Hausdorff dimension of the fractal quantum paths of the fractons are determined by the fractal spectrum. We have here a quantum-geometrical description of the statistical laws of nature.

We verify along these ideas that the FQHE occurs in pairs of dual filling factors. These quantum numbers get their topological character from the Hausdorff dimension, a geometrical parameter associated with the fractal curves of the particles. We can check that all experimental results satisfy the symmetry principle discovered by us, the duality symmetry betwenn universal classes $`h`$ of particles. The idea of supersymmetry, in some sense, appears in this context of the condensed matter and the universality classes of the quantum Hall transitions are established.

We emphasize that our formulation is supported by symmetry principles: mirror symmetry behind the fractal spectrum, duality symmetry betwenn classes $`h`$ of particles, fractal supersymmetry, modular group behind the quantum Hall transitions.

In another direction, we have established a connection betwenn Number Theory and Physics relating fractal geometry and dilogarithm function through the concept of fractal index. Also we have determined an algorithm for computation of the Hausdorff dimension of any fractal set related to the Farey sequences of rational numbers.

Finally, we are thinking about fracton quantum computing from the possible perspective of fractons qubits.