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# STM conductance of Kondo impurities on open and structured surfaces

## I Introduction

Scanning Tunneling MicroscopyChen  (STM) has proven to be one of the most useful tools to measure and characterize low energy electron spectroscopy, at least on open surfaces where the microscope tip has a direct access to the physical region under study. In a series of recent works, Kondo impurities Kondo1964 ; Hewson1993  on the surface of noble metals have been studied using the STM.Madhavan1998 ; Madhavan2001 ; Ti  In the Kondo problem there is a characteristic temperature $`T_K`$ that separates the low temperature from the high temperature regimes. In the low temperature regime ($`T<T_K`$), the spectral density of a Kondo impurity develops a resonance at the Fermi energy, known as the Kondo resonance, and consequently locally changes the low energy spectroscopic properties of the system. When the microscope tip is placed on top of the impurity, the characteristic conductance vs voltage $`V`$ shows a typical Fano-likefano ; Plihal2001  structure that is identified as the fingerprint of the Kondo effect. In this way, the Kondo behavior of several transition metal impurities on different noble metal surfaces has been identified. In particular, the temperature dependence of the Kondo effect has been measured and, by studying Co impurities on different Cu surfaces, the scaling of the Kondo temperature with the host electron density has been shown.Knorr2002

STM has also been used to create nanostructures on noble metal surfaces by manipulation of single atoms. This allows to positionate impurities at special points of the surface or to engineer the environment of the impurity. In recent experiments the Kondo effect for a $`Co`$ impurity inside a quantum corral has been observed.Manoharan2000

The Fano like structure of the conductance observed when the STM tip is on top of a Kondo impurity, can be explained with a simple phenomenological model which includes an impurity resonant state at the Fermi energy. This resonance, that represents the Kondo resonance, has a width $`k_BT_K`$. In this model, the differential conductance though the tip $`G\left(V\right)=I/V`$ is given by:

$$G(V)=g_{0+}a\frac{q^21+2xq}{1+x^2}.$$
(1)
Here $`g_0`$ is a background conductance, $`a`$ is a constant, $`x=(eV\epsilon _F)/k_BT_K`$ and $`q`$ is the Fano parameter that depends on the electronic structure and on the tunneling matrix elements.

For a more quantitative estimation, a many body calculation including the electron - electron interactions leading to the Kondo resonance is needed. Moreover, if the impurity is placed on a surface that is structured at a nanoscopic scale, the local density of states may strongly depend on energy, an effect that changes the shape of the Kondo resonance nos\_din  and consequently of the voltage dependence of the STM conductance. A nanostructure with a characteristic length $`L`$ has a characteristic energy scale $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{}v_F/L`$ where $`v_F`$ is the Fermi velocity. In systems with $`\mathrm{\Delta }k_BT_K`$ we expect strong effects. Quantum corrals on the $`Cu`$ $`(111)`$ surface can be engineered with the desired energy scale $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, however it is not clear how much the surface states and bulk states contribute to the Kondo effect. Despite of some notorious effects like the observation, in elliptical corrals, of the so-called mirages,Manoharan2000  some experiments indicate that the surface states play almost no role in the development of the Kondo effect.Knorr2002  If so, the Kondo screening would not be affected by the corral that confines only surface states. A detailed analysis of the STM conductance can be used to elucidate this point, however to do that the surface nanostructure and the Kondo correlations have to be treated on the same footing.

In what follows we present results for the tip conductance on top of a Kondo impurity. Using the numerical renormalization group, we evaluate the finite temperature conductance for an impurity on open and clean surfaces and on structured ones.

## II The Model and Results

In this section we present the model and briefly discuss how the STM conductance is calculated using Wilson’s renormalization group. We then present the results for different situations. Our starting point is an extended Anderson model for magnetic impurities described with the following Hamiltonian:Hewson1993

$`H_{AM}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\sigma }{}}\epsilon _dd_\sigma ^{}d_\sigma +Ud_{}^{}d_{}d_{}^{}d_{}+{\displaystyle \underset{k,\sigma }{}}\epsilon _kc_{k\sigma }^{}c_{k\sigma }`$ (2)
$`+{\displaystyle \underset{k,\sigma }{}}(V_k^{}c_{k\sigma }^{}d_\sigma +V_kd_\sigma ^{}c_{k\sigma })`$
$`+{\displaystyle \underset{kk^{}\sigma \sigma ^{}}{}}U_{dc}^{kk^{}}d_\sigma ^{}d_\sigma c_{k\sigma ^{}}^{}c_{k^{}\sigma ^{}}`$
where the operator $`d_\sigma ^{}`$ creates an electron with spin $`\sigma `$ at the impurity orbital with energy $`\epsilon _d`$ and Coulomb repulsion $`U`$, $`c_{k\sigma }^{}`$ creates an electron in an extended state with quantum numbers $`k`$ and $`\sigma `$ and energy $`\epsilon _k`$. The last term is a Falicov-Kimbal like term which takes into account a Coulomb repulsion between the electrons at the impurity orbital and the ones at extended states. The quantum number $`k`$ includes the band index and crystal momentum. In the case of impurities on the Cu (111) surface there is a surface band that is relevant for determining the STM conductance.Knorr2002

The STM conductance at low temperatures is given byMahan

$$G(V)=\frac{4\pi e^2}{\mathrm{}}\rho _t\rho (\epsilon _F+eV),$$
(3)
where $`eV`$ is the voltage drop from the tip to the sample, and $`\rho _t`$ is the tip density of states that is assumed to be constant around the Fermi energy. In the linear response regime, the quantity $`\rho (\epsilon _F+eV)`$ is given by

$$\rho (\epsilon _F+eV)=\frac{1}{\pi }Im𝒢(\epsilon _F+eV).$$
(4)
Here $`𝒢(\omega )`$ is the retarded Green function of the operator $`t_c\psi _\sigma ^{}(R)+t_dd_\sigma ^{}`$, $`t_c`$ and $`t_d`$ are matrix elements for tunneling of an electron from the tip to the conduction band states and impurity orbital respectively and $`\psi _\sigma ^{}(R)`$ is the field operator that creates an electron on the surface at coordinate $`R`$. In what follows we consider that the tip is on top of the impurity and take $`RR_{i\text{ }}`$to be the impurity coordinate.

The Green function is calculated using the numerical renormalization group (NRG). For a general description of the method we refer to Refs. Wilson1975,  and Costi1994, , here we give only some details that are specific to our calculation. The starting point of the NRG is to reduce the Hamiltonian (2) to that of a linear chain

$`H_{AM}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\sigma }{}}\epsilon _dd_\sigma ^{}d_\sigma +Ud_{}^{}d_{}d_{}^{}d_{}+{\displaystyle \underset{\sigma }{}}W_0f_{0\sigma }^{}f_{0\sigma }`$ (5)
$`+V{\displaystyle \underset{\sigma }{}}(f_{0\sigma }^{}d_\sigma +d_\sigma ^{}f_{0\sigma })+U_{dc}{\displaystyle \underset{\sigma \sigma ^{}}{}}d_\sigma ^{}d_\sigma f_{0\sigma ^{}}^{}f_{0\sigma ^{}}`$
$`+{\displaystyle \underset{\sigma ,n=0}{}}\lambda _n(f_{n\sigma }^{}f_{n+1\sigma }+f_{n+1\sigma }^{}f_{n\sigma })`$
The states described by the operators $`f_{n\sigma }^{}`$ are Wilson’s orbitals centered at the impurity with the state $`|0,\sigma `$ associated with $`f_{0\sigma }^{}`$ being a Wannier like orbital centered at the impurity coordinate. The parameters $`\lambda _n`$ generate a logarithmic discretization of the conduction band, and $`W_0`$ describes the impurity potential scattering. The Hamiltonian (5) is diagonalized numerically using an iterative controlled scheme. At each iteration step $`N`$, a truncated Hamiltonian with $`N`$ orbitals is used and the many body states within an energy scale $`\omega _N`$ are evaluated. The thermodynamic and dynamical properties at each energy scale can then be calculated recursively.

As it is usually done to describe the Kondo problem, Hamiltonian (5) includes a single channel that is due to all the conduction bands. In the case of the $`Cu(111)`$ surface there is a surface band and bulk states that contribute to the density of states at the Fermi energy. Wilson’s orbitals are assumed to be a linear combination of surface and bulk states, in particular the Wannier state $`|0,\sigma `$ contains a surface and a bulk component determined by the respective hybridization matrix elements $`V_k`$.

To calculate the STM conductance when the tip is on top of the impurity, we take the field operator $`\psi _\sigma ^{}(R_i)`$ to be $`f_{0\sigma }^{}`$ and calculate the retarded Green function of the operator $`t_c^{}f_{0\sigma }^{}+t_dd_\sigma ^{}.`$ The matrix element $`t_c^{}`$ depends on how much the Wannier orbital $`|0,\sigma `$ contains of the surface or bulk states. To be more specific on the nature of the Wannier orbital $`|0,\sigma `$ and on the matrix element $`t_c^{}`$, a detailed model of the electronic structure of the metal host and of the electron transfer from the tip to the surface is required.

The retarded Green function of Eq. (4) is calculated as in Ref. Costi1994,  and

$`\rho (\epsilon _F+eV)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi }}[𝒢(\omega +i0^+)𝒢(\omega i0^+)]_{\omega =\epsilon _F+eV}`$ (6)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\lambda ,\lambda ^{}}{}}|M_{\lambda ,\lambda ^{}}|^2{\displaystyle \frac{(e^{E_\lambda /k_BT}+e^{E_\lambda ^{}/k_BT})}{Z(T)}}\times `$
$`\delta (\epsilon _F+eV(E_\lambda ^{}E_\lambda ))`$
where $`Z(T)`$ is the grand partition function

$$Z(T)=\underset{\lambda }{}e^{E_\lambda /k_BT}$$
(7)
and $`M_{\lambda ,\lambda ^{}}=\lambda |t_c^{}f_{0\sigma }^{}+t_dd_\sigma ^{}|\lambda ^{}`$. At each energy scale $`\omega _N`$ the discrete spectra is smoothed by replacing the delta functions by a smooth distribution. In what follows we use a logarithmic Gaussian that has been proven to give the best results.

### II.1 Impurity on a clean surface

Here we present the results for a Kondo impurity on an open surface. In an energy scale of several $`k_BT_{K\text{ , }}`$the bare density of conduction states is constant around the Fermi energy. Then the calculation can be done with the usual band discretization first proposed by Wilson. The results obtained for the conductance are shown in Figs. 1, 3 and 4.

The STM conductance depends on the following parameters: $`k_BT_K`$ that gives the low energy scale where the local spectroscopic properties are dominated by the impurity, the temperature $`k_BT`$ and the Fano parameter $`q`$ that combines the tunneling matrix elements and some aspects of the band structure. If the Kondo resonance is represented by a simple resonant state, the Fano parameter is given by

$$q=\frac{t_d+t_c^{}Re(0)}{t_c^{}Im\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)}$$
(8)
where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )=_kV_k/(\omega \epsilon _k)`$ is an effective band propagator.Zawadowski  For a system with electron-hole symmetry the real part of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )`$ at the Fermi energy is zero and the parameter $`q`$ is proportional to the matrix element $`t_d`$ that describes the direct tunneling into the localized state. In this case, $`q`$ accounts for the interference between the two tunneling channels. In general, real systems have a non zero $`Re\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)`$ and there is no need to assume a direct tunneling to the localized state to have an asymmetric ($`q0`$) Fano resonance. In the NRG approach, the use of a symmetric conduction band simplifies the calculation and most of the numerical work on the Kondo effect has been done with this symmetry. We have introduced the potential scattering term $`W_0`$ to break the electron-hole symmetry of the band. The Fano resonance then depends on the conduction band parameters and in agreement with Ref. Zawadowski, , with a non zero $`W_0`$ we obtain asymmetric line shapes even for $`t_d=0`$.

In Fig. 1 the conductance vs applied voltage is shown for $`\epsilon _d=U/2`$ and $`U_{dc}=0`$, all parameters are given in units of half the bandwidth $`D=1`$. In Fig. 1(a) the results for $`W_0=0`$ and a set of the ratios $`t_d/t_c^{}`$ are shown, this ratio determines the structure of the conductance. In Fig. 1(b), by independently varying $`W_0`$ for $`t_d=0`$ we show that in a full NRG many body calculation, the low energy STM conductance is still given by a single parameter $`q`$ as given by equation (8). As $`W_0`$ is increased the resonance narrows indicating a lowering of the Kondo temperature. This is due to a decrease in the local density of states at the Fermi energy. The increase of $`W_0`$ also induces an increase of the Fano parameter. For simplicity, in what follows we take symmetric band ($`Re\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)=0`$) where the Fano parameter is given by $`q=t_d/t_c^{}\pi \rho V`$, where $`\rho `$ is the density of states of the band.

Our calculation, that up to now mainly reproduces known results, shows that the NRG gives reliable results when used to evaluate the STM conductance. In what follows we present some results that include the behavior of the conductance when the energy of the localized orbital approaches the Fermi energy, the effect of the Falicov-Kimbal term $`U_{dc}`$ and the temperature dependence of the conductance.

We start by discussing the conductance dependence on the localized orbital energy $`\epsilon _d`$. As $`\epsilon _d`$ is increased and approaches the Fermi energy, first the Kondo temperature increases and then the impurity enters an intermediate valence regime. In the conductance shown in Fig. 2 these effects are clearly observed. A notorious effect for intermediate values of $`\epsilon _d`$ is the occurrence of an asymmetry for finite voltages: away from the Fermi level the values of $`G(V)`$ are smaller for $`V<0`$ than for $`V>0`$. This effect is due to the localized orbital resonance that is close to the Fermi energy. As $`\epsilon _d`$ increases even more (not shown) the resonance crosses the Fermi level, the impurity occupation is reduced and the conductance shows a broad structure with a width that is given by the resonance width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ rather than by the Kondo temperature. As we now show, the effect of a non zero electron-electron interaction $`U_{dc}`$ is equivalent to a shift in the impurity level. The parameter $`U_{dc}`$ is irrelevant, that means that in the Kondo regime the zero temperature fixed point does not depend on this parameter and the low temperature thermodynamic behavior is universal as for $`U_{dc}=0`$. However this interaction may change some details in the low energy spectral structure for energies of the order or larger than $`k_BT_K`$. We have analyzed the effect of $`U_{dc}`$ on the STM conductance and the results are summarized in Fig. 3. As $`U_{dc}`$ increases the Fano line shape changes and two different effects can be observed: i) the width of the conductance minimum increases indicating an increase in the Kondo temperature and ii) the voltage dependence of the conductance becomes more asymmetric. These two points are consistent with an effective shift the localized level toward the Fermi energy.

The asymmetry in $`G(V)`$ obtained when the resonant level approaches the Fermi level has not been discussed in detail in the literature, however experimental results for $`Co`$ on $`Cu(111)`$ and for $`Ti`$ on $`Ag`$ show this type of effect. In Ref. Ti,  the raw experimental has a marked asymmetriy in the conductance that was attributed to a broad resonance lying just above the Fermi energy. Our results may explain the asymmetry as due to the same localized orbital that generates the Kondo resonance.

Now we present finite temperature results and analyze the temperature dependence of the conductance. To do this we calculate the finite temperature spectral densities following Refs. nos\_din,  and Costi1994,  and use the finite temperature extension of Eq. (3)

$$G(V,T)=\frac{4\pi e^2}{\mathrm{}}\rho _t𝑑\epsilon \frac{f(\epsilon eV)}{d\epsilon }\rho (\epsilon ),$$
(9)
where $`f(\epsilon )`$ is the Fermi function. In Fig. 4(a) the conductance for a small $`q`$ and $`W_0=U_{dc}=0`$ is shown for different temperatures. As the temperature increases the width of the low voltage structure increases. In agreement with the experimental results of Ref. Ti, , our results show a width that increases according to the low temperature Fermi liquid theory. In the inset of Fig. 4 (a) the numerical width is shown for different temperatures, the thick continuous line is a fit with the Fermi liquid expression $`\gamma =\frac{\gamma _0}{\sqrt{2}k_BT_K}\sqrt{(\pi k_BT)^2+2(k_BT_K)^2}`$. In Fig. 4(b) the temperature dependence of a system with $`\epsilon _d=0.2`$ is shown. There is remarkable resemblance between some of these curves and the experimental results of $`Ti`$ on $`Ag`$.

### II.2 Impurity on a structured surface

We now present results for the STM conductance when the Kondo impurity is on a structured surface. The main effect of a nanostructure on the surface is to produce an energy dependence of the local density of states on a scale $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ that may be comparable with $`k_BT_K`$. If this happens the Kondo effect may be very much affected as discussed in previous works. Possible realizations of this situation may be obtained by placing impurities in quantum corrals, on small islands or in any structure with a characteristic size of the order of the hundred Å. The problem then becomes much more complicated mainly because of two reasons: on the one hand, the nanostructure of the host and the Kondo correlations have to be treated on the same footing. On the other hand, a detailed model for the metallic surface and the effect of the nanostructure on the bulk and surface states is needed. In general, in surfaces like the $`Cu(111)`$ where there is a surface band, we expect structures like the quantum corrals or small islands to confine surface states keeping the bulk states nearly unaffected. If so, these structures would change the Kondo effect according to the participation of the surface states on the magnetic screening of the impurity. This point is still controversial: while the observation of quantum mirages seems to indicate that surface modes actively participate in the Kondo screening, other experimental results suggest that the Kondo effect is due to bulk states. The STM conductance could be used to clarify this point.

Due to the lack of a detailed model suitable to be treated with the renormalization group approach, we resort to a simple and phenomenological model to study the effect of structured local densities of states. The model reduces the problem to a single effective conduction band. As before, we assume that Wilson’s orbitals are built as linear combination of the surface or bulk states. The surface nanostructure affects mostly the surface component of these states. In order to describe a local density of states with a structure in the desired energy range, we resort to the method described in Refs. nos\_din,  and nos\_termo, . The calculation includes a potential barrier that confines the electrons. The local density of states so obtained in the absence of impurity has the form of resonant states. This type of resonances have been observed using the STM in atomic islands or terraces on the $`Cu(111)`$ surfaces.Veuillen  If surface states participate actively on the Kondo screening, the modulation of the relevant local density of states would be large indicating that the active electrons are confined by the nanostructure (a large potential barrier). Conversely, if the Kondo effect is mostly due to the bulk states, the local density of states modulation would be very week. In this case we use a small effective barrier. The model is meant to make only qualitative estimations, nevertheless as we show below some important conclusions can be drawn from our analysis.

As stated above, a nanostructure introduces a new length scale and the corresponding energy scale $`\mathrm{\Delta }.`$ Since the number of microscopic parameters of the model is large, we just distinguish to cases: large structures with $`\mathrm{\Delta }k_BT_K`$ and small nanostructures with $`\mathrm{\Delta }>k_BT_K`$. Another important aspect of the Kondo effect in nanostructures concerns the position of the Fermi level relative to the structure of the local density of states. In this respect we consider the two extreme cases: the Fermi energy lying at a resonance (at-resonance case) or between two resonances (off-resonance case). The quantum corrals on $`Cu(111)`$ with characteristic sizes of the order of $`100\text{Å}`$ correspond to the small nanostructure category. The elliptical corrals of Ref. Manoharan2000,  have the Fermi energy at a resonance.

Figure 5 illustrates the case of a relatively large nanostructure ($`\mathrm{\Delta }k_BT_K`$) for the at-resonance and off-resonance cases. The calculation was done with a small $`q`$ and an intermediate barrier. The low temperature STM conductance shows a Fano like structure modulated by a superstructure of peaks separated approximately by the characteristic energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. For the at-resonance case the central valley slightly broadens while for the off-resonance case narrow structures at low voltages are obtained. As the barrier height decreases the amplitude of the oscillations in the host local density of states decreases and the conductance continuously approaches the open surface result.

Figure 6 shows the results for a small system ($`\mathrm{\Delta }>k_BT_K`$). In this case the superstructure is not visible since $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is out of scale. For the at-resonance (Fig. 6(b)) case and large barriers, the Kondo temperature aincreases and the Fano structure is broadened. This is due to an increase of the local density of states at the Fermi energy $`\epsilon _F`$. The Kondo temperature has an exponential dependence with the density of states and consequently the broadening is very important for intermediate or large barriers. For the off-resonance case (Fig. 6(b)), the density of states decreases and the structure narrows, for large barrier a narrow Fano structure with a large $`q`$ mounted on a background with a pronounced minimum at $`\epsilon _F`$ is obtained.

## III Summary and Discussion

We have analyzed the STM conductance $`G(V)`$ for Kondo impurities on clean and structured surfaces. Starting with an Anderson model we used the NRG to calculate the physical properties and voltage dependence of the conductance. For clean surfaces we showed that the numerical approach gives reliable results and reproduces the Fano type STM response. In particular, we have studied in some detail how $`G(V)`$ depends on different microscopic parameters and on temperature. As the impurity level is shifted away from the symmetric case $`\epsilon _d=U/2`$, either by changing its energy or by means of a Falicov-Kimbal interaction, the Fano line is distorted. For a set of physical parameters, both the shape and the temperature dependence of the conductance are in good agreement with experimental observations. The temperature dependence is also in good agreement with the low temperature Fermi liquid theory.

To discuss the STM conductance of impurities in structured surfaces we used an effective one channel model. In surfaces like the $`Cu(111)`$ one, where there is a surface band, this effective channel represents a linear combination of surface and bulk sates. Since a surface structure perturbs much more the surface modes than the bulk modes, the sensitivity of the Kondo effect to the structure gives an idea of the surface mode participation in the Kondo screening. We have shown that small structures like the quantum corrals, that are quite efficient in confining surface electrons, should produce important changes in the Kondo temperature and on the STM response if the surface modes were active in the Kondo physics. The experiments show that the Fano line has essentially the same width when the impurity is on a clean surface or inside a corral, only small changes in the parameter $`q`$ are observed.mano  This fact is a clear indication that the surface modes can sense the Kondo effect but are not important in determining it. This conclusion is in agreement with estimation of the microscopic parameters for surface and bulk states.ana

This work was partially supported by the CONICET and ANPCYT, grants N. 02151 and 99 3-6343.


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# Euclidean Clifford Algebra

## 1 Introduction

This is the first paper of a series of seven. We introduce $`𝒞\mathrm{}(V,G_E)`$, an *euclidean* Clifford algebra of multivectors associated to an euclidean structure on a $`n`$-dimensional real vector space $`V`$. By an euclidean structure we mean a pair $`(V,G_E)`$ where $`G_E`$ is an euclidean metric on $`V.`$ Our construction of $`𝒞\mathrm{}(V,G_E)`$ has been designed in order to produce a powerful computational tool. It starts by introducing the concept of multivectors over $`V`$. These objects are elements of a linear space over the real field, denoted by $`V.`$ We introduce in $`V`$, the concepts of *exterior product* and *euclidean* *scalar product* of multivectors. This permits the introduction of two *contraction operators* on $`V,`$ and the concept of euclidean *interior* algebras. Equipped with these notions an euclidean Clifford product is introduced. We worked out with considerable details several important identities and useful formulas, to help the reader to develope a skill on the subject, preparing himself for the reading of the following papers in this series111The papers in this series will be denoted when quoted within or in another paper in the series by I, II, III,… (and also for the ones in two forthcoming series of papers). We have the following resume concerning to the content of the other papers of the present series.

In paper II we introduce the fresh concept of *general* *extensors.* The theory of these objects is developed and the properties of some particular extensors that appear frequently in our theory of multivector functions and multivector functionals (the subject of papers V,VI and VII) are worked in details.

In paper III we study the relationship between the concepts of a *metric tensor* $`G`$ (of arbitrary signature $`s=pq`$ ( or $`(p,q)`$ as physicists say), with $`p+q=n)`$ for a $`n`$-dimensional vector space $`V`$ and a *metric extensor* $`g`$ for that space (with the same signature), showing the advantage of using the later object even in elementary linear algebra theory. It is worthwhile to emphasize here that our introduction of the concept of metric extensor plays a crucial role in our definition of *metric* Clifford algebras, which are introduced in paper IV. There, a *metric* Clifford product is introduced by a well-defined *deformation* (induced by $`g`$) of a given euclidean Clifford product. We introduce also the concept of *gauge metric* *extensor* $`h`$ associated to a metric extensor $`g,`$ and present and prove the so-called *golden* *formula.* The gauge extensors222More precisely, in differential geometry the key objects are gauge extensor *fields*. appear naturally in our theory of the differential geometry on manifolds.

In papers V and VI we present a theory of *multivector functions* of a real variable, and a theory of multivector functions of a $`p`$-vector variable. The notions of limit, continuity and differentiability are carefully studied. Particular emphasis is given to relate the basic concept of *directional derivative* with other types of derivatives such as the *generalized* curl, divergence and gradient.

In paper VII we develop a theory of *multivector functionals*, a key concept for the developments that we have in mind, and that has not been properly studied until now.

In two future series of papers the material developed in the present series will be used as the expression and calculational tool of several different mathematical and physical theories. We quote here our theory of possible different kinds of *covariant derivatives operators* for *multivector* and *extensor fields* on arbitrary metric manifolds which explicitly shows how these different possible covariant derivative operators are related through the concept of gauge extensors. In particular, the concept of *deformed* derivative operators will be seen to play a key rule in our formulation of families of mathematically possible geometric theories of gravitation (using Clifford algebras methods). We believe that our presentation of these theories have a new flavor in relation to old presentations of possible theories of gravitation (of the Riemann-Cartan-Weyl types). Also, it will be seen that the concept of multivector functionals (developed in paper VII) is a necessary one for a presentation of a rigorous formulation of a Lagrangian theory for multivector and extensor fields having support on an arbitrary manifold (or subsets of it) representing spacetime.333The definition of a spacetime will be given at the appropriate place. 444Our approach immediately suggests possible improvements of the Einstein’s gravitational theory as well as other interpretations, where the gravitational field, contrary to what happens in Einstein’s theory is understood as a physical field in the sense of Faraday.

Before starting our enterprise we recall that Clifford Algebras and their applications in Mathematical Physics are now respectable subjects of research whose wealth can be appreciate by an examination of the topics presented in the last five international conference on this subject555The subject has even a journal, *Advances in Applied Clifford Algebras* , edited by J. Keller and in publication since 1991. Keller is an enthusiastic of the applications of Clifford algebras in theoretical physics and contributed with several beautiful papers to the subject. His ideas are nicely described in his recent book . (,). We have no intention to present here even a small history of the subject, and we do not claim even to have given any reasonable list of references on papers and books on the subject. Only a few points and references will be recalled here666We antecipately apologize to the author of any important contribution on the subject that has not been quoted in our brief account.. Clifford algebras777Formulations of Maxwell and Dirac theories which use only Clifford algebras (more properly speaking Clifford bundles), and do not use the concept of *extensor* are incomplete . These theories, e.g., cannot capture the essential mathematical nature of the physical concepts of energy-momentum and angular momentum associated with physical fields (in the sense of Faraday), since they must be mathematically represented by extensor fields. In particular, approaches to Dirac theory which do not use the concept of extensors are incomplete, to say the less. On this issue, see ( -). has been applied since a long time ago for presentations of Maxwell theory, see e.g., (-), of Dirac theory, see e.g., (-) and the theory of the gravitational field, see e.g., (,,). Hestenes in 1966  wrote a small book on the subject which has been source of inspiration for many scientists and eventually spread unnecessary misconceptions on the subject of Clifford algebras and their applications in physics. In 1984 Hestenes and Sobczyk published a book888This book is essentially based on Sobczyk Ph.D. thesis presented at the Department of Mathematics of the University of Arizona. We are grateful to Professor P. Lounesto (Helsinki) for this important information., emphasizing that Clifford algebras leads naturally to a *geometric calculus* . Some of the ideas that we will explore in papers I-VII have their inspiration on that book. However, it must be emphasized that our approach differs substantially from the one of those authors in many aspects as the reader can verify. In particular, the theory of multivector functionals and their derivatives with the full generality that the subject deserves appears in this series for the first time. Our exposition of the *differential geometry* on manifolds (the subject of a new series of papers), with a general theory of connections using the concept of extensor fields is (we believe) a fresh approach to the subject. Our theory is *not* based on the concept of vector manifolds used in  (which presents some problems ) and can be applied rigorously to general manifolds of arbitrary topology999A preliminary presentation of the general theory of connection using multivector-extensor calculus on Minkowski manifolds appears in .. Our development of a Lagrangian theory of multivector fields 101010In the paper dealing with the Lagrangian formalism for fields we make use of the concept of a spinor field that (roughly speaking) can be said to be an equivalence class of a sum of non homogenous multivector fields. A tentative definition of these objects appear in , which unfortunately contains many misprints and some important errors. These are correct in ( ,). improves preliminary presentations111111See  for a list of references on the subject., since now we give a formulation valid for multivector fields and extensor fields over arbitrary Lorentzian manifolds equipped with a general connection (*not* necessarily metric compatible)121212It is also possible to present a theory of *spinor* fields, where these objects are (loosely speaking) represented by certain equivalence classes of multivector fieds on an arbitrary manifold. A rigorous presentation of that theory is given elsewhere (,).. We emphasize also that our presentation of Einstein’s gravitational theory (in a future series of papers) using the multivector-extensor calculus on manifolds will demonstrates that preliminary attempts  towards a theory of the gravitational field based on these concepts is paved with some serious mathematical (and also physical) misconceptions (see also  in this respect) which invalidate them. We think that our presentation of the basic working ideas about euclidean and metric Clifford algebras is reasonable self complete for our purposes. However, there is still more concerning Clifford algebra theory that has not been developed or even quoted in this series of papers. These results are important for many applications ranging from pure and applied mathematics to engineering and recent physical theories (see, e.g.,  ).

For readers that are newcomers to the subject we recommend the books by Lounesto  and Porteous (,) for complementary points of view and material relative to the developments that follows.

## 2 The Euclidean Clifford Algebra of Multivectors

Let $`V`$ be a vector space over $``$ with finite dimension, i.e., $`dimV=n,`$ where $`nN,`$ and let $`V^{}`$ be the dual vector space to $`V`$. Recall that $`dimV=dimV^{}=n`$.

Let $`k`$ be an integer number with $`0kn`$. The vector spaces of $`k`$-vectors and $`k`$-forms over $`V`$ as usual will be denoted by $`^kV`$ and $`^kV^{}`$, respectively.131313If the reader is not familiar with exterior algebra he must consult texts on the subject. See, e.g., (,). However, care must be taken when reading different books which use *different* definitions for the *exterior* product and still use all the same symbol for that different products. About this issue, see comments on Appendix A.

As well known, a $`0`$-vector can be identified with a real number, i.e., $`^0V=,`$ an $`1`$-vector is the name of objects living on $`V,`$ i.e., $`^1V=V,`$ and a $`k`$-vector with $`2kn`$ is precisely a skew-symmetric contravariant $`k`$-tensor over $`V`$. A $`0`$-form is also a real number, i.e., $`^0V^{}=`$. A $`1`$-form is a form (or covector) belonging to $`V^{},`$ i.e., $`^1V^{}=V^{},`$ and a $`k`$-form with $`2kn`$ is exactly a skew-symmetric covariant $`k`$-tensor over $`V.`$ Recall that $`dim^kV=dim^kV^{}=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{k}\right)`$.

The $`0`$-vectors, $`2`$-vectors,$`\mathrm{},`$ $`(n1)`$-vectors and $`n`$-vectors are sometimes called scalars, bivectors,$`\mathrm{},`$ pseudovectors and pseudoscalars, respectively. The $`0`$-forms, $`2`$-forms,$`\mathrm{},`$ $`(n1)`$-forms and $`n`$-forms are named as scalars, biforms,$`\mathrm{},`$ pseudoforms and pseudoscalars, respectively.

### 2.1 Multivectors

A formal sum of $`k`$-vectors over $`V`$ with $`k`$ running from $`0`$ to $`n,`$

$$X=X_0+X_1+\mathrm{}+X_n,$$
(1)
is called a *multivector* over $`V.`$

The set of multivectors over $`V`$ has a natural structure of vector space over $``$ and is usually denoted by $`V=+V+\mathrm{}+^nV.`$ We have that $`dimV=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{0}\right)+\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{1}\right)+\mathrm{}+\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{n}\right)=2^n.`$

#### 2.1.1 $`k`$-Part, Grade Involution and Reversion Operators

Let $`k`$ be an integer number with $`0kn.`$ The linear mapping $`VXX_k^kV`$ such that for any $`j`$ with $`0jn:`$ if $`jk,`$ then $`X_k=0,`$ i.e.,

$$X_k=X_k,$$
(2)
for each $`k=0,1,\mathrm{},n,`$ is called the $`k`$-part operator. $`X_k`$ is read as the $`k`$-part of $`X.`$

It is evident that any multivector can be written as sum of their $`k`$-parts

$$X=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}X_k.$$
(3)
There are several important automorphisms (or antiautomorphisms) on $`V`$. For what follows, we shall need to introduce some automorphisms that are involutions on $`V`$. We have:

i The linear mapping $`VX\widehat{X}V`$ such that

$$\widehat{X}=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}(1)^kX_k,$$
(4)
is called the *main automorphim* operator or *grade involution* operator. $`\widehat{X}`$ is called the grade involution of $`X.`$

ii The linear mapping $`VX\stackrel{~}{X}V`$ such that

$$\stackrel{~}{X}=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}(1)^{\frac{1}{2}k(k1)}X_k,$$
(5)
is an antiautomorphism called the *reversion* operator. $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$ is called the reverse of $`X.`$

Since the main automorphisms and reversion operators are involutions on the vector space of multivectors, we have that $`\widehat{\widehat{X}}=X`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\stackrel{~}{X}}=X.`$ Both involutions commute with the $`k`$-part operator, i.e., $`\widehat{X}_k=\widehat{X}_k`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{X_k}=\stackrel{~}{X}_k,`$ for each $`k=0,1,\mathrm{},n.`$

The composition of the main automorphism with the reversion operator (in any order) is called the *conjugate* operator. The conjugate of $`X`$ will be denoted by $`\overline{X}`$. We have

$$\overline{X}=\stackrel{~}{\widehat{X}}=\widehat{\stackrel{~}{X}}.$$
(6)
### 2.2 Exterior Algebra

We define the exterior product141414There are several different definitions of the exterior product in the literature differing by factors and all using the same symbol.. This may lead to confusion if care is not taken. See Appendix A for some details. of $`X_p^pV`$ and $`Y_q^qV`$ by

$$X_pY_q=\frac{(p+q)!}{p!q!}𝒜(X_pY_q),$$
(7)
where $`X_pY_q`$ is the tensor product of $`X_p`$ by $`Y_q`$ (see Appendix A) and $`𝒜`$ is the *antisymmetrization operator*, i.e., a linear mapping $`𝒜:T^kV^kV`$ such that

(i) for all $`\alpha :𝒜\alpha =\alpha ,`$

(ii) for all $`vV:𝒜v=v,`$

(iii) for all $`tT^kV,`$ with $`k2,`$

$$𝒜t(\omega ^1,\mathrm{},\omega ^k)=\frac{1}{k!}ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_k}t(\omega ^{i_1},\mathrm{},\omega ^{i_k}),$$
(8)
where $`ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_k}`$ is the permutation symbol of order $`k,`$

$$ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_k}=\{\begin{array}{cc}1,& \text{if }i_1\mathrm{}i_k\text{ is a even permutation of }1\mathrm{}k\\ 1,& \text{if }i_1\mathrm{}i_k\text{ is odd permutation of }1\mathrm{}k\\ 0,& \text{otherwise}\end{array}$$
(9)
Eq.(7), with $`p1`$ and $`q1`$ means that for $`\omega ^1,\mathrm{},\omega ^p,\omega ^{p+1},\mathrm{},\omega ^{p+q}V^{},`$

$`X_pY_q(\omega ^1,\mathrm{},\omega ^p,\omega ^{p+1},\mathrm{},\omega ^{p+q})`$ (10)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{p!q!}}ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_pi_{p+1}\mathrm{}i_{p+q}}X_p(\omega ^{i_1},\mathrm{},\omega ^{i_p})Y_q(\omega ^{i_{p+1}},\mathrm{},\omega ^{i_{p+q}}).`$
From eq.(7) by using a well-known property of the antisymmetrization operator, namely: $`𝒜(𝒜tu)=𝒜(t𝒜u)=𝒜(tu),`$ a noticeable formula for expressing simple $`k`$-vectors in terms of tensor products of $`k`$ vectors can be easily deduced. It is151515Recall that $`ϵ^{j_1\mathrm{}j_k}ϵ_{j_1\mathrm{}j_k}.`$,

$$v_1\mathrm{}v_k=ϵ^{j_1\mathrm{}j_k}v_{j_1}\mathrm{}v_{j_k}.$$
(11)
If $`\omega ^1,\mathrm{},\omega ^kV^{},`$ then

$$v_1\mathrm{}v_k(\omega ^1,\mathrm{},\omega ^k)=ϵ^{j_1\mathrm{}j_k}\omega ^1(v_{j_1})\mathrm{}\omega ^k(v_{j_k}).$$
(12)
Now, we define the exterior product of *multivectors* $`X`$ and $`Y`$ as being the mutivector with components $`XY_k`$ such that

$$XY_k=\underset{j=0}{\overset{k}{}}X_jY_{kj},$$
(13)
for each $`k=0,1,\mathrm{},n.`$ Note that on the right side there appears the exterior product of $`j`$-vectors and $`(kj)`$-vectors with $`0jn`$.

This exterior product is an *internal* composition law on $`V`$. It is associative and satisfies the usual distributive laws (on the left and on the right).

The vector space $`V`$ endowed with this exterior product $``$ is an associative algebra called the *exterior algebra* of multivectors.

We recall now for future use some important properties of the exterior algebra of multivectors:

ei For any $`\alpha ,\beta ,`$ $`XV`$

$`\alpha \beta `$ $`=`$ $`\beta \alpha =\alpha \beta \text{ (real product),}`$ (14)
$`\alpha X`$ $`=`$ $`X\alpha =\alpha X\text{ (multiplication by scalars).}`$ (15)
eii For any $`X_j^jV`$ and $`Y_k^kV`$

$$X_jY_k=(1)^{jk}Y_kX_j.$$
(16)
eiii For any $`X,YV`$

$`\widehat{XY}`$ $`=`$ $`\widehat{X}\widehat{Y},`$ (17)
$`\stackrel{~}{XY}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{Y}\stackrel{~}{X}.`$ (18)
### 2.3 Euclidean Scalar Product

Let $`G_E`$ be an *euclidean metric* for $`V`$, i.e., a mapping $`G_E:V\times V`$ which is a symmetric, non-degenerate and positive definite bilinear form over $`V,`$

$`G_E(v,w)`$ $`=`$ $`G_E(w,v)\text{ }v,wV`$ (19)
$`\text{If }G_E(v,w)`$ $`=`$ $`0\text{ }wV,\text{ then }v=0`$ (20)
$`G_E(v,v)`$ $``$ $`0\text{ }vV\text{ and if }G_E(v,v)=0,\text{ then }v=0.`$ (21)
It is usual to write

$$G_E(v,w)vw$$
(22)
where $`vw`$ is said to be the *scalar product* of the vectors $`v,wV`$.

This practice forgets that any scalar product is relative to a given $`G_E,`$ it is a fact which will be important for the developments that follows, the correct notation should be $`v\underset{G_E}{}w`$. Nevertheless, when no confusion arises we will follow the standard practice.

The pair $`(V,G_E)`$ is called an *euclidean structure* for $`V`$. Sometimes, an euclidean structure is also called an *euclidean space*. It is very important to realize that there are an infinite of euclidean structures for a real vector space $`V`$. Two euclidean structures $`(V,G_E)`$ and $`(V,G_E^{})`$ are equal if and only if $`G_E=G_E^{}`$.

Let $`𝔅`$ be the set of all basis of $`V`$. It means that a generic element of $`𝔅`$ is an *ordered* set of linearly independent vectors of $`V`$, say $`(e_1,e_2,\mathrm{},e_n),`$ which will be denoted simply by $`\{e_k\}`$ in what follows.

Now, given an euclidean structure for $`V`$, we can immediately select a subset $`𝔅_O`$ of $`𝔅`$ whose elements are of the orthonormal bases according to the euclidean structure. This means that if $`\{f_k\}𝔅_O`$, then

$$G_E(f_i,f_j)f_if_j=\delta _{ij},$$
(23)
where $`\delta _{ij}=\{\begin{array}{cc}1,& i=j=1,2,\mathrm{},n\\ 0,& ij\end{array}.`$ It is trivial to realize that any two basis $`\{f_k\},\{f_k^{}\}𝔅_O`$ are related by a linear orthogonal transformation, i.e., $`f_k^{}=L_{k}^{}{}_{}{}^{i}f_i,`$ where the matrix $`𝐋`$ whose entries are the real numbers $`L_{k}^{}{}_{}{}^{i}`$ is orthogonal, i.e., $`𝐋^t𝐋=\mathrm{𝐋𝐋}^𝐭=\mathrm{𝟏}.`$

Once an euclidean structure $`(V,G_E)`$ has been set we can equip $`^pV`$ with an *euclidean scalar product of* $`p`$-*vectors*. $`V`$ can be endowed with an *euclidean* *scalar product of multivectors.*

Let $`\{e_k\}`$ be any basis of $`V,`$ and $`\{\epsilon ^k\}`$ be the dual basis of $`\{e_k\}.`$ As we know, $`\{\epsilon ^k\}`$ is the unique basis of $`V^{}`$ such that $`\epsilon ^k(e_j)=\delta _j^k.`$ Associated to $`(V,G_E)`$ we define the scalar product of $`p`$-vectors $`X_p,Y_p^pV,`$ namely $`X_pY_p,`$ by the following axioms:

Ax-i For all $`\alpha ,\beta ,`$

$$\alpha \beta =\alpha \beta \text{ (real product).}$$
(24)
Ax-ii For all $`X_p,Y_p^pV`$ with $`p1,`$

$$X_pY_p=(\frac{1}{p!})^2X_p(\epsilon ^I)Y_p(\epsilon ^J)det\left[G_E(e_I,e_J)\right],$$
(25)
where we use (conveniently) the short notations

$`X_p(\epsilon ^I)`$ $``$ $`X_p(\epsilon ^{i_1},\mathrm{},\epsilon ^{i_p})=\underset{𝑝}{X}^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p},`$ (26)
$`Y_p(\epsilon ^J)`$ $``$ $`Y_p(\epsilon ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\epsilon ^{j_p})=\underset{𝑝}{Y}^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}.`$ (27)
$`X_p(\epsilon ^{i_1},\mathrm{},\epsilon ^{i_p})`$ and $`Y_p(\epsilon ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\epsilon ^{j_p})`$ are the components of $`X_p`$ and $`Y_p`$ with respect to the $`p`$-vector basis $`\{e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_p}\}`$ and $`1j_1<\mathrm{}j_pn,`$ i.e.,

$$X_p=\frac{1}{p!}X_p(\epsilon ^{i_1},\mathrm{},\epsilon ^{i_p})e_{i_1}\mathrm{}e_{i_p}\text{ and }Y_p=\frac{1}{p!}Y_p(\epsilon ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\epsilon ^{j_p})e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_p}.$$
(28)
Also,

$$det\left[G_E(e_I,e_J)\right]det\left[\begin{array}{ccc}G_E(e_{i_1},e_{j_1})& \mathrm{}& G_E(e_{i_1},e_{j_k})\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ G_E(e_{i_k},e_{j_1})& \mathrm{}& G_E(e_{i_k},e_{j_k})\end{array}\right].$$
(29)
Note that in eq.(25) the Einstein *convention* for sums over the indices $`Ii_1,\mathrm{},i_p=1,\mathrm{},n`$ and $`Jj_1,\mathrm{},j_p=1,\mathrm{},n`$ was used.

It is not difficult to realize that the scalar product defined by the axioms i-ii does not depend on the bases $`\{e_k\}`$ and $`\{\epsilon ^k\}`$ for calculating it.

It is a well-defined *euclidean scalar product on* $`^pV,`$ since it is symmetric, satisfies the distributive laws, has the mixed associative property and is non-degenerate, i.e., if $`X_pY_p=0`$ fot all $`Y_p,`$ then $`X_p=0.`$ It is also satisfying the strong property of being *positive definite*, i.e., $`X_pX_p0`$ for all $`X_p`$ and if $`X_pX_p=0,`$ then $`X_p=0.`$

So the scalar product on $`^pV`$ as defined by eqs.(24) and (25) will be called the euclidean scalar product of $`p`$-vectors associated to $`(V,G_E).`$

Now, associated to $`(V,G_E)`$ we define the scalar product of multivectors $`X,YV,`$ namely $`XY,`$ by

$$XY=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}X_kY_k.$$
(30)
Note that on the right side there appears the scalar product of $`k`$-vectors with $`0kn,`$ as defined by eqs.(24) and (25).

By using eqs.(24) and (25) we can easily note that eq.(30) can be written as

$$XY=X_0Y_0+\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}(\frac{1}{k!})^2X_k(\epsilon ^I)Y_k(\epsilon ^J)det\left[G_E(e_I,e_J)\right].$$
(31)
Recall that in eq.(31) the Einstein *convention* for sums over the indices $`Ii_1,\mathrm{},i_k=1,\mathrm{},n`$ and $`Jj_1,\mathrm{},j_k=1,\mathrm{},n`$ was used.

It is very important here to notice that the scalar product as defined by eq.(30) is a well-defined *euclidean scalar product on* $`V.`$ It is symmetric, satisfies the distributive laws, has the mixed associative property and is non-degenerate, i.e., if $`XY=0`$ for all $`Y,`$ then $`X=0.`$ In addition, it has also the strong property of being *positive definite,* i.e., $`XX0`$ for all $`X`$ and if $`XX=0,`$ then $`X=0.`$

So the scalar product on $`V`$ as defined by eq.(30) will be called the euclidean scalar product of multivectors associated to $`(V,G_E).`$

Now, note that if we take any orthonormal basis $`\{f_k\}`$ with respect to $`(V,G_E),`$ i.e., $`f_jf_k=\delta _{jk},`$ whose dual basis is $`\{\phi ^k\},`$ i.e., $`\phi ^k(f_j)=\delta _j^k,`$ we have that $`det[G_E(f_I,,f_J)]=ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_k}^{j_1\mathrm{}j_k}=ϵ_{j_1\mathrm{}j_k}^{i_1\mathrm{}i_k}.`$ Then, by taking into account161616Recall that $`ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_k}^{j_1\mathrm{}j_k}`$ is the so-called generalized permutation symbol of order $`k,`$
$$ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_k}^{j_1\mathrm{}j_k}=det\left[\begin{array}{ccc}\delta _{i_1}^{j_1}& \mathrm{}& \delta _{i_1}^{j_k}\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ \delta _{i_k}^{j_1}& \mathrm{}& \delta _{i_k}^{j_k}\end{array}\right],\text{ with }i_1,\mathrm{},i_k=1,\mathrm{},n\text{ and }j_1,\mathrm{},j_k=1,\mathrm{},n.$$
that $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_k}^{j_1\mathrm{}j_k}X_k(\phi ^{i_1},\mathrm{},\phi ^{i_k})=X_k(\phi ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\phi ^{j_k}),`$ we can easily see that eq.(31) can be written as

$$XY=X_0Y_0+\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{1}{k!}\underset{j_1\mathrm{}j_k=1}{}nX_k(\phi ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\phi ^{j_k})Y_k(\phi ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\phi ^{j_k}).$$
(32)
It should be noted that eq.(32) in the particular case of vectors is reduced to

$$vw=\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}\phi ^j(v)\phi ^j(w).$$
(33)
We summarize now the basic properties of the euclidean scalar product of multivectors.

esi For any $`\alpha ,\beta :`$

$$\alpha \beta =\alpha \beta \text{ (real product).}$$
(34)
esii For any $`v,wV:`$

$$vw=G_E(v,w).$$
(35)
It shows that eq.(30) contains the scalar product of vectors.

esiii For any $`X_j^jV`$ and $`Y_k^kV:`$

$$X_jY_k=0,\text{ if }jk.$$
(36)
The properties given by eq.(34), eq.(35) and eq.(36) follow directly from the definition given by eq.(30).

esiv For any simple $`k`$-vectors $`v_1\mathrm{}v_k^kV`$ and $`w_1\mathrm{}w_k^kV:`$

$$(v_1\mathrm{}v_k)(w_1\mathrm{}w_k)=det\left[\begin{array}{ccc}v_1w_1& \mathrm{}& v_1w_k\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ v_kw_1& \mathrm{}& v_kw_k\end{array}\right].$$
(37)
###### Proof.

We will use eq.(32). Then, by using eq.(12) and eq.(33), and recalling the $`k\times k`$ determinant formula, $`det\left[a_{pq}\right]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}ϵ^{p_1\mathrm{}p_k}ϵ^{q_1\mathrm{}q_k}a_{p_1q_1}\mathrm{}a_{p_kq_k},`$ we have

$`(v_1\mathrm{}v_k)(w_1\mathrm{}w_k)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}{\displaystyle \underset{j_1\mathrm{}j_k=1}{\overset{n}{}}}(v_1\mathrm{}v_k)(\phi ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\phi ^{j_k})(w_1\mathrm{}w_k)(\phi ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\phi ^{j_k})`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}{\displaystyle \underset{j_1\mathrm{}j_k=1}{\overset{n}{}}}ϵ^{p_1\mathrm{}p_k}ϵ^{q_1\mathrm{}q_k}\phi ^{j_1}(v_{p_1})\mathrm{}\phi ^{j_k}(v_{p_k})\phi ^{j_1}(w_{q_1})\mathrm{}\phi ^{j_k}(w_{q_k})`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}ϵ^{p_1\mathrm{}p_k}ϵ^{q_1\mathrm{}q_k}{\displaystyle \underset{j_1=1}{\overset{n}{}}}\phi ^{j_1}(v_{p_1})\phi ^{j_1}(w_{q_1})\mathrm{}{\displaystyle \underset{j_k=1}{\overset{n}{}}}\phi ^{j_k}(v_{p_k})\phi ^{j_k}(w_{q_k})`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}ϵ^{p_1\mathrm{}p_k}ϵ^{q_1\mathrm{}q_k}(v_{p_1}w_{q_1})\mathrm{}(v_{p_k}w_{q_k}),`$
$`=`$ $`det\left[v_pw_q\right].`$
###### Proposition 1.

Let $`(\{e_k\},\{e^k\})`$ be any pair of euclidean reciprocal bases of $`V,`$ i.e., $`e_ke^lG_E(e_k,e^l)=\delta _k^l.`$ For all $`XV`$ we have the following two expansion formulas

$`X`$ $`=`$ $`X1+{\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}X(e^{j_1}\mathrm{}e^{j_k})(e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_k})`$ (38)
$`X`$ $`=`$ $`X1+{\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}X(e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_k})(e^{j_1}\mathrm{}e^{j_k}).`$ (39)
###### Proof.

We give here the proof for vectors and $`p`$-vectors, with $`p2`$. For $`vV,`$ since $`\{e_k\}`$ and $`\{e^k\}`$ are bases of $`V,`$ there are unique real numbers $`v^i`$ and $`v_i`$ with $`i=1,\mathrm{},n`$ such that

$$v=v^ie_i=v_ie^i.$$

Let us calculate $`ve^j`$ and $`ve_j.`$ Then, by taking into account the reciprocity condition of $`(\{e_k\},\{e^k\})`$, we get

$$v=(ve^j)e_j=(ve_j)e^j.$$

It is standard practice to call $`ve^j`$ and $`ve_j`$ respectively the contravariant and covariant $`j`$-th components of $`v`$.

For $`X^pV,`$ there are unique real numbers $`X^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}`$ and $`X_{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}`$ with $`i_1,\mathrm{},i_p=1,\mathrm{},n`$ such that

$$X=\frac{1}{p!}X^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}e_{i_1}\mathrm{}e_{i_p}=\frac{1}{p!}X_{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}e^{i_1}\mathrm{}e^{i_p}.$$
(40)
Then, by taking for example the scalar products $`X(e^{j_1}\mathrm{}e^{j_p})`$. By using eq.(37), the reciprocity condition of $`(\{e_k\},\{e^k\})`$ and the combinatorial formula $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{p!}}ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}X^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}=X^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p},`$ we have

$`X(e^{j_1}\mathrm{}e^{j_p})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{p!}}X^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}(e_{i_1}\mathrm{}e_{i_p})(e^{j_1}\mathrm{}e^{j_p})`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{p!}}X^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}det\left[\begin{array}{ccc}e_{i_1}e^{j_1}& \mathrm{}& e_{i_1}e^{j_p}\\ \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\\ e_{i_p}e^{j_1}& \mathrm{}& e_{i_p}e^{j_p}\end{array}\right]`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{p!}}ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}X^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}=X^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p},`$
i.e., $`X^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}=X(e^{j_1}\mathrm{}e^{j_p}).`$ Analogously, we can prove that $`X_{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}=X(e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_p})`$.

Then, we get

$$X=\frac{1}{p!}X(e^{j_1}\mathrm{}e^{j_p})e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_p}=\frac{1}{p!}X(e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_p})e^{j_1}\mathrm{}e^{j_p}.$$

Hence, eqs.(38) and (39) follows from the statement above and essentially from eq.(36).

### 2.4 $`b`$-Metric

Let $`\{b_k\}`$ be any but fixed basis of $`V,`$ and let $`\{\beta ^k\}`$ be a basis of $`V^{}`$dual to $`\{b_k\},`$ i.e., $`\beta ^k(b_j)=\delta _j^k.`$ Associated to $`\{b_k\}`$ we can introduce an euclidean metric on $`V,`$ say $`\underset{𝑏}{G_E},`$ defined by

$$\underset{𝑏}{G_E}(v,w)=\delta _{jk}\beta ^j(v)\beta ^k(w),$$
(42)
i.e., $`\underset{𝑏}{G_E}=\delta _{jk}\beta ^j\beta ^k.`$

It is a well defined euclidean metric on $`V,`$ since $`\underset{𝑏}{G_E}T_2(V)`$ is symmetric non-degenerate and positive definite, as it is easy to verify. Such $`\underset{𝑏}{G_E}`$ will be called a *fiducial metric on* $`V`$ *induced by* $`\{b_k\},`$ or for short, a $`b`$*-metric.* The euclidean structure $`(V,\underset{𝑏}{G_E})`$ will be called a *fiducial metric structure for* $`V`$ *induced by* $`\{b_k\},`$ or for short, a $`b`$*-metric structure.* The pair $`(V,\{b_k\})`$ could be called a *fiducial structure for* $`V`$ *associated to* $`\{b_k\},`$ or for short, a $`b`$*-structure.*

On another way of thinking we are equipping $`V`$ with a positive definite scalar product of vectors naturally induced by $`\{b_k\}.`$ We write

$$v\underset{𝑏}{}w\underset{𝑏}{G_E}(v,w).$$
(43)
We present now two remarkable properties of a $`b`$-metric structure.

i The basis $`\{b_k\}`$ is orthonormal with respect to $`(V,\underset{𝑏}{G_E}),`$ i.e.,

$$b_j\underset{𝑏}{}b_k=\delta _{jk}.$$
(44)
ii The scalar product of multivectors associated to $`(V,\underset{𝑏}{G_E})`$ is given by the noticeable formula

$$X\underset{𝑏}{}Y=X_0Y_0+\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{1}{k!}\underset{j_1\mathrm{}j_k=1}{\overset{n}{}}X_k(\beta ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\beta ^{j_k})Y_k(\beta ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\beta ^{j_k}).$$
(45)
We know that all $`b`$-metric structure is a well-defined euclidean structure. However, it might as well be asked if any euclidean structure $`(V,G_E)`$ is some $`b`$-metric structure $`(V,\underset{𝑏}{G_E}).`$ The answer is YES.

Given an euclidean metric $`G_E,`$ by the Gram-Schmidt procedure, there is an orthonormal basis $`\{b_k\}`$ with respect to $`(V,G_E),`$ i.e., $`b_jb_kG_E(b_j,b_k)=\delta _{jk},`$ such that the $`b`$-metric $`\underset{𝑏}{G_E}`$ induced by $`\{b_k\}`$ coincides with $`G_E.`$ Indeed, if $`\{\beta ^k\}`$ is the dual basis of $`\{b_k\},`$ then

$`\underset{𝑏}{G_E}(v,w)`$ $`=`$ $`\delta _{jk}\beta ^j(v)\beta ^k(w)=G_E(b_j,b_k)\beta ^j(v)\beta ^k(w)`$
$`=`$ $`G_E(\beta ^j(v)b_j,\beta ^k(w)b_k)=G_E(v,w),`$
i.e., $`\underset{𝑏}{G_E}=G_E`$

#### 2.4.1 $`b`$-Reciprocal Bases

Let $`\{e_k\}`$ be any basis of $`V,`$ and $`\{\epsilon ^k\}`$ be its dual basis of $`V^{},`$ i.e., $`\epsilon ^k(e_j)=\delta _j^k.`$ Let us take a $`b`$-metric structure $`(V,\underset{𝑏}{G_E}).`$ Associated to $`\{e_k\},`$ it is possible to define another basis for $`V,`$ say $`\{e^k\},`$ given by

$$e^k=\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}\epsilon ^k(b_j)b_j.$$
(46)
Since the set of the $`n`$ forms $`\epsilon ^1,\mathrm{},\epsilon ^nV^{},`$ is a basis for $`V^{}`$, they are linearly independent covectors. It follows that the $`n`$ vectors $`e^1,\mathrm{},e^nV`$ are also linearly independent and constitutes a well-defined basis for $`V.`$

###### Proposition 2.

The bases $`\{e_k\}`$ and $`\{e^k\}`$ satisfy the following $`b`$-scalar product conditions

$$e_k\underset{𝑏}{}e^l=\delta _k^l.$$
(47)
###### Proof.

Using eqs.(46) and (44), and the duality condition of $`(\{e_k\},\{\epsilon ^k\})`$ we have

$$e_k\underset{𝑏}{}e^l=\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}\epsilon ^l(b_j)(e_k\underset{𝑏}{}b_j)=\epsilon ^l(\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}(e_k\underset{𝑏}{}b_j)b_j)=\epsilon ^l(e_k)=\delta _k^l.$$

It is noticeable that $`\{e^k\}`$ given by eq.(46) is the unique basis of $`V`$ which satisfies eq.(47). Such a basis $`\{e^k\}`$ will be called the b-*reciprocal basis* of $`\{e_k\}`$. In what follows we say that $`\{e_k\}`$ and $`\{e^k\}`$ are $`b`$-reciprocal bases to each other.

In particular, the $`b`$-reciprocal basis of $`\{b_k\}`$ is itself, i.e.,

$$b^k=b_k\text{ for each }k=1,\mathrm{},n,$$
(48)
It follows directly from eq.(46) and the duality condition of $`(\{b_k\},\{\beta ^k\})`$.

### 2.5 Euclidean Interior Algebras

Let us take an euclidean structure $`(V,G_E).`$ We can define two kind of *contracted products* for multivectors, namely $`\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$. If $`X,YV`$ then $`X\mathrm{}YV`$ and $`X\mathrm{}YV`$ such that

$`(X\mathrm{}Y)Z`$ $`=`$ $`Y(\stackrel{~}{X}Z)`$ (49)
$`(X\mathrm{}Y)Z`$ $`=`$ $`X(Z\stackrel{~}{Y}),`$ (50)
for all $`ZV`$.

These contracted products $`\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$ are internal laws on $`V.`$ Both contracted products satisfy distributive laws (on the left and on the right) but they are *not* associative.

The vector space $`V`$ endowed with each of these contracted products (either $`\mathrm{}`$ or $`\mathrm{}`$) is a non-associative algebra. They are called the *euclidean interior algebras of multivectors.*

We present now some of the most important properties of the contracted products.

eip-i For any $`\alpha ,\beta `$ and $`XV:`$

$`\alpha \mathrm{}\beta `$ $`=`$ $`\alpha \mathrm{}\beta =\alpha \beta \text{ (real product),}`$ (51)
$`\alpha \mathrm{}X`$ $`=`$ $`X\mathrm{}\alpha =\alpha X\text{ (multiplication by scalars).}`$ (52)
eip-ii For any $`X_j^jV`$ and $`Y_k^kV`$ $`(jk):`$

$$X_j\mathrm{}Y_k=(1)^{j(kj)}Y_k\mathrm{}X_j\text{.}$$
(53)
eip-iii For any $`X_j^jV`$ and $`Y_k^kV:`$

$`X_j\mathrm{}Y_k`$ $`=`$ $`0,\text{ if }j>k,`$ (54)
$`X_j\mathrm{}Y_k`$ $`=`$ $`0,\text{ if }j<k.`$ (55)
eip-iv For any $`X_k,Y_k^kV:`$

$$X_k\mathrm{}Y_k=X_k\mathrm{}Y_k=\stackrel{~}{X_k}Y_k=X_k\stackrel{~}{Y_k}.$$
(56)
eip-v For any $`vV`$ and $`X,YV:`$

$$v\mathrm{}(XY)=(v\mathrm{}X)Y+\widehat{X}(v\mathrm{}Y).$$
(57)
### 2.6 Euclidean Clifford Algebra

We define now an *euclidean* *Clifford product* of multivectors $`X`$ and $`Y`$ relative to a given euclidean structure $`(V,G_E),`$ denoted by juxtaposition, by the following axioms:

Ax-i For all $`\alpha `$ and $`XV:\alpha X=X\alpha `$ equals the multiplication of multivector $`X`$ by scalar $`\alpha .`$

Ax-ii For all $`vV`$ and $`XV:vX=v\mathrm{}X+vX`$ and $`Xv=X\mathrm{}v+Xv.`$

Ax-iii For all $`X,Y,ZV:X(YZ)=(XY)Z.`$

The Clifford product is an internal law on $`V.`$ It is *associative* (by the axiom (Ax-iii)) and satisfies distributive laws (on the left and on the right). The distributive laws follow from the corresponding distributive laws of the contracted and exterior products.

The vector space of multivectors over $`V`$ endowed with the Clifford product is an associative algebra. It will be called *euclidean Clifford algebra of multivectors* and denoted by $`𝒞\mathrm{}(V,G_E)`$.

Some important formulas which hold in $`𝒞\mathrm{}(V,G_E)`$ are the following.

eca-i For any $`vV`$ and $`XV:`$

$`v\mathrm{}X`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(vX\widehat{X}v)`$ (58)
$`\text{and }X\mathrm{}v`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(Xvv\widehat{X}).`$
$`vX`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(vX+\widehat{X}v)`$ (59)
$`\text{and }Xv`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(Xv+v\widehat{X}).`$
eca-ii For any $`X,YV:`$

$$XY=\stackrel{~}{X}Y_0=X\stackrel{~}{Y}_0.$$
(60)
eca-iii For any $`X,Y,ZV:`$

$`(XY)Z`$ $`=`$ $`Y(\stackrel{~}{X}Z)=X(Z\stackrel{~}{Y}),`$ (61)
$`X(YZ)`$ $`=`$ $`(\stackrel{~}{Y}X)Z=(X\stackrel{~}{Z})Y.`$ (62)
eca-iv For any $`X,YV:`$

$`\widehat{XY}`$ $`=`$ $`\widehat{X}\text{ }\widehat{Y},`$ (63)
$`\stackrel{~}{XY}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{Y}\stackrel{~}{X}.`$ (64)
eca-v Let $`I^nV.`$ Then, for any $`vV`$ and $`XV:`$

$$I(vX)=(1)^{n1}v\mathrm{}(IX).$$
(65)
Eq.(65) is sometimes called the *duality identity* and since it appears in several contexts in what follows we prove it.

###### Proof.

By using eq.(59), $`Iv=(1)^{n1}vI`$ and $`\widehat{I}=(1)^nI`$ where $`vV`$ and $`I^nV`$ and, eqs.(63) and (58) we have

$`I(vX)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(IvX+I\widehat{X}v)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}((1)^{n1}vIX+(1)^n\widehat{I}\text{ }\widehat{X}v)`$
$`=`$ $`(1)^{n1}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(vIX\widehat{IX}v)=(1)^{n1}v\mathrm{}(IX).`$
eca-vi For any $`X,Y,ZV:`$

$`X\mathrm{}(Y\mathrm{}Z)`$ $`=`$ $`(XY)\mathrm{}Z,`$ (66)
$`(X\mathrm{}Y)\mathrm{}Z`$ $`=`$ $`X\mathrm{}(YZ).`$ (67)
###### Proof.

We prove only eq.(66). The proof of eq.(67) is analogous and left to the reader.

Let $`WV`$. By using eq.(49) and eq.(18) we have

$`(X\mathrm{}(Y\mathrm{}Z))W`$ $`=`$ $`(Y\mathrm{}Z)(\stackrel{~}{X}W)=Z((\stackrel{~}{Y}\stackrel{~}{X})W)`$
$`=`$ $`Z(\stackrel{~}{(XY)}W)=((XY)\mathrm{}Z)W.`$
Hence, by the non-degeneracy of the euclidean scalar product, the first statement follows.∎

To end, we call the readers attention to the fact that all Clifford algebra associated to all possible euclidean structure $`(V,G_E)`$ over the same vector space $`V`$ are equivalent each to other, i.e., define the same abstract Clifford algebra. Indeed all euclidean structures for $`V`$ are isomorphic to the euclidean structure $`(^n,)`$, where $``$ is the canonical scalar product on $`^n`$. The Clifford algebra associated to the euclidean structure $`(^n,)`$ is conveniently denoted () by $`_n`$.

## 3 Conclusions

The euclidean Clifford algebra171717The classification of all euclidean algebras for arbitrary finite dimensional space and their matrix representations can be found, e.g., in . $`𝒞\mathrm{}(V,G_E)`$ introduced above will serve as our basic calculational tool for the development of the theories of multivector functions and multivector functionals that we develop in this series of papers, and also for many applications that will be reported elsewhere. When $`𝒞\mathrm{}(V,G_E)`$ is used together with the concept of extensor (to be introduced in paper II) we obtain a powerful formalism which permits among other things an intrinsic presentation (i.e., without the use of matrices) of the principal results of classical linear algebra theory. Also, endowed $`V`$ with an arbitrary *metric extensor* $`g`$ (of signature $`s=pq`$ or $`(p,q)`$ as physicists like to say, with $`p+q=n`$) we can construct a metric Clifford algebra $`𝒞\mathrm{}(V,g)`$ as a well-defined *deformation* of the euclidean Clifford algebra $`𝒞\mathrm{}(V,G_E),`$ see paper IV.

Appendix A

In the literature we can find several *different* *definitions* (differing by numerical factors ($`p!q!`$ , $`(p+q)!,`$ $`(p+q)!`$/ $`p!q!,`$) for the exterior product $`X_pY_q`$ in terms of *some* *antisymmetrization* of the tensor product $`X_pY_q.`$

Before continuing we recall that the tensor product of $`tT^pV`$ and $`uT^qV,`$ namely $`tuT^{p+q}V,`$ is defined by

(ti) for all $`\alpha ,\beta T^0V:\alpha \beta =\beta \alpha =\alpha \beta `$ (real product),

(tii) for all $`\alpha ,uT^qV:\alpha u=u\alpha =\alpha u`$ (scalar multiplication of $`u`$ by $`\alpha `$), and

(tiii) for all $`tT^pV,uT^qV`$ ($`p,q1`$) and $`\omega ^1,\mathrm{},\omega ^p,\omega ^{p+1},\mathrm{},\omega ^{p+q}V^{},`$

$$tu(\omega ^1,\mathrm{},\omega ^p,\omega ^{p+1},\mathrm{},\omega ^{p+q})=t(\omega ^1,\mathrm{},\omega ^p)u(\omega ^{p+1},\mathrm{},\omega ^{p+q})$$
(A.1)
Now, the exterior algebra $`V`$ is defined in the *modern* *approach* to algebraic structures as the quotient $`V=TV/I,`$ where $`TV=\underset{p=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}T^pV`$ is the *tensor algebra* and $`I`$ is the *bilateral ideal* generated by elements of the form $`xx`$. In this case, it is necessary to define the product of $`X_p^pV`$ and $`Y_q^qV`$ by

$$X_p\stackrel{qa}{}Y_q=𝒜(X_pY_q),$$
(A.2)
instead of eq.(7). This observation means that when reading books with chapters on the theory of the exterior algebras or scientific papers, it is necessary to take care and to be sure about which product has been defined, for otherwise great confusion may arise. In particular for *not* distinguishing $``$ as defined in eq.(7) from $`\stackrel{qa}{}`$ as defined by eq.(A.2) the following error appears frequently. Let $`X_p^pV,`$ let $`\{e_i\}`$ be any basis of $`V`$ and $`\{\epsilon ^i\}`$ its corresponding dual basis of $`V^{},`$ and consider the $`p`$ $`1`$-forms $`\omega ^1,\mathrm{},\omega ^pV^{}`$. Then, using the elementary expansions $`\omega ^1(e_{j_1})\epsilon ^{_{j_1}},\mathrm{}`$ etc., we have

$`X(\omega ^1,\mathrm{},\omega ^p)`$ $`=`$ $`X(\omega ^1(e_{j_1})\epsilon ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\omega ^p(e_{j_p})\epsilon ^{j_p})`$
$`=`$ $`\omega ^1(e_{j_1})\mathrm{}\omega ^p(e_{j_p})X(\epsilon ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\epsilon ^{j_p})`$
$`=`$ $`X^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_p}(\omega ^1,\mathrm{},\omega ^p),`$
i.e.,

$$X=X^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_p}.$$
(A.3)
The real numbers $`X(\epsilon ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\epsilon ^{j_p})=X^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}`$ are called the $`j_1\mathrm{}j_p`$-th (contravariant) components of $`X`$ relative to the basis $`\{e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_p}\}`$ of $`T^pV.`$

Now, since $`X^pV`$ is a completly antisymmetric tensor it must satisfy

$$𝒜X=X,$$
(A.4)
and using the definition of the operator $`𝒜`$ (see eq.(8)) we get the identity

$$X^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}=\frac{1}{p!}ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}X^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p},$$
(A.5)
and of course the components $`X^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}`$ are antisymmetric in all indices.

Using eq.(A.5) in eq.(A.3) we obtain,

$$X=\frac{1}{p!}ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}X^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_p}.$$
(A.6)
Now, if we use the definition of the exterior product given by eq.(7), more exactly an particular case of eq.(11), the well-known combinatorial formula: $`e_{i_1}\mathrm{}e_{i_p}=ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}e_{j_1}\mathrm{}e_{j_p},`$ we see that eq.(A.6) can be written as

$$X=\frac{1}{p!}X^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}e_{i_1}\mathrm{}e_{i_p}.$$
(A.7)
Eq.(A.7) is the expansion that has been used in this paper and in all the others of this series.

Now, if we use the definition of the exterior product as given by eq.(A.2), then by repeting the above calculations we get that $`X`$ can be witten as

$$X=X^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}e_{i_1}\stackrel{qa}{}\mathrm{}\stackrel{qa}{}e_{i_p}.$$
(A.8)
To write $`X={\displaystyle \frac{1}{p!}}X^{i_1\mathrm{}i_p}e_{i_1}\stackrel{qa}{}\mathrm{}\stackrel{qa}{}e_{i_p}`$ instead of eq.(A.8) is clearly wrong if it is supposed that the meaning of $`X(\epsilon ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\epsilon ^{j_p})`$ is that $`X(\epsilon ^{j_1},\mathrm{},\epsilon ^{j_p})=X^{j_1\mathrm{}j_p}`$ as in eq.(A.3). This confusion appears, e.g., in .

Acknowledgement: V. V. Fernández is grateful to FAPESP for a posdoctoral fellowship. W. A. Rodrigues Jr. is grateful to CNPq for a senior research fellowship (contract 251560/82-8) and to the Department of Mathematics of the University of Liverpool for the hospitality. Authors are also grateful to Doctors. P. Lounesto, I. Porteous, and J. Vaz, Jr. for their interest on our research and for useful suggestions and discussions.


text:
# Real, 𝑝-Adic and Adelic Noncommutative Scalar Solitons Talk presented at the Summer School in Modern Mathematical Physics, Sokobanja and at the International Conference FILOMAT2001, Niš (Yugoslavia, August 2001).

## 1 Introduction

Let us consider single scalar field theory in $`2+1`$ dimensions with coordinates $`x^\mu `$, $`\mu =0,1,2(i=1,2)`$. We suppose noncommutativity in the spatial directions $`[x^1,x^2]=iþ^{12}=iþ`$. The action  is

$$S=d^3x\left[\frac{1}{2}(_0\varphi )^2\frac{1}{2}_i\varphi ^j\varphi V(\varphi )_{}\right],$$
(1)
where the potential

$$V(\varphi )_{}=\frac{m^2}{2}\varphi ^2+\underset{n}{}\frac{a_n}{n}(\varphi ^n)_{},(\varphi ^n)_{}=\varphi \varphi \mathrm{}\varphi ,$$
(2)
is defined in terms of star product

$$(fg)(x)=e^{\frac{i}{2}\theta ^{ij}_{a_i}_{b_j}}f(x+a)g(x+b)|_{a=b=0},(_{a_i}=\frac{}{a_i}).$$
(3)
Expanding the exponent and reordering the summation variables we get

$$(fg)(x)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{q=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(\frac{i\theta }{2}\right)^{k+q}\frac{(1)^k}{k!q!}_1^q_2^kf(x)_1^k_2^qg(x).$$
(4)
¿From the property of the star product $`d^2xfg=d^2xfg`$ it is clear that in the quadratic part of the action the star product reduces to the usual one, so we omit $``$ in the first two terms in the action $`S`$.

We are interesting in the existence of solitons in this theory, i.e in time independent solutions of the equation of motion when energy is finite. In the commutative limit $`þ=0`$ the Derrick theorem states that in a pure scalar field theory with $`d2`$ ($`d`$ is a number of spatial dimensions) there are no stable finite energy solutions (solitons). The proof of the theorem is based on the rescaling of coordinates, but this argument fails in the presence of length scale $`\sqrt{þ}`$.

We will consider large noncommutative limit $`þ\mathrm{}`$ in the energy

$$E=d^2x[\frac{1}{2}(_0\varphi )^2+\frac{1}{2}_i\varphi ^j\varphi +V(\varphi )_{}],$$
(5)
which in the static case reduces to the expression

$$E=d^2x[\frac{1}{2}_i\varphi ^j\varphi +V(\varphi )_{}].$$
(6)
In terms of the dimensionless coordinates $`y=\frac{x}{\sqrt{þ}}`$ the static energy becomes

$$E=d^2y[\frac{1}{2}_i\varphi ^j\varphi +þV(\varphi )_{}],$$
(7)
where now integration and partial derivatives are with respect to $`y`$. If $`þ\mathrm{}`$, which in our case means $`þV_i\varphi ^j\varphi `$, the expression for the energy reduces to the simple equation

$$E=d^2yþV(\varphi )_{}.$$
(8)
The extremum of the energy corresponds to the solution of the equation

$$\frac{V(\varphi )_{}}{\varphi }=0.$$
(9)
Note that in a commutative case $`(þ=0)`$ , the above equation is a polynomial one, so the solutions are only constants $`\varphi =\lambda _i\mathrm{\Lambda },\mathrm{\Lambda }=\{\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _k\}`$. Due to the presence of the derivatives in the definition of the star product, we expect here some nontrivial solitonic type solutions.

Let us first consider the equation

$$F(\varphi )_{}=0,$$
(10)
where $`F(x)`$ is an arbitrary analytic function and the star means that fields in $`F`$ are multiplied using the star product. If we are able to solve the equation

$$\varphi \varphi =\varphi ,$$
(11)
then we have $`\varphi _{}^n=\varphi `$ and consequently $`F(\lambda \varphi )_{}=_{n0}\frac{\lambda ^n}{n!}F^{(n)}(0)\varphi _{}^n=F(\lambda )\varphi `$. So, $`\lambda _i\varphi `$ is a solution of the equation (10) if $`\lambda _i`$ is a root of $`F`$. Similarly $`\lambda _i\varphi `$ is a solution of (9) if $`\lambda _i`$ is an extremum of $`V(\lambda )`$.

## 2 Simple nontrivial solution

We are looking for a simple non-trivial solution of the basic equation (11). Let us check that the expression

$$\varphi _0(x)=2e^{\frac{x_1^2+x_2^2}{\theta }},$$
(12)
is a solution of this equation. We will call it a simple nontrivial solution. Using the definition of the Hermite polynomials

$$H_n(\alpha )=(1)^ne^{\alpha ^2}_\alpha ^ne^{\alpha ^2},(n=0,1,\mathrm{})$$
(13)
we have

$$_\alpha ^ne^{\frac{\alpha ^2}{\theta }}=(1)^n\theta ^{\frac{n}{2}}e^{\frac{\alpha ^2}{\theta }}H_n\left(\frac{\alpha }{\sqrt{\theta }}\right),$$
(14)
and according to (1.4), the star product can be written as

$$(\varphi _0\varphi _0)(x)=K(i,\frac{x_1}{\sqrt{\theta }},\frac{x_2}{\sqrt{\theta }})K(i,\frac{x_1}{\sqrt{\theta }},\frac{x_2}{\sqrt{\theta }})\varphi _0^2(x),$$
(15)
where

$$K(z,u,v)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{z^n}{2^nn!}H_n(u)H_n(v).$$
(16)
With the help of the representation of Hermite polynomials

$$H_n(\alpha )=\frac{2^n}{\sqrt{\pi }}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑te^{t^2}(\alpha +it)^n,$$
(17)
we obtain

$$K(z,u,v)=\frac{1}{\pi }_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑te^{t^2}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑se^{s^2+2z(u+it)(v+is)},$$
(18)
After integration over $`s`$, the coefficient in front of $`t^2`$ in the exponential turns into $`1z^2`$, so the integration over $`t`$ gives the following result

$$K(z,u,v)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1z^2}}e^{v^2\frac{(vzu)^2}{1z^2}},$$
(19)
under the condition $`Re(1z^2)>0`$. Here $`1z^2=2>0`$ so that

$$K(i,u,v)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}e^{\frac{u^2+v^2}{2}iuv},$$
(20)
and consequently

$$K(i,\frac{x_1}{\sqrt{\theta }},\frac{x_2}{\sqrt{\theta }})K(i,\frac{x_1}{\sqrt{\theta }},\frac{x_2}{\sqrt{\theta }})=\frac{1}{2}e^{\frac{x_1^2+x_2^2}{\theta }}=\frac{1}{\varphi _0}.$$
(21)
From equations (15) and (21) it follows that $`\varphi _0`$ is a solution of the (11).

## 3  General solution

There exist infinitely many solutions of the (11). Let us check that the expression

$$\varphi _n(x)=(1)^nL_n\left(2\frac{x_1^2+x_2^2}{\theta }\right)\varphi _0(x),$$
(22)
satisfies (11). Here $`L_n(t)`$ are the Laguerre polynomials defined as

$$L_n(\alpha )=\frac{1}{n!}e^\alpha _\alpha ^n(\alpha ^ne^\alpha ).(n=0,1,\mathrm{})$$
(23)
With the help of the following representation

$$L_n(\alpha )=\frac{1}{n!}_t^n\left(\frac{1}{1t}e^{\frac{\alpha t}{1t}}\right)_{t=0},$$
(24)
instead of (22) we can write

$$\varphi _n(x)=\frac{(1)^n}{n!}_t^n\left[\frac{1}{1t}\varphi _0[\theta (t),x]\right]_{t=0},$$
(25)
where $`\varphi _0[\theta (t),x]`$ is the same expression as $`\varphi _0(x)`$ in (12), just substituting

$$\theta (t)=\theta \frac{1t}{1+t},$$
(26)
instead of $`\theta `$. In some sense, we expressed the $`\varphi _n`$ in terms of $`\varphi _0`$, but with the $`t`$ dependent parameter $`\theta `$.

Now, we have

$$(\varphi _n\varphi _n)(x)=\frac{1}{(n!)^2}_t^n_s^n\left[\frac{1}{(1t)(1s)}\varphi _0[\theta (t),x]\varphi _0[\theta (s),x]\right]_{t=s=0},$$
(27)
where the star product is defined with respect to the parameter independent $`\theta `$. Similarly as in the case with a simple nontrivial solution, using (4), (14) and (16) we find

$`\varphi _0[\theta (t),x]\varphi _0[\theta (s),x]=K(i\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{(1+t)(1+s)}{(1t)(1s)}}},{\displaystyle \frac{x_1}{\sqrt{\theta (s)}}},{\displaystyle \frac{x_2}{\sqrt{\theta (t)}}})`$
$`\times K(i\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{(1+t)(1+s)}{(1t)(1s)}}},{\displaystyle \frac{x_1}{\sqrt{\theta (t)}}},{\displaystyle \frac{x_2}{\sqrt{\theta (s)}}})\varphi _0[\theta (t),x]\varphi _0[\theta (s),x].`$ (28)
After some calculations using (17) we obtain

$$\varphi _0[\theta (t),x]\varphi _0[\theta (s),x]=\frac{(1t)(1s)}{1+ts}\varphi _0[\theta (ts),x].$$
(29)
Note that because $`z`$ is purely imaginary, the condition $`Re(1z^2)>0`$ is satisfied. Substituting this into (27) we find

$$(\varphi _n\varphi _n)(x)=\frac{1}{(n!)^2}_t^n_s^n\left[\frac{1}{1+ts}\varphi _0[\theta (ts),x]\right]_{t=s=0},$$
(30)
and using the formulae

$$_t^n_s^n\phi (ts)_{t=s=0}=(1)^nn!_r^n\phi (r)_{r=0},$$
(31)
we finally obtain

$$(\varphi _n\varphi _n)(x)=(1)^n\frac{1}{n!}_r^n\left[\frac{1}{1r}\varphi _0[\theta (r),x]\right]_{r=0},$$
(32)
which with help of (25) yields expression (11).

## 4 $`p`$-Adic aspects

Since 1987, $`p`$-adic numbers and adeles have been successfully applied in many topics of modern theoretical and mathematical physics (for a review, see e.g. ). In particular, $`p`$-adic string theory , $`p`$-adic  and adelic  quantum mechanics, as well as $`p`$-adic and adelic quantum cosmology , have been formulated and investigated. It is well known that combining quantum-mechanical and relativity principles one concludes that there exists a spatial uncertainty $`\mathrm{\Delta }x`$ in the form

$$\mathrm{\Delta }x\mathrm{}_0=\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{}G}{c^3}}10^{33}cm.$$
(33)
This uncertainty relation (33) may be taken as a reason to consider simultaneously noncommutative and $`p`$-adic aspects of spatial coordinates $`x^i`$ when approaching to the Planck length $`\mathrm{}_0`$. Hence we are interesting here in $`p`$-adic analogs of the above (real) noncommutative scalar solitons.

When we wish to consider basic properties of $`p`$-adic numbers it is convenient to start with the field of rational numbers $`Q`$, since $`Q`$ is the simplest field of numbers of characteristic $`0`$ and it contains all results of physical measurements. Any non-zero rational number can be expanded into two quite different forms of infinite series. The usual one is to the base $`10`$, i.e.

$$\underset{k=n}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_k10^k,a_k=0,\mathrm{},9,$$
(34)
and the other one is to the base $`p`$ ($`p`$ is a prime number) and reads

$$\underset{k=m}{\overset{+\mathrm{}}{}}b_kp^k,b_k=0,\mathrm{},p1,$$
(35)
where $`n`$ and $`m`$ are some integers. These representations have the usual repetition of digits, but expansions are in the mutually opposite directions.

The series (34) and (35) are convergent with respect to the usual absolute value $`||_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`p`$-adic absolute value $`||_p`$, respectively. Allowing all possible combinations for digits, we obtain standard representation of real numbers (34) and $`p`$-adic numbers (35). $`R`$ and $`Q_p`$ exhaust all number fields which contain $`Q`$ as a dense subfield. They have many distinct geometric and algebraic properties. Geometry of $`p`$-adic numbers is the nonarchimedean one. For much more information on $`p`$-adic numbers and $`p`$-adic analysis one can see,e.g. .

Practically, there are two kinds of analysis on $`Q_p`$ based on two different mappings: $`Q_pQ_p`$ and $`Q_pC`$. Both of them are used here. Elementary $`p`$-adic functions are defined by the same series as in the real case, but the region of convergence is different. For instance, $`\mathrm{exp}x=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}\frac{x^n}{n!}`$ converges if $`|x|_p<|2|_p`$. Derivatives of $`p`$-adic valued functions are also defined as in the real case, but using $`p`$-adic valuation instead of the absolute value.

Usual complex-valued $`p`$-adic functions are: (i) an additive character $`\chi _p(x)=\mathrm{exp}2\pi i\{x\}_p`$, where $`\{x\}_p`$ is the fractional part of $`xQ_p`$, (ii) a multiplicative character $`\pi _s(x)=|x|_p^s`$, where $`sC`$, and (iii) locally constant functions with compact support. There is well defined Haar measure and integration.

In the previous sections, spatial coordinates $`x_1,x_2`$ and the noncommutativity parameter $`\theta `$ are real variables. In the present section we are going to consider possible extensions of the obtained results when these variables become $`p`$-adic valued. One can introduce two types of the $`p`$-adic Moyal product. They are $`p`$-adic differential and integral analogs of the usual Moyal star product. While in the real case differential and integral forms of the Moyal product are equivalent, we shall see that their $`p`$-adic generalizations yield quite different expressions.

As a $`p`$-adic Moyal product in the differential form we take the same expression (3), where $`f(x)`$ and $`g(x)`$ are analytic $`p`$-adic valued functions, and $`\sqrt{1}`$ is treated $`p`$-adically. Note that  $`p`$-adic exponential function $`\mathrm{exp}x`$ is defined by the same infinite power series as in the real case, but convergence is regarded with respect to the $`p`$-adic norm and it is for $`\mathrm{exp}x`$ restricted to the domain $`|x|_p<|2|_p`$. $`p`$-Adic derivatives are defined in the same usual way but using $`p`$-adic norm instead of the absolute value. Exponential derivative operator in (3) acts formally in the same way in real and $`p`$-adic cases. Now we are interested in $`p`$-adic solution of the equation (11) in the form (12), where $`|x^i|_p<\sqrt{|2\theta |_p},i=1,2`$. Expanding exponential function with derivatives one obtains

$$(\varphi _0\varphi _0)(x)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}A_n(x),$$
(36)
where

$$A_n(x)=4\frac{i^n\theta ^n}{2^nn!}\left(\frac{}{x_1}\frac{}{y_2}\frac{}{x_2}\frac{}{y_1}\right)^n\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{x_1^2+x_2^2+y_1^2+y_2^2}{\theta }\right)|_{y=x}.$$
(37)
Performing some calculations explicitly in (37) one has

$$A_n(x)=4\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{2(x_1^2+x_2^2)}{\theta }\right)B_n(x),$$
(38)
where $`B_n(x)`$ are:

$`B_{2k+1}(x)=0,k=0,1,2,\mathrm{};B_0(x)=1,B_2(x)=1+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\theta }}(x_1^2+x_2^2),`$
$`B_4(x)=1{\displaystyle \frac{4}{\theta }}(x_1^2+x_2^2)+{\displaystyle \frac{4}{2!\theta ^2}}(x_1^2+x_2^2)^2,`$
$`B_6(x)=1+{\displaystyle \frac{6}{\theta }}(x_1^2+x_2^2){\displaystyle \frac{12}{2!\theta ^2}}(x_1^2+x_2^2)^2+{\displaystyle \frac{8}{3!\theta ^3}}(x_1^2+x_2^2)^3,\mathrm{}`$ (39)
We conclude that expansion (36) is divergent since it contains infinitely many divergent subseries like

$$11+11+1\mathrm{}$$
(40)
Fortunately this subseries can be easily made convergent using expression

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(1)^kq^{2k}=\frac{1}{1+q^2}$$
(41)
and its derivatives in the point $`q=1`$. This kind of summation attaches the sum $`1/2`$ to all divergent subseries and using this procedure one gets that $`\varphi _0(x)=2\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{x_1^2+x_2^2}{\theta }\right)`$ is a solution of the equation $`(\varphi _0\varphi _0)(x)=\varphi _0(x)`$, where $``$ denotes the Moyal product defined by (3). It is worth noting that this treatment of the equation $`(\varphi _0\varphi _0)(x)=\varphi _0(x)`$ does not depend on whether $`x`$ and $`\theta `$ are real or $`p`$-adic. In other words, the above equation $`(\varphi _0\varphi _0)(x)=\varphi _0(x)`$ and its solutions are number field invariant. Since the sum of a divergent series depends on the way of summation it follows that rearrangement in summation to get (4) from (3) removed divergences in the real case of $`(\varphi _0\varphi _0)(x)=\varphi _0(x)`$ in previous sections. However when $`z=\pm \sqrt{1}`$ the series (16) is not convergent in the $`p`$-adic case and such procedure is not suitable for $`p`$-adic generalization.

In order to introduce the corresponding integral version of the $`p`$-adic Moyal product let us recall that its integral form in the real case is

$$(fg)(x)=𝑑k𝑑k^{}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{2\pi i}{h}(kx+k^{}x\frac{\theta ^{ij}}{2}k_ik_j^{})\right)\stackrel{~}{f}(k)\stackrel{~}{g}(k^{}),$$
(42)
where $`\stackrel{~}{f}(k)`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{g}(k^{})`$ are Fourier transforms $`(\stackrel{~}{f}(k)=\mathrm{exp}(\frac{2\pi i}{h}kx)f(x)𝑑x)`$ of $`f(x)`$ and $`g(x)`$, respectively. The equation (42) is derived by the Weyl quantization prescription of the functions on noncommutative coordinates $`\{\widehat{x}^i\}`$, which satisfy canonical relation

$$[\widehat{x}^i,\widehat{x}^j]=i\frac{h}{2\pi }\theta ^{ij}.$$
(43)
The expression (42) can be rewritten in the form

$$(fg)(x)=𝑑k𝑑k^{}\chi _{\mathrm{}}(kxk^{}x+\frac{\theta ^{ij}}{2}k_ik_j^{})\stackrel{~}{f}(k)\stackrel{~}{g}(k^{}),$$
(44)
where $`\chi _{\mathrm{}}(u)=\mathrm{exp}(2\pi iu)`$ is the additive character in the real case, and it is also taken $`h=1`$.

Defining the integral $`p`$-adic Moyal product as $`p`$-adic generalization of (44) we have

$$(fg)(x)=𝑑k𝑑k^{}\chi _p(kxk^{}x+\frac{\theta ^{ij}}{2}k_ik_j^{})\stackrel{~}{f}(k)\stackrel{~}{g}(k^{}),$$
(45)
where $`p`$-adic additive character is $`\chi _p(u)=\mathrm{exp}(2\pi i\{u\}_p)`$ and $`\{u\}_p`$ is rational part of $`p`$-adic number $`u`$. Note that $`f,g,(\chi _p)`$ are real (complex) functions of $`p`$-adic variables and $`\stackrel{~}{f}(k)=\chi _p(kx)f(x)𝑑x`$. This $`p`$-adic integration is well defined by the Haar additive measure.

The equation $`(\phi \phi )(x)=\phi (x)`$ now reads

$$𝑑k𝑑k^{}\chi _p(kxk^{}x+\frac{\theta ^{ij}}{2}k_ik_j^{})\stackrel{~}{\phi }(k)\stackrel{~}{\phi }(k^{})=\phi (x),$$
(46)
where for simplicity we take $`i,j=1,2.`$ According to the rules of integration  we find the following solution

$$\phi _\nu (x)=\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x_1|_p)\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x_2|_p)$$
(47)
of (46) with restriction $`\left|\frac{\theta ^{ij}}{2}\right|_p1,`$ where $`\nu Z`$ and

$$\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x|_p)=\{\begin{array}{cc}1,\hfill & |x|_pp^\nu ,\hfill \\ 0,\hfill & |x|_p>p^\nu .\hfill \end{array}$$
(48)
Note that the equation $`[\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x_1|_p)\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x_2|_p)][\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x_1|_p)\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x_2|_p)]=\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x_1|_p)\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x_2|_p)`$ is also valid when $``$ product is replaced by the ordinary one. Since the Fourier transform of $`\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x|_p)`$ is $`\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |k|_p)`$ we have $`\stackrel{~}{\phi }_\nu (k)=\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |k_1|_p)\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |k_2|_p)`$. It means that when $`\nu =0`$ then function $`\mathrm{\Omega }(|x|_p)`$ has its Fourier transform $`\mathrm{\Omega }(|k|_p)`$, and it resembles the same property of the Gaussian $`\mathrm{exp}(\pi x^2)`$ in the real case. In such sense function $`\mathrm{\Omega }(|x|_p)`$ is a $`p`$-adic analogue of $`\mathrm{exp}(\pi x^2)`$. From the function $`\phi _\nu (x)=\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x_1|_p)\mathrm{\Omega }(p^\nu |x_2|_p)`$ and its Fourier transform it follows that $`p`$-adic solitonic solution is in the region $`|x_1|p^\nu ,|x_2|p^\nu ,|k_1|p^\nu ,|k_2|p^\nu `$.

## 5 Adelic aspects

An adele $`x`$  is an infinite sequence

$$x=(x_{\mathrm{}},x_2,\mathrm{},x_p,\mathrm{}),$$
(49)
where $`x_{\mathrm{}}R`$ and $`x_pQ_p`$ with the restriction that for all but a finite set $`S`$ of primes $`p`$ we have $`x_pZ_p=\{xQ_p:|x|_p1\}`$ . One can use componentwise addition and multiplication. It is useful to present the ring of adeles $`𝒜`$ in the following form:

$$𝒜=_S𝒜(S),$$
(50)
$$𝒜(S)=R\times \underset{pS}{}Q_p\times \underset{pS}{}Z_p,$$
(51)
where $`Z_p`$ is the ring of $`p`$-adic integers. $`𝒜`$ is also locally compact topological space with well-defined Haar measure. There are mainly two kinds of analysis over $`𝒜`$, which generalize those over $`R`$ and $`Q_p`$.

Adelic approach gives possibility to treat real and all $`p`$-adic aspects of a quantum system simultaneously and as essential parts of a more complete description. Adelic quantum mechanics was formulated  and successfully applied to some simple and solvable quantum models. Here we use adelic approach to noncommutative scalar solitons.

According to the previous sections the equation $`(\varphi \varphi )(x)=\varphi (x)`$ can be considered as real as well as $`p`$-adic. The $``$ product may be realized in both differential and integral form. Unlike the real case, $`p`$-adic solutions of this equation depend on differential and integral formulations. Hence we have two adelic versions of adelic aspects of $`(\varphi \varphi )(x)=\varphi (x)`$, which are related to differential and integral realizations of $``$.

When $``$ product has the differential (Moyal) form, we have adelic valued solutions

$$\varphi (x)=(\varphi _{\mathrm{}}(x_{\mathrm{}}),\varphi _2(x_2),\mathrm{},\varphi _p(x_p),\mathrm{}),$$
(52)
where $`\varphi _{\mathrm{}}(x_{\mathrm{}})`$ and $`\varphi _p(x_p)`$ are real and $`p`$-adic valued functions of the form (22), respectively, and $`|\varphi _p(x_p)|1`$ for all but a finite set $`S`$ of prime numbers $`p`$. Possible region of $`x_p`$ is determined by convergence of the exponential functions and it is $`|x_p|_p\sqrt{|2\theta |_p}`$. Parameter $`\theta `$ as a characteristic of a physical system has to be rational, since a rational number can be treated at the same time as real as $`p`$-adic.

If the $``$ product has integral form then equation $`(\phi \phi )(x)=\phi (x)`$ has real valued solutions of adelic variable $`x`$. These solutions have the following form:

$$\phi (x)=\phi _{\mathrm{}}(x_{\mathrm{}})\underset{pS}{}[\mathrm{\Omega }(p^{\nu _p}|x_p^1|_p)\mathrm{\Omega }(p^{\nu _p}|x_p^2|_p)]\underset{pS}{}[\mathrm{\Omega }(|x_p^1|_p)\mathrm{\Omega }(|x_p^2|_p)],$$
(53)
where $`S`$ can be arbitrary finite set of primes $`p`$ and $`\nu _pZ`$. In (53) function $`\phi _{\mathrm{}}(x_{\mathrm{}})`$ may be any of the found real solutions (22) of the equation $`(\phi \phi )(x)=\phi (x).`$

Acknowledgements.  The work on this paper was supported in part by the Serbian Ministry of Science, Technologies and Development under contracts No 1426 and No 1486. The work of B.D. was also partially supported by RFFI grant 02–01-01084 .