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# X-ray and weak lensing measurements of the mass profile of MS1008.1-1224: Chandra and VLT data

## 1 Introduction

As the largest virialized objects in the Universe, galaxy clusters are a powerful cosmological tool once their mass distribution is univocally determined. In the recent past, there have been several claims that cluster masses obtained from X-ray analyses of the intracluster plasma, taken to be in hydrostatic equilibrium with the gravitational potential well, are significantly smaller (up to a factor of two; but see Wu et al. 1998; Allen 1998; Böhringer et al. 1998; Allen et al. 2001) than the ones derived from gravitational lensing (see Mellier 1999 for a review).

In this paper we report on the mass distribution of the cluster MS1008.1$``$1224 by combining the results from weak lensing analysis of deep FORS1-VLT images with those obtained from a spatially-resolved spectroscopic X-ray analysis of a Chandra observation. MS1008.1$``$1224 is a rich galaxy cluster at redshift 0.302 that has been part of the Einstein Medium Sensitivity Survey sample (Gioia & Luppino 1994) and of the CNOC survey (Carlberg et al. 1996). Lombardi et al. (2000) presented a detailed weak lensing analysis of the FORS1-VLT data. Figure 1 shows the X-ray isophotes overplotted to the optical V-band image. In the following we adopt the conversion $`1\text{ arcmin}=376\text{ kpc}`$ ($`z=0.302`$, $`H_0=50h_{50}\text{ km s}^1\text{ Mpc}^1`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=1\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.3`$) and quote all the errors at $`1\sigma `$ ($`68.3\%`$ confidence level).

## 2 X-ray mass

We retrieved the primary and secondary data products from the Chandra archive. The exposure of MS1008.1$``$1224 was done on June 11, 2000 using the ACIS-I configuration. We reprocessed the level=1 events file in the Very Faint Mode and, then, with the CtiCorrector software (v. 1.38; Townsley et al. 2000). The light curve was checked for high background flares that were not detected. About $`44.0\text{ ksec}`$ (out of $`44.2\text{ ksec}`$, the nominal exposure time) were used and a total number of counts of about $`\mathrm{20\hspace{0.17em}000}`$ were collected from the region of interest in the 0.5–7 keV band. We used CIAO (v. 2.2; Elvis et al. 2002, in prep.) and our own IDL routines to prepare the data to the imaging and spectral studies. The X-ray center was fixed to the peak of the projected mass from weak lensing analysis (Lombardi et al. 2000) at (RA, Dec; 2000)$`=(10^\mathrm{h}10^\mathrm{m}32\stackrel{s}{.}68,12^{}39^{}58.8\mathrm{"})`$. Note that the maximum value in a $`5\mathrm{}`$-smoothed image of the cluster X-ray emission is at (RA, Dec)$`=(10^\mathrm{h}10^\mathrm{m}32\stackrel{s}{.}44,12^{}39^{}55.6\mathrm{"})`$, i.e. less than 5 arcsec apart from the adopted center. With respect to the adopted center, a clear asymmetry in the surface brightness distribution is however detected, suggesting an excess in emission in the northern region (see Fig. 2).

### 2.1 X-ray analysis

We detected extended emission at $`2\sigma `$ confidence level up to 4.1 arcmin ($`1.55\text{ Mpc}`$) and we were able to extract a total of four spectra with about $`\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}000}`$ source counts each to put reasonable constraints on the plasma temperature profile up to $`1140\text{ kpc}`$. The contribution from the source to the total count rate decreases from more $`95\%`$ in the innermost spectrum to about $`30\%`$ in the outermost one. We also evaluated the distribution of the plasma temperature values in sectors according to the asymmetrical surface brightness shown in Fig. 2. These best-fit values for a two-dimensional map and for an azimuthally averaged profile are represented in Figs. 3 and 4.

We obtained the Redistribution Matrix Files (RMFs) and Auxiliary Response Files (ARFs) by using the CIAO routines mkrmf and mkarf with the QEU files included in the CtiCorrector package. An emission from an optically-thin plasma (Mekal – Kaastra 1992, Liedhal et al. 1995, in XSPEC v. 11.1.0 – Arnaud 1996) with the metal abundance fixed to 0.3 times the solar value (Anders & Grevesse 1989) and absorbed from the interstellar medium parametrized using the Tübingen-Boulder model (tbabs in XSPEC; Wilms, Allen & McCray 2000) was adopted to reproduce the observed spectra. A galactic column density fixed to $`7.0\times 10^{20}\text{ cm}^2`$ (from radio HI maps in Dickey & Lockman 1990) was assumed. A local background was adopted also considering the relatively high column density of this field with respect to the blank field available for the same CCD and the proper observational period. The overall spectral fit of the counts collected within $`1100\text{ kpc}`$ from the adopted center provides an emission weighted temperature of $`7.2_{0.8}^{+1.0}\text{ keV}`$ and a bolometric luminosity of $`1.6\times 10^{45}\text{ erg s}^1`$ ($`0.9\times 10^{45}`$ in the $`2`$$`10\text{ keV}`$ band).

### 2.2 X-ray mass profile

In accordance with the weak lensing analysis described in the following section, we assume a spherical geometry for both the dark matter halo and the X-ray emitting plasma (note that negligible effects, when compared with our statistical uncertainties, can be introduced on the mass estimate due to the aspherical X-ray emission, see, e.g., Piffaretti et al. 2002). The values of gas density and temperature in volume shells are recovered from the projected spectral results as described in Ettori et al. (2002). To measure the total gravitating mass $`M_{\mathrm{tot}}`$, we then constrained the parameters of an assumed mass model by fitting the deprojected gas temperature (shown in Fig. 4) with the temperature profile obtained by inversion of the equation of the hydrostatic equilibrium between the dark matter potential and the intracluster plasma,

$`G\mu m_\mathrm{p}{\displaystyle \frac{n_\mathrm{e}M_{\mathrm{tot},\mathrm{model}}(<r)}{r^2}}={\displaystyle \frac{d\left(n_\mathrm{e}kT\right)}{dr}}.`$ (1)
In this equation, $`\mu =0.6`$ is the mean molecular weight in a.m.u., $`G`$ is the gravitational constant, $`m_\mathrm{p}`$ is the proton mass, and $`n_\mathrm{e}`$ is the deprojected electron density. We considered both the King approximation to the isothermal sphere (King 1962) and a Navarro, Frenk & White (1997) dark matter density profile as mass models (see details in Ettori et al. 2002). By fitting the temperature profile in Fig. 4, we measured the best fit parameters $`(r_\mathrm{s},c)=(646\pm 390,4.2\pm 0.9)`$ for a King and $`(1122\pm 287,2.3\pm 0.8)`$ for a NFW mass model.

Using a $`\beta `$-model (Cavaliere & Fusco-Femiano 1976) and the ROSAT HRI surface brightness profile detected up to about $`765\text{ kpc}`$ at the $`2\sigma `$ level, Lewis et al. (1999) measured $`M_{\mathrm{tot}}=(3.8\pm 0.6)\times 10^{14}M_{}`$, assuming an isothermal gas temperature of $`7.3\text{ keV}`$. If we apply a $`\beta `$-model to our surface brightness profile and a polytropic function to the gas temperature profile, we obtain $`r_\mathrm{c}=0.264_{0.022}^{+0.025}\text{ Mpc}`$, $`\beta =0.618_{0.031}^{+0.025}`$ and $`\gamma =0.96_{0.16}^{+0.15}`$. The derived mass estimate is lower by $`10`$$`20\%`$ (by $`12\%`$ at $`765\text{ kpc}`$) than the one in Lewis et al. (1999). The best-fit mass models give $`M_{\mathrm{tot},\mathrm{King}}=(4.5\pm 1.2)\times 10^{14}M_{}`$ and $`M_{\mathrm{tot},\mathrm{NFW}}=(3.2\pm 0.5)\times 10^{14}M_{}`$, in agreement with the results obtained from each independent sector of the temperature map in Fig. 3 \[e.g., the region to North, which has a higher signal-to-noise ratio due to the excess in brightness, gives $`M_{\mathrm{tot},\mathrm{King}}=(4.5\pm 0.8)\times 10^{14}M_{}`$ and $`M_{\mathrm{tot},\mathrm{NFW}}=(4.1\pm 0.6)\times 10^{14}M_{}`$\].

## 3 Weak lensing mass

A weak lensing analysis of MS1008.1$``$1224 using VLT-FORS1 images was carried out by Lombardi et al. (2000) and is summarized below. A parallel weak lensing analysis carried out by Athreya et al. (2002), leads to a mass estimates in agreement with the one presented here.

### 3.1 Weak lensing analysis

The weak lensing analysis was performed independently on the four (B, V, R, and I) FORS-1 optical images using the IMCAT package (Kaiser et al. 1995; see also Kaiser & Squires 1993). After generating source catalogs, we separated stars from galaxies; the measured sizes and ellipticities of stars were used to correct the galaxy ellipticities for the PSF (see Kaiser et al. 1995; Luppino and Kaiser 1997). The observed galaxies were classified as foreground, background, and cluster members using, when available, the redshift from the CNOC survey (Yee et al. 1998), or the observed colors otherwise. Finally, we used the fiducial background galaxies to obtain the shear field of the cluster and, from this, the projected mass distribution (see Lombardi & Bertin 1999).

Our study differs on a few points with respect to similar weak lensing analyses:

* We decided to use a robust, median estimator to obtain the local shear map from the galaxy ellipticities instead of the more common simple average. In particular, we estimated the local shear on each point of the map by taking a (weighted) median on the observed ellipticities of angularly close background galaxies (see Sect. 4.4 of Lombardi et al. 2000). This way we make sure that a few galaxies with poorly determined ellipticities do not significantly affect the shear estimation.
* We estimated the background sources redshift distribution by resampling the catalog of photometric redshifts of Fernández-Soto et al. (1999) in the Hubble Deep Field.
* We took advantage of the multi-band observations by performing the weak lensing analyses on each band separately.

### 3.2 Weak lensing mass profile

The reconstructed two-dimensional mass distribution appears to be centered on the cD galaxy and shows elliptical profiles oriented in direction North-South. No substructure on scales larger than $`30^{\prime \prime }`$ was detected. In order to remove the mass-sheet degeneracy (see, e.g., Kaiser & Squires 1993), we fitted the mass profiles with non-singular isothermal sphere models; from this we obtain, for example, $`M(r<1h_{50}^1\text{ Mpc})=5.3\times 10^{14}h_{50}^1\text{M}_{}`$. We note that, because of the smoothing operated in the two-dimensional mass maps, the weak lensing mass profile for $`r<1^{}`$ is bound to be underestimate. On the other hand, at large radii (say, $`r>3^{}`$), an error on the removal of the mass-sheet degeneracy can in principle lead to an unreliable “total” weak lensing mass estimate. Note that the four profiles (from B, V, R and I optical images) agree very well to each other, which strongly support the results of our analysis.

## 4 Conclusions

The differential X-ray best-fit mass model has been weighted by the relative portion of the shell observed in each ring and, then, cumulated up to the radius of 1020 kpc (the outer radius of our spatially resolved spectroscopy). In Fig. 5, we plot and compare the projected mass profiles of the galaxy cluster MS1008.1$``$1224 obtained from both the spatially resolved spectral analysis of the Chandra observation and the weak lensing analysis of FORS1-VLT multicolor imaging. The two independently reconstructed mass profiles agree very well within $`1\sigma `$ uncertainty both in absolute values and in the overall shape of the profile. Note that the mass center is fixed to the peak of the lensing map density that is consistent with the X-ray peak as discussed in Sect. 2. This result does not change when we consider the different density and temperature profiles observed in the northern region where a significant surface brightness excess is located and a higher signal-to-noise ratio is available, arguing for the robustness of the X-ray mass estimates once gas density and temperature distributions can be properly mapped.


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# Real Borcherds Superalgebras and M-theory

## 1 Introduction

Finite dimensional Lie theory has been crucial for the construction of the standard model. In the same way, symmetry algebras will be crucial to understand the structure of M-theory. Recently, we have embedded the U-duality algebra $`E_{n|n}`$ for eleven-dimensional supergravity compactified on a torus $`T^n`$ in a Borcherds superalgebra using a connection with the del Pezzo surfaces . This huge algebra in turn could be truncated to exhibit the superalgebra of symmetries of .

The classification of projective algebraic curves (compact connected Riemann surfaces) leads to the genus invariant and to the list: Riemann sphere, elliptic (plane) curves and quotients of hyperbolic half-plane by cocompact discrete subgroups of $`SL(2,)`$. The classification of smooth projective algebraic surfaces has also been known for a while, but the Enriques-Kodaira theory is much richer than uniformisation theory. One distinguishes  them first by their Kodaira dimension $`\kappa `$ which can be $`\mathrm{},0,1,2`$. The first case is that of ruled surfaces (ie birationally equivalent to the product of a curve $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_g`$ by a projective line). The birational class of $`^2`$ is the set of rational surfaces ($`g=0`$). The other ruled surfaces are obtained by a set of blowups from projective line bundles on curves. The latter are called their “minimal models” for that reason. Among rational surfaces one meets first the del Pezzo surfaces but also the Veronese surface. The case of null Kodaira dimension encompasses K3 surfaces and their quotients the Enriques surfaces as well as the abelian and the bielliptic surfaces. Non rational elliptic pencils have Kodaira dimension one, and the rest are the so-called general surfaces. For nonruled surfaces, the minimal models are unique and their classification is the same as the classification up to birational equivalence. For rational surfaces, one notes that $`^2`$ and $`^1\times ^1`$ are both minimal, birationally equivalent to each other but nonisomorphic surfaces.

The Picard group or second homology of the del Pezzo surfaces defines a nice lattice connected with the root lattice of the Borcherds superalgebras. These enlarged algebras require the use of a new formulation of M-theory which introduces the fields and their duals . The equations of motion for the various $`p`$-forms should then be written as a self-duality equation based on a supercoset $`G/K_G`$ with $`G`$ the supergroup corresponding to the Borcherds superalgebra and $`K_G`$ its maximal ”compact” subgroup, defined as the fixed elements under the Cartan-Chevalley-Serre involution. The other U-duality algebras appearing in the oxidation of $`E_{n|n}`$ cosets from 3 dimensions (for $`n7`$) form another (“Split Magic”) triangle, SM$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, they have also been extended to split Borcherds superalgebras and connected with (singular) normal del Pezzo surfaces in . The reflection symmetry along the diagonal of SM$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ was proved there.

Now the supergravity theories that give pure supergravity in four dimension with less than $`𝒩=8`$ supersymmetries form the original Magic Triangle M$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ , the U-duality algebras include non-split real forms of simple Lie algebras. We will show in this paper how to extend these non-split forms to non-split Borcherds superalgebras too. The conjugation defining a real form of the Borcherds superalgebra will be connected with the real structure of the corresponding real normal del Pezzo surface, defined by a complex conjugation which induces an involution of the Picard group that preserves the anticanonical class. These real forms of Borcherds superalgebras will then be characterized by a Satake superdiagram. In the first part ofi this paper, as a warm-up exercise, we give the complete generalizable proof of the symmetry of the Split Magic triangle and construct yet another symmetric triangle starting from type I supergravity.

Then we shall review the theory of real del Pezzo surfaces. Section 4 is on real forms of Lie algebras and section 5 on the (nonsplit) Magic triangle and Magic square, there we reproduce supergravity models by adding by hand appropriate singularities on the surfaces. In the conclusion and appendix we emphasize some open questions, in particular the need to understand better supersymmetry breaking in this context as well as some peculiarity of $`𝒩=2`$ pure SUGRA.

## 2 Symmetry of triangles

It was noticed in  that the “Split” Magic Triangle (SM$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$) constructed by oxidizing some split non-linear $`\sigma `$-models has a symmetry across the diagonal (Table 1). There are 5 bifurcations which we discovered in , they appear in the text of that paper but unfortunately not on the table so we do it here. The bifurcations reflect the lack of uniqueness of the minimal model. For completeness we should recall that another magic triangle related to exceptional groups extending the ideas of Freudenthal and Tits has been proposed by P. Cvitanovic , however it does involve non-simply laced algebras and does not fit with our more primitive constructions yet. Actually it was noted long ago by the second author that the Magic square of  corresponds to Tits geometries of types $`F_4`$ resp $`C_3`$, $`A_2`$, $`A_1`$. So in effect non-simply laced algebras do enter in the theory of real forms of simply laced ones.

In  we associated to each of these theories a del Pezzo surface. These del Pezzo’s are possibly singular, but the singularity is at worst Du Val, which means that there are isolated singular points which can be resolved in a set of (-2)-curves intersecting according to an ADE Cartan matrix (in fact A type singularities suffice). Before translating the symmetry of the triangle into Lie superalgebra language, we will first explain it at the level of algebraic geometry of del Pezzo surfaces.

### 2.1 Del Pezzo surfaces and coset theories

Let us first say a few words on del Pezzo surfaces and how they are related to physical theories. For a detailed exposition and mathematical background, see .

A (complex) del Pezzo surface is an algebraic, projective, complex surface which has an ample anticanonical divisor. A complex surface (which has complex dimension two) is said to be projective if it can be embedded in some $`^n`$ in such a way that, at least locally, it is defined as the zero locus of some homogeneous polynomials. The maximal exterior power of the tangent bundle is a line bundle, called the anticanonical divisor and denoted $`K`$. The property of being ample is that its first Chern class is positive : it gives a positive integer when integrated on any 1-cycle.

Smooth del Pezzo surfaces are $`^2`$, $`^1\times ^1`$ and $`_r^2`$ blown up in $`r8`$ points in general position. Blowing up a point means replacing it by the $`^1`$ of all tangent directions.

The $`H_2`$ lattice of integral cohomology (or Picard group) of a del Pezzo surface is endowed with an intersection product. We recall that the Picard group of $`_r^2`$ is generated by the projective line $`H`$ of $`^2`$ and the $`r`$ exceptional curves $`E_i`$ and the Picard group of $`^1\times ^1`$ is generated by the two lines $`l_1`$ and $`l_2`$ satisfying $`l_1^2=l_2^2=0`$ and $`l_1.l_2=1`$.

One can construct Du Val singularities by contracting chains of curves of self-intersection -2. The type of the singularity depends on the intersections of the (-2)-curves considered and is described by a Dynkin diagram. We will consider here $`A_k`$ singularities.

In  it was remarked that BPS states of M-theory compactified on orthogonal tori correspond to divisors of vanishing (virtual) genus (called rational divisors) on smooth del Pezzo’s. In  we have shown that one can associate a Borcherds generalised Cartan matrix to these surfaces, from which we were able to recover the equations of motion of all p-forms of the theories, and relations between tensions of BPS objects. Moreover, we associated to each theory of the oxidation triangle of  a del Pezzo surface which gives its bosonic field content and equations of motion. The symmetry of the triangle, on the del Pezzo side of the correspondence, is the fact that each pair of symmetric del Pezzo’s have the same degree zero divisors. We now give the precise proof of this fact, already sketched in .

### 2.2 Proof of the triangle symmetry

Let us first recall that for del Pezzo surfaces, the symmetry of the SM$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ follows from the fact that a del Pezzo surface of degree $`n+1`$ ($`K^2=n+1`$ with $`K`$ the canonical divisor) with exactly one singularity of type $`A_k`$ has the same group of reflections as the del Pezzo of degree $`k+1`$ and singularity $`A_n`$. This group is the group of reflections with respect to the (-2)-divisors orthogonal to $`K`$. In fact, one can check that the sublattices of the Picard group orthogonal to $`K`$, ($`K^{}`$), are identical for both cases and not only the (-2)-divisors.

Let us now show that given any del Pezzo surface, at least when it is normal, we can construct a symmetric triangle such that this surface lies on the first column of it. Let us start with some given singularities on this surface, in the following we shall focus on one additional singularity. When the starting surface is non-singular we recover the case of the previous paragraph. We may first blow up points in general position in order to get a del Pezzo surface with $`K^2=1`$. We claim that if we can blow down $`n`$ non-intersecting (-1)-curves isomorphic to $`^1`$ on that new surface to get a del Pezzo of degree $`n+1`$, we can alternatively construct another del Pezzo of degree 1 with an additional singular point $`A_n`$ with the same $`K^{}`$, and conversely. Applying this twice, we see that we can construct a del Pezzo surface of degree $`n+1`$ and one singular point $`A_k`$ which has the same $`K^{}`$ as a del Pezzo of degree one and two singular points $`A_k`$ and $`A_n`$. The same reasoning tells us that this surface has the same $`K^{}`$ (full homologies may differ) as a third one of degree $`k+1`$ and singularity $`A_n`$, which proves the symmetry of the triangle of split U-dualities with respect to the diagonal.

Now, let us explain why for a del Pezzo surface of degree one there is a one-to-one correspondence between blowing down $`k`$ non-intersecting (-1)-curves isomorphic to $`^1`$ and an $`A_k`$ singularity. At the level of the Picard group, blowing down curves corresponds to keeping their orthogonal complement. Let $`E_i`$, with $`i`$ running from 1 to $`k`$ be the so-called exceptional (-1)-spheres. As they do not intersect, we have $`E_i.E_j=0`$, and of course $`E_i^2=1`$ and $`K.E_i=1`$. The vector space spanned by these divisors is also generated by the divisors $`E_iE_{i+1}`$ ($`1ik1`$) and $`E_1`$. So the orthogonal complement of these two sets of divisors is the same. This is a result at the level of divisors without assurance at this stage that the second set can be realised effectively by spheres. If we restrict ourselves to $`K^{}`$ in the Picard group, we can also exchange any $`E_i`$ with $`E_iK`$, and we see that inside the subspace of the Picard group perpendicular to $`K`$, the orthogonal complement of the $`E_i`$’s, with $`1ik`$ is also the orthogonal complement of $`E_iE_{i+1}`$, with $`1ik1`$ and $`E_1K`$ which are themselves (-2)-divisors in $`K^{}`$. Moreover, one can check, keeping in mind $`K^2=1`$, that these are virtual spheres in an $`A_k`$ configuration in other words whose intersection matrix is the opposite of an $`A_k`$ Cartan matrix.

One can easily see that this argument can be inverted and that starting with such an $`A_k`$ of (-2)-divisors in the Picard group, we can find $`k`$ orthogonal (-1)-divisors giving the same orthogonal complement in $`K^{}`$. Now the key point is to decide which divisors are actually curves.

In order to construct an $`A_k`$ singularity from these (-2)-divisors, we have to deform the del Pezzo surface such that these become effective (-2)-spheres. Let us call $`p_i`$ and $`p_{i+1}`$ the points we get by blowing down $`E_i`$ and $`E_{i+1}`$. For $`E_iE_{i+1}`$ to be a curve, we have to take $`p_i`$ and $`p_{i+1}`$ infinitely close, this preserves the orthogonality of $`E_i`$ and $`E_{i+1}`$ as it is a continuous process. In other words, $`p_{i+1}`$ must lie on $`E_i`$. If the del Pezzo surface is normal, once all singularities are blown up, we get the smooth del Pezzo surface $`_8^2`$, which corresponds to blowing up $`^2`$ on eight almost general points, and the anticanonical divisor can be written as $`K=3HE_1E_2^{}\mathrm{}E_8^{}`$ and therefore we have $`KE_1=3H2E_1E_2^{}\mathrm{}E_8^{}`$. This divisor is a curve if the eight points corresponding to the exceptional divisors $`E_1,E_2^{},\mathrm{}E_8^{}`$ lie on a cubic curve of $`^2`$ which has a double point that we take as $`p_1`$. Thus, we can construct an $`A_k`$ chain of (-2)-curves to be blown down in order to get the del Pezzo surface we wanted.

When the surface is nonnormal, the very last point is more subtle and we do not know if such an $`A_k`$ singularity can always be constructed. We will see below a case where it is possible, starting with the del Pezzo surface we associated to a truncated version of Type I or Heterotic String theory.

### 2.3 Superalgebras

On the superalgebra side of the dictionary, the translation is the following. The symmetry of the split triangle comes from the fact that in superalgebras corresponding to $`\sigma `$-models in $`d=3`$, the centralizer of $`n1`$ commuting $`su(1|1)`$ and one $`sl(k+1)`$ (also commuting with the former) has the same degree 0 part as the centralizer of $`k`$ $`sl(1|1)`$ and one $`sl(n)`$, all commuting with each other. In other words, instantons of both theories are the same, and so is the U-duality algebra. In the supersymmetric case the symmetry is only approximate. One should still factorise a split $`sl(n)`$ while going up any column ie under oxidation this is related to the fact that this algebra is the remnant of diffeomorphisms. But the rule we must adopt now for going from left to right at fixed dimension is rather to disintegrate the R-symmetry group, again starting from its affine root as in oxidation. However one is now factorising $`su(n)`$’s.

### 2.4 Split Triangle constructed from Type I

In  we showed that a del Pezzo surface can be associated to Type I or Heterotic theories when one forgets the gauge sector. This surface is not normal, which means that there is a singularity of (co)dimension 1. We show here that a symmetric triangle of del Pezzo surfaces can be constructed from it nevertheless, corresponding to $`\sigma `$-models oxidations (Table 2).

The starting surface can be obtained in the following manner. We start from $`^2`$ and blow up one point, $`p_1`$, on it. Then we blow up a second point, $`p_2`$, lying on the corresponding exceptional divisor $`E_1`$ which gives another exceptional divisor $`E_2`$. Then there is a (-2)-curve $`E_1E_2`$, which is the transform of $`E_1`$ by the second blow-up, and a third (-1)-curve $`HE_1E_2`$ (where $`H`$ is the line of $`^2`$) that we blow down. This surface is a $`^1`$-bundle over $`^1`$ and its Picard group is generated by the section $`E_1E_2`$ and the fiber $`HE_1`$. Now we blow up the intersecting point $`p_3`$ of $`E_1E_2`$ with one of the fibers, which gives an exceptional divisor $`E_3`$. The (-2)-section becomes a (-3)-curve $`E_1E_2E_3`$. After blowing down the (-1)-curve $`HE_1E_3`$, we get another $`^1`$-bundle over $`^1`$ which still has fibers $`A=HE_1`$ but which has now a (-3)-section $`E_1E_2E_3`$. We repeat this operation once more and get a bundle with the same fiber but with a (-4)-section $`B=E_1E_2E_3E_4`$.

This (-4)-curve $`B`$ which is a conic can be projected to a double line, and we get the surface described in  with $`K=B+6A`$, which corresponds to the Type I theory (without gauge sector) in 10 dimensions. We get the surfaces corresponding to its toroidal compactifications by blowing up points in general positions, as in the regular case. The corresponding exceptional curves are noted $`E_i^{}`$. To construct a triangle on the right of this column (Table 1), we have seen above that the divisor $`K^{}E_1^{}`$ must be an irreducible curve, where $`K^{}=B+6AE_1^{}E_2^{}\mathrm{}E_7^{}`$ is the anticanonical divisor of the $`d=3`$ surface, which is obtained by blowing up seven points ($`p_1^{}`$ to $`p_7^{}`$) on the $`d=10`$ one. As we have $`K^{}E_1^{}=6H5E_1E_2E_3E_42E_1^{}E_2^{}\mathrm{}E_7^{}`$, we see that this is a curve if we take all the blown-up points on a sextic such that $`p_1`$ is a quintuple point and $`p_1^{}`$ a double point, which is possible. Indeed such a curve is defined by an homogeneous polynomial of degree 6 in 3 variables, which has 28 coefficients, which leaves 27 free coefficients after modding out by the action of $`^{}`$, and this is larger than 16, the number of fixed points.

We observe that the del Pezzo surface ($`k=1`$, $`d=6`$) with Weyl group $`D_5`$ corresponds to type IIB compactified on $`T^4/\text{Z}𝖹_2`$ without the twisted sector. We can obtain the other surface in the same slot (with Weyl group $`D_4`$) by applying a birational transformation which corresponds to a blow up and a blow down of (-1)-curves. On the supergravity side, it corresponds to a T-duality. The field contents of the various field theories obtained includes a metric, a dilaton, a two form and some axions corresponding to the U-duality algebra.

## 3 Real del Pezzo surfaces

A real algebraic variety $`X_{}`$ is defined as a complex algebraic variety with an antiholomorphic involution $`\sigma _X`$, called the real structure . This real structure defines an involution of the Picard group $`Pic(X_{})`$ in the following way: if $`D`$ is a Cartier divisor, it can be represented by meromorphic functions $`f_i`$ on an open cover $`U_i`$ of $`X_{}`$ (with $`\frac{f_i}{f_j}`$ holomorphic and non-vanishing on $`U_iU_j`$), then $`\sigma (D)`$ is given by $`(U_i,f_i^{\sigma _X}:=jf_i\sigma _X)`$ where $`j:`$ is the complex conjugation. The intersection of two divisors $`D_1`$ and $`D_2`$ defined as $`D_1.D_2:=_X_{}c_1(D_1)c_1(D_2))`$ (with $`c_1`$ the first Chern class) is then preserved by the real structure : $`\sigma _X(D_1).\sigma _X(D_2)=D_1.D_2`$. Moreover, it can be proved that the anticanonical class $`K_X`$ is invariant under $`\sigma _X`$.
We recall that if we blow up a point $`P`$ on a complex surface $`X_{}`$, we obtain a surface $`Y_{}`$ and get a projection morphism $`\pi :Y_{}X_{}`$ such that $`E=\pi ^1(P)`$ is an exceptional curve of the first kind (that is $`E^1`$ and $`E.E=1`$) and $`Y_{}\pi ^1(P)X_{}P`$. The monoidal transformation $`\pi `$ is defined as follows: let $`(z_1,z_2)`$ be local coordinates at $`P`$ defined in an open set $`U`$, then $`V=\pi ^1(U)`$ has equation $`l_1z_2=l_2z_1`$ in $`U\times ^1`$, where $`(l_1,l_2)`$ are homogenous coordinates of $`^1`$. If we now blow up a point $`P`$ on a real surface $`X_{}`$ with involution $`\sigma _X`$, we obtain a real surface $`Y_{}`$ with a natural real structure $`\sigma _Y`$ defined by $`\sigma _Y(z_1,z_2,l_1,l_2)=(\sigma _X(z_1),\sigma _X(z_2),\overline{l}_1,\overline{l}_2)`$ on $`V`$ where $`\overline{}`$ denotes complex conjugation in $`^1`$. This involution coincides with the one induced on $`Y_{}\pi ^1(P)`$ by identification with $`X_{}P`$. Then, if $`P`$ is a real point, we obtain an exceptional curve of the first kind $`E`$ satisfying $`\sigma _Y(E)=E`$ and for complex conjugate points $`P_1`$ and $`P_2`$, we have $`\sigma _Y(E_1)=E_2`$ and $`E_1.E_2=0`$ as $`P_1`$ and $`P_2`$ are distinct points. Conversely, if $`E`$ is such a real (resp. a pair of complex conjugate) exceptional curve(s), $`Y_{}`$ can be blown down to a surface $`X_{}`$ such that $`E`$ (resp. $`E`$ and $`\sigma (E)`$) is contracted to a smooth real (resp. complex conjugate) point(s) $`P`$ and $`Y_{}`$ is precisely the blow-up of $`X_{}`$ at the point $`P`$ as described above.

A real del Pezzo surface $`X_{}`$ is by definition a connected surface with a real structure $`\sigma `$ that is possibly singular but Gorenstein and is such that $`K`$ is ample. In the complex case, we have already seen that the smooth del Pezzo surface $`X_{}`$ are $`^1\times ^1`$ and $`_r^2`$ obtained by blowing up $`r`$ points in general positions on the projective surface $`^2`$. The roots of $`Pic(X_{})`$, defined as rational divisors orthogonal to $`K`$, form a Dynkin diagram and generate a Weyl group $`W`$. It can be proved that $`W`$ is the group of isometries of $`Pic(X_{})`$, leaving $`K`$ fixed . Then, the real structure $`\sigma `$ on $`X_{}`$ belongs to a conjugacy class of $`W`$. We use $`\sigma `$ to decompose the root lattice $`L`$ into eigenspaces $`L^+L^{}`$. It is known that $`\sigma `$ is a product of dim $`L^{}`$ reflections and the subgroup $`W_\sigma `$ of $`W`$ leaving $`L^+`$ pointwise fixed is itself a group generated by reflexions. We write $`\mathrm{}(\sigma )`$ for its Dynkin diagram. The real structure $`\sigma `$ is entirely characterized by $`\mathrm{}(\sigma )`$ (Table 2) . We note that if we start with a real del Pezzo surface $`(X_{}^r,\sigma )`$ and blow up one real point $`P`$ (resp. complex conjugate points $`P_1`$ and $`P_2`$), we obtain a real del Pezzo surface $`(X_{}^{r+1},\sigma ^{^{}})`$ with $`\mathrm{}(\sigma ^{^{}})=\mathrm{}(\sigma )`$ (resp. $`\mathrm{}(\sigma ^{^{}})=\mathrm{}(\sigma )\times A_1`$ whose new root $`E_1E_2`$ is anti-invariant under $`\sigma ^{^{}}`$).

We can now write down explicitly the involutions appearing in Table 3. We have already seen that the involution $`A_1^r`$ correspond to blow up $`r`$ pairs of complex conjugate points. If $`d=8`$, $`A_1^{^{}}`$ corresponds to $`\sigma _{A_1^{^{}}}(E_i)=E_i+E_0E_1E_2E_3`$. $`A_1^2^{^{}}`$ ($`d=6`$) and $`A_1^3^{^{}}`$ ($`d=4`$) are now obtained from $`A_1^{^{}}`$ by blowing up one or two pairs of complex conjugate points. The involution $`A_1^{^{}}`$ can be put in a more standard way by blowing down the $`(1)`$-curves $`HE_1E_2`$ and $`E_3`$ exchanged by $`\sigma _{A_1^{^{}}}`$ . We obtain a del Pezzo surface whose Picard group is generated by the lines $`l_1:=HE_1`$ and $`l_2:=HE_2`$, it is invariant under $`\sigma _{A_1^{^{}}}`$ . This surface corresponds to the real form of the del Pezzo surface $`^1\times ^1`$ with the trivial involution $`1`$. It is a quadric hypersurface $`x_1^2+x_2^2x_3^2x_4^2=0`$, denoted $`Q^{(2,2)}`$. So, the involution $`A_1^{}`$ can be obtained by blowing up two complex conjugate points on $`Q^{(2,2)}`$. If we blow up a real point on $`Q^{(2,2)}`$, we obtain a surface isomorphism to $`^2`$ with the trivial involution and blown up on two real points. A second real form of the del Pezzo surface $`^1\times ^1`$ can be obtained by imposing an $`A_1`$ involution given by $`\sigma _{A_1}(l_1)=l_2`$ and we have the quadric hypersurface $`x_1^2+x_2^2+x_3^2x_4^2=0`$, denoted $`Q^{(3,1)}`$. This surface, blown up on a real point, is isomorphic to $`^2`$ with the trivial involution and blown up on two complex conjugate points.

The involution $`D_{2s}`$ is

$`\sigma (H)`$ $`=`$ $`(s1)(HE_1)KH`$ (3.1)
$`\sigma (E_1)`$ $`=`$ $`E_1K+(s3)(HE_1)`$ (3.2)
$`\sigma (E_i)`$ $`=`$ $`HE_1E_i(2i2s+1)`$ (3.3)
The involution $`E_7`$ (resp. $`E_8`$) correspond to the Geiser (resp. Bertini) involution and acts on $`Pic(_7^2)`$ (resp. $`Pic(_8^2))`$ as $`\sigma (D)=(D.K)KD`$ (resp. $`\sigma (D)=2(D.K)KD`$).

## 4 Real forms of Lie algebras

In this section, we will explain briefly how to classify the real Lie algebras according to the Tits-Satake diagram. A real form of a complex Lie algebra $`𝒢^{}`$ is defined by the restriction of the field of coefficients from the complex to the real numbers. In M-theory, we must eventually replace the real field by the integers. For example, the choice of real coefficients in the Cartan-Weyl basis defines the split form and its existence follows from the fact that the structure constants of $`𝒢^{}`$ can be taken to be integers. For $`SL(2,)`$, the split form is $`SL(2,)`$ wheras the compact form is $`SU(2)`$ and the arithmetic group is the famous modular group $`SL(2,\text{Z}𝖹)`$. These diagrams of the real forms of the classical and exceptional complex groups have been classified by Araki .

Let $`𝒢`$ be a real simple Lie algebra with Cartan decomposition $`𝒢=𝒯^{}𝒫`$ with $`𝒯`$ a maximal compact subalgebra of $`𝒢`$ and $`𝒫`$ the orthogonal complement of $`𝒯`$ with respect to the Killing form which is negative definite when restricted to $`𝒯`$. We can define a linear Cartan involution $`\theta `$ by $`\theta _𝒫=1`$ and $`\theta _𝒯=1`$. For the split form, the Cartan-Chevalley involution $`\theta `$ is given by $`\theta (h_\alpha )=h_\alpha `$, $`\theta (e_\alpha )=e_\alpha `$. Then, the maximal compact subalgebra $`𝒯`$ is generated over $``$ by $`\{e_\alpha e_\alpha \}`$ and $`𝒫`$ by $`\{h_\alpha \}`$ and $`\{e_\alpha +e_\alpha \}`$.

Let $`𝒜`$ be a maximal abelian subalgebra of $`𝒫`$, and let $`\eta `$ be (a maximally non compact $`\theta `$-stable) Cartan subalgebra containing $`𝒜`$ ( $`𝒜^{}`$ is its dual) . The dimension of $`𝒜`$ corresponds to the real rank of $`𝒢`$. For the split form, $`𝒜`$ is generated over $``$ by the Cartan generators $`\{h_\alpha \}`$ and the real rank coincides with the rank of its complexification. The conjugation $`\sigma `$ of $`𝒢^{}`$, the complexification of $`𝒢`$, with respect to $`𝒢`$ defines an involutive automorphism and all the fixed elements of $`𝒢^{}`$ by $`\sigma `$ are the real form $`𝒢`$. Thus, we have $`\sigma (X)=X`$ and $`\sigma (iX)=iXX𝒢`$. In the same way, we can define the conjugation $`\tau =\theta .\sigma `$ of $`K𝒢^{}`$ with respect to the compact real form $`𝒢=𝒯i𝒫`$. The Satake diagram permits to obtain easily the conjugation $`\sigma `$ and then to find the real form associated to it.

The Satake diagram of $`(𝒢,𝒜)`$ consists of

1. The Dynkin diagram of $`(𝒢^{},\eta ^{})`$. The root lattice is noted $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

2. A coloring of the vertices of the diagram: black if the associated simple root of $`(𝒢^{},\eta ^{})`$ restricts to $`0`$ on $`𝒜^{}`$, white otherwise. Let $`\overline{\alpha }=\frac{1}{2}(\alpha \theta (\alpha ))`$ denote the restriction of $`\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }`$ to the subspace $`𝒜^{}`$ and $`m_\psi =dim\{\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }\overline{\alpha }=\psi \}`$, called the multiplicity of $`\psi `$. We set $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0=\{\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }:\overline{\alpha }=0\}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1=\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$.

3. a ”curved arrow” joining two white vertices if and only if the associated simple roots $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ restrict to the same root on $`𝒜^{}`$: $`\overline{\alpha }=\overline{\beta }`$.

4. The Dynkin diagram of the root system: $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=\{\overline{\alpha }:\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }_1\}`$.

A table of Satake diagrams of the real simple Lie algebras can be found in Helgason . The involution $`\sigma `$ can be determined by the Satake diagram of $`𝒢`$. Indeed, it can be proved that we can choose a basis of $`\eta ^{}`$ such as $`\tau (\alpha )=\alpha `$ and so $`\sigma =\theta `$ on the root lattice. So, if the vertex $`\alpha _i`$ in the Satake diagram of $`𝒢`$ is black, the action of $`\sigma `$ is $`\sigma (\alpha _i)=\alpha _i`$ and if two white vertices $`\alpha _i`$ and $`\alpha _j`$ are joined by a curved arrow, we have $`\sigma (\alpha _i)+\alpha _i=\sigma (\alpha _j)+\alpha _j`$. Then, the action of $`\sigma `$ on the other roots can be deduced by using the facts that $`\sigma `$ is an involution which must preserve the Cartan matrix. More precisely, let $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1=\{\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _r\}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0=\{\alpha _{(r+1)},\mathrm{},\alpha _s\}`$, then $`\sigma (\alpha _i)=\alpha _{\pi (i)}+_{i=r+1}^sc_{ij}\alpha _j`$ where $`\pi `$ is an involutive permutation of $`\{1,2,\mathrm{},r\}`$ and $`c_{ij}`$ are non-negative integers. The proof is very simple: let us decompose $`\sigma (\alpha _i)=m_{ij}\alpha _j+_{i=r+1}^sc_{ij}\alpha _j`$ on the basis $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Now applying $`\sigma `$ to this identity, we have $`_jm_{ij}m_{jk}=\delta _{ik}`$ which means that $`m_{ij}`$ can be considered as the elements of the permutation matrix and we obtain the desired result. For example, if $`𝒢`$ is the split form, $`\sigma `$ is the identity. For the non-split $`E_{7|5}`$ of real rank $`4`$, we give as an exercice the involution $`\sigma `$ (Table 4). The associated restricted root system of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is that of its maximal split subalgebra $`F_4`$ .

## 5 Real Magic triangle/square

### 5.1 Origins

In , the oxidation endpoint of the pure supergravity with $`𝒩`$ supersymmetries in four dimensions was obtained. By the oxidation endpoint, we mean the supergravity theory in the highest possible dimension whose toroidal dimensional reduction gives back precisely to the pure supergravity in four dimensions with $`𝒩`$ SUSY spinors. For example, the pure supergravity $`𝒩=8`$ in $`d=4`$ can be obtained by dimensional reduction of eleven-dimensional supergravity . The oxidation sequence is presented in Table 5 and we have indicated the corresponding U-duality cosets $`G/K_G_{dimK_G}^{dimG}`$. $`G`$ is a real Lie group and $`K_G`$, which corresponds to the R-symmetry, is the maximal compact Lie group of $`G`$. A similar magic triangle (Table 6), corresponding to Maxwell-Einstein supergravities $`𝒩=2`$ $`d=5`$, has be obtained by . The following U-duality cosets can be guessed simply by checking that the dimension of the cosets equals the number of scalars. We recall that in order to obtain these U-duality groups, some forms must be dualized. In the following section, we will double all field strengths with their duals and we will infer an even larger symmetry, which corresponds to a real form of a Borcherds superalgebra. The SM$`\mathrm{}`$ and M$`\mathrm{}`$ have also recently been studied ,  using group theory.

The oxidation sequence of each column $`𝒩`$ can be obtained by deleting a line of white roots at the end of the extended Dynkin-Satake diagrams where the affine vertex attaches . We already mentioned the mysterious mechanism of disintegration of the R-symmetry that starts also from the affine end but of the maximal compact U-duality Dynkin diagrams. Alternatively we can obtain the non-split U-duality algebras of each column of the Magic Triangle starting from the Vogan diagram of $`E_{n|n}`$. The Vogan diagrams encode the real forms of Lie algebras using a maximal compact Cartan subalgebra . The Vogan bicoloured diagrams may be chosen to have all or all but one compact vertices, represented now by white dots. Let us take the example of $`n=8`$. The white dots with the affine root generate the Dynkin diagram of the maximal compact algebra $`SO(16)`$ and the SUSY breaking sequence in $`d=3`$ amounts to the deletion of white dots starting from the affine root of $`E_8`$.

### 5.2 Construction with real singularities

We proved  that the field theories of the SM$``$ correspond to normal del Pezzo surfaces $`X_{}`$ with Du Val singularities resulting from the contraction of a set of intersecting $`(2)`$-curves forming a Dynkin diagram of type $`A_{}`$ ie $`Sl(n)`$. In order to obtain other real forms of the U-duality groups than the split ones, it seems natural to guess that the supergravity theories of the original M$``$ correspond to real normal del Pezzo surfaces $`X_{}`$ with real (Du Val-type) singularities which are associated to real forms of $`A_{}`$. The real forms of $`A_{}`$ that can be obtained are $`Sl(n)`$, $`SU(n+1,n1)`$, $`SU(n,n)`$ and $`SU(n,n1)`$ with the Tits-Satake diagrams  of Table 7.

Then, the supergravity theory $`(𝒩,d)`$ of M$``$ in $`d`$ dimensions with $`𝒩`$ SUSY is identified with the normal real del Pezzo surface $`X_{}`$ with $`d=K^2+2`$ and a real singularity $`A_{(8𝒩)}`$ in the following way: the Satake involution which acts on the root lattice $`L`$ of the Dynkin diagram of the U-duality group $`G`$ is identified with the real structure $`\sigma `$ of the real surface $`X_{}`$. By using the facts that $`Pic(X_{})=L\text{Z}𝖹K`$ and $`\sigma (K)=K`$ we deduce the action of the real structure $`\sigma `$ on the Picard group of $`X_{}`$.

Now, the $`A_{(8𝒩)}`$ singularity, characterized by another Satake involution $`\sigma _A`$, remains to be determined. The Picard group of the normalized real del Pezzo surface $`\stackrel{~}{X}_{}`$, which is isomorphic in the complex case to $`_{11d}^2`$, is given by $`Pic(\stackrel{~}{X}_{})=Pic(X_{})^{}A_{(8𝒩)}`$. So the real structure of $`\stackrel{~}{X}_{}`$ is $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma }=\sigma \sigma _A`$ and must correspond to those listed in Table 3. In some particular cases, we will obtain more than one solution. In the following table (Table 8), the real normal del Pezzo surface $`X_{}`$, corresponding to the supergravity $`(𝒩,d)`$ of the M$``$, is noted $`(\mathrm{\Delta }(\stackrel{~}{\sigma }),A)`$ where $`A`$ is a real form of the $`A_{(8𝒩)}`$ singularity. A similar table (Table 9) can be obtained for the supergravity theories of the magic square. It should be noted that the link between the number of singularities and the number of supersymmetries is not obvious as each theory of the magic square corresponds to $`𝒩=2`$ or more.

We observe that, as in the complex case , each vertical step down, which corresponds on the supergravity side to a compactification on a circle, corresponds to blowing up one real point. The singularity $`A`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }(\sigma )`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }(\stackrel{~}{\sigma })`$ are unchanged under this operation.

### 5.3 Real Borcherds superalgebra

We will show in this section how the connection between supergravity theories and real del Pezzo surfaces can be useful to show that the U-duality algebra can be enlarged into a real Borcherds superalgebra. The basic procedure is a direct extension of . According to this paper, we can associate to a complex del Pezzo surface $`X_{}`$ a Borcherds superalgebra whose simple roots $`\alpha _i`$ generate the full Picard group $`Pic(X_{})`$ and the set of positive roots contains the rational (i.e of vanishing virtual genus) divisor classes of non negative degree and also (except in the case of M-theory) the anticanonical class $`K`$.

We can then define minus the intersection matrix $`A_{ij}=\alpha _i.\alpha _j`$ and a $`\text{Z}𝖹_2`$-graduation by $`grad(\alpha _i)=K.\alpha _imod\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}`$. However, it turns out that whenever a fermionic root of square $`1`$ appears it should be viewed as an $`sl(1|1)`$ superroot , i.e. it should have zero Cartan-Killing norm. The corresponding modified matrix will be our Cartan matrix $`a_{ij}`$. This matrix $`a_{ij}`$ satisfies the following properties and thus defines a Borcherds superalgebra (or Generalized Kac-Moody superalgebra).

$`(i)`$ $`a_{ij}0`$ $`\mathrm{i}fij`$ (5.1)
$`(ii)`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2a_{ij}}{a_{ii}}}`$ $`\mathrm{i}fa_{ii}>0,grad(\alpha _i)=0`$ (5.2)
$`(iii)`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{a_{ij}}{a_{ii}}}`$ $`\mathrm{i}fa_{ii}>0,grad(\alpha _i)=1`$ (5.3)
The Borcherds superalgebra associated to the matrix $`a_{ij}`$ has a Cartan subalgebra $`H`$, with basis $`\{h_{\alpha _i}\}`$, it is by definition the Lie superalgebra $`G`$ generated by $`H`$ and by the elements $`e_{\alpha _i}`$, $`f_{\alpha _i}`$ satisfying here the following elementary relations and their consequences:

$`(1)`$ $`[e_{\alpha _i},f_{\alpha _j}]=\delta _{ij}h_{\alpha _i}`$ (5.4)
$`(2)`$ $`[h_{\alpha _j},e_{\alpha _i}]=a_{ij}e_{\alpha _i}\text{,}[h_{\alpha _j},f_{\alpha _i}]=a_{ij}f_{\alpha _i}`$ (5.5)
$`(3)`$ $`[h_{\alpha _i},h_{\alpha _j}]=0`$ (5.6)
$`(4)`$ $`ad(e_{\alpha _i})^{12\frac{a_{ij}}{a_{ii}}}e_{\alpha _j}=0=(ad(f_{\alpha _i}))^{12\frac{a_{ij}}{a_{ii}}}f_{\alpha _j}\text{if}a_{ii}>0`$ (5.7)
$`(5)`$ $`[e_{\alpha _i},e_{\alpha _j}]=0=[f_{\alpha _i},f_{\alpha _j}]\text{if}a_{ij}=0`$ (5.8)
A Killing form is defined as $`B(e_\alpha ,e_\alpha )=1`$ and $`B(h,h_\alpha )=\alpha (h)`$ $`hH`$.

Using this contruction, we can associate to a del Pezzo surface $`X_{}`$ with real structure $`\sigma `$ a real Borcherds superalgebra $`𝒢`$ with a conjugation given by $`\sigma `$. However, it does not work for all real structures on a given del Pezzo, because for real superalgebras, one further imposes that the $`\sigma `$-system of roots satisfies the normal condition  which means that for any bosonic root $`\alpha `$, $`\alpha \sigma (\alpha )`$ must not be a root. Following Araki, we can define Satake superdiagrams (appendix) which recently appeared for the classical Lie superalgebras case in . All the real Borcherds superalgebras which will appear, have only fermionic imaginary simple roots, of vanishing norm, noted $`\beta _i`$. The other bosonic roots which generate the U-duality algebra will be noted $`\alpha _i`$. We note that the restricted roots $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ form a Borcherds superalgebra $`\overline{𝒢}`$ and its Cartan matrix is noted $`\overline{a}_{ij}`$ . Then, we color the superdiagrams as explained is section 4 (this convention differs from that of our previous paper). For example, the Borcherds superalgebra $`B_6^6`$ of the supergravity $`𝒩=6`$ and $`d=6`$ is given in the following table by:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ | $`\sigma `$ |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  | $`\begin{array}{cc}\sigma \left(\alpha _i\right)=& \alpha _ii=0,1,2\\ \sigma \left(\alpha _2\right)=& \alpha _2+\alpha _3+\alpha _1\\ \sigma \left(\beta \right)=& \beta +\alpha _0+\alpha _1\\ \overline{a}=& \left(\begin{array}{cc}2& 1\\ 1& 2\end{array}\right)\end{array}`$ |

In order to obtain the equations of motion of the supergravity theory and to show that they are invariant under the (truncated) Borel supergroup of a real Borcherds superalgebra $`𝒢`$, we need to generalize the Iwasawa decomposition which can be studied in . The proof remains the same and the decompositon reads as $`𝒢=𝒯+𝒜+𝒩`$ where $`𝒩_{\overline{\lambda }\mathrm{\Sigma }^+}𝒢_{\overline{\lambda }}`$ is the nilpotent subalgebra of positive restricted roots. The other notations are those used in section 2. We note that $`dim(𝒢_{\overline{\lambda }})=m(\overline{\lambda }).mult(\overline{\lambda })`$ where $`mult(\overline{\lambda })`$ is the mutiplicity of the $`\overline{\lambda }`$ for the Borcherds superalgebra $`\overline{𝒢}`$. Let us introduce the following nonlinear ”potential” differential form:

$$𝒱=\underset{\overline{\lambda }𝒜^{}}{}e^{h_{\overline{\lambda }}\varphi _{\overline{\lambda }}}\underset{\overline{\lambda }\mathrm{\Sigma }^+d(\overline{\lambda })D}{}e^{e_{\overline{\lambda }}A_{\overline{\lambda }}}$$
(5.9)
The Grassman real angle $`A_{\overline{\lambda }}`$ is a form of degree $`d(\overline{\lambda })K.\overline{\lambda }`$ lower than $`dK^2+2`$ ( $`\varphi _{\overline{\lambda }}`$ is $`0`$-form) defined on a formal manifold of dimension $`d`$. The field strength $`𝒢d𝒱𝒱^1`$ is then a element of $`𝒩`$ whose coefficents are given by forms. As in , we introduce the pseudo-involution $`𝒮`$ satisfying:

$$𝒮(e_{\overline{\lambda }})=e_{\overline{\lambda }K}\overline{\lambda }\mathrm{\Sigma }^+d(\overline{\lambda })d$$

This operator is well defined because the truncated root lattice of the Borcherds superalgebra is invariant under this involution. Finally, if we combine the (twisted) self-duality equations $`S𝒢=𝒢`$ and the Maurer-Cartan equation $`d𝒢=𝒢𝒢`$ which follows by taking the exterior derivative of the field strength, we obtain some second-order equations which reproduce the equations of motion for the $`p`$-forms of the supergravity theory with the corresponding real finite simple Lie algebra (i.e. U-duality algebra) . These equations are trivially invariant under the Borel supergroup whose Lie superalgebra is generated by $`𝒜+𝒩`$. Indeed we can define a natural action on the generalized potential $`𝒱`$ by $`𝒱^{}=𝒱.\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ an element of the Borel supergroup with coefficients given by closed forms. The field strength $`𝒢`$ is then invariant. We have computed in the following table the positive restricted roots of $`B_6^6`$ with their multiplicities.

| Degree | positive root | mutiplicity | potential |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 0 | 0 |  | $`\varphi `$ |
| 0 | $`\overline{\alpha _2}`$ | 4 | $`A_{(0)}`$ |
| 1 | $`\overline{\beta }`$ | 4 | $`A_{(1)}`$ |
| 1 | $`\overline{\alpha _2}+\overline{\beta }`$ | 4 | $`𝒜_{(1)}`$ |
| 2 | $`2\overline{\beta }`$ | 1 | $`A_{(2)}`$ |
| 2 | $`\overline{\alpha _2}+2\overline{\beta }`$ | 1 | $`𝒜_{(2)}`$ |
| 2 | $`2(\overline{\alpha _2}+\overline{\beta })`$ | 1 | $`\stackrel{~}{A}_{(2)}`$ |
| 3 | $`\overline{\alpha _2}+3\overline{\beta }`$ | 4 | $`\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_{(3)}`$ |
| 3 | $`2\overline{\alpha _2}+3\overline{\beta }`$ | 4 | $`\stackrel{~}{A}_{(3)}`$ |
| 4 | $`\overline{\alpha _2}+4\overline{\beta }`$ | 4 | $`A_{(4)}`$ |
| 4 | $`3\overline{\alpha _2}+4\overline{\beta }`$ | 4 | none |
| 4 | $`2\overline{\alpha _2}+4\overline{\beta }`$ | 1 | $`K`$ |

The root $`3\overline{\alpha _2}+4\overline{\beta }`$ is exchanged under the pseudo-involution $`𝒮`$ with the negative root $`\overline{\alpha _1}`$, which corresponds to the NS-1 instanton which is S-dual to the D-1 instanton coupled to the scalar $`A_{(0)}`$. The root $`3\overline{\alpha _2}+4\overline{\beta }`$ is therefore the Hodge-dual of NS-1 and could be noted NS3. We can check that we obtain the right number of fields ie four axions, eight 1-forms, three 2-forms and the corresponding dual fields.

## 6 Conclusion

Recently, some other conjectured symmetries of M-theory such as Kac-Moody algebras $`E_{10}`$ and $`E_{11}`$, introduced a long time ago  for the first one (and partly realised ) and more recently  for the second one and further studied in  have reappeared. The hyperbolic Kac-Moody algebra $`E_{10}`$ appears when one studies the chaotic behaviour of the M-theory near a cosmological singularity. The solutions are chaotic if the corresponding Kac-Moody algebra is hyperbolic which means that one obtains some finite dimensional simple Lie algebras or affine Lie algebras by deleting a simple root to its Dynkin diagram . For the supergravity theory with $`𝒩`$ supersymmetries in M$`\mathrm{}`$, the corresponding over-extension can be found using the corresponding Borcherds superalgebra in $`d=3`$ dimensions. As noted in , the fermionic simple root $`\beta `$ stands at the location of the affine root which is invariant under the Satake conjugation. The over-extension corresponds to add two invariant (white) simple roots starting with the affine root. On the del Pezzo side, it corresponds to blowing up two more real points.

These algebras require also a new formulation of M-theory which incorporates the fields and their duals. However, in order to obtain these algebras, we need to dualize also the gravity field. Our supercoset construction based on some real Borcherds superalgebra must be extended in order to include these fields which can be described by multiforms , . For example, the gravity field and its dual are described by bi-forms. We are witnessing indeed magical coincidences with some defects that should be corrected to reach harmony and that in fact suggest a bigger structure yet to be discovered. In particular the role of SUSY is still a puzzle.

## 7 Appendix

In this appendix, we list the real Borcherds superalgebra corresponding to each box of the SM$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. We recall that $`\beta _i`$ is a fermionic root of vanishing norm and $`\alpha _j`$ is a bosonic root, normalized such that $`\alpha _{j}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}=2`$. $`\overline{}`$ corresponds to the projection under $`𝒜`$, the maximal abelian subalgebra of $`𝒫`$ (cf section 4). The bold number below a reduced simple root $`\overline{\lambda }`$ correspond to its multiplicity $`dim(𝒢_{\overline{\lambda }})`$ . We note that in $`d=3`$ dimensions, the fermionic simple root of the reduced Borcherds superalgebra stands at the location of the affine root. This is not so well defined for semi-simple non-simple Lie algebras. In fact in order to obtain the right superalgebra for the supergravity theory $`𝒩=2`$ $`d=4`$ (resp. $`𝒩=2`$ $`d=3`$), we need to quotient the superBorcherds algebra by the following relation invariant under $`\sigma `$: $`\alpha _0+\beta _2=\beta _1+\beta `$ (resp. $`\alpha _2+\alpha _1+\beta _1=\alpha _0+\beta _2`$). Indeed, the dimension of the Picard group is of the corresponding real del Pezzo is $`3`$ (resp. $`4`$) and therefore, the roots are not independent. This is another instance of a feature that deserves further investigation .

## Acknowledgments

We are grateful to A. Beauville, V. Kharlamov, and J. Kollar for useful explanations and references in real algebraic geometry and to A. Keurentjes for pointing us some errors in a preliminary version. We would like to dedicate this work to the memory of Peter Slodowy: a fine mathematician and gentleman.