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# A VIABLE COSMOLOGY WITH A SCALAR FIELD COUPLED TO THE TRACE OF THE STRESS-TENSOR

## I INTRODUCTION

The interpretation of current observations in terms of an accelerating universe requires an exotic form of energy density with $`(\rho +3p)<0`$. A wide variety of scalar field models have been conjectured for this purpose including quintessence phiindustry , K-essencearmen , tachyonic scalar fieldstachyonindustry ; tptachyon ; bjp  with the last one being originally motivated by string theoretical ideas ashoke . (For a recent review of issues related to the cosmological constant and dark energy, see tpcc ). Since all these models have a free, undetermined function $`V(\varphi )`$, it is possible to incorporate any reasonable $`a(t)`$ in any of these models tptachyon . Thus, at a fundamental level, all these models can be objected to — quite correctly — as lacking in predictive power. The appropriate way of judging these models, therefore, will be based on the physical input that is used in constructing the model and the generic features which arise in the model.

We investigate here a model in which the coupling of the scalar field to the matter is based on a physical principle which can be motivated as follows: The most obvious generalization of the Newtonian gravity, based on $`^2\varphi =4\pi G\rho `$ will be $`\mathrm{}\varphi =4\pi GT`$ in which the trace $`T=T_a^a`$ of the energy momentum of fields act as a source for a scalar field. This theory, however, has to be nonlinear, since the scalar field itself has a nonzero trace for the energy momentum tensor which should appear on the right hand side. Further, since cosmological constant has a nonzero trace for stress tensor, this scalar field will also couple to the cosmological constant and the effective cosmological constant will become dynamical. Such a model was developed and investigated more than a decade back jvntp ; tpstp88 , as a possible solution to cosmological constant problem. This work, however, was ambitious in the sense that it attempted to tackle the problem without any fine tuning and did not succeed tpstp88 . The current thinking in cosmology is remarkably tolerant to fine tuning of parameters and virtually every scalar field model suggested in the literature has either explicit or implicit fine tuning of parameters. In view of this, one can resurrect the above model, in which the form of the interaction arises from a clear physical requirement, and explore its consequences for cosmology. We attempt to do this in this paper and show the the resulting models have very nice properties.

## II DYNAMICS OF THE SCALAR FIELD WITH A COUPLING TO $`T_a^a`$

The Lagrangian for a system made of the gravitational field, matter sources and the scalar field which couples to the trace of the total energy momentum tensor is derived in tpstp88 . (This derivation is briefly summarized in Appendix A for completeness.) The complete action, which takes into account the trace coupling of the scalar field, has the form (see Appendix A):

$`S`$ $`=`$ $`(16\pi G)^1{\displaystyle R\sqrt{g}d^4x}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \beta (\varphi )\varphi ^i\varphi _i\sqrt{g}d^4x}`$ (1)
$``$ $`(8\pi G)^1{\displaystyle \alpha (\varphi )V(\varphi )\sqrt{g}d^4x}+S_{\mathrm{source}}`$
where the coupling to the trace is given by an arbitrary function $`f(\varphi )`$ and

$$\alpha (\varphi )=\frac{1}{1+4f(\varphi )},\beta (\varphi )=\frac{1}{1+2f(\varphi )}$$
(2)
The $`S_{\mathrm{source}}`$ is the remaining source term (radiation, matter … ), with appropriate coupling to $`\varphi `$ (see Appendix A). The energy momentum tensor for the field $`\varphi `$ which arises from the action (1) is given by

$$T^{ik}=\alpha (\varphi )V(\varphi )g^{ik}+\beta (\varphi )\left[\varphi ^i\varphi ^k\frac{1}{2}g^{ik}\varphi ^j\varphi _j\right]$$
(3)
We shall assume that scalar field is evolving in an isotropic and homogeneous space time and that $`\varphi `$ is a function of time alone. The energy density $`\rho _\varphi `$ and pressure $`p_\varphi `$ obtained from $`T^{ik}`$ are

$$\rho _\varphi =\beta (\varphi )\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{2}+\alpha (\varphi )V(\varphi ),p_\varphi =\beta (\varphi )\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{2}\alpha (\varphi )V(\varphi )$$
(4)
The coupling to $`T_a^a`$ modifies the field energy density $`\rho _\varphi `$, pressure $`p_\varphi `$ and the equation of state parameter $`w_\varphi =(p_\varphi /\rho _\varphi )`$.

In a universe containing dust like matter and radiation, the action (1) leads to following evolution equations for the field:

$`\ddot{\varphi }+{\displaystyle \frac{3\dot{a}}{a}}\dot{\varphi }`$ $`=`$ $`\dot{\varphi }^2{\displaystyle \frac{f_{,\varphi }}{1+2f}}+4V(\varphi ){\displaystyle \frac{(1+2f)}{(1+4f)^2}}f_{,\varphi }`$ (5)
$``$ $`V_{,\varphi }(\varphi ){\displaystyle \frac{(1+2f)}{(1+4f)}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\rho _m^i}{a^3}}f_{,\varphi }{\displaystyle \frac{(1+2f)}{(1+f)^2}}`$
(The radiation, being traceless, does not couple to $`\varphi `$.) The Friedman equation with the modified energy momentum tensor given by (3) is

$$\frac{\dot{a}^2(t)}{a^2(t)}=\frac{8\pi G}{3}\left[\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{2(1+2f)}+\frac{V(\varphi )}{1+4f}+\rho _b(a)\right]$$
(6)
where background energy density due to radiation and matter is given by

$$\rho _b(a)=\frac{\rho _R^i}{a^4}+\frac{\rho _m^i}{a^3(1+f)}$$
(7)
The simplest form of coupling which we shall adopt is the linear one

$$f(\varphi )=g_c(\varphi /M_p)$$
(8)
where $`M_p=\sqrt{1/(8\pi G)}`$ is the reduced Planck’s mass and $`g_c`$ is a coupling constant. Since equations (5) and (6) reduces to the standard form for $`g_c=0`$, this parameter gives the strength of the forcing term. Equation (5) describes the evolution of the scalar field in the expanding universe under the influence of an external “force”, which depends upon the field and its kinetic energy $`(1/2)\dot{\varphi }^2`$. The influence of this term on the dynamics of the scalar field is accumulative.

In the absence of matter, the conservation equation formally equivalent to (5), has the usual form

$$\dot{\rho _\varphi }+3H(\rho _\varphi +p_\varphi )=0$$
(9)
and the evolution of energy density is given by

$$\rho _\varphi =\rho _{0\varphi }e^{{\scriptscriptstyle 6\left(1\zeta (a)\right){\scriptscriptstyle \frac{da}{a}}}}$$
(10)
with

$$\zeta (a)=\frac{1}{(K_e/P_e)+1}$$

where the ratio of effective kinetic to potential energy$`(K_e/P_e)`$ is given by

$$\frac{K_e}{P_e}=\frac{\beta (\varphi )}{\alpha (\varphi )}\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{2V(\varphi )}$$
(11)
Interaction modifies the kinetic as well as the potential energy through $`\alpha (\varphi )`$ and $`\beta (\varphi )`$, however, $`\rho _\varphi `$ bears the same relation to their ratio as in the case of standard scalar field cosmology. Equation (9), of course, is not valid in presence of matter; neverthless numerical work shows that the ratio $`(K_e/P_e)`$ is still a good parameter which influences the dynamics. The evolution of potential to kinetic energy ratio plays a significant role in the growth or decay of the energy density $`\rho _\varphi `$ at a given epoch and will be crucial in the following discussion.

Let us next address the question of choice of potential of the scalar field which would lead to a viable cosmological model. The obvious restriction on the evolution is that, starting from Planck’s time, the scalar field should survive till today (to account for the observed late time accelerated expansion) without interfering with the nucleosynthesis of the standard model.

Exponential potentials lead to solutions which are the attractors of evolution equations when $`g_c=0`$ and provide backdrop for the understanding of dynamics in our case. A standard model with

$$V(\varphi )=V_0\mathrm{exp}\left[\lambda \frac{\varphi }{M_p}\right]$$
(12)
(and $`g_c=0`$) is well studied in literature and can be divided into two categories: (a) The exponential potentials for which $`\rho _\varphi `$ scales slower than the background density $`\rho _b=(1/a^n)`$ which translates to $`\lambda <\sqrt{n}`$. (b) Potentials for which scalar field energy density scales faster than the $`\rho _b`$, i.e. $`\lambda >\sqrt{n}`$. In the first case if the background energy density was sub-dominant, it would become more sub-dominant and radiation domination will never occur. In the second case there exists a scaling solution which mimics the background energy density that is dominant, with

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi =\frac{\rho _\varphi }{\rho _\varphi +\rho _b}=\frac{n}{\lambda ^2};\rho _\varphi \frac{1}{a^n}$$
(13)
The discussion of this model with $`g_c0`$ (so that the coupling to the trace of the stress tensor is switched on) is given in Appendix B. It turns out that this model is not as attractive as another variant of the potential with $`V(\varphi )=V_0e^{\lambda \frac{\varphi }{M_p}}`$ which we shall concentrate on next.

## III QUINTESSENCE WITH EXPONENTIAL POTENTIAL IN THE PRESENCE OF THE COUPLING TO THE TRACE $`T`$

We shall now consider a model with

$$V(\varphi )=V_0\mathrm{exp}(\lambda \frac{\varphi }{M_p}),(\lambda <\sqrt{2})$$
(14)
in which the field evolves towards the origin rather than away from the origin. In order to investigate the dynamics described by (5) and (6), it would be convenient to cast these equations as a system of first order equations

$$Y_1^{}=Y_2$$
(15)
$`Y_2^{}`$ $`=`$ $`3Y_2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{H(Y_1,Y_2)}}[{\displaystyle \frac{g_c}{(1+2g_cY_1)}}Y_2^2`$ (16)
$`+`$ $`g_c{\displaystyle \frac{(1+2g_cY_1)}{(1+4g_cY_1)^2}}\stackrel{~}{V}(Y_1){\displaystyle \frac{d\stackrel{~}{V}(Y_1)}{dY_1}}{\displaystyle \frac{(1+2g_cY_1)}{(1+4g_cY_1)}}]`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\rho _m^i}{a^3}}g_c{\displaystyle \frac{(1+2g_cY_1)}{(1+g_cY_1)^2}}`$
where

$$Y_1=\frac{\varphi }{M_p},Y_2=\frac{\dot{\varphi }}{M_p^2},\stackrel{~}{V}=\frac{V(Y_1)}{M_p^4}$$
(17)
and prime denotes the derivative with respect to the variable $`N=\mathrm{ln}(a)`$. The function $`H(Y_1,Y_2)`$ is given:

$$H(Y_1,Y_2)=\sqrt{\frac{1}{3}\left[\frac{Y_2^2}{2(1+2g_cY_1)}+\frac{\stackrel{~}{V}(Y_1)}{(1+4g_cY_1)}+\frac{\rho _b}{M_p^4}\right]}$$
(18)
where $`\rho _b=\rho _r^ie^{4N}+\rho _m^ie^{3N}/(1+g_cY_1)`$. The initial conditions will be set at Planck time with $`a_i=1`$. (The scale factor today would nearly be $`10^{31}`$.) Further, for the background energy density, $`\rho _r=\rho _r^i/a^4`$, we make the choice, $`\rho _r^i=M_p^4`$ based on the point of view that, at the radiation dominated phase near the Planck’s epoch, the energy density of radiation was of the order of Planck energy as it was the only scale available at that time. The initial values for $`\varphi `$ and $`\dot{\varphi }`$ as well as the the parameters in the potential are chosen so as to ensure a viable cosmological model. We take the initial values $`Y_1=550`$; $`Y_2=0`$ and $`\lambda =0.52`$, $`g_c=5.9`$. The value of $`V_0`$ is chosen so that initially, $`\rho _\varphi ^i/\rho _R^i10^2`$, Of these choices, $`\lambda `$ and $`g_c`$ are important for obtaining a viable model; $`Y_1`$ is arbitrary except for the condition $`Y_11`$. The choices made for $`Y_2`$ and $`V_0`$ are merely done for the sake of convenience; different choices will lead to same qualitative behaviour. Some of these choices could be construed as fine tuning in the model. But it is no worse than the fine tuning in any other scalar field model.

The model described by (14) supports an eternal inflation in absence of the coupling to the trace $`T`$ . The forcing term induced by the back reaction in the field evolution equation acts against the Hubble damping and hastens the evolution of field energy density $`\rho _\varphi `$. We have plotted the ratio of kinetic to potential energy of the field in figure 1. It is seen that due to coupling to the trace $`T`$ , the kinetic energy acquires a large value making the potential term unimportant and pushing the field into kinetic regime. As a result, the field energy density crosses the background energy density and continues evolving as $`(1/a^6)`$ for quite some time (see figure 2). After the crossover, the dominant contribution to the Friedman equation (6) comes from the background energy density $`\rho _b`$. This in turn leads to the increase in damping and consequently slowing down of the decay of $`\rho _\varphi `$ allowing the ratio $`(\rho _\varphi /\rho _b)`$ to grow. The energy density gets locked to a constant value in this process and acts like cosmological constant thereby making $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi `$ to grow. The forcing term containing $`\dot{\varphi }^2`$ in the field evolution equation is ineffective in this regime.

A remarkable thing happens when the field starts rolling again at the end of locking regime. As discussed above, the ratio of kinetic to potential energy of the field ($`K_e/P_e`$) provides a yardstick to determine the energy scaling. At the end of locking period, the field again starts rolling down the hill. Though back reaction again builds up, the kinetic to potential energy ratio is now much smaller than it was in the beginning when $`\rho _\varphi `$ was dominant. The ratio first increases, then fluctuates near its background value, finally heading towards zero (figure 3). As a result, $`\rho _\varphi `$ first (nearly) tracks the $`\rho _b`$, gradually approaches it and ultimately overtakes it. This allows the scalar field to dominate and gives rise to accelerated expansion at late times. By suitably tuning the parameters of the model, it is possible to get $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi =0.7`$ today (figure 4). In figure 5, we have displayed the equation of state parameter $`w_\varphi `$ to demonstrate the convergence of different initial conditions to the inflationary attractor. Figure (6) shows that the $`w_\varphi `$ mimics de-Sitter like behavior shortly after the current epoch.

The role of $`\dot{\varphi }^2`$ term on the right-hand-side of evolution equation (5) is very important in the beginning. The size of the undershoot crucially depends upon the coupling constant $`g_s`$. Larger value of $`g_s`$ leads to deeper undershoot because the ratio $`K_e/P_e`$ is sensitive to coupling initially. After the locking period this ratio of the order of few as background (radiation) dominates over the field this time. During evolution, the scalar field moves from larger values towards the origin. As a result the influence of the back reaction in the Friedman equation (6) decreases and the field energy density gradually moves towards the background, overtakes it and joins with the (non-coupled) inflationary attractor(This may be contrasted with the behaviour in the model described by (12), in which the scalar field evolves from origin to larger values. In this case the contribution of field energy density in the Friedman equation gets gradually suppressed allowing the background to dominate for ever. In this model $`\rho _\varphi `$ tracks the background and never comes to dominate it(see figures, 13,14 and 15). This development is displayed in figure (7) which clearly shows: (i) deeper undershoot for larger coupling and (ii) joining of the inflationary track earlier for smaller value of $`g_s`$. Figure 7 also shows that the field continues to stay in the usual (non-coupled) attractor phase for quite some time till the potential terms induced by the coupling in field evolution equation become important. This happens at very late times and the influence of these terms will be discussed below. As for the matter term, numerical analysis shows that they do not influence the dynamics significantly. Thus coupling plays an important role in the intermediate regime(which also maifests in figures 2,5 and 6) thereby allowing to produce current observed accelerated expansion with necessary tuning of $`g_c`$ along with $`\alpha `$.

Let us briefly summarize the role of the coupling to the trace $`T`$ .The exponential potential under consideration is shallow and supports an eternal inflation in the standard scenario. The introduction of the coupling to the trace $`T`$ hastens the decay of $`\rho _\varphi `$, pushing the scalar field into kinetic regime. After the locking period, its role gradually diminishes making it possible for the scalar field, at late times, to join back the inflationary track it was detracted from. At this stage, the scalar field is approaching the origin and we would expect the equation of state $`w_\varphi `$ to settle in its attractor value. However, the equation of state becomes equal to $`(1)`$ and stays there — which is evident from figure 6. The same effect is reflected in the behavior of $`\rho _\varphi `$ shown in figure 7, where the field energy density becomes constant after staying in its attractor value for some time. This seems to be a general feature of the model under consideration and requires explanation.

The coupling to the trace $`T`$ modifies the field evolution through three extra terms on the right hand side of (16). The first term contains $`\dot{\varphi }^2`$ and plays important at the early epochs and during tracking as discussed above. The second term contains the potential which contributes in the potential dominated regimes: during the turn around of $`\rho _\varphi `$ and when the field is rolling slowly. We will show that this term is responsible for the cosmological constant like behavior of the scalar field at very late times , i.e., $`a\mathrm{}`$. In order to see this, we will cast (15) in the form

$$\dot{Y_2}+\frac{\dot{a}}{a}Y_2=g_c\frac{Y_2^2}{1+2g_cY_1}\frac{d}{dY_1}V_{tot}(Y_1)$$
(19)
where $`V_{\mathrm{tot}}(Y_1)`$ is the effective potential given by

$$V_{\mathrm{tot}}(Y_1)=\left[\lambda \frac{(1+2g_cY_1)}{(1+4g_cY_1)}g_c\frac{(1+2g_cY_1)}{(1+4g_cY_1)^2}\right]\stackrel{~}{V}(Y_1)𝑑Y_1$$
(20)
where $`\stackrel{~}{V}=(V_0/M_p^4)e^{\lambda Y_1}`$. (The matter term is sub-dominant in this limit and is hence ignored.) In the model described by (14), the scalar field is evolving from large values towards the origin and can take negative values. But when $`Y_1(1/2g_c)`$ the system will become singular because of the divergence of the first term in (19). However, the second term in the expression of $`V_{tot}(Y_1)`$ does not let it happen. In fact, this term sets an infinite potential barrier at $`Y_1=(1/4g_c)`$ and does not allow the field to reach the singularity. The potential which was attractive away from the origin becomes now repulsive followed by the infinite barrier on its left (see figure 8). This happens when

$$Y_1^{cr}=\frac{4g_c\lambda }{4\lambda g_c}$$
(21)
At this stage, the field $`\varphi `$ is rolling slowly. It crosses the critical point and moves towards the barrier but due to insufficient kinetic energy gets reflected back by the barrier. After making few such oscillations, the field settles at the critical point permanently and mimics the cosmological constant. For the model described by (14) with $`\lambda =0.52`$ and $`g_c=5.9`$, $`Y_1^{cr}\varphi ^{cr}/M_p1.88`$ which is confirmed by numerical integration (see, figure 9).

## IV  MODELS OF QUINTESSENCE FREE FROM FUTURE EVENT HORIZON PROBLEM

In the model described above, like in any generic model of quintessence, universe will be accelerating forever leading to future event horizon — which could pose a problem in the string theoretical context. It is, however, possible to tackle this problem by using any potential which is exponential for large $`\varphi `$ and is a power law near the origin: That is, we require $`V(\varphi )\mathrm{exp}(\lambda \varphi /M_P)`$ for large $`\varphi `$ and $`V(\varphi )(\lambda \varphi /M_P)^{2p}`$ for $`\varphi 0`$. The power law behaviour near the origin will lead to oscillations when the field approaches $`\varphi 0`$. The mean equation of state of the scalar field is then given by turner

$$<w_\varphi >\frac{\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{2}V(\varphi )}{\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{2}+V(\varphi )}=\frac{p1}{p+1}$$
(22)
As a result the scalar field energy density and scale factor have the following behavior

$$\rho _\varphi a^{3(1+<w>)},at^{\frac{2}{3}(1+<w>)^1}$$

The scalar field behaves like pressure less dust for $`p=1`$. By suitably adjusting the parameters in the model one could ensure that the oscillations occur in the future, i.e., well after the present epoch when $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi `$ has reached value equal to 0.7. One can avoid the future event horizon in such a model, irrespective of the explicit form of $`V(\varphi )`$ which is used, as long as it interpolates between an exponential and power law behaviour. One of the many possible choices of interpolation is a potential of the form $`V(\varphi )=V_0\mathrm{sinh}^{2p}(\lambda \varphi /2M_p)`$, for which we have evolved the field equations numerically. The results for a particular choice of parameters are shown in figures (10) and (11).

We summarize below the chronology of main events in any such model with a shallow potential which behaves like a power law near the origin: (i) The scalar field starts rolling slowly in the shallow potential. The coupling to the trace $`T`$ almost instantaneously kills any inflationary behavior and makes the scalar field to enter into the kinetic regime. The scalar field continues to stay in the kinetic regime (with $`\rho _\varphi a^6`$) and soon $`\rho _\varphi `$ drops below the $`\rho _b`$. (ii) Once this happens, the dominant contribution to the Friedmann equation comes from the background. This, in turn, allows $`\rho _\varphi `$ to turn towards $`\rho _b`$ leading to a locking regime during which the value of $`\rho _\varphi `$ stabilizes and remains relatively unchanged for a considerable length of time and the scalar field behaves like cosmological constant. (iii) The field starts rolling down the potential again and the back reaction builds up such that the kinetic energy of the field exceeds its potential energy by a factor of few in the beginning. However, as the field rolls towards smaller and smaller values, the role of back reaction gradually diminishes and the potential energy starts catching up again with the kinetic energy. As a result $`\rho _\varphi `$ slowly approaches the back ground energy density and finally overtakes it. The scalar field is now back on the original inflationary track. This phase is interpreted as the late time accelerated expansion of the universe, leading to present day value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi =0.7`$. (iv) After the current epoch, the universe continues in the phase of cosmic acceleration for quite some time till the scalar field approaches $`\varphi 0`$ and starts oscillating about it giving rise to $`<w_\varphi >=0`$ and turning the scalar field to behave like cold dark matter (see figure 11). This is expected to happen in future and the model is free from the event horizon problem at late times. (There are other possible solutions to this problem; see, for example, bjp ; shtanov ).

## V CONCLUSIONS

We have examined the dynamics of a scalar field which couples to the trace of all the field including itself in FRW background. The coupling to the trace $`T`$ of the field modifies the energy momentum tensor and induces a forcing term in the field evolution equation. The forcing term acts against the Hubble damping changing the evolution of field energy density significantly. In case of a steep potential, it amounts to increasing the steepness of the potential. In case of the shallow potentials in which the field rolls slowly and mimics cosmological constant, the coupling to the trace $`T`$ plays an important role. It forces the scalar field into kinetic regime allowing the radiation domination to commence. We have discussed a model in which the effect of the back reaction gradually diminishes allowing the scalar field to catch up with the inflationary attractor regime at late times, thereby accounting for the observed cosmic acceleration with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi =0.7`$. We have also presented a variant of the model in which the scalar field plays the role of quintessence at the current epoch and mimics dust like dark matter in future which eliminates the future event horizon. The general features of the model are shown to be independent of the initial conditions. However, fine tuning of some of the parameters is necessary to achieve viable evolution.

## Appendix A  Action for scalar field coupled to the trace of stress tensor

We summarize here the derivation of the self-consistent Lagrangian for a scalar field coupled to the trace of the energy momentum tensor of all matter, originally given in tpstp88 , for the sake of completeness.

Consider a system consisting of the gravitational field $`g_{ab}`$, radiation fields, and a scalar field $`\varphi `$ which couples to the trace of the energy-momentum tensor of all fields, including its own. The zeroth order action for this system is given by

$$A^{(0)}=A_{\mathrm{grav}}+A_\varphi ^{(0)}+A_{\mathrm{int}}^{(0)}+A_{\mathrm{radn}}$$
(23)
where

$$A_{\mathrm{grav}}=(16\pi G)^1R\sqrt{g}d^4x\mathrm{\Lambda }\sqrt{g}d^4x,$$
(24)
$$A_\varphi ^{(0)}=\frac{1}{2}\varphi ^i\varphi _i\sqrt{g}d^4x;A_{\mathrm{int}}^{(0)}=\eta Tf(\varphi /\varphi _0)\sqrt{g}d^4x$$
(25)
Here, we have explicitly included the cosmological constant term and $`\eta `$ is a dimensionless number which ‘switches on’ the interaction. In the zeroth order action, $`T`$ represents the trace of all fields other than $`\varphi `$. Since the radiation field is traceless, the only zeroth-order contribution to $`T`$ comes from the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ term, so that we have $`T=4\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. The coupling to the trace is through a function $`f`$ of the scalar field, and one can consider various possibilities for this function. The constant $`\varphi _0`$ converts $`\varphi `$ to a dimensionless variable, and is introduced for dimensional convenience.

Since the stress-tensor of the scalar field has a non-zero trace, we must add to $`T`$ the contribution $`T_\varphi =\varphi ^l\varphi _l`$ of the scalar field. If we now add $`T_\varphi `$ to $`T`$ in the interaction term $`A_{\mathrm{int}}^{(0)}`$ further modifies $`T_\varphi ^{ik}`$. This again changes $`T_\varphi `$. Thus to arrive at the correct action an infinite iteration will have to be performed and the complete action can be obtained by summing up all the terms (see jvntp ). The full action can be found, more simply, by a consistency argument.

Since the effect of the iteration is to modify the expression for $`A_\varphi `$ and $`A_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, we consider the following ansatz for the full action:

$`A`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{16\pi G}}{\displaystyle R\sqrt{g}d^4x}{\displaystyle \alpha (\varphi )\mathrm{\Lambda }\sqrt{g}d^4x}`$ (26)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \beta (\varphi )\varphi ^i\varphi _i\sqrt{g}d^4x}+A_{\mathrm{rad}}`$
Here $`\alpha (\varphi )`$ and $`\beta (\varphi )`$ are functions of $`\varphi `$ to be determined by the consistency requirement that they represent the result of the iteration of the interaction term. (Since radiation makes no contribution to $`T`$, we expect $`A_{\mathrm{rad}}`$ to remain unchanged.) The energy-momentum tensor for $`\varphi `$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is now given by

$$T^{ik}=\alpha (\varphi )\mathrm{\Lambda }g^{ik}+\beta (\varphi )\left[\varphi ^i\varphi _k\frac{1}{2}g^{ik}\varphi ^\alpha \varphi _\alpha \right]$$
(27)
so that the total trace is $`T_{\mathrm{tot}}=4\alpha (\varphi )\mathrm{\Lambda }\beta (\varphi )\varphi ^i\varphi _i`$. The functions $`\alpha (\varphi )`$ and $`\beta (\varphi )`$ can now be determined by the consistency requirement

$`{\displaystyle \alpha (\varphi )\mathrm{\Lambda }\sqrt{g}d^4x}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \beta (\varphi )\varphi ^i\varphi _i\sqrt{g}d^4x}`$
$`={\displaystyle \mathrm{\Lambda }\sqrt{g}d^4x}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \varphi ^i\varphi _i\sqrt{g}d^4x}+\eta {\displaystyle T_{\mathrm{tot}}f(\varphi /\varphi _0)\sqrt{g}d^4x}`$ (28)
Using $`T_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ and comparing terms in the above equation we find that

$$\alpha (\varphi )=[1+4\eta f]^1,\beta (\varphi )=[1+2\eta f]^1$$
(29)
Thus the complete action can be written as

$`A`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{16\pi G}}{\displaystyle R\sqrt{g}d^4x}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{1+4\eta f}\sqrt{g}d^4x}`$ (30)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\varphi ^i\varphi _i}{1+2\eta f}\sqrt{g}d^4x}+A_{\mathrm{rad}}`$
(The same action would have been obtained if one uses the iteration procedure.) It is obvious that the method works for any source for which the trace of stress tensor, $`T`$, is proportional to the Lagrangian $`L`$. If $`T=\mu L`$, then the coupling replaces $`L`$ by $`L(1\mu \eta f)^1`$. \[For the kinetic energy term $`L_\varphi =(1/2)\varphi _a\varphi ^a`$, we have, $`T_\varphi =\varphi ^a\varphi _a=(2)L_\varphi `$ and for the cosmological constant term $`T_\mathrm{\Lambda }=4\mathrm{\Lambda }=(4)L_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. These lead to the factor $`(1+2\eta f)^1`$ and $`(1+4\eta f)^1`$ in (30).\] In general, if the action is a homogeneous function of degree $`D`$ in $`g^{ab}`$, the $`T=(2D)L`$ and the coupling factor is $`(12D\eta f)^1`$. For a system of dust like particles with the action for each particle being the integral of $`ds=\sqrt{g_{ab}dx^adx^b}`$, we have $`D=(1/2)`$ and the coupling factor becomes $`(1+\eta f)^1`$ (see jvntp ).

In the presence of cosmological constant and sources which are conformally invariant, the action in (30) leads to the following field equations,

$$R_{ik}\frac{1}{2}g_{ik}R=8\pi G\left[\beta (\varphi )\left(\varphi ^i\varphi ^k\frac{1}{2}g^{ik}\varphi ^\alpha \varphi _\alpha \right)+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{8\pi G}\alpha (\varphi )g_{ik}+T_{ik}^{\mathrm{traceless}}\right]$$
(31)
$$\mathrm{}\varphi +\frac{1}{2}\frac{\beta ^{}(\varphi )}{\beta (\varphi )}\varphi ^i\varphi _i+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{8\pi G}\frac{\alpha ^{}(\varphi )}{\beta (\varphi )}=0$$
(32)
Here, $`\mathrm{}`$ stands for a covariant d’Lambertian, $`T_{ik}^{\mathrm{traceless}}`$ is the stress tensor of all fields with traceless stress tensor and a prime denotes differentiation with respect to $`\varphi `$.

In the cosmological context, this reduces to

$$\ddot{\varphi }+\frac{3\dot{a}}{a}\dot{\varphi }=\eta \dot{\varphi }^2\frac{f^{}}{1+2\eta f}+\eta \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2\pi G}\frac{f^{}(1+2\eta f)}{(1+4\eta f)^2}$$
(33)
$$\frac{\dot{a}^2+k}{a^2}=\frac{8\pi G}{3}\left[\frac{1}{2}\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{1+2\eta f}+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{8\pi G}\frac{1}{(1+4\eta f)}+\rho _b(a)\right]$$
(34)
where $`\rho _b(a)=\rho _R^i/a^4`$. It is obvious that the effective cosmological constant can decrease if $`f`$ increases in an expanding universe. The result can be easily generalized for a scalar field with a potential by replacing $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ by $`V(\varphi )`$ in the action. Similarly, the presence of dust like matter adds the term $`(\rho _i/a^3)(1+\eta f)^1`$ to the source term in (34) and a corresponding derivative term in (33).

## Appendix B COSMOLOGY WITH $`V\mathrm{exp}(\lambda \varphi /M_P)`$ AND COUPLING TO T

In this case, the field evolves to large $`\varphi `$ at late times making the matter term $`a^3[1+\eta f]^1`$ sub-dominant to the radiation term $`a^4`$. We will, therefore, ignore the matter term for simplicity. We first discuss the possibility when $`\lambda >\sqrt{n}`$. In this case the potential is steep leading to $`\rho _\varphi 1/a^6`$. This makes $`\rho _\varphi `$ sub-dominant relative to $`\rho _b`$ and the motion will become strongly damped allowing the kinetic energy to decrease. This, in turn, allows $`\rho _\varphi `$ to catch up with the background and stay there for ever till the attractor regime is reached. The role of coupling to $`T`$ will be to increase the kinetic energy and keep $`\rho _\varphi `$ in the kinetic regime for longer. The $`\rho _\varphi `$ will catch up again with the background, though it takes longer to reach the attractor (scaling) solution with the duration depends upon $`g_c`$. Therefore, in this case, the role of the forcing term is equivalent to increasing the steepness of the potential given by $`\lambda `$ (see figure 13). Thus nothing new or interesting happens in this case .

The case with $`\lambda <\sqrt{n}`$ ( $`n=4`$ in our case) is more interesting. We shall be working with $`\lambda <\sqrt{2}`$ in which case the exponential potential supports a never ending inflation. The forcing term which acts against damping. Due to coupling to the trace $`T`$ the kinetic energy acquires a large value making the potential term unimportant and pushing the field into kinetic regime. Depending upon the value of coupling $`g_c`$ it may take longer or shorter to force $`\rho _\varphi `$ to come into kinetic regime which then crosses the background energy density, (see figure 15). The extent of the overshoot depends upon the coupling constant $`g_c`$. The evolution of $`\rho _\varphi `$ in this model proceeds more ore less in the similar fashion as in case of the model described by (14) till the turn around. At the end of locking period, the field again starts rolling down the potential. Though back reaction again builds up, the kinetic to potential energy ratio is now much smaller than it was in the beginning when $`\rho _\varphi `$ was dominant (figure 14). The field does not join the inflationary attractor in the present case. Because as it runs down the hill away from the origin to larger and larger values, the contribution of $`V(\varphi )`$ and $`\dot{\varphi }^2/2`$ to the right hand side of Friedmann equation (6) gets suppressed systematically and $`\rho _\varphi `$ remains sub-dominant to the background (radiation). The ratio $`(K_e/P_e)`$ settles at value of 2 ( $`w_\varphi =1/3`$) and the scalar field tracks the background and gets locked there for ever.

###### Acknowledgements.

One of us (MS) is thankful to V. Sahni and T. Qureshi for useful discussions.


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# Resolved Mid-IR Emission in the Narrow Line Region of NGC 4151

## 1 Introduction

NGC 4151 is one of the nearest (13.2 Mpc, H$`{}_{o}{}^{}=75`$ km s-1 Mpc-1) and best studied active galactic nuclei (AGN). The nucleus hosts a highly variable continuum and line emission source. Continuum variability, first reported by Fitch et al. (1967), has been observed at several wavelengths including X-ray (Papadakis et al. 1995), UV (Clavel et al. 1990), and optical (Lyutyi 1972). Classified as a Seyfert 1.5 by Osterbrock & Koski (1976), NGC 4151 displayed characteristics of a Seyfert 2 (Penston & P$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$rez 1984) during a low luminosity state in 1984, and at a later date characteristics of a Seyfert 1 (Ayani & Maehara 1991).

The mid-infrared emission from NGC 4151 has been suggested to arise from either thermal emission from dust grains or synchrotron emission. Discussions of the thermal vs. nonthermal origin of the infrared emission in NGC 4151 can be found in Rieke & Lebofsky (1981), Edelson & Malkan (1986), Carelton et al. (1987), Edelson et al. (1987), and de Kool & Begelman (1989). A direct method to investigate the origin of the mid-IR emission mechanism, as proposed by Neugebauer et al. (1990) (hereafter N90), is a measurement of the size of the emitting region. They suggest that a nonthermal self-absorbed synchrotron source would be $`<1`$mas, and hence unresolvable. However, if the mid-IR emission is due to heated dust grains, the size of the region would be $`>0.1\mathrm{}`$.

Observations show that the mid-IR emission in NGC 4151 is compact. Comparison between 60$`\mathrm{}`$ resolution IRAS 12 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ flux density measurements and 6$`\mathrm{}`$ resolution ground-based 10.6 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ measurements agree to within $`6\%`$ (Edelson et al. 1987). Mid-IR observations by Rieke & Low 1972; Rieke & Lebofsky 1981; Ward et al. 1987 also did not detect any extended emission with resolutions $`6\mathrm{}`$. Observations by ISO (Infrared Space Observatory; Rodriquez-Espinosa et al. 1996 - hereafter RE96) show a strong warm dust component in NGC 4151 and suggest a thermal origin from a geometrically and optically thick dusty torus and/or a dusty narrow line region (NLR). These observations however were at a resolution of $`180\mathrm{}`$. Using a technique of near-simultaneous north-south scans at 2.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 11.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$, N90 was able to resolve the 11.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ emitting region to be 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$16$`\pm 0`$$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$04. However this technique measured the size in only one spatial direction and was insufficient to explore the mid-IR morphology of the circumnuclear region. In addition, these north-south scans could not investigate the NLR of NGC 4151 which is primarily orientated in an east-west direction. In this paper we present high resolution mid-IR imaging which, to the best of our knowledge, resolves the inner NLR of NGC 4151 for the first time at 10 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 18 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$.

## 2 Observations and Data Reduction

Observations of NGC 4151 were made on 7 May 2001 using the University of Florida mid-infrared camera/spectrometer OSCIR on the Gemini North 8-m telescope. OSCIR uses a Rockwell 128 x 128 Si:As Blocked Impurity Band (BIB) detector. On Gemini North, OSCIR has a plate scale of 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$089 pixel-1, corresponding to a field of view of 11$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$4 x 11$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$4. Images were obtained in the N ($`\lambda _o`$=10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$$`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda `$=5.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$) and IHW18 ($`\lambda _o`$=18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$$`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda `$=1.7 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$) filters using a standard chop/nod technique to remove sky background and thermal emission from the telescope. The chopper throw was 15$`\mathrm{}`$ in declination at a frequency of 3 Hz and the telescope was nodded every 30 seconds.

NGC 4151 was observed for a total chopped integration time of 360 seconds at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 480 seconds at 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$. Observations of $`\beta `$ Gem were taken for flux calibration and as a measure of the telescope point spread function (PSF). Measurements of other calibration stars throughout the night showed flux calibration variations of less than 5% at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and less than 10% at 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$. Absolute calibration of $`\beta `$ Gem was achieved using a spectral irradiance model by Cohen (1995) adjusted for filter and atmospheric transmission. The calibration value and FWHM were also color corrected to account for the different spectral slope of $`\beta `$ Gem versus NGC 4151 as observed within our N and IHW18 filters. The measured color corrected FWHM of $`\beta `$ Gem was 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$53 at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$and 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$58 at 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ based on a 60 second chopped integration. Short integrations of $`\beta `$ Gem were sufficient for comparison to NGC 4151 due to the stability of the OSCIR/Gemini PSF. Observations of several standard stars including $`\beta `$ Gem, $`\mu `$ Uma, and $`\gamma `$ Aql showed variations in the FWHM of $`<`$ 6% throughout the night. Finally, observations of NGC 4151 showed no change in structure when divided into increments of time equal to that of the PSF (60s).

OSCIR was mounted on the telescope with the Gemini instrument rotator oriented such that north was up and east was left on the detector array. In post-processing, images of the PSF star $`\beta `$ Gem were “unrotated” -17.4$`\mathrm{°}`$ and -22.9$`\mathrm{°}`$ at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ respectively to match the position angle of the Gemini North telescope pupil as projected on the detector array when NGC 4151 was observed. This is necessary to correctly account for the rotation of the telescope pupil with respect to OSCIR (during an observation or when changing pointing) due to the alt-az mount of the Gemini North telescope. In addition, PSF images were rotationally “smeared” to account for the slight rotation of the pupil ($``$ 4$`\mathrm{°}`$) during the exposure times of NGC 4151.

Flux density maps were created by convolving images at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ with the 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ PSF and vice-versa to attain the same resolution at both wavelengths. Color temperature and emission optical depth maps were calculated based on the ratio of these images. Since no astrometric calibration was performed due to the limited field of view of OSCIR, the peak flux of the convolved 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ image was aligned to coincide with peak flux of the convolved 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ image. Temperature and emission optical depth were then calculated using the optically thin approximation $`F_\nu =\mathrm{\Omega }\tau B_\nu (T)`$, where $`F_\nu `$ is the observed flux density at frequency $`\nu `$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the solid angle of each pixel, $`\tau `$ is the emission optical depth, and $`B_\nu (T)`$ is the Planck function evaluated at frequency $`\nu `$ and temperature T. The structure of the temperature map was highly dependent on the alignment of the two convolved images. In order to determine the errors due to alignment, a Monte Carlo simulation was done by shifting the two convolved images with respect to each other up to 0.1$`\mathrm{}`$ in all directions. Temperature values were most stable in the core varying $`\pm `$5 K, with variations of $`\pm `$15 K further out. The frequency dependence of dust grain emission efficiency in the mid-IR was approximated as $`Q(v)v^1`$. A steeper power law dependence such as $`Q(v)v^2`$ would decrease the calculated temperatures $`15\%`$ and correspondingly increases the emission optical depth by a factor of $`3.4`$.

## 3 Results

NGC 4151 shows extended emission $`3\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}5`$ across oriented in an approximately east-west direction. Perpendicular to the extended emission (roughly north-south) the galaxy remains unresolved based our limiting resolution of $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}53`$ \- $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}58`$ at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ respectively. Figure 1 shows our N-band image of the central $`400`$ pc ($`6\mathrm{}`$) of NGC 4151. Subtraction of the unresolved (PSF) component scaled to $`100\%`$ of the peak results in a hole at the center of the residual emission. Since this may represent an over-subtraction of the unresolved component, we also show the residuals after subtraction of the PSF scaled to $`90\%`$, $`80\%`$, and $`70\%`$ of the peak of NGC 4151. Figure 2 shows a similar comparison at 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$. Both figures clearly show extended mid-IR emission on a much larger scale than previously measured.

The extent and position angle ($`60\mathrm{°}`$) of the extended emission is coincident with the NLR as observed by Evans et al. (1993) and Kaiser et al. (2000) using HST. This NLR was resolved at \[OIII\] $`\lambda `$5007 into a number of emission line clouds distributed in a biconical structure oriented along a PA = 60$`\mathrm{°}\pm 5`$, with an opening angle of 75$`\mathrm{°}\pm 10`$ (Evans et al. 1993). NGC 4151 also contains a radio jet (Johnston et al. 1982; Pedlar et al. 1993; and Mundell et al. 1995) which extends along a slightly different PA ($`77\mathrm{°}`$) than the \[OIII\] emission. Figure 3 shows our mid-IR images overlaid on the \[OIII\] and radio maps in the central $`6\mathrm{}`$. The extended mid-IR emission strongly coincides with the \[OIII\] emission out to a distance of $``$100 pc from the nucleus on either side.

As previously mentioned, north-south scans by N90 measure the 11.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ emitting region to be 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$16$`\pm 0`$$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$04 or $`10`$ pc. We see no extended emission in this direction and can only place an upper limit on the mid-IR size of $`35`$pc based on our resolution limit of $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}53`$ \- $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}58`$. Scaling the PSF to $`100\%`$ of the peak of NGC 4151 results in an upper limit of the unresolved component of $`73\%`$ of the total emission at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and a lower limit to the extended component of $`27\%`$. Table 1 shows our mid-IR flux density measurements.

## 4 Analysis and Discussion

Based on the conclusion from N90 that a nonthermal self-absorbed synchrotron source would be $`<1`$mas, and hence unresolvable, our results are consistent with a thermal origin of the extended mid-IR emission. The re-radiation by dust grains heated by either stars or an AGN may result in this extended thermal mid-IR emission. However, processes such as fine structure emission lines may also produce extended mid-IR emission. Several mid-IR fine structure lines were observed by Sturm et al. (1999) using ISO. Four of these emission lines fall within our broadband N and IHW18 filters and may contribute to this mid-IR emission. These emission lines are the 8.99 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ \[ArIII\], 10.51 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ \[SIV\], 12.81 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ \[NeII\], and 18.71 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ \[SIII\]. However based on flux measurements from Sturm et al. (1999), these emission lines contribute $`<10\%`$ of the extended emission we observe at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$.

Several mechanisms can contribute to thermal dust emission in the mid-IR. These include shock heating, in-situ star formation, dust in the NLR heated by the central engine, and a dusty torus. Each is considered below in the context of the mid-IR emission we detect in NGC 4151.

### 4.1 Dust Heated in Shocks

Shock heating of dust grains caused by the radio jet may contribute to mid-IR emission in NGC 4151. Mid-IR emission from shocks may be produced by either direct collisions between the plasma and dust particles (Draine 1981) or absorption of UV radiation produced by the postshock cooling plasma (Dopita & Sutherland 1996). However, radial velocity measurements of Kaiser et al. (2000) show no correspondence between velocity or velocity dispersion and the positions of the radio knots of NGC 4151. Models by Crenshaw et al. (2000) also do not require strong shocks to explain the kinematics of the NLR. Shocks may still contribute to the NLR as suggested by Contini et al. (2002), but are not considered to be a major source of ionization. Recent \[Fe II\] observations by Turner et. al. (2002) also support this concept. Thus shocks heating, though not ruled out, is not considered as a major source of the mid-IR emission we observe.

### 4.2 Star Formation

Mid-IR emission has been observed to arise from star formation in the central regions of many galaxies (e.g. Telesco 1988). The mid-IR provides an excellent trace of HII star forming regions whose emission peaks at far-IR wavelengths (50-200 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$). Observations by Engargiola et al. (1988) at 155 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ show extended emission ($`>48\mathrm{}`$) primarily in an east-west direction. ISO far-IR observations by RE96 measure this emission as a cold dust component (36K) consistent with dust heated in HII regions (Telesco et al. 1980). However, observations by P$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$rez-Fournon & Wilson (1990) in H$`\alpha `$ show these HII regions exist in an elliptical galactic bar at a radius of $`50\mathrm{}`$ ($`3`$ kpc) from the nucleus. Thus these star forming regions cannot contribute to the mid-IR emission we observe within our $`11\mathrm{}`$ field of view.

Star formation in the circumnuclear region of NGC 4151 has been characterized using the strength of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emission. Galaxies with strong nuclear star formation also feature strong PAH emission. This PAH emission however is found to be weak or absent in AGNs with weak star formation (Roche et al. 1991; Genzel et al. 1998). In the case of NGC 4151, Roche & Aitken (1985) and Imanishi et al. (1998) failed to detect PAH emission at 11.4 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 3.3 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ respectively with their $`4\mathrm{}`$ apertures. Further observation by Sturm et al. (1999) also failed to detect any PAH emission at 11.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$, 8.7 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$, 7.7 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$, or 6.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$. Thus the mid-IR emission we observe on a scale of $`3.5\mathrm{}`$ is unlikely to be associated with significant star formation.

### 4.3 Dusty Narrow Line Region

The most likely explanation for the “extended” mid-IR morphology in NGC 4151 is emission from a dusty NLR (Rieke et al. 1981; RE96). Dust in this region has a direct view of the central engine and hence can be heated resulting in extended mid-IR emission. The emission we observe follows the NLR as delineated by the \[OIII\] observations of Kaiser et al. (2000), lending support to this concept. Mid-IR emission coincident with \[OIII\] NLR emission has also been observed in other galaxies such as NGC 1068 (Braatz et al. 1993, Cameron et al. 1993) and Cyg A (Radomski et al. 2001, 2002). In both galaxies dust heated by the central engine most likely contributes to this emission.

In order to explore the possibility of central heating we calculated color temperatures based on the ratio of our 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ images. Temperature and emission optical depth maps from simple radiative transfer analysis provide a good first-order estimate of the sources of grain heating as well as the relative density of warm grains (Tresch-Fienberg et al. 1987). Figure 4 shows our temperature and emission optical depth maps. We calculate color temperatures ranging from $`185\pm 5`$ K in the core to $`165\pm 15`$ K within the NLR ($`r100`$ pc), consistent with the warm dust component (170 K) as measured by ISO (RE96). The emission optical depth shows the density of these dust grains is enhanced along the direction of the NLR. Assuming a simple uniform dust distribution, a first-order determination of the size of the region that could be heated by a central source can be made. Given that dust grains primarily absorb UV-optical radiation and re-emit in the infrared, the equilibrium temperature of dust in a strong UV field is given by (Sellgren et al. 1983)

$$T\left(\frac{L_{UV}}{16\pi R^2\sigma }\frac{Q_{UV}}{Q_{IR}}\right)^{1/4}$$
(1)
In the above equation, T is the dust temperature, $`L_{UV}`$ is the UV luminosity of the central source, $`R`$ is the radius from the source in parsecs, $`\sigma `$ is the Stefan-Boltzman constant, and $`Q_{UV}/Q_{IR}`$ is the ratio of the Planck averaged UV absorption coefficient to the infrared emission coefficient. Values of $`Q_{UV}/Q_{IR}`$ are dependent on the dust grain size and composition and are given by Draine & Lee (1984), Laor & Draine (1993), and Weingartner & Draine (2001) for graphite and “smoothed astronomical” (SA) silicate.

The observed UV-optical luminosity of NGC 4151 is $`10^{10}`$L (Penston et al. 1990). Given this luminosity, in order to heat dust to the observed temperature of $`165\pm 15`$ K at a distance of $`100`$ pc, the inner NLR should be composed of $`0.004`$ $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ graphite grains or $`0.001`$ $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ SA silicate grains. These grain sizes fall near or below the limit of classical interstellar dust grains which range from 0.003 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ \- 1 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ (Draine & Lee 1984). They also are much smaller than the estimated grains sizes used for the centrally heated NLR models of NGC 1068 ($`0.05`$ $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$; Cameron et. al. 1993) and Cyg A ($`0.1`$ $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$; Radomski et. al. 2002). However Penston et al. (1990) proposed that the continuum emission in NGC 4151 is inherently anisotropic and that the ionizing luminosity as seen within the extended NLR (1-2 kpc) may be on order of 13 times greater than that observed from Earth. Subsequent models by Schulz & Komossa (1993), Yoshida & Ohtani (1993), and Robinson et al. (1994) also derive values for the anisotropy as high as 3-10. Thus a better estimate of the luminosity in the NLR may be $`10^{11}`$L. This higher luminosity would increase the calculated grain sizes by an order of magnitude ($`0.04`$ $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ graphite or $`0.01`$ $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ SA silicate), resulting in sizes more consistent with classical interstellar dust and grain size estimates in the NLRs of NGC 1068 and Cyg A. Thus to first order, assuming that the luminosity in NGC 4151 is anisotropic, the extended mid-IR emission is consistent with heating of dust in the NLR from a central engine.

### 4.4 Dusty Torus

Another source of mid-IR emission in NGC 4151 may be from a dusty torus (RE96). Emission from a dusty torus may dominate the unresolved mid-IR component in NGC 4151. It is considered that we view this disk/torus through a line-of-sight passing near the boundary edge (Cassidy & Raine 1996). Assuming the torus lies perpendicular to the NLR, it’s major axis would be oriented in an approximately north-south direction. We see no extended emission in this direction and can only place an upper limit on the mid-IR size of the torus of $`35`$ pc based on our resolution limit of $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}53`$ \- $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}58`$. This is consistent with the polarimetry observations and subsequent modelling of Ruiz et al. (2002) which suggest that the torus size in NGC 4151 is $``$ 30 pc. A direct measurement of the torus may have been made by N90. As previously mentioned, north-south scans by N90 measure the 11.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ emitting region to be 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$16$`\pm 0`$$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$04 or $`10`$ pc. Based on our “unresolved” (PSF) component we therefore place an upper limit on the mid-IR contribution of a dusty torus of $`73\%`$ of the total emission at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$. This represents the maximum contribution from a dusty torus and does not rule out contribution to the “unresolved ”mid-IR emission from a self-absorbed synchrotron source.

Observations of neutral HI and molecular H2 by Mundell et al. (1995) and Fernandez et al. (1999) respectively, show evidence of a gaseous disk up to 2$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 (160 pc) across which may be associated with the torus. This disk is located in approximately a north-south direction and may consist of an “onion-skin” morphology as discussed by Pedlar et al. (1998). In this model the gaseous torus contains several layers (see Figure 5). The innermost ring consists of ionized gas followed by a ring of neutral HI gas surrounded by a ring of molecular H2. In Pedlar’s “onion-skin” model the authors further expand on the subject of anisotropy in NGC 4151 as discussed by Penston et al. (1990). Using observations of free-free absorption detected at 73 cm and 18 cm in conjunction with observations of HI by Mundell et al. (1995) they estimate the ionizing flux incident on the torus. Assuming a simple Strömgren model they calculate that the ionizing flux in the plane of the torus is between $``$10 - 40 times less than seen from Earth or $``$ 100 - 500 times less than seen in the NLR as modelled by Penston et al. (1990).

To test the validity of this model we can use the dust equilibrium equation from Section 4.3. Given values for temperature and dust grain size discussed above we can calculate the size of the mid-IR torus as a function of ionizing luminosity, $`L_{UV}`$. Color temperature measurements of the core of NGC 4151 show T $`185\pm 5`$ K. If the dusty torus intercepts the ionizing luminosity as seen from Earth $`10^{10}`$L and consists of dust grains similar to those estimated for the NLR ($`0.04`$ $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ graphite or $`0.01`$ $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ SA silicate), the size of the torus in the mid-IR would be $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}65`$ ($`42`$ pc). This is slightly larger than the size of the torus based on our resolution limit of $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}53`$ \- $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}58`$ ($`35`$ pc) and that of the Ruiz polarimetry model ($``$ 30 pc). It is also 4 times larger than the north-south scans by N90 which measured the 11.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ emitting region to be 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$16$`\pm 0`$$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$04 or $`10`$ pc. Assuming the N90 mid-IR emission delineates the torus, dust grains in the torus would need to be $``$10 times larger than that found in the NLR. Alternatively, if the luminosity in the plane of the torus is $``$10 - 40 $`\times `$ less than seen from Earth as modelled by Pedlar et al. (1998), the size of the torus in the mid-IR would range between $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}10\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}2`$ ($`714`$ pc). Although slightly smaller than the Ruiz model, this size torus would be consistent with our upper limit as well as closely match the size measured by N90. Thus the “onion-skin” model of Pedlar et al. (1998) which suggests that the luminosity in NGC 4151 may be very weak in the plane of the torus is roughly consistent with size estimates of the torus in the mid-IR. However, it should be noted that the results discussed above derive from simple equations involving Strömgren radii and dust grains at equilibrium temperatures. Due to the increased density of material associated with the torus as opposed to the NLR, a more robust radiative transfer analysis may be needed to truly understand the anisotropy in NGC 4151.

## 5 Conclusions

In this paper we have used mid-IR imaging and first order radiative transfer analysis assuming dust grains in thermal equilibrium to study the central $`11\mathrm{}`$ of NGC 4151. Our conclusion are as follows.

1. We detect extended mid-IR emission at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ in the circumnuclear region of NGC 4151. This emission extends approximately $`200`$ pc ($``$ $`3.5\mathrm{}`$) at a P.A. $`60\mathrm{°}`$ correlating with the NLR region as seen in \[OIII\] $`\lambda `$5007 by Evans et al. (1993) and Kaiser et al. (2000) using HST.

2. With the PSF scaled to 100% of the peak of NGC 4151 we measure limits to the unresolved and resolved components of $`73\%`$ and $`27\%`$ respectively.

3. Mid-IR line emission contributes $`<10\%`$ of the extended emission at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$. The lack of any detectable PAH emission also shows that star formation is weak in the circumnuclear region.

4. Assuming that the luminosity in NGC 4151 is anisotropic ($`13\times `$), the extended mid-IR emission in NGC 4151 is consistent with thermal re-radiation from dust grains in the NLR heated by a central engine.

5. We place an upper limit on the size of the torus in the mid-IR of $`35`$pc consistent with the measurements of N90, and Ruiz et. al. (2002). This results in an upper limit to the mid-IR contribution from a dusty torus in NGC 4151 of $`73\%`$ of the total emission at 10.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and 18.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ based on our unresolved (PSF) component.

6. Mid-IR measurements of the proposed torus by N90 as well as upper limits derived from this paper are roughly consistent with the “onion-skin” model of Pedlar et al. (1998). In this model, ionizing photons in the plane of the torus may be $``$10 - 40 times less than seen from Earth.

We would like to thank the Florida Space Grant Consortium for funding which led to the completion of this work as well as engineer Chris Carter who provided invaluable support while these observations were taken at Gemini North.