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# how is a chordal graph like a supersolvable binary matroid?

## 1. Introduction and notations

Throughout this note $`M`$ denotes a matroid of rank $`r`$ on the ground set $`[n]:=\{1,2,\mathrm{},n\}`$. We refer to  as standard sources for matroid theory. We recall and fix some notation of matroid theory. The restriction of $`M`$ to a subset $`X[n]`$ is denoted $`M|X.`$ A matroid $`M`$ is said to be *simple* if all circuits have at least three elements. A matroid $`M`$ is *binary* if the symmetric difference of any two different circuits of $`M`$ is a union of disjoint circuits. Graphic and cographic matroids are extremely important examples of binary matroids. The dual of $`M`$ is denoted $`M^{}`$. Let $`𝒞=𝒞(M)`$ \[resp. $`𝒞^{}=𝒞^{}(M)=𝒞(M^{})`$\] be the set of circuits \[resp. cocircuits\] of $`M.`$ Let $`𝒞_{\mathrm{}}:=\{C𝒞:|C|\mathrm{}\}.`$ In the following the singleton $`\{x\}`$ is denoted by $`x`$. We will denote by

$$\mathrm{cl}(\mathrm{X}):=\mathrm{X}\{\mathrm{x}[\mathrm{n}]:\mathrm{C}𝒞,\mathrm{C}\mathrm{X}=\mathrm{x}\},$$

the closure in $`M`$ of a subset $`X[n].`$ We say that $`X[n]`$ is a *flat* of $`M`$ if $`X=\mathrm{cl}(\mathrm{X}).`$ The set $`(M)`$ of flats of $`M`$, ordered by inclusion, is a geometric lattice. The rank of a flat $`F,`$ denoted $`r(F)`$, is equal to $`m`$ if there are $`m+1`$ flats in a maximal chain of flats from $`\mathrm{}`$ to $`F`$. The flats of rank 1, 2, 3 and $`r1`$ are called points, lines, planes, and hyperplanes respectively. A line $`L`$ with two elements is called trivial and a line with three elements is called nontrivial (a binary matroid has no line with more than three points). Given a set $`X[n]`$, let $`r(X):=r(\mathrm{cl}(\mathrm{X}))`$. A pair $`F,F^{}`$ of flats is called *modular* if

$$r(F)+r(F^{})=r(FF^{})+r(FF^{}).$$

A flat $`F`$ is *modular* if it forms a modular pair with every other flat $`F^{}.`$ The notion of supersolvable lattices was introduced and studied by Stanley in . In the particular case of geometric lattices the definition can be read as follows.

###### Definition 1.1.

. A matroid $`M`$ on $`[n]`$ of rank $`r`$ is supersolvable if there is a maximal chain of modular flats $``$

$$:=F_0(=\mathrm{})\mathrm{}F_{r1}F_r(=[n]).$$

We call $``$ an $`M`$-chain of $`M`$. To the $`M`$-chain $``$ we associate the partition $`𝒫`$ of $`[n]`$

$$𝒫:=F_1\mathrm{}(F_iF_{i1})\mathrm{}(F_rF_{r1}).$$

We call $`𝒫`$ an $`M`$-partition of $`M.`$

We recall that a graph $`G`$ is said chordal (or rigid or triangulated) if every cycle of length at least four has a chord. Chordal graphs are treated extensively in Chapter 4 of . The notion of a “chordal matroid” has also been recently explored in the literature, see .

###### Definition 1.2 ( p. 53).

Let $`M`$ be an arbitrary matroid (not necessarily simple or binary). A circuit $`C`$ of $`M`$ has a chord $`i_0`$ if there are two circuits $`C_1`$ and $`C_2`$ such that $`C_1C_2=i_0`$ and $`C=C_1\mathrm{\Delta }C_2.`$ In this case, we say that the chord $`i_0`$ splits the circuit $`C`$ into the circuits $`C_1`$ and $`C_2.`$ We say that a matroid is $`\mathrm{}`$-*chordal* if every circuit with at least $`\mathrm{}`$ elements has a chord. A simple matroid $`M`$ is *chordal* if it is 4-chordal.

In this paper we always suppose that the edges of a graph $`G`$ are labelled with the integers of $`[n]`$. If nothing else is indicated we suppose $`G`$ is a connected graph. Let $`M(G)`$ be the *cycle matroid* of the graph $`G`$: i.e., the elementary cycles of $`G,`$ as subsets of $`[n],`$ are the circuits of $`M(G).`$ In the same way, the minimal cutsets of a connected graph $`G`$ (i.e, a set of edges that disconnect the graph) are the circuits of a matroid on $`[n],`$ called the *cocycle matroid* of $`G.`$ A matroid is *graphic* (resp. *cographic*) if it is the cycle (resp. cocycle) matroid of a graph. The cocycle matroid of $`G`$ is dual to the cycle matroid of $`G`$ and both are binary. The cocycle matroids of the complete graph $`K_5`$ and of the complete bipartite graph $`K_{3,3}`$ are examples of binary but not graphic matroids; see Section 13.3 in  for details. The Fano matroid is an example of a supersolvable binary matroid that is neither graphic nor cographic. Finally, note that an elementary cycle $`C`$ of $`G`$ has a chord iff $`C`$ seen as a circuit of the matroid $`M(G)`$ has a chord.

###### Example 1.3.

Consider the chordal graph $`G_0=G_0(V,[7])`$ in Figure 1 and the corresponding cycle matroid $`M(G_0)`$. It is clear that

$$:=\mathrm{}\{1\}\{1,2,3\}\{1,2,3,4,5\}[7]$$

is an $`M`$-chain. The associated $`M`$-partition is

$$𝒫:=\{1\}\{2,3\}\{4,5\}\{6,7\}.$$

The linear order of the vertices is such that for every $`i`$ in $`\{2,3,4,5\}`$ the neighbors of the vertex $`v_i`$ contained in the set $`\{v_1,\mathrm{}v_{i1}\}`$ form a clique; this is Dirac’s well known characterization of chordal graphs (see ). This is also a characterization of graphic supersolvable matroids (see Proposition 2.8 in ). That is, a graphic matroid $`M(G)`$ is supersolvable iff the vertices of $`G`$ can be labeled as $`v_1,v_2,\mathrm{},v_m`$ such that, for every $`i=2,\mathrm{},m,`$ the neighbors of $`v_i`$ contained in the set $`\{v_1,\mathrm{}v_{i1}\}`$ form a clique. We say that a linear order of the vertices of $`G`$ with the above properties is an S-label of the vertices of $`G.`$

Ziegler proved that every supersolvable binary matroid without a Fano submatroid is graphic (Theorem 2.7 in ). In the next section we answer the following natural question:

* For a generic binary matroid, what are the relations between the notions of “chordal” and “supersolvable” ?

## 2. chordal and supersolvable matroids

###### Lemma 2.1.

Let $`M`$ be a simple binary matroid. The following two conditions are equivalent for every circuit $`C`$ of $`M`$:

* $`C\mathrm{cl}(\mathrm{C}),`$
* $`C`$ has a chord.

For nonbinary matroids only the implication $`(\text{2.1}.2)(\text{2.1}.1)`$ holds.

###### Proof.

If $`i\mathrm{cl}(\mathrm{C})\mathrm{C}`$, then there is a circuit $`D`$ such that $`iD`$ and $`DiC`$. As $`M`$ is binary $`D^{}=D\mathrm{\Delta }C`$ is also a circuit of $`M.`$ So $`i`$ is a chord of $`C`$. If $`i`$ is a chord of $`C`$, then clearly $`i\mathrm{cl}(\mathrm{C})`$. Finally, in the uniform rank-two nonbinary matroid $`U_{2,4}`$, the set $`C=\{1,2,3\}`$ is a circuit without a chord but $`C\mathrm{cl}(\mathrm{C})=[4]`$. ∎

###### Theorem 2.2.

A binary supersolvable matroid $`M`$ is chordal but the converse does not hold in general.

###### Proof.

Let $`:=\mathrm{}\mathrm{}F_{r1}F_r=[n]`$ be an $`M`$-chain of $`M`$. Suppose by induction that the restriction of $`M`$ to $`F_{r1}`$ is chordal. The result is clear in the case that $`C^{}:=[n]F_{r1}`$ is a singleton. Suppose that $`|C^{}|>1`$ and consider a circuit $`C`$ of $`M`$ not contained in the modular hyperplane $`F_{r1}.`$ Then there are two elements $`i,jCC^{}`$ and the line $`\mathrm{cl}(\{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{j}\})`$ meets $`F_{r1}.`$ So $`C\mathrm{cl}(\mathrm{C})`$ and we know from Lemma 2.1 that C has a chord.
A counterexample of the converse is $`M^{}(K_{3,3})`$, the cocycle matroid of the complete bipartite graph $`K_{3,3}`$. It is easy to see from its geometric representation that it is chordal but not supersolvable (see  and page 514 in  for its geometric representation). ∎

###### Definition 2.3 ().

Let $`M`$ be an arbitrary matroid and consider an integer $`\mathrm{}2.`$ The matroid $`M`$ is $`\mathrm{}`$-closed if the following two conditions are equivalent for every subset $`X[n]:`$

* $`X`$ is closed,
* for every subset $`Y`$ of $`X`$ with at most $`\mathrm{}`$ elements we have $`\mathrm{cl}(\mathrm{Y})\mathrm{X}.`$

We note that Condition $`(\text{2.3}.2)`$ is equivalent to:

* for every circuit $`C`$ of $`M`$ with at most $`\mathrm{}+1`$ elements

$$|CX||C|1CX.$$

###### Definition 2.4.

Let $`𝒞^{}`$ be a subset of $`𝒞`$, the set of circuits of $`M.`$ Let $`\mathrm{cl}_\mathrm{\Delta }(𝒞^{})`$ denote the smallest subset of $`𝒞`$ such that:

* $`𝒞^{}\mathrm{cl}_\mathrm{\Delta }(𝒞^{}),`$
* whenever a circuit splits into two circuits $`C_1`$ and $`C_2`$ that are in $`\mathrm{cl}_\mathrm{\Delta }(𝒞^{})`$ then $`C`$ is also in $`\mathrm{cl}_\mathrm{\Delta }(𝒞^{}).`$

###### Theorem 2.5.

For every simple binary matroid $`M`$ the following three conditions are equivalent:

* $`M`$ is $`\mathrm{}`$-closed,
* $`M`$ is $`(\mathrm{}+2)`$-chordal,
* $`𝒞(M)=\mathrm{cl}_\mathrm{\Delta }(𝒞_{\mathrm{}+1}).`$

###### Proof.

$`(\text{2.5}.2)(\text{2.5}.3).`$ This equivalence is a direct consequence of the definitions.
$`(\text{2.5}.1)(\text{2.5}.2).`$ Consider a circuit $`C`$ with at least $`\mathrm{}+2`$ elements and suppose for a contradiction that $`C`$ is not chordal. From Lemma 2.1 we know that $`\mathrm{cl}(\mathrm{C})=\mathrm{C}.`$ Pick an element $`iC.`$ Then the set $`X=Ci`$ is not closed but every subset $`Y`$ of $`X`$ with at most $`\mathrm{}`$ elements is closed which is a contradiction.
$`(\text{2.5}.3)(\text{2.5}.1)`$. Let $`X`$ be a subset of $`[n]`$ and suppose that for every circuit $`C`$ with at most $`\mathrm{}+1`$ elements such that $`|CX||C|1,`$ we have $`CX`$; see $`(\text{2.3}.2^{})`$. To prove that $`X`$ is closed it is enough to prove that for every circuit $`C`$ such that $`|CX||C|1,`$ we have $`CX.`$ Suppose that the result is true for every circuit with at most $`m`$ elements and let $`D`$ be a circuit with $`m+1`$ elements such that $`DdX`$ with $`dD.`$ By hypothesis there are circuits $`C_1,C_2\mathrm{cl}_\mathrm{\Delta }(𝒞_{\mathrm{}+1})`$ such that $`C_1C_2=i`$ and $`D=C_1\mathrm{\Delta }C_2.`$ Suppose w.l.o.g that $`dC_1`$. We have $`C_2iX`$ and since $`|C_2|<|D|`$ we also have $`iC_2X`$. We have now that $`C_1dX`$ and $`|C_1|m`$ we also have that $`C_1X`$. This gives that $`DX`$ and concludes the proof. ∎

We make use of the following elementary but useful proposition which is a particular case of Proposition 3.2 in . The reader can easily check it from Brylawski’s characterisation of modular hyperplanes.

###### Proposition 2.6.

Let $`M`$ be a supersolvable matroid and

$$:=F_0\mathrm{}F_{r1}F_r$$

an $`M`$-chain. Let $`F`$ be a flat of $`M`$. Then $`M|F`$, the restriction of $`M`$ to the flat $`F`$, is a supersolvable matroid and $`\{F_iF:F_i\}`$ is the set of (modular) flats of an $`M|F`$-chain.∎

###### Definition 2.7.

Let $`𝒫=P_1\mathrm{}P_r`$ be an $`M`$-partition of a supersolvable matroid $`M`$. We associate to $`(M,𝒫)`$ a graph $`G_𝒫`$ such that:

* $`V(G_𝒫)=\{P_i:i=1,2,\mathrm{},r\}`$ is the vertex set of $`G_𝒫,`$
* $`\{P_i,P_j\}`$ is an edge of $`G_𝒫`$ iff there is a nontrivial line $`L`$ of $`M`$ meeting $`P_i`$ and $`P_j`$.

We call $`G_𝒫`$ the S-graph of the pair $`(M,𝒫)`$.

Note that every nontrivial line $`L`$ of the binary supersolvable matroid $`M`$ meets exactly two $`P_i^{}s`$ and if $`L`$ meets $`P_i`$ and $`P_j`$, with $`i<j`$, necessarily $`|P_iL|=1`$ and $`|P_jL|=2`$. Indeed $`F_{j1}=_{\mathrm{}=1}^{j1}P_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a modular flat disjoint from $`P_j`$, so $`|F_{j1}L|=1`$. This simple property will be used extensively in the proof of Theorem 2.10. Given a chordal graph $`G`$ with a fixed S-labeling, we get an associated supersolvable matroid $`M(G)`$ and an associated $`M`$-partition $`𝒫.`$ We say that $`G_𝒫,`$ the S-graph determined by $`(M(G),𝒫),`$ is the derived S-graph of $`G`$ for this S-labeling.

###### Remark 2.8.

Note that the derived S-graph $`G_𝒫`$ of a chordal graph $`G`$ is a subgraph of $`G.`$ Indeed set $`V(G_𝒫)=\{P_1,\mathrm{},P_m\}`$ and consider the map $`P_{\mathrm{}}v_{\mathrm{}+1},\mathrm{}=1,\mathrm{}m.`$ Let $`\{P_i,P_j\},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}i<jm`$, be an edge of $`G_𝒫.`$ From the definitions we see that $`\{v_{i+1},v_{j+1}\}`$ is necessarily an edge of $`G.`$

###### Example 2.9.

Consider the S-labeling of the graph $`G_0`$ given in Figure 1 and the associated $`M`$-partition $`𝒫`$ (see Example 1.3). The derived S-graph $`G_𝒫`$ is a path from $`P_1`$ to $`P_4`$. Consider now the $`M`$-partition of $`M(G_0):`$

$$𝒫^{}:=\{4\}\{3,5\}\{1,2\}\{6,7\}.$$

In this case the corresponding S-graph $`G_𝒫^{}^{}`$ is $`K_{1,3}`$ with $`P_2`$ being the degree-3 vertex. It is easy to prove that for any $`M`$-partition $`𝒫`$ of the cycle matroid of the complete graph $`K_{\mathrm{}},`$ the S-graph $`G_𝒫`$ is the complete graph $`K_\mathrm{}1.`$

Our main result is:

###### Theorem 2.10.

Let $`M`$ be a simple binary supersolvable matroid with an $`M`$-partition $`𝒫`$. Then the S-graph $`G_𝒫`$ is chordal.

###### Proof.

Let $`𝒫=P_1\mathrm{}P_r`$. We claim that $`P_r`$ is a simplicial vertex of $`G_𝒫`$. Suppose that $`\{P_r,P_i\}`$ and $`\{P_r,P_j\},i<j,`$ are two different edges of $`G_𝒫`$ and that there are two nontrivial lines $`L_1:=\{x,y,z\}`$ and $`L_2=\{x^{},y^{},z^{}\}`$ where $`x,y,x^{},y^{}P_r`$ and $`zP_i,`$ $`z^{}P_j`$. We will consider two possible cases:

* Suppose first that two of the elements $`x,y,x^{},y^{}`$ are equal; w.l.o.g., we can suppose $`x=x^{}.`$ As $`M`$ is binary the elements $`x,y,y^{}`$ can’t be colinear, so $`\mathrm{cl}(\{\mathrm{x},\mathrm{y},\mathrm{y}^{}\})`$ is a plane. From modularity of $`F_{r1}`$, we know that $`\mathrm{cl}(\{\mathrm{x},\mathrm{y},\mathrm{y}^{}\})\mathrm{F}_{\mathrm{r}1}`$ is a line. So the line $`\mathrm{cl}(\{\mathrm{y},\mathrm{y}^{}\})`$ meets the modular hyperplane $`F_{r1}`$ in a point $`a`$. Now the line $`\{z,z^{},a\}`$ is a nontrivial line which meets $`P_i`$ and $`P_j`$. Then by definition $`\{P_i,P_j\}`$ is an edge of $`G_𝒫`$.
* Suppose now that the elements $`x,y,x^{},y^{}`$ are different. Then as $`M`$ is binary we have $`r(\{x,y,x^{},y^{}\})=4`$. From modularity of $`F_{r1}`$, we know that $`r(\mathrm{cl}(\{\mathrm{x},\mathrm{y},\mathrm{x}^{},\mathrm{y}^{}\})\mathrm{F}_{\mathrm{r}1})=3`$. Then the six lines $`\mathrm{cl}(\{\alpha ,\beta \}),`$ for $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ in $`\{x,y,x^{},y^{}\}`$ meet $`F_{r1}`$ in six coplanar points; let these points be labelled as in Figure 2. Let $`P_{\mathrm{}}`$ be the set that contains $`a`$. We will consider three subcases.

+ Suppose first that $`i<j<\mathrm{}`$. From the property given immediately after Definition 2.7, we have that $`c`$ is also in $`P_{\mathrm{}}`$. Consider the modular flat $`F_\mathrm{}1=_{h=1}^\mathrm{}1P_h`$. We know that the plane $`\mathrm{cl}(\{\mathrm{a},\mathrm{c},\mathrm{z},\mathrm{z}^{}\})`$ meets $`F_\mathrm{}1`$ in a line, so $`\mathrm{cl}(\{\mathrm{z},\mathrm{z}^{}\})`$ is a nontrivial line meeting $`P_i`$ and $`P_j`$ and so $`\{P_i,P_j\}`$ is an edge of $`G_𝒫`$.
    + Suppose now that $`\mathrm{}<i<j`$. Then the nontrivial line $`\{a,d,z\}`$ meets $`P_i`$ and $`P_{\mathrm{}}`$ and we have $`dP_i`$. So the nontrivial line $`\{c,d,z^{}\}`$ meets $`P_i`$ and $`P_j`$ and $`\{P_i,P_j\}`$ is an edge of $`G_𝒫`$.
    + Suppose finally that $`i\mathrm{}j`$. The nontrivial line $`\{a,d,z\}`$ meets $`P_i`$ and $`P_{\mathrm{}}`$ so $`dP_{\mathrm{}}`$. The nontrivial line $`\{c,d,z^{}\}`$ meets $`P_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`P_j`$ and necessarily we have $`cP_j`$. We conclude that the nontrivial line $`\{b,c,z\}`$ meets $`P_i`$ and $`P_j`$ and $`\{P_i,P_j\}`$ is an edge of $`G_𝒫`$.

By induction we conclude that $`G_𝒫`$ is chordal. ∎

We say that two $`M`$-chains

$$:=\mathrm{}\mathrm{}F_{r1}F_r=[n]$$

and

$$^{}:=\mathrm{}\mathrm{}F_{r1}^{}F_r^{}=[n]$$

are related by an elementary deformation if they differ by at most one flat. We say that two $`M`$-chains are equivalent if they can be obtained from each other by elementary deformations.

###### Proposition 2.11.

Every two $`M`$-chains of the same matroid $`M`$ are equivalent.

###### Proof.

We prove it by induction on the rank. The result is clear for $`r=2.`$ Suppose it true for all matroids of rank at most $`r1.`$ Consider two different $`M`$-chains

$$:=\mathrm{}\mathrm{}F_{r1}F_r=[n]$$

$$^{}:=\mathrm{}\mathrm{}F_{r1}^{}F_r^{}=[n].$$

Let $`F_{\mathrm{}}`$ be the flat of highest rank of the $`M`$-chain $``$ contained in $`F_{r1}^{}`$. We know that $`F_jF_{r1}^{^{}}`$ , $`j=0,1,\mathrm{},r`$, is a modular flat of the matroid $`M`$ and that

$$r(F_jF_{r1}^{^{}})=j1,\text{for}j=\mathrm{}+2,\mathrm{},r1.$$

Let $`_0:=`$ and for $`i`$ from $`1`$ to $`r1\mathrm{}`$, let $`_i`$ be the $`M`$-chain

$$\mathrm{}\mathrm{}F_lF_{\mathrm{}+2}F_{r1}^{}\mathrm{}F_{\mathrm{}+i+1}F_{r1}^{}F_{\mathrm{}+i+1}\mathrm{}[n].$$

We have clearly by definition that for $`i`$ from $`0`$ to $`r2\mathrm{}`$, the $`M`$-chains $`_i`$ and $`_{i+1}`$ are equivalent. This sequence of equivalences shows that $``$ is equivalent to $`_{r1\mathrm{}}.`$ Finally by the induction hypothesis we have that $`^{}`$ is equivalent to $`_{r1\mathrm{}}`$ which concludes the proof.

###### Remark 2.12.

Proposition 2.11 can be used to obtain all the S-labels of a given chordal graph $`G`$ from a fixed one. If $`G`$ is doubly-connected the number of $`M`$-chains of $`M(G)`$ is equal to the half of the number of such labelings, see , Proposition 2.8.

It is natural to ask if, given a chordal graph $`G,`$ there is a supersolvable matroid $`M`$ together with an $`M`$-partition $`𝒫`$ such that $`G=G_𝒫.`$ Can the matroid $`M`$ be supposed graphic? The next proposition gives a positive answer to these questions:

###### Proposition 2.13.

Let $`G=(V,E)`$ be a chordal graph with an S-labeling $`v_1,\mathrm{},v_m`$ of its vertices, and $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ the extension of $`G`$ by a vertex $`v_0`$ adjacent to all the vertices, i.e.:

$$V_{\stackrel{~}{G}}=V_Gv_0\text{and}E_{\stackrel{~}{G}}=E_G\{\{v_i,v_0\},i=1,\mathrm{},m\}.$$

Then $`G_{\stackrel{~}{}𝒫},`$ the derived S-graph of $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ for the S-labeling $`v_0,v_1,\mathrm{},v_m`$ is isomorphic to $`G.`$

###### Proof.

As $`v_0`$ is adjacent to every vertex $`v_i,i=1,\mathrm{},m,`$ it is clear that $`v_0,v_1,\mathrm{},v_m`$ is an S-labeling of $`\stackrel{~}{G}.`$ Let $`𝒫`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{}𝒫`$ denote the corresponding $`M`$-partitions of the graphic matroids $`M(G)`$ and $`M(\stackrel{~}{G}).`$ We have $`𝒫=P_1\mathrm{}P_{m1}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{}𝒫=\stackrel{~}{P}_1(=\{v_0,v_1\}),\stackrel{~}{P}_2\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{P}_m`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{P}_i=P_{i1}\{v_o,v_i\},`$ for $`i=2,\mathrm{},m.`$ Now we can see that if $`\{v_i,v_j\},`$ $`0i<jm1,`$ is an edge of $`G`$ then $`\{\stackrel{~}{P}_i,\stackrel{~}{P_j}\}`$ is an edge of $`G_{\stackrel{~}{}𝒫}.`$ From Remark 2.8 we get that reciprocally $`G_{\stackrel{~}{}𝒫}`$ is a subgraph of $`G.`$

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the anonymous referees for their detailed remarks and suggestions on a previous version of this paper.


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# I Introduction

## I Introduction

The braneworld scenario has opened up a new perspective on higher dimensional theory . In particular, a model proposed by Randall and Sundrum (RS2)  has ignited active research on braneworld cosmology because of its attractive features .

An alternative scenario of the inflationary universe in the context of the RS2 model was proposed by Himemoto and Sasaki. In this scenario, inspired by higher dimensional gravitational theory including a dilatonic scalar field or higher curvature terms, a 5-dimensional Einstein-scalar system was studied. Considering a minimally coupled massive scalar field $`\varphi `$ for a 5-dimensional scalar field as a toy model, a solution of the field equation in the anti-de Sitter background with an inflating brane was found under the assumption of a separable form of solution. It was shown that a 5-dimensional scalar field, which we call a bulk scalar field, can realize slow-roll inflation as long as $`|m^2|/H^21`$ is satisfied. Here, $`|m^2|`$ is the mass squared of the bulk scalar field and $`H`$ is the Hubble parameter on the brane.

As a next step, in order to show the generality of this inflation model, we investigated the dynamics of a bulk scalar field without assuming a separable form of solution, focusing on the cases with $`|m^2|\mathrm{}^21`$ and $`H^2\mathrm{}^21`$. There, by analyzing the Green’s function for the bulk scalar field, the late-time behavior of the bulk scalar field was clarified, and it was shown that the bulk scalar field effectively behaves as a 4-dimensional scalar field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ with mass $`m_{\mathrm{eff}}=m/\sqrt{2}`$ during both the slow-rolling phase $`|m^2|/H^21`$ and the rapidly oscillating phase $`|m^2|/H^21`$, irrespective of the initial field configuration . Moreover, the lowest order back reaction to the geometry starting with the second order in the amplitude of $`\varphi `$ was found to be consistently represented by a 4-dimensional effective theory with the same 4-dimensional scalar field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ mentioned above. The overall normalization of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is related to $`\varphi `$ by a simple scaling $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\sqrt{\mathrm{}}\varphi `$, where $`\mathrm{}`$ is the curvature radius of $`AdS_5`$. We showed that a bulk scalar field in the braneworld can mimic 4-dimensional inflaton dynamics, at least as long as the Hubble parameter and the mass of the bulk scalar field are sufficiently small compared with $`\mathrm{}^1`$. We also studied the quantum fluctuations in this inflation model in order to see whether this model is observationally acceptable or not. Then it was shown that the correction due to the 5-dimensional nature of the inflaton field is small, as long as $`H^2\mathrm{}^21`$ and $`|m^2|\mathrm{}^21`$ . Kobayashi, Koyama, and Soda also considered the quantum fluctuations of a massless bulk scalar field in the context of this inflation model and obtained a consistent result.

In , assuming the dominance of a single oscillation mode, it was shown that braneworld reheating also mimics the 4-dimensional standard process. In this short paper, in order to give a rigorous justification of the result obtained in , we investigate the late-time behavior of the evolution of a bulk scalar field with arbitrary, regular initial data using the Green’s function method. We find that the argument of the correspondence between the 5-dimensional and 4-dimensional systems mentioned in the previous paragraph can be extended to include the reheating process.

———————————–
E-mail:himemoto@vega.ess.sci.osaka-u.ac.jp E-mail:tanaka@yukawa.kyoto-u.ac.jp

The organization of this paper is as follows. In Sec. II, we review the basic picture of the reheating scenario after braneworld inflation driven by a bulk scalar field as proposed in . In Sec. III, we consider the late-time behavior of the bulk scalar field on the brane by using the properties of the retarded Green’s function. Then we explain how to construct the Green’s function for a scalar field with dissipation. Subsequently, we discuss an effective description of the dynamics from the 4-dimensional point of view and show that the conventional reheating process is effectively reproduced in the braneworld. Section IV is devoted to a summary and discussion.

## II model of reheating after braneworld inflation

We briefly review the model for the reheating process after braneworld inflation driven by a bulk scalar field discussed in Ref. . We consider a 5-dimensional Einstein-scalar system in a braneworld scenario of the RS2 type. The bulk geometry satisfies the 5-dimensional Einstein equations

$$R_{ab}\frac{1}{2}g_{ab}R+\mathrm{\Lambda }_5g_{ab}=\kappa _5^2\left[T_{ab}+S_{ab}\delta (rr_0)\right],$$
(1)
where $`r`$ is the coordinate normal to the brane, and the brane is assumed to be located at $`r=r_0`$ at the fixed point of $`Z_2`$ symmetry. $`S_{ab}`$ represents the energy-momentum tensor composed of the brane tension $`\sigma `$ and the contribution of matter fields confined on the brane $`\tau _{ab}`$:

$$S_{ab}=\sigma q_{ab}+\tau _{ab},$$
(2)
where $`q_{ab}`$ is the induced metric on the brane. $`T_{ab}`$ is the energy-momentum tensor of the bulk scalar field. For simplicity, we assume a minimally coupled massive scalar field with an interaction on the brane. We set $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_5=\kappa _5^4\sigma ^2/6`$ so as to recover the Randall-Sundrum flat braneworld when $`T_{ab}`$ and $`\tau _{ab}`$ vanish.

In order to represent the energy dissipation from the bulk scalar field $`\varphi `$ to the matter fields on the brane, the equation for $`\varphi `$ is modified to

$$(\mathrm{}_5m^2)\varphi =\mathrm{\Gamma }_d\mathrm{}\delta \left(rr_0\right)\dot{\varphi },$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{}=6/(\kappa _5^2\sigma )`$ is the $`AdS_5`$ curvature radius, and $`m`$ is the mass of the bulk scalar field. An overdot indicates differentiation with respect to the cosmological proper time. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_d`$ represents the decay constant. Integrating Eq. (3) together with $`Z_2`$ symmetry, we obtain the boundary condition

$$_r\varphi |_{r=r_0}=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_d\mathrm{}}{2}\dot{\varphi }(t,r_0).$$
(4)
In the analyses below, we neglect the terms quadratic in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_d`$. Here, we do not consider the energy release to the bulk space, although such a dissipation process in the bulk may be worthy of investigation.

## III Bulk scalar dynamics with dissipation

We consider solutions of Eq. (3) under the conditions

$$m\mathrm{},H\mathrm{},\mathrm{and}\mathrm{\Gamma }_d\mathrm{}1,$$
(5)
where $`m`$ and $`H`$ are, respectively, the mass of the bulk scalar field and the expansion rate of the 4-dimensional metric induced on the brane. Then we investigate the late-time behavior of solutions by extending the Green’s function method used in Ref. .

### A Initial value problem

We consider the field equation

$$_X\mathrm{\Psi }(X)\left[_t^2+_y^2W(y)U(y)_t\right]\mathrm{\Psi }(X)=0,$$
(6)
where $`X`$ denotes $`\{t,y\}`$. We assume that $`W(y)`$ and $`U(y)`$ are functions whose asymptotic value at $`|y|\mathrm{}`$ is supposed to be a constant. We solve this field equation by imposing $`Z_2`$ symmetry at $`y=0`$.

Let us consider the retarded Green’s function that satisfies

$$_XG(X,X^{})=\delta (tt^{})\delta (yy^{}),$$
(7)
with the causal condition that $`G(X,X^{})=0`$ for $`X^{}`$ not in the causal past of $`X`$. Note that this Green’s function satisfies reciprocity for the time reversal operation $`tt`$, namely, $`G(t,y,t^{},y^{})=G(t^{},y^{},t,y)`$. Using this reciprocity, the evolution of $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ for any given initial data can be described as

$`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _{t^{}=t_i}}[G(X,X^{}){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Psi }(X^{})}{t^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{G(X,X^{})}{t^{}}}\mathrm{\Psi }(X^{})`$ (9)
$`+U(y^{})G(X,X^{})\mathrm{\Psi }(X^{})]dy^{},`$
where $`t_i`$ is the initial time. This representation of $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ implies that the asymptotic behavior of $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ can be understood by the late-time behavior of $`G(X,X^{})`$.

Let us now construct the Green’s function that satisfies Eq. (7). Because of time translation invariance, we can express the Green’s function in terms of Fourier transformation as

$$G(X,X^{})=\frac{1}{2\pi }_𝒞𝑑pG_p(y,y^{})e^{ip(tt^{})},$$
(10)
where we choose the path $`𝒞`$ so that the retarded condition is satisfied; namely, $`𝒞`$ runs from $`p=\mathrm{}`$ to $`p=+\mathrm{}`$ on the complex plane for the integrand $`G_p`$ to contain neither pole nor the branch cut above $`𝒞`$.

The equation for $`G_p`$ follows from Eqs. (7) and (10) as

$`_y^{(p)}G_p(y,y^{})`$ (11)
$`[_y^2+p^2W(y)+ipU(y)]G_p(y,y^{})`$ (12)
$`=\delta (yy^{}).`$ (13)
The homogeneous equation $`_y^{(p)}u(y)=0`$ has two independent solutions which respectively behave asymptotically as $`u_p^{(\mathrm{out})}(y)e^{ik|y|}`$ and $`u_p^{(\mathrm{in})}(y)e^{ik|y|}`$ at $`|y|\mathrm{}`$, where we defined $`k^2=\underset{|y|\mathrm{}}{lim}p^2W(y)+ipU(y)`$. We can describe the solution satisfying the condition of $`Z_2`$ symmetry as a linear combination of these two independent solutions, $`u_p^{(Z_2)}(y)=u_p^{(\mathrm{out})}(y)\gamma _pu_p^{(\mathrm{in})}(y)`$ , where $`\gamma _p`$ is determined by the $`Z_2`$ symmetry condition

$$𝒟[u_p^{(Z_2)}(y)][_y\widehat{W}+ip\widehat{U}]u_p^{(Z_2)}(y)|_{y=0+}=0,$$
(14)
where $`\widehat{W}`$ and $`\widehat{U}`$ are the coefficients in front of $`\delta (y)`$ contained in $`W(y)/2`$ and $`U(y)/2`$, respectively. With these mode functions, we can express $`G_p(y,y^{})`$ satisfying the boundary condition at infinity and on the brane as

$`G_p(y,y^{})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2ip\gamma _p}}[u_p^{(\mathrm{out})}(y)u_p^{(Z_2)}(y^{})\theta (|y||y^{}|)`$ (16)
$`+u_p^{(Z_2)}(y)u_p^{(\mathrm{out})}(y^{})\theta (|y^{}||y|)]`$
with $`\gamma _p=𝒟[u_p^{(\mathrm{out})}(y)]/𝒟[u_p^{(\mathrm{in})}(y)]`$.

The late-time behavior of $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is understood by investigating the structure of singularities such as poles and branch cuts in $`G_p(y,y^{})`$. The singularity on the complex $`p`$ plane with the largest imaginary part dominates the late-time behavior. In particular, poles exist at the values of $`p`$ for which

$$𝒟[u_p^{(\mathrm{out})}(y)]=0$$
(17)
holds.

### B Application to braneworld

Using the formulas developed in the previous section, we consider the evolution of a massive bulk scalar field with dissipation, which well approximates the situation where $`\varphi `$ oscillates at the bottom of the potential. We assume that the background spacetime is 5-dimensional anti-de Sitter space with a boundary de Sitter brane given by $`ds^2=dr^2+\{H\mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}(r/\mathrm{})\}^2(dt^2+H^2e^{2Ht}d𝒙_{(3)}^2)`$ . In order to use the formulas presented in the preceding subsection, we introduce the conformal coordinates $`\{\tau ,y\}`$ defined by $`\tau Ht`$ and $`R(y)\mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}^1(|y|+y_0)=\mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}(r/\mathrm{})`$, where $`y_0`$ is specified by $`\mathrm{sinh}(y_0)=\mathrm{sinh}^1(r_0/\mathrm{})=H\mathrm{}`$. Then the metric becomes

$$ds^2=R(y)^2\left(dy^2d\tau ^2+e^{2\tau }d𝒙_{(3)}^2\right).$$
(18)
Setting $`\varphi =R^{3/2}e^{3\tau /2}\mathrm{\Psi }(y,\tau )`$, Eq. (3) reduces to Eq. (6) with

$`W(y)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{15+4m^2\mathrm{}^2}{4\mathrm{sinh}^2(|y|+y_0)}}`$ (20)
$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{3\sqrt{1+H^2\mathrm{}^2}}{H\mathrm{}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_d\mathrm{}\right)\delta (y),`$
$`U(y)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_d\mathrm{}\delta \left(y\right).`$ (21)
We note that both $`W(y)`$ and $`U(y)`$ vanish for $`|y|\mathrm{}`$, and hence the conditions that they asymptotically become constant are satisfied. Although $`U(y)`$ is localized on the brane in the present model, dissipation in the bulk can also be discussed by using the same technique as long as $`U(y)`$ satisfies this property.

The mode solution satisfying the outgoing asymptotic behavior is

$`u_p^{(\mathrm{out})}(y)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(1ip)P_{\nu 1/2}^{ip}[\mathrm{coth}(|y|+y_0)],`$ (22)
where $`\nu =\sqrt{m^2\mathrm{}^2+4}`$ . In the present case, the operator defined in Eq.(14) reduces to

$$𝒟=_y+\frac{3}{2}\frac{\sqrt{1+H^2\mathrm{}^2}}{H\mathrm{}}+\left(ip+\frac{3}{2}\right)\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_d\mathrm{}}{2}.$$
(23)
Then, from Eqs. (17) and (22) under the condition (5), we obtain the location of the poles with the largest imaginary parts in the complex $`p`$ plane as

$$p_\pm \frac{1}{H}\left[i\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_d}{2}\pm \sqrt{m_{\mathrm{eff}}^2\frac{(3H+\mathrm{\Gamma }_d)^2}{4}}\right],$$
(24)
where

$$m_{\mathrm{eff}}^2=\frac{m^2}{2}.$$
(25)
Here the terms neglected are quadratic or higher order in $`\mathrm{}`$. In addition to two poles, there is an infinite sequence of poles. However, they do not give a dominant contribution to the late-time behavior since they have smaller imaginary parts. (See Ref. .) Therefore the asymptotic behavior of the field $`\varphi `$ is dominated by the poles $`p_\pm `$, and hence we have

$$\varphi e^{\frac{3}{2}\tau }G(X,X^{})e^{(\frac{3}{2}+ip_\pm )Ht}.$$
(26)
### C Effective 4-dimensional description

In the preceding section, we confirmed that the late-time behavior of a bulk scalar field on the brane can be effectively described by a 4-dimensional scalar field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ which satisfies

$`\ddot{\mathrm{\Phi }}+(3H+\mathrm{\Gamma }_d)\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}+m_{\mathrm{eff}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }=0.`$ (27)
Our main interest here is to compare the law of cosmic expansion on the brane to that expected in the usual 4-dimensional model with the scalar field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. First we present a rather general framework to discuss the cosmic expansion of a homogeneous universe realized on the brane without specifying the explicit form of the energy-momentum tensor in the bulk.

We introduce a unit vector in the time direction $`u^a`$ parallel to the brane. Toward the outside of the brane $`u^a`$ is extended so as to satisfy $`u^a{}_{;b}{}^{}n_{}^{b}=0`$, where $`n_b`$ is the outgoing unit normal vector of the brane. Then, considering integration of the 5-dimensional conservation law

$$0=\sqrt{g}d^5x[S_a{}_{}{}^{b}\delta (rr_0)+T_a{}_{}{}^{b}]_{;b}u^a$$
(28)
for a thin region surrounding the brane, we obtain

$$\dot{\rho }+4H\rho +H\tau _\mu ^\mu =2T_{ab}u^an^b,$$
(29)
where $`\rho :=u^\mu u^\nu \tau _{\mu \nu }`$, and latin indices run over 4-dimensional coordinates on the brane.

The conservation law for the matter field localized on the brane $`\tau ^{\mu \nu }{}_{;\nu }{}^{}=0`$ is violated because there is energy transfer between the brane and bulk fields. However, from the Bianchi identity the 4-dimensional conservation law is guaranteed to be preserved in total. The 4-dimensional effective Einstein equation is derived from Eq.(1) as

$${}_{}{}^{(4)}G_{\mu \nu }^{}=\kappa _4^2(\tau _{\mu \nu }+\tau _{\mu \nu }^{(\pi )}+\tau _{\mu \nu }^{(s)}+\tau _{\mu \nu }^{(E)}),$$
(30)
where $`\kappa _4^2=\kappa _5^2/\mathrm{}`$ and

$`\tau _{\mu \nu }^{(\pi )}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _5^2\mathrm{}}{24}}\left[6\tau _{\mu \alpha }\tau _\nu ^\alpha 2\tau \tau _{\mu \nu }q_{\mu \nu }(3\tau _{\alpha \beta }\tau ^{\alpha \beta }\tau ^2)\right],`$ (31)
$`\tau _{\mu \nu }^{(s)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\mathrm{}}{3}}\left[T_{ab}q^a{}_{\mu }{}^{}q_{}^{b}{}_{\nu }{}^{}+q_{\mu \nu }(T_{ab}n^an^b{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}T^a{}_{a}{}^{})\right],`$ (32)
$`\tau _{\mu \nu }^{(E)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}}{\kappa _5^2}}{}_{}{}^{(5)}C_{rbrd}^{}q_\mu ^bq_\nu ^d.`$ (33)
Here $`{}_{}{}^{(5)}C_{rbrd}^{}`$ is the 5-dimensional Weyl tensor with its two indices projected in the normal direction. Then we have

$$\tau ^{(\mathrm{tot})\mu \nu }{}_{|\nu }{}^{}=0$$
(34)
with

$$\tau _{\mu \nu }^{(\mathrm{tot})}:=\tau _{\mu \nu }+\tau _{\mu \nu }^{(\pi )}+\tau _{\mu \nu }^{(s)}+\tau _{\mu \nu }^{(E)}.$$
(35)
Here the vertical bar represents covariant differentiation with respect to the 4-dimensional induced metric $`q_{\mu \nu }`$. In a homogeneous universe, the temporal component of the conservation law reduces to

$$\dot{\rho }^{(\mathrm{tot})}+4H\rho ^{(\mathrm{tot})}+H\tau ^{(\mathrm{tot})\mu }{}_{\mu }{}^{}=0,$$
(36)
where $`\rho ^{(\mathrm{tot})}:=u^\mu u^\nu \tau _{\mu \nu }^{(\mathrm{tot})}`$. Similarly, we define the energy density for each component by $`\rho ^{(i)}:=u^\mu u^\nu \tau _{\mu \nu }^{(i)}`$. Then, using the facts that $`\rho ^{(\pi )}=\rho ^2/2\sigma `$, $`\tau ^{(\pi )\mu }{}_{\mu }{}^{}=(\rho /\sigma )(\tau ^\mu {}_{\mu }{}^{}+2\rho )`$ , and $`\tau ^{(s)\mu }{}_{\mu }{}^{}=2\mathrm{}T_{ab}n^an^b`$, we find that the effective energy density of the bulk field $`\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}:=\rho ^{(E)}+\rho ^{(s)}`$ satisfies

$$\dot{\rho }_{\mathrm{eff}}+4H\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}=2\left(1+\frac{\rho }{\sigma }\right)T_{ab}u^an^b2H\mathrm{}T_{ab}n^an^b.$$
(37)
Now let us return to our specific model, in which the bulk energy-momentum tensor is given by

$`T_{ab}=\varphi _{,a}\varphi _{,b}g_{ab}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}g^{cd}\varphi _{,c}\varphi _{,d}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}m^2\varphi ^2\right).`$ (38)
Then we find

$`T_{ab}u^an^b`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_d\mathrm{}}{2}}\dot{\varphi }^2,`$ (39)
$`T_{ab}n^an^b`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\dot{\varphi }^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}m^2\varphi ^2,`$ (40)
where the terms quadratic in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_d\mathrm{}`$ were neglected. If we set the identification

$$\mathrm{\Phi }=\sqrt{\mathrm{}}\varphi ,$$
(41)
from Eqs. (29) and (37), we obtain the formulas for the cosmic expansion valid in the low energy regime (5) as

$`H^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _4^2}{3}}\left(\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}+\rho \right),`$ (42)
$`\dot{\rho }_{\mathrm{eff}}+4H\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ $`=`$ $`H\left(\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}^24V_{\mathrm{eff}}\right)\mathrm{\Gamma }_d\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}^2,`$ (43)
$`\dot{\rho }+4H\rho +H\tau _\mu ^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_d\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}^2,`$ (44)
where $`V_{\mathrm{eff}}(\mathrm{\Phi })=\frac{1}{2}m_{\mathrm{eff}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^2=(\mathrm{}/4)m^2\varphi ^2`$. This set of equations is the same as that satisfied by a 4-dimensional model having a scalar field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ with mass squared $`m_{\mathrm{eff}}^2=m^2/2`$ and decay width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_d/2`$. To conclude, provided that the conditions (5) are satisfied, the effective dynamics of the Einstein-scalar system on the brane is indistinguishable from a 4-dimensional theory even if we consider energy dissipation from the bulk scalar field to the matter fields on the brane.

## IV Summary and Discussion

We have investigated the late-time behavior of a bulk scalar field with dissipation to the matter fields on the brane. We have shown that a bulk scalar field observed on the brane effectively behaves as a 4-dimensional scalar field. Furthermore, we have shown that the set of equations to determine the cosmic expansion is also indistinguishable from that of the corresponding standard 4-dimensional model. This result reinforces the speculation previously presented in Refs. . Alhough we have analyzed perturbatively only the dynamics of a bulk scalar field on a fixed 5-dimensional anti-de Sitter background with a boundary de Sitter brane, our result suggests that 4-dimensional inflaton dynamics including the reheating era is effectively reproduced by the dynamics of a 5-dimensional scalar field. Thus the brane inflation model caused by a bulk scalar field is expected to be a viable alternative scenario of the early universe.

Genuine braneworld effects that can be used to test the scenario are, however, in the deviations from the standard model. Our analysis shows that the corrections are suppressed by a factor $`H^2\mathrm{}^2`$ or $`|m^2|\mathrm{}^2`$. We did not go into detail about this correction in this paper. Here we just mention that we have to consider the dynamics of a bulk scalar field with a general Friedmann-Robertson-Walker(FRW) brane boundary when we discuss corrections of this order, because the expected suppression of the correction due to the variation of the expansion rate is of the same order: $`\dot{H}\mathrm{}^2H^2\mathrm{}^2`$.

Another regime where $`H^2\mathrm{}^21`$ and $`|m^2|\mathrm{}^21`$ in this bulk inflaton model is also interesting. Even in this regime, slow-roll inflation seems to be realized on the brane as long as $`|m^2|/H^21`$ is satisfied , although many unsolved issues remain there.

Last we should mention dissipation in the bulk. When we consider a specific well-motivated model, the bulk inflaton field may naturally have interaction with the other fields in the bulk. Once a model is specified, we would be able to estimate the strength of the coupling. Thus, investigating dissipation in the bulk might give an important constraint on the construction of a realistic model. The formulas developed in this paper might also be useful for this purpose. Investigations in this direction are in progress.

## Acknowledgments

We are grateful to M.Sasaki and J.Yokoyama for useful communications. T.T. would like to thank L. Sorbo and D. Langlois for useful discussions during his stay at IAP. To complete this work, the discussion during the YITP workshop YITP-W-01-15 on “Braneworld - Dynamics of spacetime boundary” was useful. This work was supported in part by the Monbukagakusho Grant-in-Aid No. 14740165(T.T.).


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# References

Neutrinos do not carry a U(1) (electromagnetic) charge and hence do not directly couple to Abelian gauge bosons (photons) – at least not in a commutative setting. In the presence of space-time non-commutativity, it is, however, possible to couple neutral particles to gauge bosons via a star commutator. The relevant covariant derivative is

$$\widehat{D}_\mu \widehat{\psi }=_\mu \widehat{\psi }i\kappa e\widehat{A}_\mu \widehat{\psi }+i\kappa e\widehat{\psi }\widehat{A}_\mu ,$$
(1)
with the $``$–product and a coupling constant $`\kappa e`$ that corresponds to a multiple (or fraction) $`\kappa `$ of the positron charge $`e`$. The $``$–product is associative but, in general, not commutative – otherwise the proposed coupling to the non-commutative photon field $`\widehat{A}_\mu `$ would of course be zero. In (1), one may think of the non-commutative neutrino field $`\widehat{\psi }`$ as having left charge $`+\kappa e`$, right charge $`\kappa e`$ and total charge zero. From the perspective of non-Abelian gauge theory, one could also say that the neutrino field is charged in a non-commutative analogue of the adjoint representation with the matrix multiplication replaced by the $``$–product. From a geometric point of view, photons do not directly couple to the “bare” commutative neutrino fields, but rather modify the non-commutative background. The neutrinos propagate in that background.

Kinematically, a decay of photons into neutrinos is, of course, allowed only for off-shell photons. This is still true in a constant or sufficiently slowly varying non-commutative background: Such a background does not lead to a violation of four-momentum conservation, although it may break other Lorentz symmetries.

Physically, such a coupling of neutral particles to gauge bosons is possible because the non-commutative background is described by an antisymmetric tensor $`\theta ^{\mu \nu }`$ that plays the role of an external field in the theory . The $``$–product in (1) is a (non-local) bilinear expression in the fields and their derivatives that takes the form of a series in $`\theta ^{\mu \nu }`$. To lowest order we obtain

$$\widehat{D}_\mu \widehat{\psi }=_\mu \widehat{\psi }+\kappa e\theta ^{\nu \rho }_\nu \widehat{A}_\mu _\rho \widehat{\psi }.$$

A similar expansion (Seiberg-Witten map) exists for the non-commutative fields $`\widehat{\psi }`$, $`\widehat{A}_\mu `$ in terms of $`\theta ^{\mu \nu }`$, ordinary ‘commutative’ fields $`\psi `$, $`A_\mu `$ and their derivatives. The scale of non-commutativity $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}`$ is fixed by choosing dimensionless matrix elements $`c^{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}^2\theta ^{\mu \nu }`$ of order one. Gauge invariance requires that all $`e`$’s in the action should be multiplied by $`\kappa `$. To the order considered in this letter, $`\kappa `$ can be absorbed in a rescaling of $`\theta `$, i.e. a rescaling of the definition of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}`$.

The coupling (1) is part of an effective model of particle physics involving neutrinos and photons on non-commutative space-time. It describes the scattering of particles that enter from an asymptotically commutative region into a non-commutative interaction region. The model satisfies the following requirements :

1. Non-commutative effects are described perturbatively. The action is written in terms of asymptotic commutative fields.
2. The action is gauge-invariant under U(1)-gauge transformations.
3. It is possible to extend the model to a non-commutative electroweak model based on the gauge group U(1)$`\times `$SU(2). An appropriate non-commutative electroweak model with $`\kappa =1`$ can in fact be constructed with the same tools that were used for the noncommutative standard model of . 111For a model in which only the neutrino has dual left and right charges, $`\kappa =1`$ is required by the gauge invariance of the action.

The action of such an effective model differs from the commutative theory essentially by the presence of star products and Seiberg–Witten (SW) maps. The Seiberg–Witten maps  are necessary to express the non-commutative fields $`\widehat{\psi }`$, $`\widehat{A}_\mu `$ that appear in the action and transform under non-commutative gauge transformations, in terms of their asymptotic commutative counterparts $`\psi `$ and $`A_\mu `$. The coupling of matter fields to Abelian gauge bosons is a non-commutative analogue of the usual minimal coupling scheme.

The action for a neutral fermion that couples to an Abelian gauge boson in a non-commutative background is

$$S=d^4x\left(\overline{\widehat{\psi }}i\gamma ^\mu \widehat{D}_\mu \widehat{\psi }m\overline{\widehat{\psi }}\widehat{\psi }\right).$$
(2)
Here $`\widehat{\psi }_{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{L}}{\mathrm{R}}\right)}=\psi _{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{L}}{\mathrm{R}}\right)}+e\theta ^{\nu \rho }A_\rho _\nu \psi _{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{L}}{\mathrm{R}}\right)}`$ and $`\widehat{A}_\mu =A_\mu +e\theta ^{\rho \nu }A_\nu \left[_\rho A_\mu \frac{1}{2}_\mu A_\rho \right]`$ is the Abelian NC gauge potential expanded by the Seiberg-Witten map. <sup>2</sup><sup>2</sup>2Note that instead of Seiberg–Witten map of Dirac fermions $`\psi `$ one can consider a “chiral” SW map. This SW map is compatible with grand unified models where fermion multiplets are chiral .

To first order in $`\theta `$, the gauge-invariant action reads

$`S={\displaystyle }d^4x\{\overline{\psi }[i\gamma ^\mu _\mu m(1{\displaystyle \frac{e}{2}}\theta ^{\mu \nu }F_{\mu \nu })]\psi `$ (3)
$`+ie\theta ^{\mu \nu }[(_\mu \overline{\psi })A_\nu \gamma ^\rho (_\rho \psi )(_\rho \overline{\psi })A_\nu \gamma ^\rho (_\mu \psi )+\overline{\psi }(_\mu A_\rho )\gamma ^\rho (_\nu \psi )]\}.`$
Integrating by parts, (3) becomes manifestly gauge-invariant and can be conveniently expressed by

$`S`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle d^4x\overline{\psi }\left[\frac{}{}\left(i\gamma ^\mu _\mu m\right)\frac{e}{2}F_{\mu \nu }\left(i\theta ^{\mu \nu \rho }_\rho \theta ^{\mu \nu }m\right)\right]\psi }`$
$``$ $`{\displaystyle }d^4x\overline{\psi }[{\displaystyle \frac{}{}}(i\gamma ^\mu _\mu m)`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{e}{2}}\theta ^{\nu \rho }(i\gamma ^\mu (F_{\nu \rho }_\mu +F_{\mu \nu }_\rho +F_{\rho \mu }_\nu )mF_{\nu \rho })]\psi ,`$
where $`F_{\mu \nu }=_\mu A_\nu _\nu A_\mu `$ and $`\theta ^{\mu \nu \rho }=\theta ^{\mu \nu }\gamma ^\rho +\theta ^{\nu \rho }\gamma ^\mu +\theta ^{\rho \mu }\gamma ^\nu `$.

The above action presents a tree-level interaction of photons and neutrinos on non-commutative space-time.

It is interesting to note that we can write

$`i\overline{\psi }F_{\mu \nu }\theta ^{\mu \nu \rho }_\rho \psi `$ $`=`$ $`F_{\mu \nu }(\theta ^{\mu \nu }T_\rho ^\rho +\theta ^{\nu \rho }T_\rho ^\mu +\theta ^{\rho \mu }T_\rho ^\nu )`$ (5)
$``$ $`\theta ^{\mu \nu }(T_\mu ^\rho F_{\nu \rho }+T_\nu ^\rho F_{\rho \mu }+T_\rho ^\rho F_{\mu \nu })`$
where

$$T^{\mu \nu }=i\overline{\psi }\gamma {}_{}{}^{\mu }_{}^{\nu }\psi $$
(6)
represents the stress–energy tensor of commutative gauge theory for free fermion fields . Hence, for the massless case the Eq. (S0.Ex4) reduces to the coupling between the stress–energy tensor of the neutrino $`T^{\mu \nu }`$ and the symmetric tensor composed from $`\theta `$ and F. This nicely illustrates our assertion that we are seeing the interaction of the neutrino with a modified photon–$`\theta `$ background.

So far we have not discussed how the terms of the action (2) that we have introduced can be embeded into a model of the full non-commutative electroweak sector. We have instead focused on the interaction term that is relevant for the computation of the plasmon decay rate. In particular we have not discussed the form of the gauge kinetic term. Since the choice of model has some bearing on the resulting phenomenology, in particular in the infrared, we shall give a brief overview about the various approaches to non-commutative gauge theory. All have in common that the action resembles Yang-Mills theory, with matrix multiplication replaced by $``$–products.

The most familiar model of non-commutative U(1) is defined in terms of Feynman rules that are directly obtained from the action (in momentum space) without first expanding the $``$–products or fields in terms of $`\theta `$. The resulting phase factors play the role of structure constants in ordinary “commutative” Yang-Mills theory. The result is that the beta function resembles that of a non-abelian gauge theory even though the structure group is abelian . The beta function with matter in the adjoint has been computed in this approach in reference , see also . The beta function is negative and we would expect problems in the infrared if we were to take this theory at face value even at low energies. In particular there could be condensation of neutrino-antineutrino pairs and one could question whever it is really justified to work in the tree level approximation as we do. There is also UV/IR mixing.333This is not necessarily a bad thing: UV/IR mixing effects in non-commutative gauge theory on D-branes can capture information about the closed string spectrum of the parent string theory . We are not working with this model, but even in this model one can avoid infrared problems in several ways: Using reducible representations for the gauge field in the gauge kinetic terms of the action, triple gauge couplings, which are responsible for the negative beta function, can be eliminated. We could also consider a N=4 supersymmetric extension of the model that is softly broken down to N=0 . Finally, infrared problems can be avoided with more sofisticate quantization and renormalization procedures . The model has other problems: It is limited to U(N) gauge groups in the fundamental representation, the fields do not transform covariantly under coordinate transformations  and there are problems with renormalizability .

The approach to non-commutative gauge theory that we use belongs to a class of models that expand the action in $`\theta `$ *before* quantization -. Here we do not have any infrared problems, nor do we have UV/IR mixing and the beta function is not negative. For pure non-commutative Maxwell theory the photon self-energy has been computed to all loop orders in . The beta function is that of ordinary abelian gauge theory. For neutrinos in the $``$-adjoint representation we do not expect any contribution to the beta function up to the second order in $`\theta `$, considering the relevant terms that may enter in the computation of the beta function at that order. The computation of higher order corrections to the beta function in our model is an open project, but the expected result is a theory without infrared problems and in particular without neutrino condensation. An objection to the $`\theta `$-expanded approach is that it may not capture non-perturbative information about the non-commutativity of space-time. This remains to be seen. It does, however, nicely capture new interactions induced by spacetime non-commutativity and it can be applied to realistic gauge groups like U(1)$`\times `$SU(2) in the present case.

The model is meant to provide an effective description of space-time non-commutativity involving the photon–neutrino contact interaction. Therefore, we treat our action as an effective action, disregarding renormalizability in the ordinary sense. This approach is similar to chiral dynamics in pion physics. As we have discussed above, it differes fundamentally from other approaches based on $``$–products that are not $`\theta `$-expanded and do not use the Seiberg-Witten map: We expand the action up to a certain fixed order in $`\theta `$ *before* quantization. The effective theory obtained appears to be anomaly free .

Concerning the physics considered, the picture that we have in mind is that of a space-time that has a continuous ‘commutative’ description at low energies and long distances, but a non-commutative structure at high energies and short distances. There could be some kind of phase-transition involved. At high energies we can model space-time using $``$–products. This description is not valid at low energies. On the technical side this means that by expanding up to a certain order in $`\theta `$ and considering renormalization of this truncated theory up to the same order in $`\theta `$ there will not arrise any infra red problem. This reflects very well our assumption: At low energies and large distances the non-commutative theory has to be modified.

We now apply our model to the decay of plasmons into neutrino - anti-neutrino pairs induced by a hypothetical stellar non-commutative space-time structure. The resulting neutrinos can escape from the star and thereby lead to an energy loss. To obtain the “transverse plasmon” decay rate in stars on the scale of non-commutativity, we start with the action determining the $`\gamma \nu \overline{\nu }`$ interaction. From Eq. (3) we extract, for left or right and possibly massive neutrinos, the following Feynman rule for the gauge invariant $`\gamma (q)\nu (k^{})\overline{\nu }(k)`$ vertex in momentum space:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{L}}{\mathrm{R}}\right)}^\mu (\nu \overline{\nu }\gamma )=ie\frac{1}{2}(1\gamma _5)\left[(q\theta k)\gamma ^\mu +(\overline{)}km_\nu )\stackrel{~}{q}^\mu \overline{)}q\stackrel{~}{k}^\mu \right].$$
(7)
Here we have used the notation $`\stackrel{~}{q}^\mu \theta ^{\mu \nu }q_\nu `$, $`\stackrel{~}{k}^\mu \theta ^{\mu \nu }k_\nu `$. In the case of massless neutrinos, the vertex (7) becomes symmetric:

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{L}}{\mathrm{R}}\right)}^\mu (\nu \overline{\nu }\gamma )=ie{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(1\gamma _5)\theta ^{\mu \nu \rho }k_\nu q_\rho .`$ (8)
In stellar plasma, the dispersion relation of photons is identical with that of a massive particle :

$$q^2\mathrm{E}_\gamma ^2𝐪_\gamma ^2=\omega _{\mathrm{pl}}^2$$
(9)
with $`\omega _{\mathrm{pl}}`$ being the plasma frequency.

From the gauge-invariant amplitude $`_{\gamma \nu \overline{\nu }}`$ in momentum space for the plasmon (off-shell photon) decay to the left and/or right massive neutrinos in our model, we have 444Note that this result is independent on different choices of the Seiberg–Witten map for righthanded Dirac fermions, see footenote 2.

$`{\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{pol}.}{}}|_{\gamma \nu \overline{\nu }}|^2=4e^2\left[\left(q^22m_\nu ^2\right)\left(m_\nu ^2\stackrel{~}{q}^2(q\theta k)^2\right)+m_\nu ^2q^2(\stackrel{~}{k}^2\stackrel{~}{k}\stackrel{~}{q})\right].`$
Phase-space integration of this expression then gives

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\gamma _{\mathrm{pl}}\overline{\nu }_{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{L}}{\mathrm{R}}\right)}\nu _{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{L}}{\mathrm{R}}\right)})={\displaystyle \frac{\alpha }{48}}{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _{\mathrm{pl}}^6}{\mathrm{E}_\gamma \mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}^4}}\sqrt{14{\displaystyle \frac{m_\nu ^2}{\omega _{\mathrm{pl}}^2}}}`$ (10)
$`\times \left[\left(1+2{\displaystyle \frac{m_\nu ^2}{\omega _{\mathrm{pl}}^2}}12{\displaystyle \frac{m_\nu ^4}{\omega _{\mathrm{pl}}^4}}\right){\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}}(c^{0i})^2+2{\displaystyle \frac{m_\nu ^2}{\omega _{\mathrm{pl}}^2}}\left(14{\displaystyle \frac{m_\nu ^2}{\omega _{\mathrm{pl}}^2}}\right){\displaystyle \underset{\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{i,j=1}{i<j}}{\overset{3}{}}}(c^{ij})^2\right].`$
In the above formula we have parametrized the $`c_{0i}`$’s by introducing the angles characterizing the background $`\theta ^{\mu \nu }`$ field of the theory :

$`c_{01}=\mathrm{cos}\xi ,c_{02}=\mathrm{sin}\xi \mathrm{cos}\zeta ,c_{03}=\mathrm{sin}\xi \mathrm{sin}\zeta ,`$
where $`\xi `$ is the angle between the $`\stackrel{}{E}_\theta `$ field and the direction of the incident beam, i.e. the photon axes. The angle $`\zeta `$ defines the origin of the $`\varphi `$ axis. The $`c_{0i}`$’s are not independent; in pulling out the overall scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}`$, we can always impose the constraint $`\stackrel{}{E}_\theta ^2_{i=1}^3(c^{0i})^2=1`$. Here we consider three physical cases: $`\xi =0,\pi /4,\pi /2`$, which for $`\zeta =\pi /2`$ satisfy the imposed constraint. This parametrization provides a good physical interpretation of the NC effects .

In the rest frame of the medium, the decay rate of a “transverse plasmon”, of energy $`\mathrm{E}_\gamma `$ for the left–left and/or right–right massless neutrinos and for the constraint $`\stackrel{}{E}_\theta ^2=1`$, is given by

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{NC}}(\gamma _{\mathrm{pl}}\nu _{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{L}}{\mathrm{R}}\right)}\overline{\nu }_{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{L}}{\mathrm{R}}\right)})=\frac{\alpha }{48}\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}^4}\frac{\omega _{\mathrm{pl}}^6}{\mathrm{E}_\gamma }.$$
(11)
The Standard Model (SM) photon–neutrino interaction at tree level does not exist. However, the effective photon–neutrino–neutrino vertex $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{eff}}^\mu (\gamma \nu \overline{\nu })`$ is generated through 1-loop diagrams, which are very well known in heavy-quark physics as “penguin diagrams”. Such effective interactions give non-zero charge radius, as well as the contribution to the “transverse plasmon” decay rate . For details, see Ref. . Finally, note that the dipole moment operator $`em_\nu G_\mathrm{F}\overline{\psi }\sigma _{\mu \nu }\psi F^{\mu \nu }`$, also generated by the “neutrino-penguin diagram”, gives very small contributions because of the smallness of the neutrino mass, i.e. $`m_\nu <1`$ eV .

The corresponding SM neutrino-penguin-loop result for the “transverse plasmon” decay rate is :

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{SM}}\left(\gamma _{\mathrm{pl}}\nu _\mathrm{L}\overline{\nu }_\mathrm{L}\right)=\frac{\mathrm{c}_\mathrm{v}^2G_\mathrm{F}^2}{48\pi ^2\alpha }\frac{\omega _{\mathrm{pl}}^6}{\mathrm{E}_\gamma }.$$
(12)
For $`\nu _e`$, we have $`\mathrm{c}_\mathrm{v}=\frac{1}{2}+2\mathrm{sin}^2\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{W}`$, while for $`\nu _\mu `$ and $`\nu _\tau `$ we have $`\mathrm{c}_\mathrm{v}=\frac{1}{2}+2\mathrm{sin}^2\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{W}`$. Comparing the rate of the decays into all three neutrino families, we thus need to include a factor of 3 for the NC result, while $`\mathrm{c}_\mathrm{v}^2=0.79`$ for the SM result . From the ratio of the rates

$$\mathrm{}\frac{_{\mathrm{flavours}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{NC}}\left(\gamma _{\mathrm{pl}}\nu _\mathrm{L}\overline{\nu }_\mathrm{L}+\nu _\mathrm{R}\overline{\nu }_\mathrm{R}\right)}{_{\mathrm{flavours}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{SM}}(\gamma _{\mathrm{pl}}\nu _\mathrm{L}\overline{\nu }_\mathrm{L})}=\frac{6\pi ^2\alpha ^2}{\mathrm{c}_\mathrm{v}^2G_\mathrm{F}^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}^4},$$
(13)
we obtain

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}=\frac{80.8}{\mathrm{}^{1/4}}(\mathrm{GeV}).$$
(14)
A standard argument involving globular cluster stars tells us that any new energy loss mechanism must not excessively exceed the standard neutrino losses; see section 3.1 in Ref. . Expressed in another way, we should approximately require $`\mathrm{}<1`$, translating into

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}>\left(\frac{6\pi ^2\alpha ^2}{\mathrm{c}_\mathrm{v}^2G_\mathrm{F}^2}\right)^{1/4}81\mathrm{GeV}.$$
(15)
If sterile neutrinos ($`\nu _\mathrm{R}`$) do not exist, the scale of non-commutativity is approximately $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}>68\mathrm{GeV}`$.

The advantage of our approach to the anomalous $`\gamma \nu \overline{\nu }`$ interaction, via non-commutative Abelian gauge field theory, lies in the fact that, contrary to the SM approach, photons are also coupled to the sterile neutrinos in the same, U(1)-gauge-invariant, way as the left-handed ones. The electromagnetic gauge invariance of the $`\gamma \nu \overline{\nu }`$ amplitude comes automatically, since the starting action is manifestly U(1)-gauge-invariant. The interaction (3) produces extra contributions relative to the SM in the non-commutative background.

The non-commutativity scale depends on the requirement $`\mathrm{}<1`$ and from this aspect, the constraint $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}>80\mathrm{GeV}`$, obtained from the energy loss in globular stellar clusters, represents the lower bound on the scale of non-commutative gauge field theories. 555 Note that, for example, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}>144`$ GeV for $`\mathrm{}<1/10`$. It also depends on the strength of the non-commutative coupling constant $`\kappa `$ which we have taken to be $`\kappa =1`$.

Compared with other bounds, see , the bound that we have obtained is relatively low. However, it is based on a completely new interaction channel and a completely different “laboratory” than other constraints and as such appears worth communicating.

We would like to thank L. Alvarez-Gaume, A. Armoni, P. Aschieri, P. Minkowski, K. Passek-Kumerički, Leo Stodolsky and R. Wulkenhaar for stimulating and helpful discussions.

The work of J.T. is supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Croatia under Contract No. 0098002. G.R. acknowledges partial support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft under grant No. SFB 375.