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# Color superconducting quark matter core in the third family of compact stars

## I Introduction

The theoretical investigation of mass-radius relationship of compact stars is important because those could be directly compared with measured masses and radii from various observations. Consequently, the composition and equation of state (EoS) of dense matter in neutron star interior might be probed. Recently, a lot of interest has been generated about an isolated neutron star (INS) known as RX J185635-3754 . Several interesting features of this INS have emerged from various observations by Chandra X-ray observatory and Hubble Space Telescope (HST). It is one of the closest isolated neutron stars to our Sun. It provides a great opportunity to measure its radius and put important constraints on the EoS of dense matter in its core because of its relative brightness, isolated nature and above all a thermal spectrum from X-ray to optical wave lengths. Already, one group who has analysed the Chandra data using a featureless blackbody spectrum, has claimed its radius is $`8`$ km or less . This implies a very soft EoS including exotic forms of matter. And their prediction is the compact star might be a quark star . Alternatively, the Chandra data have been interpreted using a neutron star model where the gaseous outer layers of the neutron star turn into a solid due to a phase transition and this model gives an apparent radius $`1012`$ km . On the other hand, the analysis of HST data on that compact star indicated a radius R=$`11.4\pm 2`$ km and a mass M=$`1.7\pm 0.4M_{solar}`$ which may be explained by many EoS including hyperons and antikaon condensate . Recently three strong spectral lines in the spectra of 28 bursts of low mass X-ray binary EXO0748-676 have been observed by X-ray Multi Mirror-Newton Observatory. The estimated gravitational red shift from those lines is $`z=0.35`$ . This provides us with many important informations about the structure of compact star because the gravitational redshift depends on the mass-radius ratio of a compact star.

The composition and structure of compact stars depend on the nature of strong interaction. Neutron star matter encompasses a wide range of densities- the density of iron nucleus at the surface to several times normal nuclear matter density in the core. Different phases of exotic matter with large strangeness fraction such as hyperon matter , Bose-Einstein condensates of strange mesons  and quark matter  may occur in neutron star interior. It was extensively investigated how the appearance of various forms of exotic matter influences the EoS and mass-radius relationship of compact stars. It is now well understood that each exotic component of dense matter makes the EoS soft. It was found in theoretical investigations  that a soft EoS generally gave rise to a compact star with smaller maximum mass and radius than those of a stiffer EoS.

A transition from hadronic matter to deconfined strange quark matter is a possibility in neutron star interior. In earlier investigations, the quark phase was described by the MIT bag model  in the hadron-quark phase transition. The recent development in dense matter physics points to the fact that the quark matter may be a color superconductor . In this case, quarks near their Fermi surfaces form Cooper pairs because quark-quark interaction is attractive in the antisymmetric color channel. The formation of diquark condensates breaks the color gauge symmetry. It was shown that at very high density quarks with all three flavors and all three colors might pair up so as to produce an energetically favored state called the color-flavor-locked (CFL) phase. The color neutrality constraint is to be imposed in the CFL quark matter because a macroscopic chunk of quark matter must be color singlet . Consequently, the CFL quark matter is charge neutral. Color and charge neutrality in the CFL quark matter require a non-zero value for the color chemical potential and electron chemical potential $`\mu _e=0`$ respectively . As the CFL condensate breaks chiral symmetry, the lightest degrees of freedom in this phase are Nambu-Goldstone bosons . It was shown by various groups how the symmetric CFL phase behaves under stresses such as non-zero strange quark mass and electron chemical potential . The CFL phase could relax under those stresses forming meson condensation. One such possibility is $`K^0`$ condensation in the charge neutral CFL quark matter .

Recently, nuclear-CFL quark matter phase transition  and its impact on the structure of compact stars have been studied . Also, the structure of compact stars including pure CFL quark matter has been studied by others . Along with CFL quark matter, hyperons and $`K^{}`$ condensate could exist in compact star interior. Many interesting things may happen if one form of exotic matter sets in before the other. The early appearance of hyperons was found to delay the hadron-unpaired quark matter phase transition or vice-versa . Similar effects of hyperons on the threshold of $`K^{}`$ condensation in hadronic matter was observed by various groups . Now the question is what could happen to nuclear-CFL quark matter phase transition if hyperons and $`K^{}`$ condensate appear in compact star matter. So far no calculation of compact stars involving color superconducting quark matter, hyperons and $`K^{}`$ condensate has been performed. In this paper, we investigate how the formation of hyperons and antikaon condensate in the hadronic matter influences the phase transition from hadronic matter to the CFL quark matter including $`K^0`$ condensate and the structure of compact stars. The paper is organised in the following way. In Sec. II, we describe the DDRH model for hadronic phase and also the CFL quark matter. Results of our calculation are explained in Sec. III. And Sec. IV provides a summary and conclusions.

## II Formalism

Here, we discuss a phase transition from hadronic matter to the CFL quark matter in compact stars. The $`\beta `$-equilibrated and charge neutral bulk hadronic phase is described within the framework of a Density Dependent Relativistic Hadron (DDRH) model . In the DDRH model, many body correlations are taken into account by density dependent meson-baryon couplings. The hadronic phase is composed of all species of the baryon octet, (anti)kaons, electrons and muons. Therefore, the total Lagrangian density in the hadronic phase is written as $`=_B+_K+_l`$. In the DDRH model, baryon-baryon interaction is given by the Lagrangian density ($`_B`$) ,

$`_B`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{B}{}}\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}_B\left(i\gamma _\mu ^\mu m_B+g_{\sigma B}\sigma g_{\omega B}\gamma _\mu \omega ^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}g_{\rho B}\gamma _\mu 𝝉_B𝝆^\mu +{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}g_{\delta B}𝝉_B𝜹\right)\mathrm{\Psi }_B`$ (3)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(_\mu \sigma ^\mu \sigma m_\sigma ^2\sigma ^2\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(_\mu \delta ^\mu \delta m_\delta ^2\delta ^2\right){\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\omega _{\mu \nu }\omega ^{\mu \nu }`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}m_\omega ^2\omega _\mu \omega ^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}𝝆_{\mu \nu }𝝆^{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}m_\rho ^2𝝆_\mu 𝝆^\mu .`$
The Lagrangian density for (anti)kaon condensation in the minimal coupling scheme  is

$$_K=D_\mu ^{}\overline{K}D^\mu Km_K^2\overline{K}K,$$
(4)
where the covariant derivative $`D_\mu =_\mu +ig_{\omega K}\omega _\mu +ig_{\rho K}𝝉_K𝝆_\mu /2`$ and the effective mass of (anti)kaons $`m_K^{}=m_Kg_{\sigma K}\sigma +\frac{1}{2}g_{\delta K}\delta `$. Unlike meson-baryon couplings, meson-(anti)kaon couplings are density-independent here. The threshold condition of $`K^{}`$ condensation is $`\omega _K^{}=\mu _e`$, where $`\omega _K^{}`$ is the in-medium energy of $`K^{}`$ mesons for s-wave condensation .

The Lagrangian density for leptons is

$`_l`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{l}{}}\overline{\psi }_l\left(i\gamma _\mu ^\mu m_l\right)\psi _l,`$ (5)
where $`\psi _l`$ ($`le,\mu `$) is lepton spinor.

The charge neutrality condition in the bulk hadronic phase is

$$Q^h=\underset{b}{}q_bn_b^hn_K^{}n_en_\mu =0,$$
(6)
where $`q_b`$ and $`n_b^h`$ are electric charge and the number density of baryon b in the pure hadronic phase, respectively and $`n_K^{}`$, $`n_e`$ and $`n_\mu `$ are number densities of $`K^{}`$, electrons and muons respectively. The energy density ($`\epsilon ^h`$) and the pressure ($`P^h`$) in the hadronic phase are given by Ref..

The pure CFL quark matter is composed of paired quarks of all flavors and colors and neutral kaons which are Goldstone bosons arising due to the breaking of chiral symmetry in the CFL phase. The thermodynamic potential for electric and color charge neutral CFL quark matter to order $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2`$ is given by

$`\mathrm{\Omega }_{CFL}^q={\displaystyle \frac{6}{\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _0^\nu }p^2(p\mu )𝑑p+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _0^\nu }p^2(\sqrt{p^2+m_s^2}\mu )𝑑p{\displaystyle \frac{3\mathrm{\Delta }^2\mu ^2}{\pi ^2}}+B,`$ (7)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the color superconducting gap and B is the bag contribution. The first two terms of Eq. (7) give the thermodynamic potential of (fictional) unpaired quark matter in which all quarks that are going to pair have a common Fermi momentum $`\nu `$ which minimizes the thermodynamic potential of the fictional unpaired quark matter . The third term is the contribution of the CFL condensate to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{CFL}^q`$. The common Fermi momentum is

$`\nu =2\mu \sqrt{\mu ^2+{\displaystyle \frac{m_s^2}{3}}},`$ (8)
where $`\mu `$ is the average quark chemical potential and $`m_s`$ is the strange quark mass. Studying the pairing ansatz in the CFL phase, it was shown by various authors  that

$`n_u=n_r,n_d=n_g\text{and}n_s=n_b,`$ (9)
where $`n_r`$, $`n_g`$, $`n_b`$ and $`n_u`$, $`n_d`$, $`n_s`$ are color and flavor number densities respectively. It follows from the above relation that color neutrality automatically enforces electric charge neutrality in the CFL phase. The quark number densities are $`n_u=n_d=n_s=(\nu ^3+2\mathrm{\Delta }^2\mu )/\pi ^2`$. As the color neutral CFL quark matter is electric charge neutral, the corresponding electric charge chemical potential is $`\mu _e=0`$. Similarly, the color chemical potential corresponding to color charge $`T_3`$ is $`\mu _3=0`$. However, the color chemical potential for color charge $`T_8`$ is $`\mu _80`$ to maintain color charge neutrality in the CFL phase .

The thermodynamic potential ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_{CFL}^{K^0}`$) due to $`K^0`$ condensate is given by Ref.. The pressure in the CFL phase including $`K^0`$ condensate is given by $`P^q=\mathrm{\Omega }_{CFL}^q\mathrm{\Omega }_{CFL}^{K^0}`$. The energy density ($`ϵ^q`$) in the CFL phase is obtained from the Gibbs-Duhem relation .

We now describe the mixed phase of the above mentioned two phases because the phase transition from hadronic to the CFL quark matter is a first order phase transition. Earlier the mixed phase of hadronic and unpaired quark matter was studied by various authors . In that case, baryon number and electric charge were two conserved charges in individual bulk phase. Glendenning argued conserved charges may be shared by two phases in equilibrium in the coexistence phase and the mixed phase is to be determined by Gibbs conditions along with global baryon and electric charge conservation laws . It was found that the net positive charge of the hadronic phase was neutralised by the net negative charge of the unpaired quark matter in the mixed phase. Unlike unpaired quark matter, electric charge is not present in the CFL quark matter. And baryon and color charge are conserved quantities in the CFL phase. Recently, the mixed phase of nuclear and CFL quark matter including Goldstone bosons $`\pi ^{}`$ or $`K^{}`$ was constructed using Glendenning’s prescription . It was shown there that $`K^{}`$ or $`\pi ^{}`$ condensate was formed at the cost of electrons of the hadronic phase and made the CFL phase negatively charged in the mixed phase. As color charge in the bulk hadronic phase and electric charge in the bulk CFL phase can not be present, we relax the global conservation laws of Glendenning  and consider only local electric charge neutrality in the hadronic phase and local color charge neutrality in the CFL phase. Here the mixed phase is determined by Gibbs phase rules and the global conservation law for baryon number. The Gibbs conditions read

$`P^h`$ $`=`$ $`P^q,`$ (10)
$`\mu _n`$ $`=`$ $`3\mu ,`$ (11)
where $`\mu _n`$ and $`\mu `$ are neutron and quark chemical potential. The global baryon number conservation law is imposed through the relation

$$n_b=(1\chi )n_b^h+\chi n_b^q,$$
(12)
where $`\chi `$ is the volume fraction of the CFL phase in the mixed phase and $`n_b^h`$ and $`n_b^q`$ are baryon densities in the hadronic and CFL phase respectively. The total energy density in the mixed phase is

$$ϵ=(1\chi )ϵ^h+\chi ϵ^q.$$
(13)
## III Results and Discussions

In the DDRH model, the dependence of meson-nucleon vertices on total baryon density is obtained from microscopic Dirac-Brueckner calculations of symmetric and asymmetric matter using Groningen nucleon-nucleon potential . We adopt a suitable parameterisation for density dependent couplings as was given by Ref. . The density dependent meson-nucleon couplings at saturation density are listed in Table I of Ref. . The saturation properties calculated using these couplings are binding energy E/A=-15.6 MeV, saturation density $`n_0=0.18\mathrm{f}\mathrm{m}^3`$, symmetry energy coefficient $`a_{sym}=26.1`$ MeV and incompressibility K = 282 MeV .

The density dependence of meson-hyperon vertices are obtained from density dependent meson-nucleon couplings using hypernuclear data  and scaling law . The ratio of meson-hyperon coupling to meson-nucleon coupling for Groningen potential is given by Table II of Ref. . Similarly, we employ the density independent meson-(anti)kaon couplings of Ref. in our calculation.

Now we report results of our calculation. We have performed calculations for compact star matter allowing first order phase transition from i) nuclear to CFL quark matter (np$``$ CFL+$`K^0`$), ii) nuclear+$`K^{}`$condensate to CFL quark matter (np$`K^{}`$$``$ CFL+$`K^0`$), iii) hyperonic matter to CFL quark matter (np$`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Xi }`$$``$ CFL+$`K^0`$), and iv) hadronic matter including hyperons and $`K^{}`$ condensate to CFL quark matter (np$`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Xi }`$$`K^{}`$$``$ CFL+$`K^0`$). In this calculation, we have neglected the density dependence of strange quark mass ($`m_s`$), color superconducting gap ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$) and bag constant ($`B^{1/4}`$).

First we discuss np$``$ CFL+$`K^0`$ (denoted hereafter by NQ) matter phase transition for different values of gap and strange quark mass whereas the bag constant is fixed at $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV. We also show the results of nuclear to unpaired ($`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$) quark matter phase transition. Nuclear matter is composed of neutrons, protons, electrons and muons whereas the CFL phase contains paired quarks and $`K^0`$ condensate. For nuclear to unpaired quark matter phase transition, we have imposed both global baryon and electric charge conservation in the mixed phase. On the other hand, we have global baryon number conservation and local color and electric charge neutrality in the mixed phase of nuclear-CFL phase transition. The lower and upper boundary of the mixed phase for $`\mathrm{\Delta }=`$ 0, 57 and 100 MeV and $`m_s=`$ 150 and 200 MeV and $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV are recorded in Table I. The onset of phase transition is at $`u_l=n_l/n_0`$ and the pure CFL phase begins at $`u_u=n_u/n_0`$. Here we note that the phase transition to quark matter is delayed to higher densities for a larger value of $`m_s`$. On the other hand, the phase transition occurs earlier for case $`\mathrm{\Delta }=100`$ MeV than that of case $`\mathrm{\Delta }=`$ 0 and 57 MeV irrespective of strange quark mass. We also note that the extent of the mixed phase involving unpaired quark matter is the largest among all the cases studied here. The average quark chemical potential at the onset of the phase transition is shown in Table I. We find that the CFL phase is energetically favoured over unpaired quark matter because $`\mathrm{\Delta }>m_s^2/4\mu `$ is satisfied .

Pressure versus energy density and gravitational mass against central energy density for compact stars with NQ matter and different values of gap ($`\mathrm{\Delta }=0,57`$ and $`100`$ MeV), $`m_s`$ = 150 and 200 MeV and $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV are exhibited in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 respectively. The static structures of spherically symmetric neutron stars calculated using Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff (TOV) equations and the equations of state of Fig. 1, are presented in Fig. 2. We adopt Negele and Vautherin  and Baym-Pethick-Sutherland  equations of state to describe nuclear matter at very low density. The maximum neutron star masses ($`M/M_{solar}`$) and their corresponding central densities ($`u_{cent}=n_{cent}/n_0`$) are listed in Table I. For unpaired quark matter and paired quark matter with $`\mathrm{\Delta }=57`$ MeV, the overall EoS with $`m_s=200`$ MeV is stiffer than that of $`m_s=150`$ MeV. Consequently, the compact star in the former case has a larger maximum mass than that of the latter case. The effect of $`m_s`$ is pronounced for unpaired quark matter. However, for $`\mathrm{\Delta }=100`$ MeV and different values of $`m_s`$ there is no significant change in the EoS and maximum star masses. Again, we find the maximum masses for $`\mathrm{\Delta }=57`$ MeV are reduced compared with those for $`\mathrm{\Delta }=100`$ MeV because the EoS in the latter case is stiffer. From Table I, it is observed that compact stars have pure CFL quark matter core for $`\mathrm{\Delta }=100`$ MeV whereas compact stars, in other cases, contain a mixed phase core of nuclear and unpaired or CFL quark matter. We note that $`K^0`$ condensate in the CFL phase does not contribute significantly in the energy density and pressure. Recently, Alford and Reddy  also investigated the influence of $`m_s`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ on the EoS and structure of compact stars in nuclear-CFL quark matter phase transition using different models for the hadronic phase. Our results for stars including NQ matter are in qualitative agreement with their findings. In our calculation, we do not consider the variation of bag constant on nuclear-CFL quark matter phase transition. But we expect similar qualitative feature as it was observed for the phase transition involving unpaired quark matter. It is worth mentioning here that a larger value of bag constant makes the EoS of unpaired quark matter soft delaying the phase transition to higher density .

In earlier investigations, it was shown that exotic components of matter such as hyperons , Bose-Einstein condensate of $`K^{}`$ mesons  and quarks  could appear in $`\beta `$-equilibrated and electric charge neutral matter around (2-4)$`n_0`$. It was also studied how hyperons delayed the onset of antikaon condensation  and the phase transition to unpaired quark matter  to higher density. With the appearance of each exotic phase in dense matter, the EoS becomes softer. Here we perform calculation involving hyperons, antikaon condensate and quarks and examine how exotic phases of matter compete with each other in compact star interior. Also, we explore whether there is any window in the parameter space for which all three exotic components of matter may coexist in the core of compact stars and its implication on their structures.

In Table II, we show the mixed phase boundaries for compact star matter that undergoes first order phase transition from np$`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Xi }`$$``$ CFL+$`K^0`$ (denoted by NHQ), np$`K^{}`$$``$ CFL+$`K^0`$ (N$`\overline{K}`$Q) and np$`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Xi }`$$`K^{}`$$``$ CFL+$`K^0`$ (NH$`\overline{K}`$Q). These results are obtained for strange quark mass $`m_s=150`$ MeV. The early appearance of hyperons in NHQ star matter at 1.99$`n_0`$ gives rise to a softer EoS delaying the phase transition to CFL quark matter to higher densities for all values of bag constants and gap as are shown in Table II. On the other hand, for N$`\overline{K}`$Q matter with $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV and antikaon optical potential depth $`U_{\overline{K}}=180`$ MeV, the onset of $`K^{}`$ condensation produces a softer EoS postponing the CFL phase with $`\mathrm{\Delta }=30`$ MeV to higher density and the reverse happens for the CFL phase with $`\mathrm{\Delta }=57`$ MeV. In the calculation of NH$`\overline{K}`$Q matter using $`B^{1/4}=180(185)`$ MeV, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=30(57)`$ MeV and $`U_{\overline{K}}=180(160)`$ MeV, hyperons and $`K^{}`$ condensate appear before the phase transition to the CFL phase. In the other case with $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=57`$ MeV and $`U_{\overline{K}}=180`$ MeV, $`K^{}`$ condensate appear in the mixed phase. We also perform calculation for NHQ, N$`\overline{K}`$Q and NH$`\overline{K}`$Q matter using parameters $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=100`$ MeV $`m_s=150`$ MeV and $`U_{\overline{K}}=180`$ MeV. For all cases, we note that the early onset of CFL phase at 1.43$`n_0`$ forbids hyperons and/or $`K^{}`$ condensate to appear in compact star matter. In the following two paragraphs, we discuss the compositions of compact star matter and how exotic phases of dense matter compete with each other.

The composition of $`\beta `$-equilibrated NHQ matter relevant to compact stars is displayed in Fig. 3. The hadronic phase is composed of n, p, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ and leptons. On the other hand, we have included the contribution of Goldstone boson $`K^0`$ in the CFL phase. Here, we take bag constant $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV, $`m_s=150`$ MeV and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ = $`57`$ MeV to describe the CFL quark matter. The charge neutrality in the hadronic phase is maintained by protons, electrons and muons. We observe that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ hyperons appear at $`1.99n_0`$, where $`n_0=0.18`$ $`\mathrm{f}\mathrm{m}^3`$. The phase transition from hadronic to CFL quark matter sets in at $`2.27n_0`$. The mixed phase is over at $`3.97n_0`$. It is noted here that negatively charged $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ hyperons appear just before the onset of mixed phase at $`2.26n_0`$. With the appearance of $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ hyperons, the density of electrons drops fast. Also, neutral $`K^0`$ condensation appears with the onset of CFL phase and it rises rapidly.

Along with hyperons, we also investigate the role of $`K^{}`$ condensation in the hadronic phase on the composition of NH$`\overline{K}`$Q star matter. In a recent calculation using DDRH model, it has been shown that $`K^{}`$ condensation in hadronic matter is a second order phase transition . In Fig. 4 we exhibit the particle abundances in $`\beta `$-equilibrated NH$`\overline{K}`$Q matter. The antikaon optical potential used for this calculation is $`U_{\overline{K}}\left(n_0\right)=180`$ MeV and bag constant, strange quark mass and gap are 180, 150 and 57 MeV respectively. Here we find that the mixed phase begins at the same density point i.e. $`2.27n_0`$ as it is noted in Fig. 3. Before the onset of $`K^{}`$ condensate, the charge neutrality is maintained by protons and leptons. The condensation of $`K^{}`$ mesons occurs in the mixed phase at $`2.68n_0`$. As soon as $`K^{}`$ condensate appears, it rapidly replaces electrons and muons and grows fast. Consequently, proton density increases. Also, we observe that negatively charged $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ hyperon disappears almost as soon as it appears. There is no influence of $`K^{}`$ condensate on the extent of the mixed phase because $`K^{}`$ condensate appears in the mixed phase.

Equations of state (pressure versus energy density) for $`\beta `$-equilibrated and charge neutral NQ and NHQ compact star matter are plotted in Fig. 5. The curves correspond to calculations for $`m_s`$ = 150 MeV and different values of bag constant and gap. The dashed line stands for the EoS of NQ matter whereas the other lines represent those of NHQ matter for different parameter sets. For $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV and $`\mathrm{\Delta }=57`$ MeV, the EoS for NHQ matter is slightly softer compared with the corresponding EoS for NQ matter. As the bag constant is increased keeping the gap fixed, we find the corresponding equations of state become stiffer. The stiffest EoS among all cases considered here corresponds to the EoS for NHQ matter with $`\mathrm{\Delta }=30`$ MeV.

The maximum neutron star masses ($`M_{max}/M_{solar}`$) and their central densities ($`u_{cent}=n_{cent}/n_0`$) calculated with the above mentioned equations of state including NQ and NHQ matter are listed in Table I and Table II. The static neutron star sequences representing the stellar masses $`M/M_{solar}`$ and the corresponding central energy densities ($`\epsilon _c`$) for different values of bag constant and gap are shown in Fig. 6. The closed circle on each curve denotes the maximum mass star. For $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV and $`\mathrm{\Delta }=57`$ MeV, the maximum mass of NQ star is $`1.500M_{solar}`$ corresponding to central energy density 717.46 $`\mathrm{M}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}/\mathrm{f}\mathrm{m}^3`$, whereas that of NHQ star is $`1.477M_{solar}`$ corresponding to $`\epsilon _c=`$ 717.47 $`\mathrm{M}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}/\mathrm{f}\mathrm{m}^3`$. The maximum mass of the star including hyperons is smaller than that of the star with NQ matter because the EoS is softer in former case. The maximum masses of compact stars increase as we increase the bag constant or decrease the gap. This is evident from Fig. 6 and Table II. We also note from Table II that the central densities corresponding to maximum masses of neutron stars including NHQ matter fall in the mixed phase. Consequently the maximum mass neutron stars contain a hyperon-CFL quark mixed phase core. For each of the bottom three curves in Fig. 6, we find an unstable region followed by a stable sequence of superdense stars beyond the neutron star branch. The stable branch of superdense stars beyond the neutron star branch is called the third family branch . It was earlier shown by various authors that the compact stars in the third family branch had different compositions and smaller radii than those of the neutron star branch. In this calculation, the superdense stars in the third family branch may contain a pure CFL quark matter core because those stars appear after the mixed phase is over.

We also calculate the EoS and structure of compact stars in the phase transition from hadronic matter including both hyperons and $`K^{}`$ condensate to CFL quark matter. Equations of state and compact star mass sequences calculated with N$`\overline{K}`$Q and NH$`\overline{K}`$Q matter are plotted in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 respectively for various parameter sets. The maximum neutron star masses with their central densities are given by Table II. The dashed line corresponds to N$`\overline{K}`$Q matter whereas the other curves represent NH$`\overline{K}`$Q matter in both the figures. In Fig. 8 we find that the static neutron star sequence for NH$`\overline{K}`$Q matter with $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=57`$ MeV, $`m_s=150`$ MeV and $`U_{\overline{K}}(n_0)=180`$ MeV has a lower maximum mass $`1.464M_{solar}`$ corresponding to central energy density $`\epsilon _c=`$690.19 $`\mathrm{M}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}/\mathrm{f}\mathrm{m}^3`$ than the corresponding N$`\overline{K}`$Q star of $`1.503M_{solar}`$ corresponding to central energy density $`\epsilon _c=`$689.59 $`\mathrm{M}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}/\mathrm{f}\mathrm{m}^3`$. This may be attributed to the fact that the EoS in the former case is softer than that of the latter case as it is evident from Fig. 7. Here it is interesting to note that the maximum mass neutron star including NH$`\overline{K}`$Q matter has a mixed phase core where hyperons, antikaon condensate and CFL quarks coexist. Similar situation occurs in NH$`\overline{K}`$Q star for $`\mathrm{\Delta }=`$ 30 MeV. From Fig. 8, we find third family solutions beyond neutron star branches in two cases. Here superdense stars in the third family also contain a pure CFL quark matter core. For the other case studied with $`B^{1/4}=185`$ MeV, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=57`$ MeV, $`m_s=150`$ MeV and $`U_{\overline{K}}(n_0)=160`$ MeV, we obtain a stiffer EoS resulting in a larger maximum mass star $`1.582M_{solar}`$ corresponding to central energy density $`\epsilon _c=`$803.32 $`\mathrm{M}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}/\mathrm{f}\mathrm{m}^3`$.

We have also performed calculation for stars with NH$`\overline{K}`$Q matter using a larger strange quark mass $`m_s=200`$ MeV, $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV, $`U_{\overline{K}}=180`$ MeV and different values of gap. For $`\mathrm{\Delta }=30`$ and 57 MeV, the phase transition does not begin even at density as high as 5.2$`n_0`$ due to the softer EoS resulting from the early appearance of hyperons and $`K^{}`$ condensate. And the CFL phase does not occur in the corresponding maximum mass neutron star of 1.497 $`M_{solar}`$ at central density 5.16$`n_0`$. On the other hand, the CFL phase becomes stiffer in the calculation with $`\mathrm{\Delta }=100`$ MeV and the phase transition occurs at low density 1.76$`n_0`$. Consequently, hyperons and $`K^{}`$ do not appear in the corresponding maximum mass star of 1.639 $`M_{solar}`$ at central density 8.81$`n_0`$.

The mass-radius relationship of compact stars with NQ, NHQ, N$`\overline{K}`$Q and NH$`\overline{K}`$Q matter for $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=57`$ MeV, $`m_s=150`$ MeV and $`U_{\overline{K}}(n_0)=180`$ MeV are shown in Fig. 9. The filled circles, squares and triangles correspond to maximum masses on the neutron star and third family branch. The maximum masses and radii of NQ stars (dotted line) in the neutron star (third family) branch are $`1.500(1.506)M_{solar}`$ and $`12.37(10.15)`$ km respectively. The presence of $`K^{}`$ condensate in N$`\overline{K}`$Q stars does not change maximum masses as it is evident from Table II. The maximum masses and their corresponding radii for NH$`\overline{K}`$Q stars (solid line) in the neutron star (third family) branch are 1.464(1.492)$`M_{solar}`$ and 12.34(9.97) km whereas those for NHQ stars (dashed line) are 1.477(1.498)$`M_{solar}`$ and 12.33(10.05) km respectively. Both the neutron star and third family branch have smaller masses in NH$`\overline{K}`$Q case than those in NHQ case because the EoS are softer in the former case. It is interesting to note that the radii in the third family branch are smaller than their counterparts in the neutron star branch. Also, the stars in the third family branch have different compositions than those of the neutron star branch. Recently, it has been predicted in a perturbative QCD calculation that the maximum mass and radius of the superdense star in the third family may be $`1M`$ and 6 km respectively . In Fig. 9 we also show the mass-radius relationship for NQ stars with $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=100`$ MeV and $`m_s=`$ 150 and 200 MeV. The maximum masses (radii) of compact stars for $`m_s=`$ 150 and 200 MeV are 1.649 $`M_{}`$ (9.48 km) and 1.639 $`M_{}`$ (9.81 km) respectively. In both cases, no third family branch occurs.

From our investigation of compact stars with exotic forms of matter, it is observed that the thresholds of hyperons, antikaon condensation and CFL quark phase are sensitive to the hadronic EoS, bag constant, gap and strange quark mass. For parameters adopted in our calculation including CFL quark matter, maximum neutron star masses range from 1.464 to 1.649 $`M_{solar}`$ (Table I and Table II). In the compact star with maximum mass 1.464 $`M_{solar}`$, all three exotic forms of matter are found to coexist whereas the star having a maximum mass 1.649 $`M_{solar}`$ is composed of nuclear+CFL quark matter and has a pure CFL quark matter core. Similar maximum neutron star masses were found in the calculations including only hyperons and antikaon condensate  and also in the calculation of nuclear-CFL quark matter phase transition .

Now we compare our results with the findings from various observations. It is argued that those equations of state which predict larger theoretically calculated maximum neutron star mass ($`M_{max}^{theo}`$) than the highest measured neutron star mass ($`M_{high}^{obs}`$), are acceptable . So far highest accurately measured compact star mass is the Hulse Taylor pulsar mass which is 1.44 $`M_{solar}`$ . Maximum neutron star masses obtained in our calculation are found to be larger than the Hulse Taylor pulsar mass i.e. $`M_{max}^{theo}>`$ $`M_{high}^{obs}`$ is satisfied by our calculation. Recent observations on an isolated neutron star RX J185635-3754 by HST and Chandra X-ray observatory and low mass X-ray binary EXO0748-676 by XMM-Newton observatory have poured in many interesting data. Walter and Lattimer analysed HST data from RX J185635-3754 using an atmospheric model  and predicted radius R = 11.4 $`\pm `$ 2 km and mass M = 1.7 $`\pm `$ 0.4 $`M_{solar}`$. This result is in agreement with the masses and radii of compact stars from our model calculation. However, we can not construct any star with radius $`8`$ km or less as predicted by Drake et al.  analysing Chandra data on the same star. Another possible explanation of Chandra data is given by Zane et al.  and it indicates an apparent radius $`1012`$ km which is compatible with our soft EoS. On the other hand, Cottam et al.  obtained a M-R relationship curve measuring the gravitational red shift $`z=0.35`$ of three strong spectral lines in X-ray bursts from EXO0748-676. From this observational M-R relationship, one finds a range of possible values for compact star mass 1.2-1.8 $`M_{solar}`$ corresponding to 8-12 km radius. In Fig. 9 we plot the results of Cottam et al. . We note that some of our results are consistent with the observational M-R relationship curve. It shows that there may be room for exotic forms of matter to coexist in compact stars. As the mass of EXO0748-676 is not known, nothing can be concluded with certainty about dense matter EoS. Further measurements of gravitational redshift and mass on other neutron stars could put stringent conditions on theoretical models for dense matter in compact stars.

## IV Summary and Conclusions

We have investigated first order phase transitions from hadronic matter including hyperons and antikaon condensate to color-flavor-locked quark matter including the condensate of Goldstone boson $`K^0`$. The DDRH model has been adopted here to describe the hadronic phase. This model takes into account many body correlations in hadronic phase by density dependent meson-baryon couplings. Density dependent meson-baryon couplings are obtained from microscopic Dirac-Brueckner calculations using Groningen nucleon-nucleon potential. In this calculation meson-(anti)kaon couplings are density independent. Here $`K^{}`$ condensation is found to be a second order phase transition. On the other hand, the CFL quark matter is described by the thermodynamic potential of Ref.. The role of strange quark mass and color-superconducting gap on the nuclear-CFL+$`K^0`$ matter phase transition has been studied for a fixed value of bag constant $`B^{1/4}=180`$ MeV. The phase transition is delayed to higher density for a larger value of $`m_s`$. On the other hand, the phase transition sets in earlier as the value of gap increases. Also, we have found the early appearance of hyperons and /or Bose-Einstein condensate of $`K^{}`$ mesons shifts the phase transition to higher density.

Equations of state for nuclear matter-CFL+$`K^0`$ matter phase transition have been studied here for different values of $`m_s`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and for a fixed value of bag constant. For a fixed value of gap, the EoS becomes stiffer in case of a larger value of $`m_s`$ resulting in larger maximum mass star. For a large value of gap such as $`\mathrm{\Delta }=100`$ MeV, we find that different values of strange quark mass have no impact on the EoS and the maximum masses of compact stars. Similarly, a smaller value of gap softens the EoS leading to a smaller maximum mass star. We have also constructed equations of state including hyperons and $`K^{}`$ condensate in the hadronic phase for different values of bag constant, gap, antikaon optical potential depth and strange quark mass. The EoS for NHQ, N$`\overline{K}`$Q and NH$`\overline{K}`$Q matter are softer than that of NQ matter. Consequently, the maximum star masses are smaller in the former cases. For all cases studied here, maximum mass neutron stars contain a mixed phase core of hadronic+CFL quark matter. There is a window in the parameter space for which all three exotic forms of dense matter i.e. hyperons, Bose-Einstein condensate of $`K^{}`$ mesons and CFL quark matter are found to coexist in maximum mass neutron stars. In our calculation with CFL quark matter, maximum masses of compact stars range from 1.464 to 1.649 $`M_{solar}`$. Our results are consistent with the Hulse Taylor pulsar mass and recent observations. It is worth mentioning here that we have obtained stable branches of superdense stars called third family branches beyond neutron star branches for certain combinations of parameters. Superdense stars in the third family branch contain a pure CFL quark matter core. The compact stars in the third family have smaller radii and different compositions than those of the neutron star branch.

In this calculation, we do not consider the density dependence of strange quark mass, gap and bag parameter. Therefore, it would be interesting to investigate how density dependent strange quark mass, gap and bag parameter in the Nambu-Jona-Lasinio model  modify our results.

Acknowledgements

D.B. is grateful to Prof. (Dr.) W. Greiner for the warm hospitality of the Institut für Theoretische Physik, Frankfurt Universität where a part of the work was completed and the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for the support.


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# Bounded automorphisms and quasi-isometries of finitely generated groups

## 1 Introduction

Let $`f:XX^{}`$ be a map (which is not assumed to be continuous) between metric spaces. We say that $`f`$ is a $`(\lambda ,ϵ)`$-quasi-isometric embedding if $`\lambda ^1d(x,y)ϵd^{}(f(x),f(y))\lambda d(x,y)+ϵ`$ for all $`x,yX`$. Here $`\lambda 1,ϵ0;d,d^{}`$ denote the metrics on $`X,X^{}`$ respectively. If, further, there exists a constant $`C0`$ such that every $`x^{}X^{}`$ is within distance $`C`$ from the image of $`f`$, we say that $`f`$ is a $`(\lambda ,ϵ)`$-quasi-isometry. If $`f`$ is a $`(\lambda ,ϵ)`$-quasi-isometry then there exists a quasi-isometry $`f^{}:X^{}X`$ (possibly for a different set of constants $`\lambda ^{},ϵ^{},C^{}`$) such that $`f^{}f`$ (resp. $`ff^{}`$) is quasi-isometry equivalent to the identity map of $`X`$ (resp. $`X^{}`$). (Two maps $`f,g:XX^{}`$ are said to be quasi-isometrically equivalent if there exists a constant $`c`$ such that $`d^{}(f(x),g(x))c`$ for all $`xX`$.) Let $`[f]`$ denote the equivalence class of a quasi-isometry $`f:XX`$. The set $`QI(X)`$ of all equivalence classes of quasi-isometries of $`X`$ is a group under composition: $`[f].[g]=[fg]`$ for $`[f],[g]QI(X)`$. If $`X^{}`$ is quasi-isometry equivalent to $`X`$, then $`QI(X^{})`$ is isomorphic to $`QI(X)`$.

Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be a group generated by a finite set $`A`$. One has the word metric $`d_A`$ (or just $`d`$) where $`d(\gamma ,\gamma ^{})`$ is the length (with respect to $`A`$) of $`\gamma ^1\gamma ^{}`$ for $`\gamma ,\gamma ^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Note that $`d_A`$ is left invariant. If $`B`$ is another finite generating set then the metric spaces $`(\mathrm{\Gamma },d_A)`$ and $`(\mathrm{\Gamma },d_B)`$ are quasi-isometric to each other. The group $`QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$, which does not depend on the choice of the finite generating set, is an invariant of the quasi-isomorphism type of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and is an important object of study in geometric group theory initiated by M.Gromov . We refer the reader to  for basic facts concerning quasi-isometry.

Let $`f_0:\mathrm{\Gamma }_0^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_0^{\prime \prime },f_1:\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^{\prime \prime }`$ be isomorphisms of groups where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^{},\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^{\prime \prime }`$ are finite index subgroups of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. One has an equivalence relation where $`f_0f_1`$ if there exists a subgroup $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_0^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^{}`$ which is of finite index in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ such that $`f_0(\gamma )=f_1(\gamma )`$ for all $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }^{}`$. The equivalence classes are called a virtual automorphisms of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. The set of all virtual automorphisms of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ form a group $`Vaut(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ where $`[g].[f]=[g^{}f^{}]`$ where $`f:\mathrm{\Gamma }_0^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_0^{\prime \prime },g:\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^{\prime \prime }`$, $`f^{}=ff^1(\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\prime \prime })`$, $`g^{}=g\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\prime \prime }`$ with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\prime \prime }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_0^{\prime \prime }\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^{}`$. For example, it can be seen that $`Vaut(^n)=GL(n,)`$. If $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ has no finite index subgroups, then $`Vaut(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. If $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}`$ are commensurable, then $`Vaut(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ and $`Vaut(\mathrm{\Gamma }^{})`$ are isomorphic. For a finitely generated group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, it is easy to show that $`Vaut(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is countable. In general, these groups are expected to be ‘large’. However F.Menegazzo and J.Tomkinson  have constructed a group having uncountably many elements whose virtual automorphism group is trivial. However, no finitely generated infinite group with trivial virtual automorphism group seems to be known.

Since $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a quasi-isometry for any finite index subgroup $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}`$ of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, any $`[f]Vaut(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ yields an element $`[f]QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. This leads to a homomorphism of groups $`\eta :Vaut(\mathrm{\Gamma })QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ which is easily seen to be a monomorphism. See lemma 2.1 below. Also one has natural homomorphisms of groups $`\sigma :Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })Vaut(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ and $`\theta :Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })QI(\mathrm{\Gamma }),`$ which factors through $`\sigma `$. It is easy to find finitely generated infinite groups for which $`\sigma `$ is not a monomorphism. (For example let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}\times \mathrm{\Gamma }^{\prime \prime }`$ where $`3|\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}|<\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\prime \prime }`$ any finitely generated infinite group.) F.Menegazzo and D.J.S.Robinson  have characterized finitely generated (infinite) groups for which $`\sigma `$ is the trivial homomorphism. We shall obtain some very general criteria for $`\theta :Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ to be a monomorphism and apply it to different classes of groups.

Let $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ denote the the $`FC`$-centre of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, i.e., $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is the subgroup of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ consisting of all $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$ whose centralizer $`C(\gamma )\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is of finite index in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Clearly $`Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$.

Our main results are:

###### Theorem 1.1

. Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be a finitely generated infinite group. If $`\theta :Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a monomorphism then $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. The converse holds if $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is torsion free.

###### Theorem 1.2

. Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be any finitely generated infinite group such that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is finite. Then $`\theta _{\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}}:Aut(\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }})QI(\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }})`$ is a monomorphism where $`\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}=\mathrm{\Gamma }/K`$.

We prove the above theorems in §2. In §3, we apply the above results to some interesting classes of groups which arise in combinatorial and geometric group theories.

Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank the referee for his/her valuable comments.

## 2 The $`FC`$-Centre

We assume throughout that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a finitely generated infinite group with the word metric relative to a (fixed) finite generating set. If $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the inclusion of a finite index subgroup in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ we identify $`QI(\mathrm{\Gamma }^{})`$ with $`QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ via the isomorphism induced by the inclusion $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

###### Lemma 2.1

. Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be a finitely generated infinite group. (i) Let $`\phi :\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\prime \prime }`$ be an isomorphism between finite index subgroups $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{},\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\prime \prime }`$ of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Then $`[\phi ]QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is trivial if and only if the set $`S=\{\phi (\gamma )\gamma ^1\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }^{}\}`$ is finite. (ii) The natural map $`Vaut(\mathrm{\Gamma })QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a monomorphism.

Proof:(i) Note that $`S\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is finite $``$ there exists an $`R>0`$ such that $`d(1,\phi (\gamma ^1)\gamma )<R`$ for all $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }^{}d(\phi (\gamma ),\gamma )<R`$ for all $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }^{}`$. Since $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}`$ is of finite index in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, the last statement is equivalent to $`\phi `$ being quasi-isometrically equivalent to the identity map of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

(ii) Suppose that $`[\phi ]=1`$ in $`QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. By part (i), the set $`S`$ is finite. We claim that $`[\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}:H]=|S|`$ where $`H=Fix(\phi )`$ whence the element $`[\phi ]Vaut(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is trivial. To see the claim, note that $`\gamma _1H=\gamma _2H\gamma _1^1\gamma _2H\phi (\gamma _1)^1\phi (\gamma _2)=\gamma _1^1\gamma _2\phi (\gamma _2)\gamma _2^1=\phi (\gamma _1)\gamma _1^1`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

As an immediate consequence we get:

###### Corollary 2.2

. The canonical homomorphism $`\theta :Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a monomorphism if and only if $`Fix(\phi )`$ has infinite index in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for all $`\phi 1`$ in $`Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Definition 2.3

. (Cf. ) An automorphism $`\phi :\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is said to be bounded if $`Fix(\phi )`$ has finite index in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. (Equivalently $`\phi `$ is bounded if the set $`\{\phi (\gamma )\gamma ^1\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }\}`$ is finite.)

For $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$, denote by $`C(\gamma )`$ the centralizer of $`\gamma `$, i.e., $`C(\gamma )=\{\gamma ^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma \gamma ^{}=\gamma ^{}\gamma \}`$. Recall that the $`FC`$-centre of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the subgroup $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=\{\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }[\mathrm{\Gamma }:C(\gamma )]<\mathrm{}\}`$. The $`FC`$-centre is a characteristic subgroup of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. It equals the subgroup of those elements of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ having only finitely many conjugates in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Note that $`\gamma K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ if and only if conjugation by $`\gamma `$, $`\iota _\gamma `$, is a bounded automorphism. The set of all bounded automorphisms of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a normal subgroup of $`Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ which is, from what has been proven already, precisely $`\mathrm{ker}(\theta )`$.

###### Lemma 2.4

. If an automorphism $`\phi :\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is bounded, then for any $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$, the element $`\phi (\gamma )\gamma ^1`$ belongs to $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. In particular, $`\theta :Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a monomorphism if $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=\{1\}`$.

Proof: Let $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and let $`\gamma _1Fix(\phi )\gamma Fix(\phi )\gamma ^1`$. Then $`\phi (\gamma )^1\gamma _1\phi (\gamma )=\phi (\gamma ^1)\phi (\gamma _1)\phi (\gamma )=\phi (\gamma ^1\gamma _1\gamma )=\gamma ^1\gamma _1\gamma `$. Therefore $`\gamma \phi (\gamma )^1\gamma _1=\gamma _1\gamma \phi (\gamma )^1`$, i.e, $`\gamma _1C(\gamma \phi (\gamma )^1)=C(\phi (\gamma )\gamma ^1)`$. Thus the subgroup $`Fix(\phi )\gamma ^1Fix(\phi )\gamma C(\phi (\gamma )\gamma ^1)`$. It follows that $`C(\phi (\gamma )\gamma ^1)`$ has finite index in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and so $`\phi (\gamma )\gamma ^1K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. The second assertion of the lemma now follows immediately from corollary 2.2. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Corollary 2.5

. If $`\theta |Inn(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a monomorphism then $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. If, in addition, $`Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is trivial, then $`\theta `$ itself is a monomorphism.

Proof: Note that $`\theta ([\iota _\gamma ])=1[\mathrm{\Gamma }:C(\gamma )]<\mathrm{}\gamma K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. It follows that if $`\theta |Inn(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a monomorphism then $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. The second assertion follows from lemma 2.4. $`\mathrm{}`$

Proof of Theorem 1.1: Suppose that $`\theta `$ is a monomorphism. The above corollary shows that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$.

Now suppose that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is such that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is torsion free. Let $`\theta ([\phi ])=1QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. Define $`\mathrm{\Lambda }:\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ as $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(\gamma )=\phi (\gamma )\gamma ^1`$ for $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$. By lemma 2.4 and by our hypothesis that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$, we see that $`\mathrm{Im}(\mathrm{\Lambda })Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. It follows that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is a homomorphism of groups. Indeed $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(\gamma _1)\mathrm{\Lambda }(\gamma _2)=\phi (\gamma _1)\gamma _1^1\phi (\gamma _2)\gamma _2^1=\phi (\gamma _1)\phi (\gamma _2)\gamma _2^1\gamma _1^1=\phi (\gamma _1\gamma _2)(\gamma _1\gamma _2)^1=\mathrm{\Lambda }(\gamma _1\gamma _2)`$. Since by lemma 2.1 $`\mathrm{Im}(\mathrm{\Lambda })Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a finite subgroup and since $`Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is torsion free by hypothesis, it follows that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the trivial homomorphism and hence $`\phi =id`$.

Proof of Theorem 1.2: In view of theorem 1.1 it suffices to show that $`K(\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }})=\{1\}.`$ To get a contradiction, assume that $`K(\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }})\{1\}`$. Then there exists a $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }K`$ such that $`C(\gamma ;K):=\{\gamma ^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }|[\gamma ,\gamma ^{}]K\}`$ is a finite index subgroup of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Now let $`H=C(\gamma ;K)(_{1ik}C(\gamma _i))`$, where $`K=\{\gamma _1,\mathrm{},\gamma _k\}`$. Note that $`H`$ is of finite index in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Now the map $`\gamma ^{}[\gamma ,\gamma ^{}]`$ defines a homomorphism $`\psi :HK`$. Since $`K`$ is finite, $`Ker(\psi )`$ has finite index in $`H`$ and hence in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. But then $`Ker(\psi )`$ is evidently a subgroup of $`C(\gamma )`$. This forces $`\gamma K`$, contrary to our hypothesis. Hence $`K(\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }})=1`$. By lemma 2.4, $`\theta :Aut(\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }})QI(\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }})`$ is a monomorphism. $`\mathrm{}`$

## 3 Examples

There are many interesting class of finitely generated infinite groups for which $`\theta _\mathrm{\Gamma }:Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a monomorphism. In this section we give examples which arise in combinatorial group theory and geometric topology. Throughout we assume that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is finitely generated and infinite.

###### Example 3.1

. Hyperbolic groups, $`C^{}(1/6)`$-groups, etc. Clearly if $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a (finitely generated) group having no finite quotients then $`\theta _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a monomorphism. B.Trufflaut  has shown that in any $`C^{}(1/6)`$-group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, centralizer of any non-trivial element is cyclic. It follows that if $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is such a group and is not virtually cyclic then $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=1`$ and so $`\theta `$ is a monomorphism. Note that if $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ does not contain a subgroup isomorphic to $`^2`$ and is not virtually cyclic (e.g. a non-elementary (word) hyperbolic group) then $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a torsion group. If $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is finitely generated, then it has to be finite since every element of $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ has only finitely many distinct conjugates. It follows that $`\theta _{\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}}`$ is a monomorphism.

Now suppose $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is $`\delta `$-hyperbolic. We claim that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is finite, so that $`\theta _{\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}}`$ is a monomorphism. Indeed, any element of $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$, being torsion, is conjugate to an element in the $`(4\delta +2)`$-ball $`B`$ about $`1\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. (See p. 460, .) Since $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is normal, it follows that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is the union of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-conjugates of the finite set $`BK(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. Since each element of $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ has only finitely many conjugates in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, it follows that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ has to be finite. (When $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is torsion free, the assertion that $`\theta _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a monomorphism also follows from theorem 1.1 since $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=1=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$.)

However, if $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a torsion free CAT(0) group, then $`\theta _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is not always a monomorphism. For example when $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the fundamental group of the Klein bottle, $`\theta _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is not a monomorphism. See remark 3.6 below.

###### Example 3.2

. Lattices in Lie groups (i) Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be a lattice in a simply connected nilpotent Lie group $`N`$. We claim that $`\theta `$ is a monomorphism. Indeed if $`\phi Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ fixes a finite index subgroup $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}`$ of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, then $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}`$ is also a lattice in $`N`$. It follows from Cor. 1, p. 34 of  that the unique extension $`\stackrel{~}{\phi }:NN`$ of $`\phi `$ has to be the identity of $`N`$. Thus $`\phi `$ itself has to be the identity automorphism. Therefore $`\theta :Aut(\mathrm{\Gamma })QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a monomorphism.

(ii) Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be a lattice in a real semisimple Lie group $`G`$ without compact factors. Then the $`FC`$-centre of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is contained in the centre of $`G`$ by Cor. 5.18, p.84, . It follows that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })Z(G)`$. Since the centre of $`G`$ is a finite subgroup, theorem 1.2 implies that $`\theta _{\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}}`$ is a monomorphism.

When $`\mathrm{\Gamma }G`$ is an irreducible non-uniform lattice and $`GSL(2,)`$, it is known from the work of B.Farb, R.Schwartz, and A.Eskin that $`QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is isomorphic to the commensurator of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in $`G`$, which is actually equal to $`Vaut(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. See  and the references therein. This is due to the fact that any virtual automorphism of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ can be lifted to an automorphism of $`G`$. When $`G=SL(2,)`$, then $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ has a finite index subgroup which is free of finite rank is hence quasi-isomorphic to a free group of rank $`2`$. (When $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a uniform lattice, then by Svarc-Milnor lemma, $`QI(\mathrm{\Gamma })=QI(G)=QI(G/K)`$ where $`K`$ is a maximal compact subgroup of $`G`$.)

###### Example 3.3

. Infinite dihedral group When $`|\mathrm{\Gamma }_i|=2`$ for $`i=1,2`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the infinite dihedral group $`x,y|x^2=1,xyx=y^1`$. The $`FC`$-centre of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the infinite cyclic group generated by $`y`$ whereas the centre is trivial. Thus $`\theta `$ is not a monomorphism. Indeed the kernel of $`\theta `$ is the infinite cyclic group generated by the automorphism $`\phi :\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ defined as $`\phi (x)=xy,\phi (y)=y`$.

Note that the infinite dihedral group is isomorphic to the free product $`(/2)(/2)`$.

###### Example 3.4

. Free product with amalgamation Suppose that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ decomposes non-trivially as a free product with amalgamation: $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_0}\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ where at least one of the indices $`|\mathrm{\Gamma }_i:\mathrm{\Gamma }_0|3.`$ Then
Claim: $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_2)\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$.
Proof: We begin by showing that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$. Assume that $`\gamma `$ is cyclically reduced. If $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }_1\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$, we can write $`\gamma =\gamma _1\mathrm{}\gamma _{2k}`$ where no two successive elements in the expression belong to the same $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_j`$. Replacing $`\gamma `$ by $`\gamma ^1`$ if necessary, we have $`\gamma _{2i1}\mathrm{\Gamma }_1\mathrm{\Gamma }_0,\gamma _{2i}\mathrm{\Gamma }_2\mathrm{\Gamma }_0.`$ Since $`[\mathrm{\Gamma }_1:\mathrm{\Gamma }_0]3`$, there exists an $`a\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ such that $`a^1\gamma _1\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$. Let $`b\mathrm{\Gamma }_2\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$. Then for any $`m>0`$, $`(ab)^m\gamma (ab)^m`$ is reduced as written. So $`\gamma `$ has infinitely many conjugates. This is a contradiction.

Assume $`\gamma =\gamma _1\mathrm{\Gamma }_1\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$. With $`a`$, $`b`$ as in the previous paragraph and $`m`$ any positive integer, $`(ba)^m\gamma (ba)^m`$ is reduced as written so we have a contradiction again. Similarly if $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }_2\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ we see that $`(ab)^m\gamma (ab)^m`$ is a reduced expression as written for all positive integers $`m`$, again a contradiction.

To complete the proof of the claim we must show $`\gamma Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. To get a contradiction, assume that $`x_i\gamma =\gamma x_i^{}`$, $`x_i,x_i^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_i\mathrm{\Gamma }_0,i=1,2`$ and $`x_jx_j^{}`$ for some $`j`$. Then $`\gamma ^1x_1x_2\gamma =x_1^{}x_2^{}`$ and hence $`\gamma ^1(x_1x_2)^n\gamma =(x_1^{}x_2^{})^n(x_1x_2)^n`$ for any positive integer $`n>0`$. This implies that $`\gamma K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$, contrary to our assumption. Hence $`\gamma Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. The equality $`Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_2)\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ holds since $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is generated by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

It follows from theorem 1.1 that if $`Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_2)\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ is torsion free then $`\theta `$ is a monomorphism.

Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be an HNN extension $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_0}=\mathrm{\Gamma }_1,tt^1\gamma t=\phi (\gamma ),\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$. If $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0=\phi (\mathrm{\Gamma }_0)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ then $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is isomorphic to a semi-direct product of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ with the infinite cyclic group $`t`$. If one of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0,\phi (\mathrm{\Gamma }_0)`$ – say $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ is a proper subgroup of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$, then one has the following description of the centre of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

###### Lemma 3.5

. With above notations, assume that $`[\mathrm{\Gamma }_1:\mathrm{\Gamma }_0]>1`$. Then $`Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })=Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)Fix(\phi )`$.

Proof: It is easily seen that $`Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)Fix(\phi )Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }).`$ Also it is clear from our hypotheses that $`t^pZ(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ for any $`p0`$. Let $`\gamma Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. If $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$, then it is easy to show that $`\gamma Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)Fix(\phi )`$. Choose right coset representatives for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0\backslash \mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ and $`\phi (\mathrm{\Gamma }_0)\backslash \mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$. We choose $`1\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ as the representative for both $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ and $`\phi (\mathrm{\Gamma }_0)`$. Write $`\gamma `$ in normal form $`\gamma =\gamma _0t^{n_1}\gamma _1\mathrm{}t^{n_k}\gamma _k`$ where $`\gamma _0\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$, $`\gamma _i,i1`$ are among the chosen coset representatives, and $`n_k0,`$ for $`k1`$. (See p. 181 .) Assume that $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ so that $`k1`$. Since $`\gamma =\gamma _k\gamma \gamma _k^1`$, by uniqueness of the normal form we conclude that $`\gamma _k=1`$.

We claim that $`\gamma _0Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)Fix(\phi )`$. Indeed, write $`\gamma _0=\gamma ^{}\gamma _0^{}`$ for some $`\gamma ^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ and $`\gamma _0^{}`$ chosen coset representative of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0\gamma _0`$. Then $`\gamma =t^1\gamma t`$ has normal form $`\phi (\gamma ^{})t^1\gamma _0^{}t^{n_1}\gamma _1\mathrm{}t^{n_k+1}`$ which again contradicts the uniqueness of the normal form unless $`\gamma _0^{}=1,\phi (\gamma ^{})=\phi (\gamma _0)=\gamma _0`$ and $`k=1`$. Thus $`\gamma _0Fix(\phi )`$. Thus $`\gamma _0t=t\gamma _0`$. In particular, $`\gamma ^1`$ has normal expression $`\gamma ^1=\gamma _0^1t^{n_1}`$. We may therefore assume that $`n_1<0`$. Since $`\gamma _0Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_0)Fix(\phi )`$ and $`\gamma _0Fix(\phi )`$, we conclude that $`\gamma _0Z(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)`$. Choose a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$-coset representative $`\gamma ^{\prime \prime }`$ which does not commute with $`\gamma _0\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$. Now the normal expression for $`\gamma =\gamma ^{\prime \prime 1}\gamma \gamma ^{\prime \prime }`$ is $`\gamma ^{\prime \prime 1}\gamma _0t^{n_1}\gamma ^{\prime \prime }`$. This again contradicts the uniqueness of the normal form. This shows that $`\gamma _0=1`$

Now $`\gamma =t^{n_1}\gamma _1\mathrm{}t^{n_k}`$, and $`k2`$ as $`t^pZ(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ for $`p0`$. It is now obvious that $`\gamma t^1\gamma t`$ as the normal form for $`t^1\gamma t`$ is $`t^{n_11}\gamma _1\mathrm{}t^{n_k+1}`$ which is evidently different from that of $`\gamma `$. This contradiction shows that $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Remark 3.6

.  In case $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1=\mathrm{\Gamma }_0=\phi (\mathrm{\Gamma }_0)`$, then the above description of the centre is not valid. For example if $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=_{}`$ is the fundamental group of the Klein bottle, namely, $`t,\gamma t^1\gamma t=\gamma ^1`$, then $`Fix(\phi )=1`$, whereas $`Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })=t^2`$. Note that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=t^2,\gamma Z(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$.

We shall now proceed to describe the $`FC`$-centre of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. For this purpose, we define certain subgroups $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{0,k}\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ on which one has a well-defined monomorphism $`\phi ^k`$ as follows: $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{0,1}=\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$, and, for $`k2`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{0,k}:=\phi ^1(\mathrm{\Gamma }_{0,k1})\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$. Set $`F_k:=\{\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }_{0,k}\phi ^k(\gamma )=\gamma \}`$ and let $`F_{\mathrm{}}=_{k1}F_k.`$ Note that $`F_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a subgroup of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$. Using Britton’s lemma it is easy to show that for any $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$, one has $`\gamma F_k`$ if and only if $`t^kC(\gamma )`$.

###### Lemma 3.7

. With notation as above, assume that $`[\mathrm{\Gamma }_1:\mathrm{\Gamma }_0]>1`$. Then
(i) $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })K(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)F_{\mathrm{}}.`$
(ii) If $`F_{\mathrm{}}=Fix(\phi )`$ is a normal subgroup of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$, then $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })=K(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)Fix(\phi )`$.

Proof: (i) Suppose $`\gamma K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. Then $`\gamma t^k\gamma ^1t^k=1`$ for some integer $`k0`$. Using Britton’s lemma it is easy to see that $`\gamma F_kF_{\mathrm{}}`$. As it is obvious that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })\mathrm{\Gamma }_1K(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)`$ it follows that $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma })K(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)F_{\mathrm{}}`$.

To prove (ii), suppose $`F_{\mathrm{}}=Fix(\phi )`$ and let $`\gamma K(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)Fix(\phi )`$. Since $`Fix(\phi )`$ and $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)`$ are normal in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$, all $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$-conjugates of $`\gamma `$ are in $`K(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1Fix(\phi )`$. In particular, every $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ conjugate of $`\gamma `$ commutes with $`t`$. Since $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is generated by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ and $`t`$, it follows that the set of all $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-conjugates of $`\gamma `$ is the same as the set of all $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$-conjugates. As $`\gamma K(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)`$, latter set being finite, we conclude that $`\gamma K(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. $`\mathrm{}`$


text:
# New sum rules relating the 1-body momentum distribution of the homogeneous electron gas to the Overhauser 2-body wave functions of its pair density

## Introduction

The homogeneous electron gas is a model which allows to study pure electron correlation without any interference with the multiple-scattering problem of real molecules, clusters, and solids. Ful ; Mar1  The quantum kinematics of this phenomenon is hidden in the reduced density matrices and their diagonals. Davi ; Erd ; Cio ; Col  The simplest reduced densites are (only the spin-unpolarized ground state is considered here) the 1-body momentum distribution $`n(k)`$, recently parametrized in terms of the convex Kulik function, Zie1 ; Gor1  and the 2-body quantities $`g_{}(r)`$ and $`g_{}(r)`$, being the non-negative pair densities (PDs) for electron pairs with parallel respectively antiparallel spins and with an interelectronic distance $`r`$. Per ; Gor2 ; Gor3  All these quantities depend parametrically on the electron density $`3/(4\pi r_s^3)`$. Correlation induced properties of $`n(k)`$ (normalized as $`(2/N)_𝐤n(k)=1`$) are: (i) its nonidempotency $`0<n(k)<1`$, measured by a quantity $`c=(2/N)_𝐤n(k)[1n(k)]<1`$ (which is christened here Löwdin parameter Low ) and (ii) the quasi-particle weight $`z_\mathrm{F}=n(1^{})n(1^+)<1`$ ($`k`$ is measured in units of the Fermi wave length $`1/(\alpha r_s),\alpha =(4/9\pi )^{1/3}`$). Correlation induced properties of the PDs with their asymptotics $`g_,(\mathrm{})=1`$ are besides the oscillatory behavior for $`r\mathrm{}`$, for small $`r`$ the Fermi hole $`g_{}(r)<1`$ with its on-top properties $`g_{}(0)=0`$, $`g_{}^{}(0)=0`$, and a characteristic curvature $`g_{}^{\prime \prime }(0)>0`$ and the Coulomb hole $`g_{}(r)<1`$ with its characteristic on-top value $`g_{}(0)<1`$. The on-top curvature of the Fermi hole is a local measure of the correlation strength. Zie2 ; foo1 ; Dob ; Luk ; Fla  With the spin-summed PD $`g=[g_{}+g_{}]/2`$, particle-number fluctuations in spatial parts (fragments, domains) of the system can be discussed as another correlation index with the conclusion ”correlation suppresses fluctuations”. Zie3 ; Zie4 ; Zie5 ; foo2 ; Sch ; Sav ; Poa  For the ideal Fermi gas ($`r_s=0`$) it is $`n^{(0)}(k)=1\mathrm{\Theta }(k)`$, $`c^{(0)}=0`$, $`z_\mathrm{F}^{(0)}=1`$, and $`g_{}^{(0)}(r)=1`$.

The virial theorem Mar2  provides a relation between the kinetic and the interaction energy, which follow from $`n(k)`$ and $`g(r)`$, respectively, giving thus for their $`r_s`$ dependence an integral relation. Mac  In this paper another relation between $`n(k)`$ and $`g(r)`$ is derived. This derivation is based on the successful parametrization of the PDs in terms of Overhauser 2-body wave functions (geminals), which are the scattering state solutions of an effective 2-body Schrödinger equation with an appropriately screened Coulomb repulsion. Ove ; Gor4 ; Gor5 ; Davo ; Zie6  It is furthermore based on the assumption that these Overhauser geminals can be used to represent also the 2-body reduced density matrix (2-matrix) $`\gamma _2(1|1^{},2|2^{})`$, the digonal of which gives the PD. Now the idea was to obtain the 1-matrix $`\gamma _1`$ from the contraction of the 2-matrix $`\gamma _2`$. Unfortunately for extended systems this does not work, because this contraction is not size-extensive. This problem is easy to overcome with the help of the cumulant expansion. Zie7 ; Zie5 ; foo3 ; Zie8 ; Zie9  It defines by $`\gamma _2=A\gamma _1\gamma _1\chi `$ ($`A=`$ antisymmetrizer) the size-extensively normalizable and contractable cumulant 2-matrix $`\chi =A\gamma _1\gamma _1\gamma _2`$, which is here thus represented in terms of Bessel functions (from $`A\gamma _1\gamma _1`$) and Overhauser geminals (from $`\gamma _2`$). From the normalization of $`\chi `$ follow sum rules (SRs) for the scattering phase shifts of the Overhauser geminals. Zie6  These (Friedel like) SRs are generalized in this paper by using the contraction properties of $`\chi `$, such that (at least in principle) $`n(k)`$ can be calculated supposed the phase shifts of the Overhauser geminals are known.

## Basic notation and normalization sum rules

The singlet($`+`$ for even $`l`$)/triplet ($``$ for odd $`l`$) components of the PD in terms of Overhauser geminals $`R_l(r,k)`$ are

$$g_\pm (r)=_L^\pm <\mu (k)R_l^2(r,k)>,L=(l,m_l).$$
(1)
The $`k`$-average is defined by

$$<\mathrm{}>=\frac{2}{N}_𝐤\mathrm{}=\frac{2}{N}_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}\mathrm{}=_0^{\mathrm{}}d(k^3)\mathrm{}$$
(2)
with the normalization volume $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and the density $`\varrho =N/\mathrm{\Omega }=1/3\pi ^2`$. Wave lengths are measured in units of the Fermi wave length $`k_\mathrm{F}=1/(\alpha r_s)`$, $`\alpha =(4/(9\pi ))^{1/3}`$. In this paper the Overhauser occupancy is slightly generalized by

$$\mu (k)=\frac{2}{N}_𝐊\mu (𝐊,𝐤),\mu (𝐊,𝐤)=n(\left|\frac{1}{2}𝐊+𝐤\right|)n(\left|\frac{1}{2}𝐊𝐤\right|),$$
(3)
because it arises here not from the idempotent $`n^{(0)}(k)=\mathrm{\Theta }(1k)`$ of the ideal Fermi gas, but from the nonidempotent $`n(k)`$ of the interacting electron gas. Zie1 ; Gor1  It is $`\mu (0)=8(1c)`$. The $`R_L(𝐫,k)=R_l(r,k)Y_L(𝐞_r)`$ are the (scattering state) solutions of the 2-body Schrödinger equation (the center-of-mass motion separates completely)

$$[\mathrm{\Delta }+v_\pm (r)k^2]R_L(𝐫,k)=0,v_\pm (\mathrm{})=0$$
(4)
with an appropriate repulsive interaction potential $`v_\pm (r)=\frac{\alpha r_s}{r}+\mathrm{}`$, possibly different for
$`\mathrm{"}+\mathrm{"}`$ or $`\mathrm{"}\mathrm{"}`$. Ove ; Gor4 ; Gor5 ; Davo ; Zie6  The success of the Overhauser approach means, that local interaction potentials $`v_+(r)`$ and $`v_{}(r)`$, if not being exact, are at least reasonable approximations.

One generalization of Eq.(1) concerns inhomogeneous systems. Davo  Here another generalization is considered, namely the representation of the 2-matrix in terms of Overhauser geminals:

$$\gamma _\pm (𝐑|𝐑^{},𝐫|𝐫^{})=\varrho ^2(4\pi )^2_{L,L^{}}^\pm <\stackrel{~}{\mu }_{LL^{}}(𝐑𝐑^{},k)R_L(𝐫,k)R_L^{}^{}(𝐫^{},k)>$$
(5)
$`𝐑=\frac{1}{2}(𝐫_1+𝐫_2)`$ is the center-of-mass coordinate and $`𝐫=𝐫_1𝐫_2`$ is the relative coordinate. As $`\mu (k)`$, the $`l`$-independent but $`k`$-dependent weight in Eq.(1), also here the occupancy matrix

$`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_{LL^{}}(𝐑,k)={\displaystyle \frac{2}{N}}{\displaystyle _𝐊}\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}\mathrm{𝐊𝐑}}\mu _{LL^{}}(𝐊,k),\mu _{LL^{}}(𝐊,k)={\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{\Omega }_k}{4\pi }Y_L^{}(𝐞_k)\mu (𝐊,𝐤)Y_L^{}(𝐞_k)}`$ (6)
follows with Eq. (3) from the momentum distribution $`n(k)`$.

Arguments in favour of Eq.(5) are: (i) The diagonal elements give the Overhauser PD Eq.(1), $`\gamma (𝐑|𝐑,𝐫|𝐫)=\varrho ^2g_\pm (r)`$, and (ii) in the cumulant partitioning of $`\gamma _\pm `$ the generalized HF term $`\gamma _\pm ^{\mathrm{HF}}`$ is given by the same expression as Eq.(5) with only $`R_L(𝐫,k)`$ replaced by $`j_L(k𝐫)=j_l(kr)Y_L(𝐞_r)`$ because the natural orbital are plane waves and using the $`L`$-expansion of a plane wave, $`\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{i}\mathrm{𝐤𝐫})=4\pi _L\mathrm{i}^lj_L(k𝐫)Y_L^{}(𝐞_k)`$.

So the cumulant 2-matrix $`\chi _\pm =(\gamma _\pm \gamma _\pm ^{\mathrm{HF}})`$ is given by

$$\chi _\pm (𝐑|𝐑^{},𝐫|𝐫^{})=\varrho ^2(4\pi )^2_{L,L^{}}^\pm <\stackrel{~}{\mu }_{LL^{}}(𝐑𝐑^{},k)[R_L(𝐫,k)R_L^{}^{}(𝐫^{},k)j_L(k𝐫)j_L^{}^{}(k𝐫^{})]>$$
(7)
For the normalization

$`{\displaystyle }d^3r\chi _\pm (𝐑|𝐑,𝐫|𝐫)`$ $`=`$ $`\varrho ^2{\displaystyle d^3r_L^\pm <\mu (k)[R_l^2(r,k)j_l^2(kr)]>}`$ (8)
$`=`$ $`\varrho {\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi }}{\displaystyle _L^\pm }{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑k\mu (k)\eta _l^{}(k)=\pm \varrho c,`$
cf. Ref. Zie6 .

## Contraction sum rules

With the contracted cumulant 2-matrices and their Fourier transform

$$\chi _\pm (|𝐫_1𝐫_1^{}|)=\underset{r_2<R\mathrm{}}{d^3r_2}\chi _\pm (𝐑|𝐑^{},𝐫|𝐫^{})|_{𝐫_2^{}=𝐫_2},\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm (\kappa )=\frac{1}{2}\varrho d^3r\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}𝜿𝐫}\chi _\pm (r),$$
(9)
the contraction SRs are

$$\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm (\kappa )=\varrho n(\kappa )[1n(\kappa )].$$
(10)
They follow from $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_\pm (\kappa )=\varrho n(\kappa )[\frac{1}{2}N\pm 1]`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_\pm ^{\mathrm{HF}}(\kappa )=\varrho n(\kappa )[\frac{1}{2}N\pm n(\kappa )]`$, and $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm =\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_\pm ^{\mathrm{HF}}\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_\pm `$, showing explicitly the cancellation of the non-size extensive terms. Eq. (10) says that $`n(k)`$ can be calculated, if the lhs is known. With $`\chi _\pm (0)=\frac{2}{N}_𝜿\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm (\kappa )=\varrho c`$ the special phase shift SRs of Ref. Zie6  are contained in the more general SRs (10) as special cases.

With the identity (following from Eq. (4) and generalizing Eq. (13) of Ref. Zie6 )

$`R_LR_L^{}^{}=({\displaystyle \frac{}{𝐫}}+{\displaystyle \frac{}{𝐫^{}}}){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}[{\displaystyle \frac{R_L}{𝐫}}\stackrel{}{R_L^{}^{}}R_L{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{R_L^{}^{}}}{𝐫^{}}}+\mathrm{h}.\mathrm{c}.]`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}[v_\pm (r)v_\pm (r^{})][R_L\stackrel{}{R_L^{}^{}}\stackrel{}{R_L}R_L^{}^{}],`$ (11)
(where $`R_L^{}^{}=R_L^{}(𝐫^{},k)`$, $`\stackrel{}{R_L}=R_L(𝐫,k)/k^2`$, and h.c. means complex conjugate together with an exchange in both coordinates and indices) from Eqs.(8) and (9) it turns out

$$\chi _\pm (r)=\chi _\pm ^A(r)+\chi _\pm ^B(r)=\varrho ^24\pi _{L,L^{}}^\pm <\stackrel{~}{\mu }_{LL^{}}(\frac{1}{2}𝐫,k)\left[A_{LL^{}}(𝐫,k)+B_{LL^{}}(𝐫,k)\right]>.$$
(12)
The $`A`$ and $`B`$ matrices are defined by

$$A_{LL^{}}(𝐫,k)+B_{LL^{}}(𝐫,k)=4\pi \underset{r^{}<R\mathrm{}}{d^3r^{}}\left[R_L(𝐫+𝐫^{},k)R_L^{}^{}(𝐫^{},k)j_L(k(𝐫+𝐫^{}))j_L^{}^{}(k𝐫^{})\right]$$
(13)
where $`A_{LL^{}}`$ results from the 1st term of Eq.(11) and $`B_{LL^{}}`$ from the 2nd one. With the Gauss theorem it is

$$A_{LL^{}}(𝐫,k)=\delta _{LL^{}}4\pi R^2[\frac{R_l}{R}\stackrel{}{R_l}R_l\frac{}{R}\stackrel{}{R_l}\frac{j_l}{R}\stackrel{}{j_l}+j_l\frac{}{R}\stackrel{}{j_l}]_R\mathrm{},$$
(14)
(where $`R_l=R_l(R,k)`$ and the $`𝐫`$-dependence disappears) and with the analysis of Ref. Zie6  it is finally

$$A_{LL^{}}(𝐫,k)=\delta _{LL^{}}A_l(k),A_l(k)=\frac{2\pi }{k^2}\eta _l^{}(k).$$
(15)
So

$$\chi _\pm ^A(r)=\varrho ^2_L^\pm \frac{2}{N}\underset{𝐊}{}\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}\mathrm{𝐊𝐫}/2}<\mu (K,k)A_l(k)>,\mu (K,k)=\frac{d\mathrm{\Omega }_k}{4\pi }\mu (𝐊,𝐤).$$
(16)
Because of $`\chi _\pm ^B(0)=0`$ and Eq. (3), it results $`\chi _\pm (0)=\varrho ^2_L^\pm <\mu (k)A_l(k)>`$, in agreement with the (Friedel like) phase shift SRs of Ref. Zie6 , saying $`\chi _\pm (0)=\varrho c`$. The Fourier transform

$$\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm ^A(\kappa )=\varrho ^2_L^\pm <2^3\mu (2\kappa ,k)A_l(k)>,$$
(17)
enters (together with the $`B`$ term) the more general SR (10).

As already mentioned, the $`B`$ matrix of Eq. (13) follows from the 2nd term of Eq. (11)

$`B_{LL^{}}(𝐫,k)=4\pi {\displaystyle }d^3r^{}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}[v_\pm (|𝐫+𝐫^{}|)v_\pm (r^{})]\times `$
$`\left[R_L(𝐫+𝐫^{},k)\stackrel{}{R_L^{}^{}}(𝐫^{},k)\stackrel{}{R_L}(𝐫+𝐫^{},k)R_L^{}^{}(𝐫^{},k)\right].`$ (18)
So

$$\chi _\pm ^B(r)=\varrho ^24\pi _{L,L^{}}^\pm <\stackrel{~}{\mu }_{LL^{}}(\frac{1}{2}𝐫,k)B_{LL^{}}(𝐫,k)>$$
(19)
and

$$\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm ^B(\kappa )=\frac{1}{2}\varrho ^24\pi _{L,L^{}}^\pm <\frac{2}{N}_{𝜿_1}\mu _{LL^{}}(2(𝜿𝜿_1),k)\stackrel{~}{B}_{LL^{}}(𝜿_1,k)>.$$
(20)
Note $`_𝜿\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm ^B(\kappa )=0`$. Thus the $`B`$ term does not contribute to the normalization of $`n(k)`$ as it does not contribute to the normalization of the PDs.

The Fourier transformed interaction potential and Overhauser geminals

$$\stackrel{~}{v}_\pm (\kappa )=\varrho d^3r\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}𝜿𝐫}v_\pm (r),\stackrel{~}{R}_L(𝜿,k)=\varrho d^3r\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}𝜿𝐫}R_L(𝐫,k)$$
(21)
determine the Fourier transformed $`B`$ matrix

$$\stackrel{~}{B}_{LL^{}}(𝜿_1,k)=\frac{4\pi }{4\varrho }\frac{2}{N}_{𝜿_2}\stackrel{~}{v}_\pm (\kappa _{12})\left[\stackrel{~}{R}_L(𝜿_2,k)\stackrel{}{\stackrel{~}{R}_L^{}^{}}(𝜿_1,k)\stackrel{}{\stackrel{~}{R}_L}(𝜿_1,k)\stackrel{~}{R}_L^{}^{}(𝜿_2,k)\right],$$
(22)
$`\kappa _{12}=|𝜿_1𝜿_2|`$. Eq.(22) has to be inserted into Eq.(20). Then with ($`\zeta _{12}=𝐞_1𝐞_2`$)

$$v_\pm (\kappa _{12})=_{L^{\prime \prime }}P_{l^{\prime \prime }}(\zeta _{12})v_{l^{\prime \prime }}^\pm (\kappa _1,\kappa _2)\text{or}v_{l^{\prime \prime }}^\pm (\kappa _1,\kappa _2)=_1^1\frac{d\zeta _{12}}{2}P_{l^{\prime \prime }}(\zeta _{12})v_\pm (\kappa _{12})$$
(23)
and with

$$\frac{d\mathrm{\Omega }_\kappa }{4\pi }\mu (2(𝜿𝜿_1),𝐤)=_{L_1}P_{l_1}(𝐞_1𝐞_k)\mu _{l_1}(\kappa ,\kappa _1,k)$$
(24)
(the invariance of $`\mu (𝐊,𝐤)`$ by the replacement $`𝐤𝐤`$ makes $`l_1`$ even) and with

$$C_{ll_1l^{}}=𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }P_l(\zeta )P_{l_1}(\zeta )P_l^{}(\zeta )$$
(25)
(because $`l`$ and $`l^{}`$ have the same parity, these coefficients vanish for odd $`l_1`$) an expression arises,

$`\stackrel{~}{\chi }_\pm ^B(\kappa )`$ $`=`$ $`\varrho {\displaystyle _{L_,L^{}}^\pm }{\displaystyle _{L_1}}C_{ll_1l^{}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{2}{N}}\right)^2{\displaystyle _{𝜿_{1,2}}}<\mu _{l_1}(\kappa ,\kappa _1,k)\times `$ (26)
$`\left[v_l^\pm (\kappa _1,\kappa _2)\stackrel{~}{R}_l(\kappa _2,k)\stackrel{}{\stackrel{~}{R}_l^{}}(\kappa _1,k)\stackrel{}{\stackrel{~}{R}_l}(\kappa _1,k)\stackrel{~}{R}_l^{}(\kappa _2,k)v_l^{}^\pm (\kappa _1,\kappa _2)\right]>,`$
which vanishes, because the $`L`$-$`L^{}`$ double sum runs over an antisymmetric matrix (each element $`l,l^{}`$ is compensated by its mirror party). Thus, it finally results

$$\frac{2}{\pi }_L^\pm <\frac{2^3\mu (2\kappa ,k)}{3k^2}\eta _l^{}(k)>=\pm n(k)[1n(k)].$$
(27)
The occupancy weight in Eq. (27) can be written in terms of $`n(k)`$ as

$`\mu (2\kappa ,k)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{\Omega }_k}{4\pi }n(|𝜿+𝐤|)n(|𝜿𝐤|)},`$ (28)
or with $`n(k)=\frac{1}{2}\rho d^3r\frac{\mathrm{sin}\kappa r}{\kappa r}f(r)`$ in terms of the dimensionless 1-matrix $`f(r)`$ as

$`\mu (2\kappa ,k)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\rho ^2{\displaystyle d^3r_1d^3r_2\frac{\mathrm{sin}\kappa |𝐫_1+𝐫_2|}{\kappa |𝐫_1+𝐫_2|}\frac{\mathrm{sin}k|𝐫_1𝐫_2|}{k|𝐫_1𝐫_2|}f(r_1)f(r_2)},`$ (29)
For the momentum distribution the parametrization in terms of the Kulik function can be used. Zie1 ; Gor1

## Conclusions

The contraction SRs (27) are nonlinear integral equations for $`n(k)`$ supposed the phase shifts of the Overhauser geminals $`R_l(r,k)`$ are known from the effective interaction potential $`v_\pm (r)=\frac{\alpha r_s}{r}+\mathrm{}`$. These integral equations have to be solved selfconsistently. Because the PD is (via the $`R_l(r,k)`$) a functional of $`v_\pm (r)`$ and $`n(k)`$ is a functional of the $`R_l(r,k)`$, thus the total energy becomes a functional of $`v_\pm (r)`$.

The success of the Overhauser approach seems to confirm the possibility of a pair-density functional theory, the idea of which is presented in Ref. Zie10 . Whereas therein the geminal occupancy was erroneously assumed to be 1 and 0 according to occupied and unoccupied geminals respectively (analog to the aufbau principle of the Hartree-Fock and the Kohn-Sham schemes), in the Overhauser approach a geminal occupancy $`\mu (k)`$ is used being quite different from a step function. For PD or 2-matrix geminals there is no aufbau principle.

## Acknowledgments

One of the authors (P.Z.) gratefully acknowledges J.P. Perdew, P. Gori-Giorgi, and M.P. Tosi for inspiring discussions and P. Fulde for supporting this work. Another author (K.P.) expresses her thanks to the Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems for hospitality and F.T. thanks H. Eschrig for his support of this work and Technische Universität Dresden for a scholarship.


text:
# A unique spinodal region in asymmetric nuclear matter

## Abstract

Asymmetric nuclear matter at sub-saturation densities is shown to present only one type of instabilities. The associated order parameter is dominated by the isoscalar density and so the transition is of liquid-gas type. The instability goes in the direction of a restoration of the isospin symmetry leading to a fractionation phenomenon. These conclusions are model independent since they can be related to the general form of the asymmetry energy. They are illustrated using density functional approaches.

Phase transitions are universal phenomena of matter in interaction. The coexistence regions which correspond to thermodynamically-forbidden areas exhibits general features such as metastabilities or instabilities. Since strong interaction between nucleons is of Van der Waals type nuclear systems are expected to present a liquid and a gas phase characterized by their respective densities ber80 . Since nucleons can be either protons or neutrons the transition occurs in a two fluid systems which may lead to a richer phase diagram involving up to two order parameters. It has been argued that, asymmetric nuclear matter (ANM) presents different types of instabilities : a broad chemical instability region with the concentration as order parameter and a narrower domain of mechanical instability for which the total density plays the role of a second order parameter mul95 ; bao97 . In this letter, we will show that spinodal instability and phase transition in ANM involves a unique order parameter which reflects density fluctuation between the two phases. We will stress that the transition induces variations of the concentrations leading to the isospin fractionation bar98  similar to the one experimentally observed xu00 . These properties and in fact all the characteristics of the instabilities are independent of their usual classification as chemical or mechanical instabilities. These conclusions are related to general properties such as the isospin dependence of the asymmetry energy. The shape of the spinodal region and the associated instability times depend upon the model so the observation of spinodal decomposition may provide constraints on the isospin dependence of the effective forces.

Let us consider ANM characterized by a proton and a neutron densities $`\rho _i=`$ $`\rho _p`$, $`\rho _n`$. These densities can be transformed in a set of 2 mutually commuting charges $`\rho _i=`$ $`\rho _1`$, $`\rho _3`$ where $`\rho _1`$ is the density of baryons, $`\rho _1=\rho _p+\rho _n,`$ and $`\rho _3`$ the asymmetry density $`\rho _3=\rho _n\rho _p`$. In infinite matter, the extensivity of the free energy implies that it can be reduced to a free energy density : $`F(T,V,N_i)=V(T,\rho _i).`$ The system is stable against separation into two phases if the free energy of a single phase is lower than the free energy in all two-phases configurations. This stability criterium implies that the free energy density is a convex function of the densities $`\rho _i`$. A local necessary condition is the positivity of the curvature matrix :

$$\left[_{ij}\right]=\left[\frac{^2}{\rho _i\rho _j}|_T\right]\left[\frac{\mu _i}{\rho _j}|_T\right]$$
(1)
where we have introduced the chemical potentials $`\mu _j\frac{F}{N_j}|_{T,V,N_i}=\frac{}{\rho _j}|_{T,\rho _{ij}}`$. In the considered two-fluids system, the $`[_{ij}]`$ is a $`22`$ symmetric matrix, so it has 2 real eigenvalues $`\lambda ^\pm `$ bar01  :

$$\lambda ^\pm =\frac{1}{2}\left(\mathrm{Tr}\left[_{ij}\right]\pm \sqrt{\mathrm{Tr}\left[_{ij}\right]^24\mathrm{D}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{t}\left[_{ij}\right]}\right)$$
(2)
associated to eigenvectors $`\delta \rho ^\pm `$ defined by ($`ij`$)

$$\frac{\delta \rho _j^\pm }{\delta \rho _i^\pm }=\frac{_{ij}}{\lambda ^\pm _{jj}}=\frac{\lambda ^\pm _{ii}}{_{ij}}$$
(3)
Eigenvectors associated with negative eigenvalue indicate the direction of the instability. It defines a local order parameter since it is the direction along which the phase separation occurs. The eigen values $`\lambda `$ define sound velocities, $`c`$, by $`c^2=\frac{1}{18m}\rho _1\lambda .`$ In the spinodal area, the eigen value $`\lambda `$ is negative, so the sound velocity, $`c`$, is purely imaginary and the instability time $`\tau `$ is given by $`\tau =d/|c|`$ where $`d`$ is a typical size of the density fluctuation.

The requirement that the local curvature is positive is equivalent to the requirement that both the trace ($`\mathrm{Tr}[_{ij}]=\lambda ^++\lambda ^{})`$ and the determinant ($`\mathrm{Det}[_{ij}]=\lambda ^+\lambda ^{})`$ are positive

$$\mathrm{Tr}[_{ij}]0,\text{ and }\mathrm{Det}[_{ij}]0$$
(4)
The use of the trace and the determinant which are two basis-independent characteristics of the curvature matrix clearly stresses the fact that the stability analysis should be independent of the arbitrary choice of the thermodynamical quantities used to label the state e.g. $`(\rho _p`$, $`\rho _n)`$ or $`(\rho _1`$, $`\rho _3)`$. If Eq. 4 is violated the system is in the unstable region of a phase transition. Two cases are then possible : i) only one eigenvalue is negative and one order parameter is sufficient to describe the transition or ii) both eigenvalues are negative and two independent order parameters should be considered meaning that more than two phases can coexist.

For ANM below saturation density, the case ii) never occurs since the asymmetry energy has always positive curvature ($`_{33}`$). Indeed, the asymmetry term in the mass formula behave like $`(NZ)^2`$ times a positive function of $`A`$ showing that the dominant $`\rho _3`$ dependence of the asymmetry potential energy is essentially quadratic and that $`_{33}`$ is a positive function of the total density. Recent Bruckner calculations in ANM vid02  have confirmed the positivity of $`_{33}`$. They have parameterized the potential energy with the simple form $`𝒱(\rho _1,\rho _3)=𝒱_0(\rho _1)\rho _1^2+𝒱_1(\rho _1)\rho _3^2`$ with $`𝒱_0/𝒱_13`$ and $`𝒱_0<0`$. This is also true for effective forces such as Skyrme forces. For example, the simplest interaction with a constant attraction, $`t_0`$, and a repulsive part, $`t_3\rho _1`$, leads to $`𝒱(\rho _1,\rho _3)=(3\rho _1^2\rho _3^2)\beta (\rho _1)`$ with $`\beta (\rho _1)=(t_0+t_3/6\rho _1)/8`$. The function $`\beta (\rho _1)`$ is negative below saturation density, hence the contribution of the interaction to $`_{33}`$ in the low density region is always positive.

These arguments show that, below saturation density, the $`\rho _3`$ curvature, $`_{33}`$, is expected to be positive for all asymmetries. Since the curvature in any direction, $`_{ii}`$, should be between the two eigenvalues $`\lambda ^{}_{ii}\lambda ^+`$ we immediately see that if $`_{33}`$ is positive one eigen curvature at least should remain positive. In fact for all models we have studied $`_{33}`$ appears to be always large enough so that the trace is always positive demonstrating that $`\lambda ^+>0`$. Since $`\mathrm{Tr}[_{ij}]=_{nn}+_{pp}`$, this can be related to the positivity of the Landau parameter $`_{nn}`$ and $`_{pp}`$.

The large positive value of $`_{33}`$ also indicates that the instability should remain far from the $`\rho _3`$ direction i.e. it should involve total density variation and indeed we will see that in all models and for all asymmetry the instability direction hardly deviates from a constant asymmetry direction $`(\delta \rho _3\delta \rho _1)`$. This isoscalar nature of the instability can be understood by looking at the expression of the eigen-modes in the $`(\rho _n;\rho _p)`$ coordinates. Since $`\lambda ^{}_{ii}\lambda ^+`$, the differences $`\lambda ^{}_{ii}`$ is always negative demonstrating, using Eq. 3, that the instability is of isoscalar type, if the Landau parameter $`_{np}`$ is negative. Hence, there is a close link between the isoscalar nature of the instability and the attraction of the proton-neutron interaction bar01 .

To illustrate the above results we will now use density functional formalism using Skyrme sky56  and Gogny gog75  effective forces. It should be noticed, that the extraction of the sound velocity corresponds to a random phase approximation (RPA) which goes beyond the mean field approximation. We will focus on the isospin degree of freedom for which RPA approaches can be considered as good approximations and discuss both zero and finite temperature in ANM.

We represent in Fig. 1 the energy surface as a function of $`\rho _n`$ and $`\rho _p`$, deduced from SLy230a Skyrme interaction cha97 . In the symmetric case ($`\rho _n=\rho _p`$), one can see the negative curvature of the energy which defines the spinodal area, whereas in pure neutron matter ($`\rho _p=0`$), no negative curvature and so no spinodal instability are predicted. We can also notice that the isovector density dependence is almost parabolic illustrating the positivity of $`_{33}`$.

The spinodal contours predicted by several models exhibit important differences (see Fig. 2). In the case of SLy230a force (as well as SGII, D1P), the total density at which spinodal instability appears decreases when the asymmetry increases whereas for SIII (as well as D1, D1S) it increases up to large asymmetry and finally decreases. Considering the implicit equation of the spinodal limit $`g(\rho _1,\rho _3)\mathrm{Det}[_{ij}]=0`$, we can show that the curvature of the spinodal around the symmetry is related to $`^2g/\rho _3^2(\rho _3=0)`$. The isospin symmetry impose that $`g/\rho _3(\rho _3=0)=0`$ and one can show that

$`{\displaystyle \frac{^2g}{\rho _3^2}}|_{\rho _3=0}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{Det}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{_{ij}}{\rho _3}}|_{\rho _3=0}\right]`$ (5)
$`+`$ $`(_{1133}_{33}+_{3333}_{11}+_{1333}_{13}).`$
Assuming that the forth derivatives of the free energy are negligible compare to the third one, the curvature of $`g`$ is mainly given by $`\mathrm{Det}[_{ij}/\rho _3]`$ where $`_{ij}/\rho _3`$ is nothing but the curvature matrix of $`F/\rho _3`$, i.e. the asymmetry density dependence of the free energy. We observe that all forces which fulfill the global requirement that they reproduce symmetric nuclear matter (SNM) equation of state as well as the pure neutron matter calculations, leads to the same curvature of the spinodal region.

The temperature dependence of the spinodal contour can be appreciated in the right part of Fig. 2). As the temperature increases the spinodal region shrinks up to the critical temperature for which it is reduced to SNM critical point. However, up to a rather high temperature ( $`5`$ to $`10`$ $`\mathrm{MeV}`$) the spinodal zone remains almost identical to the zero temperature one.

We show in the right part of Fig. 3 the sound velocity in SNM as a function of the density for several forces. When we enter into the spinodal area, the sound velocity becomes purely imaginary. The different forces predict different instability time. However, for the set of forces fitted to reproduce the symmetric and the pure neutron matter calculation, we observe a convergence of prediction as we already observed on the spinodal boundaries. In the left part of Fig. 3 we can appreciate the reduction of the instability when we go away from SNM. However, large asymmetries are needed to induce a sizable effect.

Various contour of equal imaginary sound velocity are represented in Fig. 4 for SLy230b and D1P interactions. The more internal curve correspond to the sound velocity $`i0.09c`$, after comes $`i0.06c`$, $`i0.03c`$ and finally 0, the spinodal border. For these two recent forces which takes into account pure neutron matter constraints, the predicted instability domains are rather similar. We observe that in almost all the spinodal region the sound velocity is larger than $`0.06c`$.

Let us now focus on the direction of the instability. If $`\delta \rho ^{}`$ is along $`y=\rho _p/\rho _1`$=const then the instability does not change the proton fraction. For symmetry reasons pure isoscalar $`(\delta \rho _3=0)`$ and isovector $`(\delta \rho _1=0)`$ modes appears only for SNM so it is interesting to introduce a generalization of isoscalar-like and isovector-like modes by considering if the protons and neutrons move in phase ($`\delta \rho _n^{}\delta \rho _p^{}>0`$) or out of phase ($`\delta \rho _n^{}\delta \rho _p^{}<0`$). Fig. 4 shows the direction of instabilities along the spinodal border and some iso-instability lines. We observed that instability is always almost along the $`\rho _1`$ axis meaning that it is dominated by total density fluctuations even for large asymmetries. Fig. 5 presents the angle of the eigen state $`\delta \rho ^{}`$ with the isoscalar axis normalized by the angle between the $`y`$=const line and the isoscalar axis (denoted $`\chi `$) for 3 models (D1P, SGII, SLy230a). We can see that this quantity is in between 0 and 1, so that the instability direction is between the $`y`$=const line and the $`\rho _1`$ direction. This shows that the unstable direction is of isoscalar nature as expected from the attractive interaction between proton-neutron. The total density is therefore the dominant contribution to the order parameter showing that the transition is between two phases having different densities (i.e. liquid-gas phase transition). The angle with the $`\rho _1`$ axis is almost constant along a constant $`y`$ line. This means that as the matter enters in the spinodal zone and then dives into it, there are no dramatic change in the instability direction which remains essentially a density fluctuation. Moreover, the unstable eigenvector drives the dense phase (i.e. the liquid) towards a more symmetric point in the density plane. By particle conservation, the gas phase will be more asymmetric leading to the fractionation phenomenon. Those results are in agreement with recent calculation for ANM bar01  and nuclei col02 .

We want to stress that those qualitative conclusions are very robust and have been reached for all the Skyrme and Gogny forces we have tested (SGII, SkM, RATP, D1, D1S, D1P,…) including the most recent one (SLy230a, D1P) as well as the original one (like SIII, D1).

A different discussion can be found in the literature mul95 ; bao97 . Therein, a chemical and mechanical stability conditions

$$\frac{\mu _p}{y}|_{T,P}>0\text{ and }\frac{P}{\rho _1}|_{T,y}>0$$
(6)
are introduced and two types of spinodal regions are defined. This leads to the idea that two order parameters should be introduced : the concentration in the chemical instability zone and the baryon density in the mechanical instability region. To try to connect the eigenstate analysis with this discussion one can use the relations

$$\rho _n\mathrm{Det}[_{ij}]=\frac{\mu _p}{y}|_{T,P}\frac{P}{\rho _1}|_{T,y}$$
(7)
Comparing expression (7), with the identity $`\mathrm{Det}[_{ij}]=\lambda ^+\lambda ^{}`$ one can be tempted to relate separately $`\frac{\mu _p}{y}|_{T,P}`$ and $`\frac{P}{\rho _1}|_{T,y}`$ to the two eigenvalues $`\lambda ^+`$ and $`\lambda ^{}`$. This is indeed correct in SNM bar01  but theses relations break down in ANM. For instance, $`\frac{P}{\rho _1}|_{T,y}=\rho _1\frac{^2}{\rho _1^2}|_{T,y}`$ is nothing but the curvature of the free energy in the particular direction of constant proton fraction and this direction has no reason to be an eigenvector direction, except in SNM. Considering Eq. 7 only the product $`\frac{\mu _p}{y}|_{T,P}\frac{P}{\rho _1}|_{T,y}`$ should be used to spot the instability region. Eq. 7 shows that at the onset of instability where $`\mathrm{Det}[_{ij}]=0`$ the product should vanish. On the spinodal border, $`\frac{P}{\rho _1}|_{T,y}`$ vanishes only if the direction of instability is the $`y`$=const line. This happens only for SNM therefore in general $`\frac{\mu _p}{y}|_{T,P}`$ should vanish first irrespectively of the actual nature of the instability. In particular, the previous eigen vector analysis shows that in the so called chemical region not only the concentration fluctuations, $`\delta y`$, are amplified but mainly the total density one, $`\delta \rho _1`$. When entering in the mechanical spinodal zone (shown in Fig. 4) nothing special happens : the instability strength evolves smoothly (see also Fig. 3) and the associated vector keeps pointing in the same isoscalar-like direction (see Fig. 5). Consequently, the chemical and mechanical stability conditions should not be considered separately but combined into the determinant of the curvature matrix.

In this paper, we have shown that ANM does not present two types of spinodal instabilities, a mechanical and chemical, but only one which is dominantly of isoscalar nature as a consequence of the negativity of the Landau parameter $`_{np}`$. This general property can be linked to the positivity of the symmetry energy curvature $`_{33}`$. This means that the instability is always dominated by density fluctuations and so can be interpreted as a liquid-gas separation. The instabilities tend to restore the isospin symmetry for the dense phase (liquid) leading to the fractionation of ANM. We have shown that changing the asymmetry up to $`\rho _p<3\rho _n`$ does not change quantitatively the density at which instability appears, neither the imaginary sound velocity compared to those obtained in SNM. All the above results are not qualitatively modified by the temperature which mainly introduce a reduction of the spinodal region up to the SNM critical point where it vanishes. The quantitative predictions concerning the shape of the spinodal zone as well as the instability times depends upon the chosen interaction but converge for the various forces already constrained to reproduce the pure neutron matter calculation.

We want to thank Bao-An Li and V.Baran for interesting discussion during the preparation of this manuscript.