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# Neutrinos from Gamma-Ray Bursts in Pulsar Wind Bubbles: ∼10¹⁶eV

## Neutrino production in the GRB.

— The internal shocks in GRBs are believed to be mildly relativistic. Therefore, the proton energy distribution should be close to that for Fermi acceleration in a Newtonian shock, $`dn_p/d\epsilon _p\epsilon _p^2`$. Moreover, the power law index of the electron and proton energy spectra should be the same, and the values inferred for the electrons (from the prompt GRB spectrum) are $`dn_e/d\epsilon _e\epsilon _e^p`$ with $`p22.5`$. We therefore adopt $`dn_p/d\epsilon _p\epsilon _p^2`$. Primed (un-primed) quantities are measured in the comoving (lab) frame. Protons of energy $`\epsilon _p`$ interact mostly with photons that satisfy the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ resonance condition, $`\epsilon _{p,\mathrm{\Delta }}=0.3\mathrm{GeV}^2/\epsilon _\gamma `$. The minimal photon energy relevant for p$`\gamma `$ interactions is $`\epsilon _{\gamma ,\mathrm{min}}=0.3\mathrm{GeV}^2/\epsilon _{p,\mathrm{max}}3\times 10^3`$eV. For reasonable parameters \[$`t_{\mathrm{sd},1}=t_{\mathrm{sd}}/(0.1\mathrm{yr})0.26`$\] this falls above the self absorption frequency GG , and the relevant part of the PWB spectrum consists of two power laws: $`dn_\gamma /d\epsilon _\gamma \epsilon _\gamma ^{3/2}`$ for $`\epsilon _\gamma <\epsilon _{\gamma b}=h\nu _{bm}`$ and $`\epsilon _\gamma ^{s/21}`$ for $`\epsilon _\gamma >\epsilon _{\gamma b}`$, where $`\nu _{bm}1.6\times 10^{15}t_{sd,1}^{3/2}`$ Hz is the peak frequency of the PWB $`\nu F_\nu `$ spectrum, $`n_\gamma `$ is the photon number density, and $`s2.2`$ is the power law index of the PWB electrons. Photons of energy $`\epsilon _{\gamma b}`$ satisfy the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ resonance condition with protons of energy

$$\epsilon _{pb}=4.4\times 10^{16}\frac{\xi _{e/3}^2\beta _{b,1}^{3/2}t_{\mathrm{sd},1}^{3/2}}{\eta _{2/3}^{5/2}ϵ_{be/3}^2ϵ_{bB,3}^{1/2}E_{53}^{1/2}\gamma _{w,4.5}^2}\mathrm{eV},$$
(1)
where $`\beta _bc=0.1\beta _{b,1}c`$ is the velocity of the SNR shell, $`\gamma _w=10^{4.5}\gamma _{w,4.5}`$ and $`E_{\mathrm{rot}}=10^{53}E_{53}`$erg are the Lorentz factor and total energy of the pulsar wind, $`\xi _e=\xi _{e/3}/3`$ ($`\eta =\eta _{2/3}2/3`$) is the fraction of the wind energy in $`e^\pm `$ pairs (protons), and $`ϵ_{be}=ϵ_{be/3}/3`$ ($`ϵ_{bB}=10^3ϵ_{bB,3}`$) is the fraction of PWB energy in electrons (magnetic field). The corresponding neutrino energy is $`\epsilon _{\nu b}\epsilon _{pb}/202\times 10^{15}t_{\mathrm{sd},1}^{3/2}\mathrm{eV}`$, similar to that expected from the p$`\gamma `$ interactions with the GRB photons GRB\_nu , for $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}0.1`$yr. The GRB emission can be detected simultaneously with these neutrinos only if the Thompson optical depth is $`1`$, which can be obtained for $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}0.1`$yr only if the SNR shell is clumpy GG . In the case of a uniform shell we need $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}0.4`$yr, and in turn $`\epsilon _{\nu b}2\times 10^{16}`$eV.

The internal shocks occur over a distance $`\mathrm{\Delta }RR=2\mathrm{\Gamma }^2ct_v`$. Thus, the optical depth to photo-pion production at the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ resonance, for protons of energy $`\epsilon _p`$, is

$$\tau _{p\gamma }=\sigma _{p\gamma }\epsilon _\gamma \frac{dn_\gamma }{d\epsilon _\gamma }R=\frac{1.0\xi _{e/3}^3E_{53}^{1/2}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{2.5}^2t_{v,2}(\epsilon _p/\epsilon _{pb})^\beta }{f_{1/3}^2\eta _{2/3}^{5/2}ϵ_{be/3}^{5/2}\gamma _{p,4.5}^2\beta _{b,1}^{1/2}t_{\mathrm{sd},1}^{3/2}}$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{2.5}=\mathrm{\Gamma }/10^{2.5}`$, $`t_v=10^2t_{v,2}`$s, $`\sigma _{p\gamma }0.5\mathrm{mb}`$, $`\epsilon _\gamma =0.3\mathrm{Gev}^2/\epsilon _p`$, $`f=f_{1/3}/3`$ is the fraction of the PWB radius up to which most of its radiation is emitted, and $`\beta =s/2`$ ($`1/2`$) for $`\epsilon _p<\epsilon _{pb}`$ ($`\epsilon _p>\epsilon _{pb}`$) is the spectral slope of the seed PWB synchrotron photons. The fraction of the proton energy that is lost to pion production is GGnuPWB

$$f_{p\pi }(\epsilon _p)1\mathrm{exp}\left[\tau _{p\gamma }(\epsilon _p)/5\right]\mathrm{min}[1,\tau _{p\gamma }(\epsilon _p)/5].$$
(3)
The factor 5 is since the proton loses $`0.2`$ of its energy in a single interaction. We denote $`\epsilon _p`$ for which $`f_{p\pi }(\epsilon _p)1`$ by $`\epsilon _{p\tau }=10^{18}\epsilon _{p\tau 18}`$eV \[i.e. $`\tau _{p\gamma }(\epsilon _{p\tau })5`$\], and obtain

$$\epsilon _{p\tau 18}=\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{0.20f_{1/3}^{20/11}\eta _{2/3}^{25/11}ϵ_{be/3}^{3/11}\beta _{b,1}^{43/22}t_{\mathrm{sd},1}^{63/22}}{\xi _{e/3}^{8/11}ϵ_{bB,3}^{1/2}E_{53}^{21/22}\gamma _{p,4.5}^{2/11}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{2.5}^{20/11}t_{v,2}^{10/11}}& \frac{\epsilon _{p\tau }}{\epsilon _{pb}}<1\\ & \\ \frac{1.2f_{1/3}^4\eta _{2/3}^{5/2}ϵ_{be/3}^3\gamma _{p,4.5}^2\beta _{b,1}^{5/2}t_{\mathrm{sd},1}^{9/2}}{\xi _{e/3}^4ϵ_{bB,3}^{1/2}E_{53}^{3/2}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{2.5}^4t_{v,2}^2}& \frac{\epsilon _{p\tau }}{\epsilon _{pb}}>1\end{array},$$
(4)
The decay of charged pions created in interactions between PWB photons and GRB protons, produces high energy neutrinos, $`\pi ^+\mu ^++\nu _\mu e^++\nu _e+\overline{\nu }_\mu +\nu _\mu `$, where each neutrino receives $`5\%`$ of the proton energy.

The energy of the protons accelerated in the internal shocks of GRBs is expected to be similar to the $`\gamma `$-ray energy output in the GRB Waxman95 . This implies a $`\nu _\mu `$ fluence,

$`f_{\nu _\mu }=f_0f_{p\nu },f_0={\displaystyle \frac{E_{\gamma ,iso}}{32\pi d_L^2}}=1\times 10^5{\displaystyle \frac{E_{\gamma ,53}}{d_{L28}^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{erg}}{\mathrm{cm}^2}},`$
$`f_{p\nu }={\displaystyle \frac{𝑑\epsilon _p(dN_p/d\epsilon _p)\epsilon _pf_{p\nu }(\epsilon _p)}{𝑑\epsilon _p(dN_p/d\epsilon _p)\epsilon _p}},`$ (5)
where $`E_{\gamma ,\mathrm{iso}}=10^{53}E_{\gamma ,53}`$erg is the isotropic equivalent energy in $`\gamma `$-rays, $`f_{p\nu }(\epsilon _p)=f_{p\pi }(\epsilon _p)f_{\pi \nu }(\epsilon _p)`$, while $`f_{p\pi }(\epsilon _p)`$ is given in Eq. (3) and $`f_{\pi \nu }(\epsilon _p)`$ is the fraction of the original pion energy, $`\epsilon _\pi 0.2\epsilon _p`$, that remains when it decays. We have taken into account that although the initial neutrino flavor ratio $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{\nu _e}:\mathrm{\Phi }_{\nu _\mu }:\mathrm{\Phi }_{\nu _\tau }`$ is $`1:2:0`$, neutrino oscillations cause it to be $`1:1:1`$ at the Earth.

The pions may lose some energy via synchrotron or inverse-Compton (IC) emission. If these energy losses are important, then the final energy left in the $`\pi ^+`$ when it decays, out of which $`3/4`$ goes to neutrinos, can be much smaller than its original energy. We find that $`f_{\pi \nu }(\epsilon _p)1\mathrm{exp}(t_{\mathrm{rad}}^{}/\tau _\pi ^{})\mathrm{min}(1,t_{\mathrm{rad}}^{}/\tau _\pi ^{})`$, where $`\tau _\pi ^{}2.6\times 10^8\epsilon _\pi ^{}/(m_\pi c^2)`$s is the life time of the pion, and $`t_{\mathrm{rad}}^{}=(t_{\mathrm{syn}}^1+t_{\mathrm{IC}}^1)^1\mathrm{min}(t_{\mathrm{syn}}^{},t_{\mathrm{IC}}^{})`$ is the time for radiative losses due to both synchrotron and IC losses, the time for which are $`t_{\mathrm{syn}}^{}`$ and $`t_{\mathrm{IC}}^{}`$, respectively. We have

$$t_{\mathrm{syn}}^{}=\frac{3m_\pi ^4c^3}{4\sigma _Tm_e^2\epsilon _\pi ^{}U_B^{}},t_{\mathrm{IC}}^{}=\frac{3m_\pi ^4c^3}{4\sigma _Tm_e^2\epsilon _\pi ^{}U_\gamma ^{}(\epsilon _\pi ^{})},$$
(6)
where $`U_B^{}=B_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}/8\pi `$ is the energy density in the magnetic field, within the shocked fluid behind the internal shocks, and $`U_\gamma ^{}(\epsilon _\pi ^{})`$ is the energy density of photons below the Klein-Nishina limit, $`\epsilon _{\gamma ,KN}^{}=(m_\pi c^2)^2/\epsilon _\pi ^{}`$. IC losses due to scattering of the GRB photons were shown to be unimportant GRB\_nu . We consider the IC losses due to the upscattering of the external PWB photons, and find

$`t_{\mathrm{syn}}^{}/\tau _\pi ^{}=0.21ϵ_eϵ_B^1L_{52}^1\mathrm{\Gamma }_{2.5}^8t_{v,2}^2\epsilon _{\pi 18}^2,`$ (7)
$`t_{\mathrm{IC}}^{}/\tau _\pi ^{}=0.67f_{1/3}^2\xi _{e/3}^1ϵ_{be/3}^{1/2}ϵ_{bB,3}^{1/2}E_{53}^1\beta _{b,1}^2t_{\mathrm{sd},1}^3\epsilon _{\pi 18}^2,`$ (8)
where $`ϵ_e`$ and $`ϵ_B`$ are the equipartition parameters of the GRB, and $`\epsilon _{\pi 18}=\epsilon _\pi /10^{18}`$eV. The radiative losses become important for $`t_{\mathrm{rad}}^{}<\tau _\pi ^{}`$, which corresponds to $`\epsilon _p>\epsilon _{ps}=\mathrm{min}(\epsilon _{ps}^{\mathrm{syn}},\epsilon _{ps}^{\mathrm{IC}})5\epsilon _{\pi s}20\epsilon _{\nu s}`$, where

$`\epsilon _{ps18}^{\mathrm{syn}}=2.3ϵ_e^{1/2}ϵ_B^{1/2}L_{52}^{1/2}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{2.5}^4t_{v,2},`$ (9)
$`\epsilon _{ps18}^{\mathrm{IC}}=4.1f_{1/3}\xi _{e/3}^{1/2}ϵ_{be/3}^{1/4}ϵ_{bB,3}^{1/4}E_{53}^{1/2}\beta _{b,1}t_{\mathrm{sd},1}^{3/2}.`$ (10)
The protons may also lose energy via p$`\gamma `$ interactions with the GRB photons GRB\_nu , However, $`\tau _{p\gamma }`$ for this process is typically $`1`$, so that it does not have a large effect on p$`\gamma `$ interactions with the PWB photons, on which we focus.

Since the life time of the muons is $`100`$ times longer than that of the pions, they would have significant radiative losses at an energy of $`\epsilon _{\mu s}\epsilon _{\pi s}/10\epsilon _{ps}/50`$. This causes a reduction of up to a factor of $`3`$ in the total neutrino flux in the range $`(0.11)\epsilon _{\nu s}`$, since only $`\nu _\mu `$ that are produced directly in $`\pi ^+`$ decay contribute considerably to the neutrino flux. Note that since both ratios in Eqs. (7) and (8) scale as $`\epsilon _\pi ^2`$, we always have $`t_{\mathrm{rad}}^{}/\tau _\pi ^{}\epsilon _\pi ^2`$, and therefore the spectrum steepens by a factor of $`(\epsilon _\nu /\epsilon _{\nu s})^2`$ for $`\epsilon _\nu >\epsilon _{\nu s}`$. This is also evident from the fact that $`f_{\pi \nu }(\epsilon _p5\epsilon _\pi )\mathrm{min}(1,t_{\mathrm{syn}}^{}/\tau _\pi ^{},t_{\mathrm{IC}}^{}/\tau _\pi ^{})`$.

Fig. 1 shows the proton energies corresponding to the neutrino break energies $`\epsilon _{\nu s}`$, $`\epsilon _{\nu b}`$ and $`\epsilon _{\nu \tau }\epsilon _{p\tau }/20`$, as a function of $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}`$. From Eqs. (2), (9) and (10), we see that $`\tau _{p\gamma }\mathrm{\Gamma }^2t_{\mathrm{sd}}^{3/2}`$, $`\epsilon _{ps}^{\mathrm{syn}}\mathrm{\Gamma }^4`$ and $`\epsilon _{ps}^{\mathrm{IC}}t_{\mathrm{sd}}^{3/2}`$. For a fixed value of $`t_{\mathrm{sd},1}=1`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{2.5}1`$ implies $`\tau _{p\gamma }1`$ and $`\epsilon _{ps}=\epsilon _{ps}^{\mathrm{IC}}=\mathrm{const}10^{18}`$eV, while $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{2.5}1`$ implies $`\epsilon _{ps}=\epsilon _{ps}^{\mathrm{syn}}\mathrm{\Gamma }^4`$. This implies a stronger neutrino emission which can reach higher energies for larger values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Since a larger $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ implies a lower typical synchrotron frequency for the prompt GRB, this may apply to X-ray flashes, if they are indeed GRBs with relatively large Lorentz factors $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and/or a large $`t_v`$ XRF .

As can be seen from Fig. 1, for relevant parameters, there are four different orderings of these break energies: (i) $`\epsilon _{\nu \tau }<\epsilon _{\nu b}<\epsilon _{\nu s}`$, (ii) $`\epsilon _{\nu b}<\epsilon _{\nu \tau }<\epsilon _{\nu s}`$, (iii) $`\epsilon _{\nu b}<\epsilon _{\nu s}<\epsilon _{\nu \tau }`$, (iv) $`\epsilon _{\nu s}<\epsilon _{\nu b}<\epsilon _{\nu \tau }`$. Each of these orderings results in a different shape for the spectrum, that consists of 3 or 4 power laws, as can be seen in Fig. 2 (solid line). The peak of the $`\epsilon _\nu ^2(dN_\nu /d\epsilon _\nu )`$ spectrum, in units of $`f_0`$, is

$$\begin{array}{cc}\frac{(4+s)/4s+\mathrm{ln}(\epsilon _{\nu s}/\epsilon _{\nu \tau })}{\left[(4+s)/2s+\mathrm{ln}\left(\epsilon _{\nu s}/\epsilon _{\nu \tau }\right)\right]^2}& \epsilon _{\nu \tau }<\epsilon _{\nu b}<\epsilon _{\nu s}\\ & \\ \frac{5/4+\mathrm{ln}(\epsilon _{\nu s}/\epsilon _{\nu \tau })}{\left[5/2+\mathrm{ln}(\epsilon _{\nu s}/\epsilon _{\nu \tau })\right]^2}& \epsilon _{\nu b}<\epsilon _{\nu \tau }<\epsilon _{\nu s}\\ & \\ (3/16)\sqrt{\epsilon _{\nu s}/\epsilon _{\nu \tau }}& \epsilon _{\nu b}<\epsilon _{\nu s}<\epsilon _{\nu \tau }\\ & \\ \frac{s(4s)}{16}(\epsilon _{\nu s}/\epsilon _{\nu b})^{s/2}\sqrt{\epsilon _{\nu b}/\epsilon _{\nu \tau }}& \epsilon _{\nu s}<\epsilon _{\nu b}<\epsilon _{\nu \tau }\end{array}.$$
(11)
For example, spectrum (iii) applies for $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}=0.4`$yr, where the GRB is detectable, and is given by

$$\frac{\epsilon _\nu ^2\frac{dN_\nu }{d\epsilon _\nu }/f_0}{\frac{3}{16}\sqrt{\frac{\epsilon _{\nu s}}{\epsilon _{\nu \tau }}}}=\{\begin{array}{cc}\left(\frac{\epsilon _{\nu b}}{\epsilon _{\nu s}}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(\frac{\epsilon _\nu }{\epsilon _{\nu b}}\right)^{\frac{s}{2}}& \epsilon _\nu <\epsilon _{\nu b}\\ & \\ (\epsilon _\nu /\epsilon _{\nu s})^{1/2}& \epsilon _{\nu b}<\epsilon _\nu <\epsilon _{\nu s}\\ & \\ (\epsilon _\nu /\epsilon _{\nu s})^{3/2}& \epsilon _{\nu s}<\epsilon _\nu <\epsilon _{\nu \tau }\\ & \\ \left(\frac{\epsilon _{\nu s}}{\epsilon _{\nu \tau }}\right)^{\frac{3}{2}}\left(\frac{\epsilon _{\nu \tau }}{\epsilon _\nu }\right)^2& \epsilon _\nu >\epsilon _{\nu \tau }\end{array}.$$
(12)
Fig. 2 shows the muon neutrino spectrum for our fiducial parameters (solid line). The spectrum of the other neutrino flavors is the same, while the spectrum of the $`\gamma `$-rays from the pion decay is almost the same, just substituting $`\epsilon _\gamma 2\epsilon _\nu `$ and with a normalization larger by a factor of 4. In Fig. 2 we also compare our neutrino spectra with that of GRB\_nu  for different internal shock parameters. We see that for reasonably large values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`t_v`$, the PWB photons are the dominant target for photomeson interactions for $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}4`$yr. The afterglow neutrino emission with $`\epsilon _\nu 10^{17}`$eV nuafter  should be distinguishable from the prompt emission (from p$`\gamma `$ interaction with either GRB or PWB photons) due to the very different spectrum, and may also be delayed in time.

## Implications

— The high energy, $`10^{16}`$ eV, neutrinos produced by photomeson interactions between protons accelerated in the internal shocks of GRBs and the PWB photons may be detected by the future neutrino telescopes Gaisser . The probability, $`P_{\nu \mu }`$, that a neutrino would produce a high energy muon in the detector is approximately given by the ratio of the high energy muon range to the neutrino mean free path. For the neutrinos studied here, $`P_{\nu \mu }1.3\times 10^3(\epsilon _\nu /10^3\mathrm{TeV})^\beta `$, with $`\beta =1`$ for $`\epsilon _\nu <10^3`$ TeV and $`\beta =1/2`$ for $`\epsilon _\nu >10^3`$ TeV Gaisser .

In Fig. 3 we report the expected number of events in a km2 detector as a function of $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}`$, for our fiducial parameters, for a GRB at $`z1`$ with $`E_{\gamma ,\mathrm{iso}}=10^{53}`$ ergs. We consider three different sets of values for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`t_v`$, and compare the resulting numbers with the expected number of events due to photomeson interactions with the GRB photons GRB\_nu . For a typical GRB with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=10^{2.5}`$ and $`t_v=10`$ms, $`\nu `$’s from interactions with PWB photons dominate over $`\nu `$’s from GRB photons for $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}0.2`$yr.

GRBs that occur inside spherical PWBs with $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}0.10.2`$yr would have a peculiar and short lived afterglow emission GG . Since they occur for a wide range of $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}`$ values, we expect their rate to be similar to that of typical GRBs (i.e. $`10^3`$ yr-1 beamed toward us). For these values of $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}`$ we expect $`0.010.1`$ events per burst corresponding to the detection of several tens of neutrino induced muons per year. These neutrino bursts should be easily detected above the background, since the neutrinos would be correlated, both in time and direction, with the GRB $`\gamma `$-rays. Note, that at the high energy considered, knowledge of burst direction and time will allow to discriminate the neutrino signal from the background by looking not only for upward moving neutrino induced muons, but also by looking for down-going muons. For larger values of $`0.2\mathrm{yr}t_{\mathrm{sd}}1`$yr, the neutrino flux due to photomeson interaction with the PWB photons will dominate over the one due photomeson interaction with the GRB photons GRB\_nu , if the GRB has $`\mathrm{\Gamma }600`$ and $`t_v50`$ms. Since larger $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`t_v`$ imply a lower typical synchrotron frequency for the prompt GRB, this may apply to X-ray flashes, if they are indeed GRBs with relatively large Lorentz factors and/or a large variability time, $`t_v`$ XRF . For these events no afterglow emission has been detected and this can be explained considering the fact that for $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}1`$ yr the GRB would have a peculiar and short lived afterglow emission. The typical neutrino energy is expected to be in the range $`10^{15}10^{17}`$eV for typical GRBs, and $`10^{15}10^{19}`$eV for X-ray flashes.

We expect $`10^50.01`$ events per X-ray flash for this range of $`t_{\mathrm{sd}}`$ corresponding to a detection of $`0.0110`$ events per year. Again, these neutrino bursts should be easily detected above the background, since the neutrinos would be correlated, both in time and direction, with the X-rays of the X-ray flashes. This neutrino emission would be simultaneous with the $`\gamma `$-ray/X-ray emission from the GRB and should be easily distinguishable from neutrinos emitted after the $`\gamma `$-ray phase of the GRB nuafter  or $`100`$ s before the GRB nuprec . Detection of high energy neutrinos will test the shock acceleration mechanism and the suggestion that GRBs are the sources of ultra-high energy protons, since $`10^{16}`$ eV neutrino production requires protons of energy $`10^{18}`$ eV, and will help to establish whether indeed most GRBs occur inside PWBs.

## Acknowledgments.

We thank J.N. Bahcall, A. Loeb and P. Mészáros for useful discussions. JG is supported by the Institute for Advanced Study, funds for natural sciences. DG thanks the IAS in Princeton for the hospitality and the nice working atmosphere during this work.


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# Effect of Quantum Fluctuations in an Ising System on Small-World Networks

## Abstract

We study quantum Ising spins placed on small-world networks. A simple model is considered in which the coupling between any given pair of spins is a nonzero constant if they are linked in the small-world network and zero otherwise. By applying a transverse magnetic field, we have investigated the effect of quantum fluctuations. Our numerical analysis shows that the quantum fluctuations do not alter the universality class at the ferromagnetic phase transition, which is of the mean-field type. The transition temperature is reduced by the quantum fluctuations and eventually vanishes at the critical transverse field $`\mathrm{\Delta }_c`$. With increasing rewiring probability, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_c`$ is shown to be enhanced.

Various phenomena in nature and human society can be understood in terms of dynamical interaction among individual elements on a complex network. The equilibrium and dynamic properties of such systems depend strongly on the topology of the underlying network as well as how the individuals interact with each other. For example, the antiferromagnetic Ising model suffers from frustration effects on a triangular lattice, whereas it has a simple ground state on a square lattice. For the mathematical simplicity, the network is often regarded as either completely random or purely regular. In reality, however, most of the biological systems, solid-state systems, and human societies lie somewhere between these two extremes. Furthermore, it has recently been shown that such networks, now widely known as “small-world” networks, exhibit mixed properties: some of which are common to completely random networks, some common to purely regular networks, and others unique to small-world networks Barabási (2002); Kochen (1989).

A simple yet inspiring mathematical model for a small-world network has been proposed by Watts and Strogatz (WS) Watts and Strogatz (1998). One starts from a regular network and “rewires” the links with probability $`p`$. As $`p`$ varies from $`0`$ to $`1`$, the resulting network “interpolates” from a purely regular network to a completely random network. The value of the model so generated comes from the fact that it captures important physics in a wide range of physical systems, which can be described by neither a regular nor a random network.

In recent years, many authors have studied scaling properties, crossover behavior, percolation behavior Newman and Watts (1999); Moore and Newman (2000a), the spread of infectious diseases Kuperman and Abramson (2001); Moore and Newman (2000b), signal-propagation speed Watts and Strogatz (1998), computational power, and synchronization Barahona and Pecora (2002); Ito and Kaneko (2002) of small-world networks. More recently, phase transitions of the Ising model Barrat and Weigt (2000); Gitterman (2000); Herrero (2002) and $`XY`$ model Kim et al. (2001) on small-world networks have also been studied, where the crossover from one-dimensional to mean-field behavior has been found. Although most of the works mentioned above are concerned about classical statistical problems on small-world networks, Zhu and Xiong Zhu and Xiong (2000, 2001) have recently studied the localization-delocalization transition of electronic states on a small-world network which allows a quantum mechanical hopping among sites.

In this work, we adopt a transverse-field Ising model on small-world networks, to investigate effects of the interplay between the unique topology of small-world networks and the quantum fluctuations. From the previous works Barrat and Weigt (2000); Gitterman (2000); Herrero (2002); Kim et al. (2001), it is known that the small-world network topology enhances the correlation between the spins on the network and leads to the mean-field behavior of the system. Since the quantum fluctuations, introduced by the transverse field in our model, tend to destroy correlations, one can anticipate a non-trivial competition between the small-world network topology and the quantum fluctuations.

Another motivation for studying the transverse-field Ising model on small-world networks is provided by the recent wide interest in quantum computing. A quantum computer can be regarded as controllable quantum spins (quantum mechanical two-state systems) interacting with each other through a network Nielsen and Chuang (2000). In realistic circumstances, the control of the spins, which can be achieved by carefully tuning the local magnetic field at each node and the coupling between each pair of spins, is imperfect. The effects of imperfections on quantum computing has been studied on a completely random network and have been shown to give rise to computation errors, which grow fast (exponentially or polynomially) with the number of quantum bits (or in short, qubits) Song and Shepelyansky (2001). It is therefore much worth studying the imperfection effects in terms of qubits on small-world networks. With the transverse field assumed uniform over the whole network, the model in our work may not directly represent a realistic quantum computer with imperfect controls, yet our work might provide a stimulation for studies in that direction.

We consider $`N`$ interacting spins in a uniform transverse magnetic field $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. We assume that the interaction between spins is Ising-type. The Hamiltonian for the system is then given by

$$H=H_z+H_x=\underset{i<j}{}J_{ij}\sigma _i^z\sigma _j^z\mathrm{\Delta }\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\sigma _i^x,$$
(1)
where $`\sigma ^x`$, $`\sigma ^y`$, and $`\sigma ^z`$ are the Pauli matrices. The coupling $`J_{ij}`$ between the two spins at the $`i`$th and $`j`$th sites are defined on a small-world network (see below for the precise way the network is constructed). Namely, we regard that the spins are placed on the small-world network, and that $`J_{ij}=J`$ if $`i`$ and $`j`$ are linked on the network and $`J_{ij}=0`$ otherwise uni . The sign of $`J`$ is irrelevant in this model since the ferromagnetic ($`J>0`$) and the antiferromagnetic ($`J<0`$) models are interchangeable through a transformation that rotates every other spin about $`x`$-axis. Below, we will assume $`J>0`$.

The small-world network is constructed in a very similar way as used by WS: We take a one-dimensional regular network with $`2k`$ nearest neighbors k¿ (1) with a periodic boundary condition ($`\sigma _{i+N}^l\sigma _i^l`$, $`l=x,y,z`$). Among the total of $`Nk`$ links we randomly choose $`pNk`$ of them. One end of each chosen link is then rewired to a random site keeping the other end as a pivot point. Among the resulting networks, we discard those with disconnected parts, i.e., we only considers a network where all the nodes belongs to a single cluster.

Without going into details, several properties of this model may be qualitatively understood as follows. In the classical case ($`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$), this model is known to undergo a mean-field type ferromagnetic phase transition at a finite temperature for arbitrarily small $`p>0`$ Barrat and Weigt (2000). Finite transverse magnetic field introduces quantum fluctuations, which compete with the correlations enhanced by the topology of the small-world network. As a consequence, one expects $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ to suppress the transition temperature $`T_c`$. In the fully quantum mechanical case ($`T=0`$) on the nearest-neighbor regular network ($`k=1`$), the Hamiltonian in Eq. (1) shows a quantum phase transitions at $`\mathrm{\Delta }_c=1`$ of the Kosterliz-Thouless type Sachdev (1999).

Below we will calculate the phase boundary, i.e., the transition temperature $`T_c`$ as a function of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, using the quantum Monte Carlo simulation. The universality class to which the phase transition belongs will also be determined from various critical exponents. Before we give the results, we summarize the quantum Monte Carlo method specific to our model.

We divide the inverse temperature $`\beta =k_BT`$ into $`M`$ pieces with spacing $`ϵ\beta /M`$. The partition function $`Z(\beta )=\mathrm{tr}\mathrm{exp}\left(\beta H\right)`$ is then approximated by the Trotter production formula

$$Z(\beta )\mathrm{tr}\left[\mathrm{exp}\left(ϵH_x\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(ϵH_z\right)\right]^M,$$
(2)
the error of which is on the order of $`ϵ^2`$ ($`M\mathrm{}`$). We now use the completeness relation

$$\underset{i}{}\underset{S_{i,t}=\pm 1}{}|S_{i,t}S_{i,t}|=1,$$
(3)
where $`|S_{i,t}`$ is the eigenstates of the $`\sigma _i^z`$, and put it between the $`t`$th and $`(t+1)`$th temperature slices in Eq. (2). We may then write

$$\begin{array}{c}Z(\beta )=\underset{\{S_{i,t}\}}{}\mathrm{exp}[\underset{i<j}{}\underset{t=1}{\overset{M}{}}ϵJ_{ij}S_{i,t}S_{j,t}\hfill \\ \hfill +A\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\underset{t=1}{\overset{M}{}}S_{i,t}S_{i,t+1}+NMB],\end{array}$$
(4)
where

$`A`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{coth}(ϵ\mathrm{\Delta }),`$ (5)
$`B`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\left[\mathrm{cosh}(ϵ\mathrm{\Delta })\mathrm{sinh}(ϵ\mathrm{\Delta })\right].`$ (6)
Interpreting the temperature slices as imaginary time intervals, the above equation becomes a classical Ising model defined on a $`(1+1)`$-dimensional lattice. The coupling in the spatial direction (indicated by the indexes $`i`$ and $`j`$) is given by $`J_{ij}`$ and contains the topology of the small-world network. The coupling in the temporal direction (indicated by the index $`t`$), on the other hand, is a nearest neighbor coupling.

Due to randomness in the topology of the network, this problem is naturally suited to a numerical analysis. We have thus performed a quantum Monte Carlo analysis using the above partition function. In order to increase efficiency near and below the ferromagnetic transition temperature, a cluster algorithm was adopted Newman and Barkema (2001). Since our model is different from a usual regular Ising model, we have developed a new cluster algorithm which takes into account the small-world network topology and the anisotropy between space and time axes.

The transition temperature $`T_c(\mathrm{\Delta })`$ has been determined from a finite size scaling method. Varying temperature, we computed the fourth order Binder cumulant Binder and Heermann (1988)

$$U_N(T)=\frac{1}{2}\left(3\frac{[m^4]}{[m^2^2]}\right)$$
(7)
for several different values of $`N`$. This quantity varies from one to zero while temperature is swept from zero (maximum order) to infinity (maximum disorder). The two different shapes of brackets, $`\mathrm{}`$ and $`[\mathrm{}]`$, denote the thermal average and the average over rewiring configurations, respectively. A typical result is shown in Fig. 1. For large $`N`$, there is a single crossing point $`T_c`$. It is noteworthy that the result is independent of the number of time slices $`M`$ once it exceeds a finite lower limit $`M_c`$, indicating that the correlation length $`\xi _T`$ in the time direction is a finite fraction of $`\beta `$. When $`T/J1`$, the value of $`M_c`$ is typically $`30`$ and it increases at lower temperatures.

Figure 2 shows phase diagrams in $`T`$-$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ space for $`k=2`$ and two different rewiring probabilities, $`p=0.1`$ and $`0.05`$. First of all, we find $`T_c>0`$ in the absence of the transverse field, which agrees with previous results Barrat and Weigt (2000); Gitterman (2000); Herrero (2002). When a small $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is turned on, $`T_c`$ remains finite although it decreases with increasing $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. At a fixed $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, we find that $`T_c`$ increases with $`p`$, just as in the no field case.

Extrapolating the phase transition line to $`T=0`$, one may obtain the quantum critical transverse field $`\mathrm{\Delta }_c`$. This is an extension of the quantum critical point of the regular Ising model Sachdev (1999). From Fig. 2, one can clearly see that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_c`$ increases with $`p`$. This implies that the more the Ising system is rewired, the more resilient it is to quantum fluctuations.

We now characterize the ferromagnetic phase transition by determining the universality class to which it belongs. In the pure classical case ($`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$), it is known that the phase transition is mean-field like Barrat and Weigt (2000); Gitterman (2000); Kim et al. (2001). To address the question whether this is still the case for finite values of the transverse field $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, we investigated the scaling behavior of the phase transition described above. First of all, the Binder cumulant was fitted to a scaling function of the form

$$U_N(T)=\stackrel{~}{U}\left((TT_c)N^{1/\overline{\nu }}\right).$$
(8)
Due to the infinite-range nature of the small-world network, the above exponent $`\overline{\nu }`$ describes the divergence of coherence number $`N_c`$ instead of the correlation length $`\xi `$ Botet et al. (1982); Kim et al. (2001). More explicitly, we may write

$$N_c|TT_c|^{\overline{\nu }},$$
(9)
near the transition.

The other critical exponents have also been obtained from various physical quantities by fitting them to scaling functions. For example, the specific heat per spin is fitted to

$$c(T)=N^{\alpha /\overline{\nu }}\stackrel{~}{c}\left((TT_c)N^{1/\overline{\nu }}\right).$$
(10)
Figure 3 shows an example of the scaling functions for (a) specific heat, (b) magnetization, and (c) susceptibility per spin. If we choose appropriate exponents, results from systems of different sizes clearly collapse to one single curve near $`T_c`$. As $`T`$ moves away from the scaling regime, the curves deviate. The best fitting values of the exponents are summarized in Table 1. It turned out that they are the same as those of the mean-field transition to a very high precision. Therefore, we conclude that the quantum fluctuations introduced by the transverse field do not alter the universality class of the ferromagnetic phase transition in the Ising models on small-world networks.

So far, we have studied the scaling properties of an Ising system on small-world networks at finite temperatures. However, the quantum critical point $`\mathrm{\Delta }_c`$ at $`T=0`$ is in itself of much interest, since in general the universality class of a quantum critical point is different from that of classical transitions at finite temperatures Sachdev (1999). Whether the small-world network will change the universality class of the quantum critical point as compared to that in a regular Ising model is a highly intriguing question. In order to address that question, however, one has to use a different technique than those used above, because the results from the quantum Monte Carlo simulations become unreliable near $`T=0`$. Therefore we leave it as a topic for further study.

In summary, we have used quantum Monte Carlo simulations to obtain the phase diagram of an Ising system on small-world networks in the presence of a transverse magnetic field. The ferromagnetic phase persisted at finite $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, although the effect of quantum fluctuations introduced by the transverse field was manifested by the decrease of $`T_c`$. At a fixed $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, we have also shown that $`T_c`$ increases with the rewiring probability $`p`$. From various scaling exponents, we have argued that the ferromagnetic phase transition at finite field was still of a mean-field type. Eventually, $`T_c`$ decreases to zero at a quantum critical point at a finite field $`\mathrm{\Delta }_c`$, but $`\mathrm{\Delta }_c`$ increases with increasing $`p`$. Since the ferromagnetic region increases with $`p`$ in both $`T`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ directions, we conclude that the small-world topology of the spin system competes against both thermal and quantum fluctuations and enhances the correlation and ordering of the spins.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank M. Y. Choi, H. Hong, and B. J. Kim for very useful discussions. We acknowledge the support from the Swiss-Korean Outstanding Research Efforts Award program (SKORE-A).


text:
# Radio-selected Galaxies in Very Rich Clusters at 𝑧≤ 0.25: I. Multi-wavelength Observations and Data Reduction Techniques

## 1 Introduction

Optical studies of rich clusters to determine the star formation rates (SFR) of their cluster members have been ongoing since the early photometric study by Butcher & Oemler (1978) over 20 years ago. Such studies have sought to recover the star formation properties of galaxies in rich clusters via optical photometry, spectroscopy and more recently from Hubble Space Telescope (HST) morphological studies. The discovery by Butcher & Oemler (1978; 1984) of the increased fraction of blue galaxies within the core of selected rich regular clusters indicated significant evolution in the SFR and/or galaxy type within the central regions of these massive systems over the last $`5`$ Gyr (assuming H0 = 75 km s-1, q0 = 0.1) or $`z0.4`$. The change in SFR of galaxies in rich clusters may be related to hierarchical large-scale-structure (LSS) formation and the accretion of field galaxies. Where the starburst population occurs within the cluster environment yields clues to the origin of the perturbing mechanism. To study this ‘active’ galaxy population (starburst/AGN) requires a method that will detect this population in a unbiased manner.

Radio observations allow one to detect starbursts and AGN without the drawbacks of optical observations, such as dust attenuation and the optical K-correction. In principle, far-IR (FIR) observations would detect re-emission from the dust, of the UV photons emitted by the OB stars formed in a massive starburst. Until the launch of SIRTF, FIR instruments will not have the sensitivity or the resolution to be effective. However, the well known FIR-radio continuum correlation based on ongoing star formation allows easier detection of starbursting systems in distant clusters. Studies of the local radio luminosity function (e.g., Condon et al. 1991), indicate that the starbursting and spiral galaxy population dominate the 20 cm radio luminosity function below 1023 W Hz-1.

Radio selection of cluster members by their low radio luminosity yields two kinds of objects - weak AGN and objects with active star formation. The FIR-radio correlation ties the nonthermal radio emission to the ongoing star formation (Condon 1992). In starbursts, radio emission fades faster than blue starlight, so clusters with large number of radio sources will preferentially be those that have had a large numbers of recent or ongoing starbursts. This may indicate the entry of a new group of galaxies into the cluster with star formation in its members.

This paper is the first in a series studying the ultra-faint radio-selected galaxy populations associated with rich clusters of galaxies as a function of redshift. This paper presents the radio, optical, and X-ray data for a sample of 30 very rich clusters (Abell richness class $`R`$2) with $`z0.25`$ selected from the catalog of Abell, Corwin, & Olowin (1989, hereafter ACO). The VLA offers a large field of view ($``$30 arcmin) permitting us to go out to 2.5 Mpc radius from the cluster core. This allows us to detect infalling starbursting field galaxies and any supercluster induced effects such as cluster-cluster mergers. Our detection limit of 2$`\times `$1022 W Hz-1 allows detection of galaxies undergoing moderate to vigorous star formation with star formation rates (SFR) $``$ 5 M yr-1.

In this data paper, we discuss selection of the cluster sample along with the multi-wavelength observations and the data reduction techniques for a sample of the richest Abell clusters from 0.02 $``$ z $``$ 0.25. These clusters were chosen to be as rich or richer than our four rich $`z=0.4`$ clusters (Abell 370, Cl0024$`+`$1654, Cl0939$`+`$4713, and CL1447$`+`$2619), which will be presented in future papers. We also present a radio-selected sample of starburst and AGN galaxies within these 30 rich clusters. Most of the detected galaxies had followup spectroscopy to verify cluster membership.

Future papers analyze the radio properties (Paper II; Morrison & Owen 2002a), the optical properties of the clusters (Paper III; Morrison et al. 2003a), and spectroscopy of the optical counterparts (Paper IV; Morrison et al. 2003b). Deep (15 hr) wide-field VLA B-array observations of Cl0939+4713 at $`z=0.41`$ and subsequent spectroscopic analysis of the radio-selected galaxy population will appear in Paper V (Morrison et al. 2002b). HST NICMOS and WFPC2 results of several of the radio-selected galaxies in Cl0939+4713 were discussed in Smail et al. (1999).

## 2 Sample Selection

A sample was devised to separate the combined effects that epoch and richness have on galaxy evolution in clusters. The sample consists of the richest clusters at redshifts ranging from 0.02 $`z`$ 0.41 ($`N_{2.0}80`$ galaxies where $`N_{2.0}`$ is our “modified” ACO galaxy count. See Morrison et al. (2003a).). By choosing only the richest clusters we can determine if all very rich clusters display an excess number of radio galaxies, or if only the high redshift ones do.

The clusters at $`z<0.25`$ were chosen to be a comparison sample for the four clusters at $`z=0.4`$. We selected Abell clusters predominantly because they have been relatively well studied (Struble & Rood 1987; Abell et al. 1989; Huchra et al. 1990; Zabludoff et al. 1990; Struble & Rood 1991) and their statistical biases are also well-known (e.g., Scott 1957; Scaramella et al. 1991).

One statistical bias found early on by Just (1959) is a weak richness-distance correlation, which may in part explain the incompleteness of distant ($`z>`$ 0.2) clusters selected by Abell (Lucey 1983). Also the Abell richness, which is defined to correlate with galaxy count, is in some cases significantly in error (Mottmann & Abell 1977; Dressler 1980). As noted in Sarazin (1988) it is generally better to use the actual Abell counts instead of the richness class.

Given the larger error in past richness measurements, new galaxy counts were obtained –whole cluster and core galaxy counts. The “modified” Abell counts, $`N_{2.0}`$, were re-measured from the CCD frames, thereby providing a more consistent and quantitative measurement of the individual cluster’s richness (Paper III; Morrison et al. 2003a).

### 2.1 The Redshift Samples

The 0.02 $`z`$ 0.07 Sample: The lowest redshift sample contains the 10 richest nearby clusters111A3094 is not used since it was found to be made up of three clusters at different redshifts (Katgert et al. 1996). ($`z\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.07}`$). Here the 1.4 GHz, 45″ resolution, D-array NRAO VLA sky survey (NVSS) provided sufficient sensitivity to survey the richest local clusters out to a radius of 2.5 Mpc and down to our limiting luminosity of about 2$`\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{22}`$ W Hz-1. However, since the local clusters were not as rich as the clusters in our $`z=0.4`$ sample, we must go to a higher redshifts to find clusters of comparably high richness.

The 0.10 $`z`$ 0.18 sample: This low-redshift sample of 14 clusters provides the extremely rich clusters that are lacking in the local sample and are comparable to the $`z=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.40}`$ sample. This provides a baseline useful for determining the dependence of redshift on cluster properties.

The 0.20 $`z`$ 0.25 sample: Our intermediate redshift sample contains 12 very rich, X-ray luminous clusters culled from the ACO catalog. The two clusters that provided the original motivation for this study, A2125 and A2645 were included in this sample. Some of these clusters show a significant increase in their blue galaxy population compared with local-epoch rich clusters. One of these clusters is A2125, which also shows a substantially larger radio-selected galaxy population from $`10^{22.323}`$ W Hz-1 compared with A2645 (Owen et al. 1999).

The $`z=`$0.4 sample: This sample will be presented in a future paper.

### 2.2 Cluster Membership requirements

For an identification to be considered a cluster member, it was required to have: 1) absolute Cousins R-band magnitude brighter than $`M_\mathrm{R}=21`$, 2) radio luminosity greater than 2$`\times `$1022 W Hz-1, 3) radius $``$ 2.5 Mpc from the X-ray defined cluster center, and 4) redshift values such that a galaxy’s relative velocity with respect to the cluster center, given by $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$V = $`\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }zc}{1+z_{cl}}`$ indicates that the galaxy is gravitationally bound to the cluster. Galaxies with $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$V$``$ 3000 km s-1 were classified as cluster members.

The absolute R-band magnitude and the 20 cm radio continuum limits were chosen to be consistent with our survey limits for our $`z=0.4`$ clusters. The sensitivity limit (hence integration time) for each cluster was chosen to reach MR = $``$21.0 and L1.4GHz = 2$`\times `$1022 W Hz-1.

## 3 Observations and Data Reduction

### 3.1 Radio Observations

Wide-field Very Large Array (Thompson et al. 1980) 1.4 GHz radio observations were obtained for 34 rich clusters spanning 0.02 $``$ z $``$ 0.25. Radio data for the ten rich Abell clusters between 0.02 $``$ z $``$ 0.07 were from the NVSS (Condon et al. 1998). Fourteen clusters between 0.10 $``$ z $``$ 0.18 were observed at 1.4 GHZ with the VLA in A-array (1.5″ resolution providing $`\sigma _\mathrm{P}0.15\mathrm{}`$ for sources at the 5$`\sigma `$ level, a worst case) and C-array (15″ resolution) for 30 and 15 minutes, respectively. Only ten were found to have a richness $`2`$ after their richness was re-measured (Morrison et al. 2003a) thus the other four were excluded from the sample222four excluded clusters (A1437, A1674, A1918, A1990). An additional ten clusters between 0.20 $``$ z $``$ 0.23 were observed with the VLA in A array for 30 minutes. The radio observations of the $`z=0.25`$ clusters, A2125 and A2645, are discussed in detail in Dwarakanath & Owen (1999). Our radio observations achieved sufficient depth at large radius to define flux-density-limited samples. Thus, all clusters regardless of redshift were observed down to radio luminosities of at least $`L_{1.4GHz}2\times 10^{22}`$ W Hz-1.

The observations were adjusted to the flux density scale of Baars et al. (1977) using 3C286 as the primary flux density calibrator. The AIPS (Astronomical Imaging Processing System) task IMAGR was used to clean the full primary beam thus achieving a field of view of 30 arcmin. Wide field images incur both bandwidth and time-average smearing. To minimize the bandwidth smearing, we used the “4” mode in the spectral line mode with 2 polarizations, 2 IFs and 7$`\times `$3.125 MHz channels (Perley 2000). We averaged over the 7 channels and 2 IFs together in the gridding process under IMAGR to make the continuum map. To correct the time-average smearing, which is a significant problem in the A-array, the averaging time of the VLA correlator was changed from 10 to 5 seconds.

Self-calibration (phase and amplitude) was performed to increase the dynamic range and the sensitivity of the radio maps. This process included self-editing of the data, where the CLEAN components (from a suitable model of the sky intensity distribution) from these maps were subtracted from the (u,v) data set. Having removed the model from the (u,v) data, the remaining high residuals are known to be unrelated to the sky intensity distribution and were deleted. The model was then restored to the clipped (u,v) data.

To correct for non-coplanar baselines, we imaged the (u,v) data in time ranges that have approximately coplanar baselines. All significant sources ($`1`$ mJy) out to the first sidelobe of the primary beam were imaged using subfields. This prevented sidelobes from bright, out-of-field sources from degrading the high sensitivity image. We transformed these subimages into the same flat coordinate system using the AIPS task OHGEO and summed them. The noise in the resulting images approaches the theoretical value: A-array $`\sigma `$ 45$`\mu `$Jy, and C-array, $`\sigma `$ 70$`\mu `$Jy. This process yields wide field images with the correct sky projection.

Radio source catalogs were generated from the A- and C-array images using the AIPS task SAD (Search and Destroy). This task finds all potential sources within a defined region and fits Gaussian components to these. SAD was used to search for radio sources with peak flux above 4.5$`\sigma `$. The images were viewed by eye, to look for sources missed by SAD. In general, fewer than 3$`\%`$ of the total number of sources were missed due to algorithm fitting failure.

### 3.2 Optical Observations

#### 3.2.1 CCD Imaging and The Digital Sky Survey

Twenty-two clusters ($`z>0.1`$) were observed with the KPNO 0.9 meter telescope in Cousins $`R`$-band and 17 were observed in $`B`$-band. The CCD detector was a 2048$`\times `$2048 Textronix chip having a pixel size on the sky of 0.68 ″, yielding a field of view of 23′ on a side. We dithered and co-added 3$`\times `$5 minute frames in $`R`$ and 3$`\times `$10 minute frames in $`B`$. The stacking of the individual frames allows the cosmic rays to be rejected. All frames were bias corrected and flattened using a twilight frame. Photometric calibration was determined from $``$20 Landolt standards each night (Landolt 1992).

The Gunn-Oke aperture (G-O, Gunn & Oke 1975) with metric diameter of 26.2 kpc was used in measuring the apparent magnitudes on the $`R`$ frame. We corrected the magnitudes for Galactic reddening and applied a K-correction (Morrison et al. 2003a). Since the photometry was done using a G-O metric aperture, the very extended galaxies will have their apparent R-band magnitudes underestimated since the G-O aperture does not encompass all of the outer halo. Figure 2 in Ledlow & Owen (1995) shows a comparison between isophotal magnitudes, which measure out to a fixed surface brightness value (in this case 24.5 mag/□″), and G-O aperture magnitudes. We adjusted the magnitudes of the extended galaxies to put them all on an approximate isophotal system using the above calibration by Ledlow & Owen.

The 23′ field-of-view of the 0.9 meter telescope was too small for clusters with $`z<0.2`$ to cover the 5 Mpc diameter region. In those cases, we used the Digital Sky Survey333The Digitized Sky Surveys were produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute under U.S. Government grant NAG W-2166. The images of these surveys are based on photographic data obtained using the Oschin Schmidt Telescope on Palomar Mountain. The plates were processed into the present compressed digital form with the permission of these institutions. (DSS) to find optical identifications for the radio sources out to 2.5 Mpc from the cluster center. The photometric calibration for the DSS was bootstrapped from the $`R`$-band images. The lack of accurate photometric calibration and color information are the primary reasons we undertook the CCD imaging for the $`z>0.1`$ clusters.

#### 3.2.2 Astrometry

Optical counterparts to the radio sources were found using the $`R`$-band images and the DSS E-plate images. The plate solution for the $`R`$ image was calculated using the AIPS task XTRAN. Stars from the HST Guide Star Catalog CD-ROM (GSC 1.1) between 12.5 to 15 magnitude were used to set the absolute astrometry for the CCD frame. Unfortunately, the GSC has an absolute positional uncertainty of about 0.7″ in each coordinate (Russell et al. 1990; Deutsch 1999). This required us to set the absolute astrometry to the radio reference frame using the offsets in right ascension and declination from the optical identifications. Thus the absolute optical astrometry is about 0.25″, while the residuals from XTRAN were less than 0.5″.

The DSS images had their plate solution calculated and applied using the AIPS task SKYVE. As with the 0.9 meter telescope images, the absolute astrometry was tied to the radio reference frame using the offsets from the optical identifications.

#### 3.2.3 Spectroscopy

A log of spectroscopic observations of candidate radio galaxy identifications are shown in Table 1.

The MX multifiber spectrograph on the Steward Observatory 2.3 meter telescope (Hill & Lesser 1986) was used to observe up to 32 objects per 1 hour observation. A 400 line mm-1 grating was used covering 3700-6950Å at an 8 Å resolution, with a UV-flooded Loral 1200 $`\times `$ 800 pixel CCD as the detector. Flat-fielding, sky-subtraction and wavelength calibration were done as described in Hill & Oegerle (1993).

Additional spectroscopy was done using the long slit of the RC spectrograph on the KPNO 4 meter telescope. The 300 lines/mm grating is blazed at 4000 Å and covered 4300Å - 8600Å, allowing \[N II\] and H$`\alpha `$ to be observed for 0.10 $``$ z $``$ 0.18. The long slit was usually rotated to accommodate two or more radio galaxies during the five to fifteen minute exposures. Nightly observations of standard stars were used to determine a relative flux calibration for the spectral energy distribution of all the observed galaxies. Absolute calibrations were not done.

Further spectroscopy was done in the long slits mode of the COSMIC spectrograph (Kells et al. 1998) and the Double Spectrograph (Oke & Gunn 1982) mounted on the Hale 5.1 (P200) meter telescope444The Hale 5 meter telescope is owned and operated by the California Institute of Technology. COSMIC was used with the 300 lines mm-1 grating blazed at 5500 Å giving 8 Å resolution. The wavelength coverage was 3500-9800 Å which allowed \[O II\] $`\lambda `$ 3727 and H$`\alpha `$ to be observed throughout our redshift range of $`0.02z0.23`$. The Double Spectrograph used the 5500 Å dichroic filter thereby directing the light blueward of 5500 Å to the blue detector and light redward of the break to the red detector. The blue detector (10242 pixel CCD) setup used the 600 lines mm-1 grating blazed at 4000 Å. The red detector (10242 pixel CCD) setup included the 316 lines mm-1 grating blazed at 7500 Å. This setup allowed wavelength coverage from 3700-8200 Å with a break from 5500-5650 Å. We chose the wavelength of this break so that both \[OII\] and H$`\alpha `$ throughout the $`0.02z0.23`$ redshift range. Due to the poorer sensitivity of the blue camera compared with the red, we wished to observe as much of the spectrum in the red camera as possible.

The spectra of the optical identifications were used to determine cluster membership. The IRAF cross-correlation task, FXCOR (Fitzpatrick 1993), was used to derive redshifts from absorption features with a K0 III radial velocity standard as the template. For the MX data, redshift errors were determined using the Tonry & Davis (1979) R-value which represents the cross-correlation strength of the template spectrum and object spectrum. The velocity error was calculated using $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$V = 280/(1+R) km s-1, which was determined from multiple MX observations of cluster galaxies by Hill & Oegerle (1993). Spectra with R-values less than 4 were considered unreliable555Noted by a symbol in Table 5 as uncertain.. All spectra were visually inspected to determine if the calculated redshift agreed with spectroscopic features.

Redshift calibration errors of $``$ 20 km s-1 for the spectra observed with the KPNO 4 meter and the P200 telescopes were determined from repeated observations of a radial velocity standard on different nights. This indicates that the errors are primarily related to the signal-to-noise ratio. Given the lack of many duplicate spectra to evaluate the errors, the errors from FXCOR have been assumed.

Additional spectra from the KPNO 2.1-meter telescope using the GoldCam spectrograph were obtained by Neal Miller. Details are given by Miller & Owen (2001).

Spectroscopic classification and analysis of the radio-selected galaxies will be presented in a future paper (Morrison et al. 2003b).

### 3.3 The X-ray Data

#### 3.3.1 The X-ray Database

The Röntgensatellite, ROSAT (Trumper 1983), conducted an all-sky survey (RASS–ROSAT All-sky survey; Voges et al. 1999) in the soft X-ray energy band (0.1 - 2.4 keV) from 1990 August to 1991 February (Voges 1992). The survey was observed in 2$`\mathrm{°}`$ wide great circles that were orthogonal to the solar direction. The resultant exposure times for these strips varied between $``$ 400 seconds at the ecliptic equator and $``$ 40,000 seconds at the ecliptic poles. The instrument used for the RASS was a Position Sensitive Proportional Counter, PSPC-C, (Pfeffermann & Briel 1986) as compared to the PSPC-B used for the pointed observations. The survey was processed using the Standard Analysis Software System (SASS) which was developed for RASS (Voges et al. 1992) at the Max-Planck-Institute für extraterrestrische Physik (MPE). Further details on the x-ray database used can be found in (Voges et al. 1999)

#### 3.3.2 X-ray Luminosity

The X-ray luminosity for each cluster was derived from the photon counts over the RASS images. The photons were accumulated within a 0.5 Mpc radius circle, $`𝒮=S+B`$ (source plus background), centered on the peak thermal X-ray emission from the cluster. This aperture size was chosen to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio for the detected cluster’s x-ray emission as discussed in Briel & Henry (1993) and to be comparable with survey work done by others. The background rate was determined from a source free region of the image. The center was measured using the AIPS task JMFIT. This Gaussian fitting routine was used to measure the position of the peak intensity, integrated intensity, and FWHM of a source. The fit was made to a smoothed X-ray image (convolved with a 500 kpc FWHM Gaussian) over a 1.0 Mpc diameter region at the cluster’s redshift. The counts accumulated within the aperture were measured using the AIPS task IRING. The recorded average value was in units of count s-1 pixel-1 which was then multiplied by the number of pixels contained in the measured region to yield a total ROSAT count rate.

The ROSAT count rates were converted into fluxes using the ROSAT PSPC photon-to-flux conversion factor or ECF (Briel & Henry 1993). We assumed a thermal model for the spectrum with a temperature, $`\mathrm{log}_{10}(T_\mathrm{g})=7.3`$, and a metal abundance (Z) of 0.3. Neither $`T_\mathrm{g}`$ nor Z were critical for the ECF in our energy band, 0.5 - 2.0 keV. Changing the temperature by 2 keV has a less than 5$`\%`$ effect on the total luminosity (Rizza et al. 1998).

To get a ‘total’ luminosity for each cluster a correction must be made for the fact that we were using an aperture that does not contain all of the x-ray flux from the cluster (Briel & Henry 1993). We corrected the $`L_\mathrm{X}`$ determined from the counts in the 500 kpc aperture to the total $`L_\mathrm{X}`$ assuming a core radius of $`r_\mathrm{c}=0.2`$ Mpc and using a modified King or $`\beta `$ model for the surface brightness distribution. This gave a correction factor of 1.67 to the aperture luminosity. Table 2 shows the x-ray luminosity for each cluster along with 1$`\sigma `$ associated Poisson errors.

## 4 Optical Identifications

### 4.1 Optical Identification Criteria: A-array Radio Data

To establish the optical identification criteria for clusters having VLA A-array data, we must determine the number of optical candidates within a particular search radius of the individual radio positions. Given the high accuracy of the A-array positions, the number of optical identifications found relative to the A-array position was recorded as a function of search radius. A radio and optical database was constructed from the AIPS task SAD, which found all sources on the optical and radio images above a given peak cutoff value and then used the AIPS task JMFIT to fit Gaussian components to these sources.

Considering only radio sources with a Gaussian FWHM $``$ 3″, a search was done around each radio source for an optical counterpart, with the search radius varying from $``$ 1″ to $``$ 5″ in steps of one arcsec. Given the small sizes of the optical objects ($``$ 5″) and radio sources, a separation $``$ 5″ was considered to be a random identification. To determine the random optical association probability for each radio source, we looked at the optical source densities at each radio position. To have adequate signal-to-noise to base our coincidence prediction on, we searched out from each radio position 5″ to 50″ looking for optical identifications. By increasing the search radius, a larger number of optical objects could be selected, thus providing a sizable data set to base our random optical probability function on.

The coincidence analysis used radio sources found by SAD with a FWHM $``$ 3.0″ and $`S_{peak}4.5\sigma _A`$, where $`\sigma _A`$ is the rms or “noise” of the A array map for that particular region. The resulting number of radio sources was 221 for A665. Having limited the radio sources to $`4.5\sigma _A`$ detections, we next limited the magnitude range of acceptable optical identifications. Identifications were accepted only for optical objects with absolute magnitude $`M_R21`$ at the cluster redshift. This is one magnitude fainter than $`M_{}`$ ($`M_{}=22`$) and contains a significant fraction of the population of these rich clusters. This allowed a larger number of optical identifications to be found thereby allowing an accurate ($`\pm `$0.3″) measurement of the optical-radio offset.

For radio sources with $`\theta `$ 3″ we used the radio and optical data of A665 to establish the optical identification criteria. The technique we used here does not depend on the density of radio sources but on the density of optical sources in a given field. A665 is the highest richness cluster known and thus gives a pessimistic answer, i.e., an answer on the high side of the number of random galaxies expected. Thus we may be slightly overestimating the random galaxies for the other fields. The data from the other clusters ($`z0.10`$) were checked and compared with the results from A665. The predicted number of random identifications for A665 (using the limit of $`M_R21`$) given a search radius $``$ 1″ is 0.28 per square arc minute, based on the optical identifications made in the 5″-50″ annulus. Thus, A665 should have 0.05 random objects within a search radius of 1″ of all 221 radio sources. For all 20 clusters with $`0.1z0.23`$ there will be 1.0 random object in our result. Therefore, we will adopt a search radius $``$ 1″ for all radio sources with angular size $`3`$ ″.

A larger search radius ($`r`$ 3″) is required for radio sources with angular sizes from 3″$`\theta `$ 6″. There are few sources with sizes between 3″$`<\theta `$ 6″, which allows us to search out further without greatly increasing the number of random matches. For the $`M_R21`$ and a search radius of 3″, the total number of random identifications for the 20 clusters is 0.5 objects.

The optical identification for extended radio sources ($`\theta `$ $``$ 6″) was based on known radio galaxy morphologies. The twin-jet radio morphology types considered were the Narrow-Angle tail (NAT), and Wide-Angles tail (WAT). Other morphologies that were not so clearly delineated by these groups were classified as asymmetrical or complex radio sources. The most likely optical candidate for the latter cases usually involve large positional offsets which is further problematic for very low-surface brightness radio sources. In some cases, the low-surface brightness sources were not seen in the A-array maps, but were detected only on the C-array images. For these cases, the identification was based on the type of radio source we believe them to be, by comparison with local surveys.

All optical and radio catalogs generated from this study will be made available through NED666The NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration..

### 4.2 Optical Identification Criteria: NVSS Radio Data

For the richest nearby clusters we used radio data from the NVSS. These 10 clusters ranged between $`0.02z0.07`$ and Abell richness values between $`2R3`$. The low resolution (beam size = 45″) and high sensitivity ($`\sigma 0.45`$mJy) of the NVSS is good for detecting extended radio sources but the large beamsize makes it more difficult to identify optical counterparts. Based on a procedure similar to that used for the A-array data set, an acceptable number of random identifications occurs for a search radius of 15″. However, for extended radio structures whose centroids do not agree with the position of the parent galaxy, contour plots of NVSS sources were overlaid on the DSS images to secure the optical identification. The reliability of this method is hard to quantify, but since there were only fewer than 3 such cases per cluster and the optical identifications tend to be brighter, the chances of there being an incorrect identification is rather small.

### 4.3 Radio Flux Density Criteria

The flux density requirement for inclusion was $`S_{Peak}4.5\sigma _A`$ for A-array detections and $`S_{Peak}4.5\sigma _C`$ for C-array. If these sources proved to have an optical counterpart then we report radio luminosities derived from the integrated flux densities. For unresolved and slightly resolved sources, we fit a Gaussian model using JMFIT. Resolved irregular sources required the use of the AIPS task TVSTAT. This task determines image statistics such as mean and rms brightnesses found over irregular selected regions. A future paper will present the fluxes and Gaussian fits to the radio sources.

The flux densities were converted into absolute radio luminosities using the inverse square law,

$$L_{1.4\mathrm{GHz}}=4\pi D_\mathrm{L}^2S_{1.4}\frac{(1+z)^\alpha }{1+z},$$
(1)
where both $`(1+z)^\alpha `$ and $`\frac{1}{1+z}`$ are the K-correction terms where the former is the ‘color’ correction and the latter is the bandwidth correction. The spectral index $`\alpha `$ is given by $`S_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$, where $`\nu `$ is 1.4 GHz and $`\alpha `$ is assumed to be 0.8 (Condon 1992). $`S_{1.4}`$ is the flux density in Janskys7771 Jy = $`10^{26}`$ W Hz-1 m-2 at 1.4 GHz and $`D_\mathrm{L}`$ is the luminosity distance.

The sample between 0.02 $`z`$ 0.25 was complete to a lower luminosity limit of $``$ 1022.3 W Hz-1. This requires a flux limit of 0.2 mJy for our most distant cluster at z = 0.23 (A2111). The histogram of Figure Radio-selected Galaxies in Very Rich Clusters at $`z`$ 0.25: I. Multi-wavelength Observations and Data Reduction Techniques suggests that we are complete to this limit for the $`0.2z0.23`$ clusters. All other clusters ($`z0.2`$) in our sample have radio observations significantly fainter than this luminosity limit. Note that A2125 and 2645 are more distant than A2111; however, their radio observations were deeper, complete to $`10^{22.2}`$ W Hz-1(Dwarakanath & Owen 1999).

## 5 Tables of Optical Identifications

The cluster samples considered along with optical-radio identifications are tabulated and presented in this section. Cluster data obtained from the literature and newly measured cluster parameters are also presented.

### 5.1 Galaxy Clusters Data Tables

Table 4 contains the cluster data for all rich clusters. All data in this table are taken from the literature as noted, except the newly determined radio identifications, radio galaxy fractions, and new redshift data.

Column (1) is the Abell Name (Abell 1958). Columns (2) and (3) are the cluster X-ray center (Voges et al. 1999, 2000) in right-ascension and declination. All are in J2000 epoch coordinates. Column (4) contains cluster redshift found in NED. However, clusters with $`z0.1`$ had their cluster redshifts recalculated from the new redshift data if the NED results were derived from too few existing measurements. Column (5) and (6) contain the Bahcall richness counts (Bahcall 1981; Morrison et al. 2003a) and the Abell richness counts (Abell et al. 1989; Morrison et al. 2003a), respectively. Available blue fraction measurements (Butcher & Oemler 1984; Morrison et al. 2003a) are in (7). Column (8) indicates the number of galaxies with radio emission within 2.5 Mpc of the cluster center that have optical identification, while the numbers in parentheses are the galaxies from this group that have measured redshifts.

Column (9) is the total number of radio galaxies with $`L_{1.4}10^{22.75}`$ W Hz-1 normalized by the total number of galaxies searched, that were within 2.5 Mpc of the cluster center and with $`M_\mathrm{R}`$ brighter than $`21`$. This limit was chosen, because local radio luminosity functions (e.g., Condon 1989) suggest that, statistically, these radio galaxies should be starbursts. Column (10) is the same as (9) except that the radio luminosities of the galaxies are $`L_{1.4GHz}10^{23}`$ W Hz-1.

### 5.2 Optical Identification Tables

Table 5 contains the radio-selected galaxies from each cluster. For the local, rich Abell clusters (168 to 2256) the absolute magnitudes of the galaxies were calibrated from Ledlow & Owen (1995) with the calibrator galaxies noted.

Each cluster listing is titled by the Abell name. Column (1) is the galaxy number. Columns (2) and (3) are the optical right-ascension and declination for the epoch J2000. Column (4) is the distance from the X-ray defined cluster center in Mpc. Column (5) is the galaxy’s redshift from newly obtained spectra or archival data from NED. Column (6) is the calibrated absolute magnitude derived from the DSS E-plate image. For Abell clusters 655 to 2111, absolute magnitudes in column (6) were measured from the $`R`$-band images. Column (7) is the galaxy’s $`BR`$ color indices if available. Column (8) lists radio luminosity at 1.4 GHz in Watts Hz-1.

## 6 Results

### 6.1 $`R`$-band Images

The KPNO 0.9 meter telescope $`R`$-band images of all the clusters with $`0.10z0.23`$ are displayed in Figures Radio-selected Galaxies in Very Rich Clusters at $`z`$ 0.25: I. Multi-wavelength Observations and Data Reduction Techniques to Radio-selected Galaxies in Very Rich Clusters at $`z`$ 0.25: I. Multi-wavelength Observations and Data Reduction Techniques. The circles and the triangles on the images denote galaxies with and without redshifts, respectively. Squares indicate questionable redshifts. The contours represents the X-ray emission from the intracluster gas.

### 6.2 Cluster Substructure: Isopleth Maps

The dynamical structure of clusters is linked to the initial conditions present at the time of cluster formation. Dynamical equilibrium in a cluster environment would require isotropic galaxy orbits, with a Gaussian distribution of radial velocities. Departure from a Gaussian would imply the existence of substructure, infall, cluster-cluster merging, or initial cluster build-up. Since we have too few redshifts per cluster to do statistical analysis for cluster substructure we will use a qualitative method. This method will give a rough measure of a cluster’s departure from a relaxed, virialized state.

Isopleth maps (optical surface number density contour maps) give us a qualitative view of the substructure within the cluster environment. However, this method can suffer from foreground and background contamination and, in the lower density areas, small number statistics. Contour maps by Geller & Beers (1982) were density maps smoothed on defined scales (e.g., 0.12 Mpc, 0.24 Mpc, etc.) to bring out ‘significant’ subclustering. Constant smoothing scales that are critically adjusted to show detail were found to emphasize structure that the observer chooses to reveal (Beers 1992) and therefore too subjective.

The adaptive kernel method of Silverman (1986) has a variable smoothing scale which adjusts to the local density of galaxies. First, an initial or pilot estimate is made of the global density which has been pre-smoothed by a kernel whose bandwidth is set by the total number of points. The next smoothing is done by a kernel of bandwidth set by the local density obtained from the pilot estimate. Results by Beers et al. (1991) suggest that this method is more or less insensitive to the pilot estimate’s kernel-function and to a certain extent, its bandwidth.

The data from the R-band images was used as input to the Beers FORTRAN code, employing the adaptively smoothing kernel, to make Figures Radio-selected Galaxies in Very Rich Clusters at $`z`$ 0.25: I. Multi-wavelength Observations and Data Reduction Techniques through Radio-selected Galaxies in Very Rich Clusters at $`z`$ 0.25: I. Multi-wavelength Observations and Data Reduction Techniques. The contours represent the surface density of galaxies and the grey scale shows the RASS X-ray data. The lowest contour level is at 90 galaxies per Mpc2 with an interval of 30 galaxies per Mpc2, with all clusters having been background subtracted (Morrison et al. 2003a). In each redshift sample, all clusters have their X-ray emission on the same scale. This allows them to be compared directly to see the relative brightness differences. The optical magnitude limit for the adaptive kernel maps is $`M_\mathrm{R}19`$, the same as used in the $`f_\mathrm{B}`$ measurements and is fully discussed in Morrison et al. (2003a).

As is well-known, the optical isopleths follow the x-ray gas distribution. In some cases, both x-ray and optical distributions appear to be centrally condensed. A few clusters appear to have smooth x-ray distributions while the optical distribution on a small scale seems to show substructure. This lack of substructure in the x-ray might just be due to the limited resolution (resolution $``$ 15″) and sensitivity of the x-ray data. On the other hand, A1278 and A1882, both appear to contain two or more subclumps in the process of merging, shown both in the x-ray and the optical data. What relationship this has to the enhanced radio-selected galaxy population will be covered in a later paper. Finally, one cluster, A2240, appears to be a superposition of several foreground groups since it is not seen in the x-ray or optical images. Therefore A2240 will not be considered further in our study.

### 6.3 Radio Galaxy Fractions

To separate the richness or galaxy count of a cluster from the number of radio galaxies it contains, we devise a fractional radio galaxy measure defined as

$$f_{\mathrm{RG}}=\frac{N(L_{\mathrm{min}}L_{1.4}L_{\mathrm{max}})}{N_{2.5}},$$
(2)
where $`N`$ is the number of radio-selected galaxies within the prescribed range, and $`N_{2.5}`$888The clusters with $`z<0.1`$ did not have CCD data to allow us to re-measure these cluster’s richnesses. Thus we used the Abell counts ($`N_{2.0}`$) from Abell et al. (1989) catalog where we determined $`N_{2.5}`$ = 0.65$`\times N_{2.0}`$. Details are in Morrison et al. (2003a) is the number of galaxies brighter than $`M_\mathrm{R}`$ = $``$21 within 2.5 Mpc of the cluster center. The method used to calculate $`N_{2.5}`$ is the same as used for $`N_{2.0}`$ (Morrison et al. 2003a) but with a brighter optical limit and a search radius that extends an extra 0.5 Mpc beyond the Abell radius. The $`N_{2.5}`$ values are reported in Morrison & Owen (2002a). Also, $`L_{\mathrm{min}}`$ and $`L_{\mathrm{max}}`$ define the range of radio luminosities for the three classes defined in Table 3. The different radio galaxy classes are high luminosity (HLRG), low luminosity (LLRG), and ‘starburst’ (SBRG) which are discussed in Paper II.

The radio galaxy fractions are reported in Table 4.

## 7 Summary

We present the largest sample of low luminosity ($`L_{1.4GHz}2\times 10^{22}`$ W Hz-1) radio galaxies within extremely rich Abell clusters obtained to date. The radio observations allow us to probe the ‘active’ galaxy population of these clusters without the difficulties experienced in optical observations, such as dust obscuration and the optical K-correction. The radio-selected galaxy sample represents the starburst (SFR $``$ 5 M yr-1) and AGN populations contained within each cluster. New redshifts were used to verify cluster membership for most of the optical identifications.

A total of 165 radio-selected galaxies have been detected within 2.5 Mpc of the centers of rich Abell clusters with $`z0.23`$ and $`M_\mathrm{R}21`$. There are 89 radio-selected galaxies with luminosities between $`2\times 10^{22}`$ W Hz$`{}_{}{}^{1}L_{1.4}10^{23}`$ W Hz-1. There are 76 radio-selected galaxies with $`L_{1.4}10^{23}`$ W Hz-1. We have obtained 114 new spectra for clusters with $`z0.23`$. A large fraction (95$`\%`$) of the optical identifications have measured redshifts.

In addition, new optical and X-ray data are presented for each of these clusters. We describe the selection of the cluster sample, observations and the data reduction techniques for all three wavelengths, including optical spectroscopy.

We greatly appreciate the anonymous referee’s careful reading and useful comments. We would like to thank Jean Eilek, Carol Lonsdale, and Schuyler Van Dyk. G.E.M would like to thank the night assistances at the Steward Observatory’s Bok telescope, the Palomar Observatory’s Hale telescope, and Palomar Observatory’s day-crew. G.E.M. acknowledges financial support from NRAO predoctoral fellowship program during which most of this work was completed. G.E.M. also gratefully acknowledges the support of JPL (contract $`\mathrm{\#}`$1147-001 and $`\mathrm{\#}`$1166) and also the support of Vanguard Research, Inc. The author has made extensive use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data Abstract Service (ADS) and NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED).