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# DAMTP-2002-161 Development of a unified tensor calculus for the exceptional Lie algebras

## 1 Introduction

### 1.1 Notation and conventions

Let $`𝔤`$ be a simple complex Lie algebra with generators $`X_k`$ such that

$$[X_i,X_j]=ic_{ijk}X_k.$$
(1)
Here and in the following summation over repeated indices is understood. The adjoint representation $`ad`$ of $`𝔤`$ is defined by $`X_kad_k:=[X_k,]`$ with matrix elements

$$(ad_i)_{jk}=ic_{ikj},$$
(2)
and our normalisations are fixed by requiring that the Cartan-Killing form of $`𝔤`$ satisfies

$$\kappa _{jk}=\mathrm{Tr}(ad_jad_k)=\delta _{jk},$$
(3)
so that the structure constants are totally antisymmetric and satisfy

$$c_{jpq}c_{kpq}=\delta _{jk}.$$
(4)
It follows that the quadratic Casimir operator of $`𝔤`$

$$𝒞^{(2)}=X_kX_k,$$
(5)
has, for each $`𝔤`$, the eigenvalue $`c_2(ad)=1`$, since

$$𝒞^{(2)}(ad)_{ij}=c_{pqi}c_{pqj}=\delta _{ij}.$$
(6)
We use the notation $``$ to indicate the set of all exceptional Lie algebras

$$=\{𝔤_2,𝔣_4,𝔢_6,𝔢_7,𝔢_8\}.$$
(7)
They are a subset of the set

$$=\{𝔞_1,𝔞_2,𝔤_2,𝔡_4,𝔣_4,𝔢_6,𝔢_7,𝔢_8\}$$
(8)
of Lie algebras in the last line of the extended Freudenthal magic square .

We note that we use the informal abbreviation irrep for irreducible representation. Here the term is understood as irreducible over the field of complex numbers, but only up to diagram automorphisms. The groups of diagram automorphisms of the algebras $`𝔤`$ are $`_2`$ for $`𝔞_2`$ and $`𝔢_6`$, $`S_3`$ for $`𝔡_4`$, and the trivial group for all the others. As the adjoint irrep is always mapped to itself under diagram automorphisms, we find in the complete decomposition of its tensor products over the complex numbers either irreps that are self-conjugate or pairs of conjugate irreps for $`𝔞_2`$ and $`𝔢_6`$. For $`𝔡_4`$, the constituents are either single irreps that are stable under triality or triples and sextuples of irreps that are related by triality. We call the direct sum of all irreps belonging to such a pair, triple or sextuple, an irrep in the sense of this article.

We refer informally to a ”Clebsch” as an abbreviation for a Clebsch-Gordan coefficient. We thought the abbreviations were marginally preferable to the acronyms IR and CGC. We refer to irreps usually by their dimensions because our studies give a central role to dimension formulas for families of irreps, one for each of $`𝔤`$, as a function of $`D=dim𝔤`$. When we wish to use the Dynkin co-ordinate or highest weight designation of an irrep, we follow the conventions that stem from the choice of Cartan matrix used in  and .

### 1.2 On the context and the content of this paper

The work of Meyberg for $`j=2`$, and its extension  to $`j=3`$ and $`4`$, demonstrates the uniformity for $`𝔤`$ of the decomposition into irreps of the $`j`$-th tensor power

$$ad^j$$
(9)
of the adjoint irrep $`ad`$ of $`𝔤`$. This striking property opens the way towards the main purpose of the present paper: the development of a comprehensive tensor calculus for the exceptional Lie algebras $``$, in a form uniform over $``$. The first phase of this programme is implemented here, mainly but not exclusively, at the $`j=2`$ level.

We have in an earlier paper  succeeded in developing quite far a tensor calculus for $`𝔤_2`$, one that is based, not on $`ad`$ as here, but on the seven dimensional defining irrep of $`𝔤_2`$. This can no doubt serve satisfactorily applications to areas like spin-chains, Gaudin models or to integrable quantal or supersymmetric models with $`𝔤_2`$ invariance. However it promises no discernible path to a comparable treatment of the larger exceptional groups, nor is it as amenable, as are the methods of the present paper, to extension beyond the context of the two-fold direct product. The uniform tensor calculus that this paper displays underlines the view that the tensor powers (9) of $`ad`$ for $`𝔤`$ have very special properties that deserve to be, and here will be, exploited as fully as possible.

The complete reduction of

$$adad=(adad)_A+(adad)_S,$$
(10)
provides a result for the antisymmetric part

$$(adad)_Aad+X_2,$$
(11)
in a universal form, one that is valid for each simple complex $`𝔤`$, and a result

$$(adad)_SR_1+R_2+R_3,$$
(12)
valid for $`𝔤`$ but not for other $`𝔤`$. It is a simple matter to show that $`X_2`$ is an irrep of $`𝔤`$ in the sense of this article with the universal properties

$`\mathrm{\Delta }_2dimX_2`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}D(D3)`$
$`c_2(X_2)`$ $`=`$ $`2,`$ (13)
where $`D=dim𝔤`$ and $`c_2(R)`$ denotes the eigenvalue of the quadratic Casimir operator $`𝒞^{(2)}`$ for the irrep $`R`$ of $`𝔤`$. (we use the notations $`X_2`$ and $`X_3`$ below, see (129), following , but sometimes write $`X_2=R_0`$ and $`X_3=R_7`$ to enable generic reference to representations $`R_r`$.) The membership for $`𝔤`$ of the family of irreps $`X_2`$ is shown in Table 1, along with the membership of the three families $`R_1,R_2`$ and $`R_3`$ arising in (12).

It is known  that there are formulas for

$$D_2=dimR_2,D_3=dimR_3,c_2(R_2)=\frac{1}{2}(1+\mathrm{}_2),c_2(R_3)=\frac{1}{2}(1+\mathrm{}_3),$$
(14)
as functions of $`D=dim𝔤`$, valid in each case for each member of the family in question. Eq. (14) also defines the useful variables $`\mathrm{}_{2,3}`$; $`D_{2,3}`$ and $`\mathrm{}_{2,3}`$ are essential as input into many important formulas derived below.

While we have favoured the use of $`D`$ as a parameter in formulas valid across a family of irreps of $``$, other parameters are in common use elsewhere. To facilitate comparisons, we have collected some information about them in the Appendix.

We review the analysis of $`adad`$ carefully in Sec. 2, which makes various additions to results in , and employs an elementary method that lends itself to generalisation beyond the case of $`adad`$. One matter of interest that arises here is the absence  for $`𝔤`$ of a primitive quartic Casimir operator. We review this too, giving some extra results of later use, and explain how the case of $`𝔡_4`$, which has two independent primitive quartic Casimir operators, nevertheless conforms fully to the family picture for $``$. Apart from this topic we are concerned almost exclusively with the exceptionals.

The remaining sections of this paper take up the establishment, first at the $`j=2`$ level, of a tensor calculus applicable uniformly across $``$, and the demonstration that our methods are sufficiently general as to permit extension to the case of $`adadad`$, although a systematic treatment of this is left to a future publication.

In Sec. 3, we embark on the tensor calculus accessible using tensor products such as $`v_iv_j`$ and $`\varphi _i\varphi _j`$, where $`v_i`$ is an adjoint vector, i.e. one that transforms according to the adjoint representation of $`𝔤`$, and $`\varphi _i`$ is an adjoint vector with anticommuting components, e.g. fermionic creation operators. This brings into focus many of the most important third rank isotropic tensors, these being isotropic under adjoint action. We deduce basic identities involving them, and consider the interpretation of them as Clebsches. Further, we note the occurrence of results like those which in the quantum theory of angular momentum see the appearance of Racah coefficients, or what is the same thing to within a phase of no significance here, Wigner $`6j`$ symbols.

Just as for full mastery of $`𝔞_n=su(n+1)`$ tensor and related algebraic methods, stems from development of the properties both of the Gell-mann $`\lambda `$-matrices and the tensors that enter their product law

$$\lambda _i\lambda _j=\frac{2}{n}\delta _{ij}+(d+if)_{ijk}\lambda _k,$$
(15)
so also is there a best approach to the tensor calculus for $`𝔤`$.

Thus in Sec. 4, we introduce a basis of matrices for $`\mathrm{hom}_{}(𝒱_{ad},𝒱_{ad})`$, where $`𝒱_{ad}`$ is the vector space in which $`ad`$ acts. It is not surprising that we meet a much more complicated situation when we attempt to generalise from $`𝔞_n`$ to the set of exceptionals $``$ treated uniformly. We write and confront fully the set of all product laws involving matrices of the basis, thereby identifying all the isotropic third rank tensors arising at the $`j=2`$ level of our study. Their interpretation as Clebsches is discussed. Amongst the large body of identities, applicable uniformly across $``$, that are proved in Sec 4. are again some that have an interpretation in terms of Racah coefficients. Further we identify explicitly (and evaluate quadratic Casimir operators for) the matrices that transform under $`𝔤`$ according to the irreps $`R_2,R_3`$ and $`X_2`$. This is essential input into Sec. 5.

In Sec. 5, we study $`adadad`$, following a straightforward method for deducing, for all $`g`$, formulas for the dimensions and the quadratic Casimir eigenvalues for all the (new) families of irreps of $`g`$ that enter $`adR`$ for $`R=X_2,R_2,R_3`$.

This is vital input data for a study of all the tensors that enter the picture for $`ad^3`$. It is hoped to describe progress in this direction in a future publication. That a viable approach is available is known from a preliminary study for the simplest case of $`𝔞_1`$, but details of this are not given here.

In Sec. 6, we make some remarks regarding the status of $`𝔡_4`$ within $``$. We show explicitly how the fact that $`𝔡_4`$ has two primitive quartic Casimir operators, whereas all other members of $``$ have none, is fully compatible with this status.

The paper concludes with three appendices. The first describes the parametrisation of family formulas by $`m`$ instead of $`D=dim𝔤`$, the second gives a listing of dimension formulas in terms of $`m`$, whilst the third compares the definition of Racah coefficients, or $`6j`$ symbols, in quantum theory of angular momentum with various formulas derived in the text expressing products of three trilinear tensors in terms of one. The relevance of this follows from a view described in Sec. 4 of such tensors as Clebsch-Gordan coefficients.

## 2 Analysis of $`adad`$

### 2.1 The $`L`$-operator

Our approach here employs the $`L`$-operator for $`𝔤`$. Writing $`X_{1i}=X_iI`$ and $`X_{2i}=IX_2`$, this is defined, for $`X_i=X_{1i}+X_{2i}`$ , with $`X_{1i}ad_{1i},X_{2i}ad_{2i}`$, by writing

$$𝒞^{(2)}(adad)=(X_{1i}+X_{2i})(X_{1i}+X_{2i})=𝒞^{(2)}(ad)+2L+𝒞^{(2)}(ad)$$
(16)
in agreement with (5). Clearly $`L=ad_{1i}ad_{2i}`$ has the same eigenspaces as $`𝒞^{(2)}(adad)`$ so that its eigenvalues are given by

$$\mathrm{}=\frac{1}{2}c_2(adad)1.$$
(17)
We have $`\mathrm{}=1,\frac{1}{2},0`$ for $`R_1,ad,X_2`$ in all cases, and for $`R_2`$ and $`R_3`$ we have the eigenvalues given in Table 2. From these data one can see empirically the result

$$\mathrm{}_2+\mathrm{}_3+\frac{1}{6}=0,$$
(18)
which we derive in Sec. 4.

### 2.2 Trace results

From (2) and (16), we get

$$L_{ij,pq}=c_{ipk}c_{jqk}.$$
(19)
Thus we have the following trace results

$`\mathrm{Tr}I`$ $`=`$ $`D^2`$
$`\mathrm{Tr}L`$ $`=`$ $`0`$
$`\mathrm{Tr}L^2`$ $`=`$ $`D`$
$`\mathrm{Tr}L^3`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{4}D`$ (20)
The third result here comes from (6), while the fourth one depends on the consequence

$$c_{ipj}c_{jqk}c_{kri}=\frac{1}{2}c_{pqr}$$
(21)
of the Jacobi identity. Such a result is valid for all $`𝔤`$, but the actual number on the right side depends on our conventions, (4) and (6).

Alongside (21) we note the result

$$c_{ipj}c_{jqk}c_{kri}c_{pqs}=\frac{1}{2}\delta _{rs}.$$
(22)
### 2.3 Projectors

We begin by stating a well-known result. If a hermitian operator $`A`$ has distinct eigenvalues $`a_i`$, $`1ip`$, then the projector onto its $`i`$-th eigenspace is given by

$$P_i=\underset{ki}{}\frac{Aa_kI}{a_ia_k}$$
(23)
where $`I`$ is the unit operator. Further the result

$$(Aa_iI)P_i=0,$$
(24)
with no sum implied on $`i`$, is, for each $`i`$, a possibly reduced version of the characteristic equation of $`A`$. Rather than employ the full $`L`$-operator of (16), with unit operator $`I`$ such that

$$(I)_{ij,pq}=\delta _{ip}\delta _{jq},$$
(25)
we treat separately the symmetric and antisymmetric parts of $`L`$

$$L_S=LI_S,L_A=LI_A,$$
(26)
the corresponding unit operators being

$$(I_S)_{ij,pq}=\frac{1}{2}(\delta _{ip}\delta _{jq}+\delta _{iq}\delta _{jp}),(I_A)_{ij,pq}=\frac{1}{2}(\delta _{ip}\delta _{jq}\delta _{iq}\delta _{jp}).$$
(27)
Then in notation corresponding to (11) and (12), we have

$$P_{ad}+P_0=I_A,P_1+P_2+P_3=I_S.$$
(28)
We turn now first to $`L_A`$ and second to $`L_S`$.

### 2.4 The antisymmetric subspace

We wish to note the universal features of the results for $`L_A=LI_A`$. The result $`\mathrm{}_{ad}=\frac{1}{2}`$ for $`ad`$ is obvious for any $`𝔤`$. From the Jacobi identity (see, for example, ) we obtain,

$$L_A=\frac{1}{2}P_{ad},$$
(29)
and also the reduced characteristic equation of $`L_A`$,

$$L_A(L_A+\frac{1}{2})=0,$$
(30)
which can be rewritten as

$$L(L+\frac{1}{2})I_A=0.$$
(31)
This implies that $`L`$ has got two distinct eigenvalues $`1/2`$ and $`0`$ on the antisymmetric subspace, therefore $`\mathrm{}_0=0`$.

Although much of the most important information about $`L`$ for our purposes resides in $`L_S`$, (31) helps us simplify our work.

We note one other result. Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }_2=\mathrm{dim}X_2`$, then (11) leads to

$$\mathrm{Tr}I_A=\frac{1}{2}D(D1)=D+\mathrm{\Delta }_2,$$
(32)
so that

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_2=\frac{1}{2}D(D3),$$
(33)
holds for all simple $`𝔤`$. For $`𝔞_2=su(3)`$ this means $`\mathrm{\Delta }_2=20`$, where $`2010+\overline{10}`$ is irreducible in the sense of our paper, namely a pair of conjugate irreps.

Since easily

$$\mathrm{Tr}LI_A=\frac{1}{2}D,$$
(34)
equation (31) yields

$$\mathrm{Tr}L^2I_A=\frac{1}{4}D,\mathrm{Tr}L^3I_A=\frac{1}{8}D.$$
(35)
This and (20) provide all the trace results for $`L`$ needed below.

### 2.5 The symmetric subspace

We recall the formula in (21) for $`L`$, and the result (27) for $`I_S`$. We know trivially

$$(P_1)_{ij,pq}=\frac{1}{D}\delta _{ij}\delta _{pq}.$$
(36)
To derive, for each of the exceptional Lie algebras, which are governed by (12), an identity quartic in the structure constants, we must eliminate $`P_2`$ and $`P_3`$ from the equations

$$(L\mathrm{}_i)P_i=0,\mathrm{}_1=1,i=1,2,3.$$
(37)
There is no sum on $`i`$ in (37). Also $`L`$ can therein be replaced by $`LI_S`$ because $`I_SP_i=P_i`$ for each of the three symmetric projectors $`P_i`$. Since $`P_2+P_3=I_SP_1`$ , it is easy to find the result

$$(L\mathrm{}_2)(L\mathrm{}_3)(I_SP_1)=0.$$
(38)
To reach the sought after identities, we use $`\mathrm{}_1=1`$ and expand (38)

$$L^2I_S(\mathrm{}_2+\mathrm{}_3)LI_S+\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3I_S(1+\mathrm{}_2)(1+\mathrm{}_3)P_1=0,$$
(39)
add $`L^2I_A`$ to this using (31), and obtain

$$L^2=(\mathrm{}_2+\mathrm{}_3)LI_S\frac{1}{2}LI_A\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3I_S+(1+\mathrm{}_2)(1+\mathrm{}_3)P_1.$$
(40)
Now the $`ij,pq`$ matrix element of (40) yields

$`c_{lir}c_{ljs}c_{krp}c_{ksq}=\mathrm{Tr}(ad_iad_pad_qad_j)`$ (41)
$`=\frac{1}{2}(\mathrm{}_2+\mathrm{}_3\frac{1}{2})c_{lip}c_{ljq}+\frac{1}{2}(\mathrm{}_2+\mathrm{}_3+\frac{1}{2})c_{liq}c_{lpj}\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3(\delta _{ip}\delta _{jq}+\delta _{iq}\delta _{jp})`$
$`+\frac{1}{D}(1+\mathrm{}_2)(1+\mathrm{}_3)\delta _{ij}\delta _{pq}.`$
We have already put $`\mathrm{}_1=1`$ into this result. If we make use also of (18), we may simplify the final expression on the right side of (41) obtaining

$$\frac{1}{3}c_{lip}c_{ljq}+\frac{1}{6}c_{liq}c_{lpj}\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3(\delta _{ip}\delta _{jq}+\delta _{iq}\delta _{jp})+\frac{1}{6D}\left(5+6\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3\right)\delta _{ij}\delta _{pq}.$$
(42)
From this we may deduce the result

$$\mathrm{Tr}(ad_{(i}ad_pad_qad_{j)})=\frac{1}{6D}[5+6(1D)\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3]\delta _{(ij}\delta _{pq)},$$
(43)
where the enclosure of a set of suffices by round brackets indicate symmetrisation at unit weight. This result is used below in the discussion of the non-primitivity of the quartic Casimir invariants of exceptional algebras.

### 2.6 Derivation of formulas for $`\mathrm{}_2`$ and $`\mathrm{}_3`$

The results of Sec. 4 and 5 can be given in a nice form, applicable uniformly to all exceptional $`𝔤`$, by deriving formulas for $`\mathrm{}_2+\mathrm{}_3`$ and $`\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3`$ in terms of $`D=\mathrm{dim}𝔤`$.

Thus we examine the equations

$`\mathrm{Tr}I_S`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}D(D+1)=1+D_2+D_3`$
$`\mathrm{Tr}L_S`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}D=1+\mathrm{}_2D_2+\mathrm{}_3D_3`$
$`\mathrm{Tr}L^2I_S`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{3}{4}D=1+\mathrm{}_{2}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}D_2+\mathrm{}_{3}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}D_3`$
$`\mathrm{Tr}L^3I_S`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{8}D=1+\mathrm{}_{2}^{}{}_{}{}^{3}D_2+\mathrm{}_{3}^{}{}_{}{}^{3}D_3,`$ (44)
in which $`D_i=\mathrm{dim}R_i`$, $`i=1,2,3`$ with $`D_1=1`$. Also we have set $`\mathrm{}_1=1`$. We write the first two and the last two of these equations in a matrix form

$`{\displaystyle \frac{D+2}{2}}\left(\begin{array}{c}D1\\ 1\end{array}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 1\\ \mathrm{}_2& \mathrm{}_3\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}D_2\\ D_3\end{array}\right)`$ (51)
$`\left(\begin{array}{c}(3D4)/4\\ (8D)/8\end{array}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{}_2^2& \mathrm{}_3^2\\ \mathrm{}_2^3& \mathrm{}_3^3\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}D_2\\ D_3\end{array}\right).`$ (58)
Elimination of $`D_2`$ and $`D_3`$ matrixwise leads to

$`{\displaystyle \frac{3D4}{2(D+2)}}`$ $`=`$ $`x(D1)+y`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{8D}{4(D+2)}}`$ $`=`$ $`y[x(D1)+y]x,`$ (59)
where $`y=\mathrm{}_2+\mathrm{}_3`$ and $`x=\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3`$, and hence to $`y=1/6`$, as noted empirically. The result

$$\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3=\frac{5}{3(D+2)},$$
(60)
follows easily, and hence expressions for $`\mathrm{}_2,\mathrm{}_3,D_2,D_3`$ as explicit functions of $`D`$. These are displayed in Sec. 2.7.

The results given in Table 2 are all in agreement with (60). The important trace result (41) can now be given in a form in which all numerical coefficients determined solely by $`D`$. Also (43) now reads

$$\mathrm{Tr}(ad_{(i}ad_pad_qad_{j)})=\frac{5}{2(D+2)}\delta _{(ij}\delta _{pq)}.$$
(61)
### 2.7 Explicit results

To make explicit as functions of $`D=dim𝔤`$ some results given in previous subsections, we define

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=\left[\frac{242+D}{2+D}\right]^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{2}}},$$
(62)
denoted by $`w`$ in . This takes these values for $`𝔤`$:

$$7,5,4,3,\frac{7}{3},2,\frac{5}{3},\frac{7}{5}.$$
(63)
Then, from Sec. 2.6, we have the following

$`\mathrm{}_2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(1\mathrm{\Delta })}{12}},`$
$`\mathrm{}_3`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(1+\mathrm{\Delta })}{12}},`$
$`D_2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(D+2)}{4\mathrm{\Delta }}}(D11+\mathrm{\Delta }(D1))`$
$`D_3`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(D+2)}{4\mathrm{\Delta }}}(D+11+\mathrm{\Delta }(D1))`$
$`c_2(R_2)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(11\mathrm{\Delta })`$
$`c_2(R_3)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(11+\mathrm{\Delta }).`$ (64)
Since $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{m+6}{m+2}`$ follows (182) and (62), all the formulas listed here are rational functions of $`m`$. Thus it will often be true that simplifications are easier to find by working in terms of $`m`$ rather than $`D`$.

### 2.8 Quartic Casimir operators for the exceptionals

We deal here with $`𝔤`$ excluding $`𝔡_4`$ which requires separate treatment, provided in Sec. 6.

The simplest thing to do in this context is to define the general adjoint matrix $`A=b_iad_i`$, $`b_i`$, and look at $`\mathrm{Tr}A^4`$. We may use (60) to deduce

$$\mathrm{Tr}A^4=b_ib_jb_pb_q\mathrm{Tr}(ad_{(i}ad_jad_pad_{q)})=\frac{5}{2(D+2)}(b_kb_k)^2,$$
(65)
which exhibits explicitly the failure of $`\mathrm{Tr}A^4`$ to be primitive.

More generally, we must define a quartic Casimir operator. Set $`M=ad_iX_i`$, where the $`X_i`$ denote the hermitian Lie algebra generators themselves, and define

$`𝒞^{(4)}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{Tr}M^4`$ (66)
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{Tr}(ad_iad_pad_qad_j)X_iX_pX_qX_j.`$
We employ (3), with $`\mathrm{}_2+\mathrm{}_3`$ and $`\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3`$ given by (18) and (59), to evaluate the right side (66). We can complete the evaluation with the aid of (1), (6) and (21), obtaining

$$𝒞^{(4)}=\frac{5}{2(D+2)}𝒞^{(2)}{}_{}{}^{2}+\frac{D3}{12(D+2)}𝒞^{(2)},$$
(67)
valid for all exceptional $`𝔤`$.

### 2.9 $`𝒞^{(4)}`$ for irreps of $`𝔤`$ and $`\mathrm{Tr}L^4`$

Let $`X_iM_i`$ define the matrices of an irrep $`R`$ of $`𝔤`$ with $`L`$-operator $`L=ad_tX_t`$ represented by

$`L_M`$ $`=`$ $`ad_tM_t`$
$`(L_M)_{ja,kb}`$ $`=`$ $`(ad_t)_{jk}(M_t)_{ab}`$ (68)
$`=`$ $`c_{tjk}m_{tab},`$
where $`(M_t)_{ab}=im_{tab},a,b,\{1,2,\mathrm{},dimR\}`$.

The properties (4) and (21) allow us to evaluate traces

$`\mathrm{Tr}L_M`$ $`=`$ $`0`$
$`\mathrm{Tr}L_M^2`$ $`=`$ $`m_{tab}m_{tab}=\mathrm{Tr}M_tM_t=c_2(R)dimR`$
$`\mathrm{Tr}L_M^3`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{4}\mathrm{Tr}M_tM_t.`$ (69)
Also

$`\mathrm{Tr}L_M^4`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{Tr}(ad_jad_kad_qad_p)\mathrm{Tr}(M_jM_kM_qM_p)`$ (70)
$`=`$ $`\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{5}{(D+2)}}c_2(R)^2+{\displaystyle \frac{D3}{12(D+2)}}c_2(R)\right\}(dimR),`$
where we have used (67). Note also

$$(M_tM_t)_{ab}=c_2(R)\delta _{ab},$$
(71)
compatibly with the second in result (69).

In the special case of $`M=ad`$, so that $`L_M=L`$, these results reproduce those of Sec. 2.1, while (70) gives rise to

$$\mathrm{Tr}L^4=\frac{D(D+27)}{12(D+2)},$$
(72)
since $`c_2(ad)=1`$. This can be confirmed correct using (40) and results from Sec. 2.1.

More specific applications of (70) arise in Sec. 5, upon identification of explicit expressions for the matrices of $`R_2,R_3,X_2`$ etc.

## 3 Simple tensor methods for $`𝔤`$

### 3.1 Second rank tensor decomposition

Given a vector $`v_i`$ which transforms under $`𝔤`$ according to its adjoint representation, i.e. an adjoint vector, we have, for $`v_iv_j`$ which transforms according to $`(adad)_S`$, the decomposition into tensors irreducible under $`𝔤`$:

$$v_iv_j=\frac{1}{D}v_kv_k\delta _{ij}+d_{ija}x_a+d_{ij\alpha }y_\alpha ,$$
(73)
where

$$x_a=d_{ija}v_iv_j,y_\alpha =d_{ij\alpha }v_iv_j.$$
(74)
Here, to within normalisation, $`d_{ija},d_{ij\alpha }`$ are Clebsch-Gordan coefficients, referred to often here as Clebsches for short, for

$`adad`$ $``$ $`R_2`$
$`adad`$ $``$ $`R_3.`$ (75)
They are distinguished by virtue of having index sets of different natures. Our index conventions here are

$`i,j,k,\mathrm{}\mathrm{for}`$ $`ad`$ $`\{1,2,\mathrm{},dim𝔤\}`$
$`a,b,c,\mathrm{}\mathrm{for}`$ $`R_2`$ $`\{1,2,\mathrm{},D_2=dimR_2\}`$
$`\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma ,\mathrm{}\mathrm{for}`$ $`R_3`$ $`\{1,2,\mathrm{},D_3=dimR_3\},`$ (76)
as well as

$$\mu ,\nu ,\rho ,\mathrm{}\mathrm{for}X_2\{1,2,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Delta }_2=dimX_2\},$$
(77)
needed soon.

Eqs. (73) and (74) reflect the normalisations

$`d_{ija}d_{ijb}`$ $`=`$ $`\delta _{ab}`$
$`d_{ij\alpha }d_{ij\beta }`$ $`=`$ $`\delta _{\alpha \beta },`$ (78)
and the traceless properties

$$d_{iia}=0,d_{ii\alpha }=0.$$
(79)
Also orthogonality of different sets of Clebsches gives

$$d_{ija}d_{ij\alpha }=0.$$
(80)
To bring $`(adad)_A`$ into the picture, let $`\varphi _i`$ be a fermionic adjoint vector, i.e. one with anticommuting components, e.g. fermionic creation operators, as for $`𝔞_2`$ in . Then the analogue of (73) is

$$\varphi _i\varphi _j=X_{ij}+c_{ijk}\psi _k,$$
(81)
where

$$\psi _i=c_{ijk}\varphi _j\varphi _k$$
(82)
is the adjoint vector expected from

$$(adad)_Aad+X_2,$$
(83)
and $`X_{ij}`$ is the tensor, clearly of dimension

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_2=\frac{1}{2}D(D3)=dimX_2,$$
(84)
associated with the second term of (83). Also we may view the $`c_{ijk}`$ as Clebsches for $`adadad`$.

### 3.2 A projector view

We obtain another useful view of (73) by applying to $`v_iv_j`$ the result, from (28),

$$I_S=P_1+P_2+P_3,$$
(85)
where we write now

$`(P_1)_{ij,kl}`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{D}\delta _{ij}\delta _{kl}`$
$`(P_2)_{ij,kl}`$ $`=`$ $`d_{ija}d_{kla}`$
$`(P_3)_{ij,kl}`$ $`=`$ $`d_{ij\alpha }d_{kl\alpha }.`$ (86)
All the usual properties of projectors are satisfied: $`\mathrm{Tr}P_1=1`$ is trivial, $`\mathrm{Tr}P_2=D_2`$ and $`\mathrm{Tr}P_3=D_3`$ follow (78), while

$$P_2{}_{}{}^{2}=P_2,P_3{}_{}{}^{2}=P_3,P_2P_3=0,P_1P_3=0,P_1P_2=0$$
(87)
follow (78), (79) and (80). Similarly we may apply

$$I_A=P_{ad}+P_0,$$
(88)
to $`\varphi _i\varphi _j`$, where

$`(P_{ad})_{ij,kl}`$ $`=`$ $`c_{ijt}c_{iklt}`$
$`(P_0)_{ij,kl}`$ $`=`$ $`g_{ij\mu }g_{kl\mu },`$ (89)
where the Clebsches for $`adadX_2`$ are normalised, like all the other Clebsches introduced so far, so that

$$g_{ij\mu }g_{ij\nu }=\delta _{\mu \nu }.$$
(90)
The application simply reproduces (81) with

$$X_{ij}=(P_0)_{ij,kl}\varphi _k\varphi _l.$$
(91)
We note also $`\mathrm{Tr}P_0=\delta _{\mu \mu }=\mathrm{\Delta }_2=dimX_2`$, and the orthogonality relation

$$c_{ijt}g_{ij\mu }=0.$$
(92)
Also alongside (77) and (90) we note the identities

$`d_{ija}d_{kja}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{D_2}{D}}\delta _{ik}`$
$`d_{ij\alpha }d_{kj\alpha }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{D_3}{D}}\delta _{ik}`$
$`g_{ij\mu }g_{kj\mu }`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}(D3)\delta _{ik}.`$ (93)
### 3.3 Two basic tensor identities

From the equations

$`I_S`$ $`=`$ $`P_1+P_2+P_3`$
$`LI_S`$ $`=`$ $`P_1+\mathrm{}_2P_2+\mathrm{}_3P_3,`$ (94)
we may eliminate $`P_2`$ and $`P_3`$ in turn, getting

$`(L\mathrm{}_2)I_S`$ $`=`$ $`(1+\mathrm{}_2)P_1+(\mathrm{}_3\mathrm{}_2)P_3`$
$`(L\mathrm{}_3)I_S`$ $`=`$ $`(1+\mathrm{}_3)P_1+(\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3)P_2.`$ (95)
Taking matrix elements with the aid of (86) gives

$$(\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3)d_{ija}d_{pqa}=\frac{1}{2}(c_{ipt}c_{jqt}+c_{iqt}c_{jpt})\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{}_3(\delta _{ip}\delta _{jq}+\delta _{iq}\delta _{jp})+\frac{1+\mathrm{}_3}{D}\delta _{ij}\delta _{pq},$$
(96)
plus a result for $`d_{ij\alpha }d_{pq\alpha }`$ obtained by interchange of $`\mathrm{}_2`$ and $`\mathrm{}_3`$ in (96).

It is a non-trivial but instructive task to verify that various contractions of (96) are identically satisfied; results from Sec. 2.8 are needed.

### 3.4 Trilinear tensor identities

Since we regard $`c_{ijk}`$ as defining the set of Clebsches for

$$adadad,$$
(97)
eq. (21) can be regarded as an analogue of a result in the quantum theory of angular momentum that defines a Racah coefficient. There are many more identities of this sort. Appendix C provides a little background from the quantum theory of angular momentum.

It is easy to contract (96) with $`d_{ija}`$ and get

$$c_{ikt}c_{tlj}d_{ija}=\mathrm{}_2d_{kla}.$$
(98)
There is a similar result for $`d_{ij\alpha }`$ obtained by replacing $`\mathrm{}_2`$ on the right of (98) by $`\mathrm{}_3`$. There are many other pairs of identities related in this fashion; they should not need to be indicated explicitly again.

To contract (96) with a $`c`$-tensor and get

$$d_{ija}d_{pqa}c_{ipt}=\frac{\mathrm{}_2D_2}{D}c_{pqs},$$
(99)
is harder, and requires the use of (21) and results from Sec. 2.8.

Also, using (88), we get

$$g_{ij\mu }g_{kl\mu }c_{iks}=c_{jls}.$$
(100)
Further, equipped with (98), we can deduce

$$d_{ija}d_{pqa}d_{ipb}=\frac{11+D+\mathrm{\Delta }}{2D\mathrm{\Delta }}d_{jqb},$$
(101)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is defined by (62).

A further consequence of (96) is

$$d_{(ij}{}_{}{}^{a}d_{pq)a}^{}=\frac{2D_2}{D(D+2)}\delta _{(ij}\delta _{pq)},$$
(102)
in which the round brackets denote symmetrisation over the enclosed at unit weight. The first index $`a`$ is raised, without any metric significance, just to take it outside the round brackets. This result, (102), can be used to give an independent derivation of (101), with the aid of the result in (64) for $`D_2`$,

Obviously there are more results of the type here treated, of increasing complication. We have shown how one might work towards them if and when the need to do so arises.

## 4 Matrices and associated tensors

### 4.1 The basis set

To gain full control of the formalism, systematically identifying all the tensors of importance as they arise and determining their essential properties, it is useful to introduce a complete set of basis matrices for $`\mathrm{hom}_{}(𝒱_{ad},𝒱_{ad})`$, where $`𝒱_{ad}`$ is the vector space in which the irrep $`ad`$ of $`𝔤`$ acts.

The basis

$$M_A,A\{1,2,\mathrm{},D^2\},D=dim𝔤,$$
(103)
consists of matrices

$$(\frac{1}{D}I,D_a,Y_\alpha ),(F_i,G_\mu ).$$
(104)
The first parenthesis contains a total of $`1+D_2+D_3=\frac{1}{2}D(D+1)`$ symmetric matrices defined by

$$I_{ij}=\delta _{ij},(D_a)_{ij}=d_{ija},(Y_\alpha )_{ij}=d_{ij\alpha }.$$
(105)
The second parenthesis in (104) contains $`D+\mathrm{\Delta }_2=\frac{1}{2}D(D1)`$ antisymmetric matrices defined by

$$(F_i)_{jk}=ic_{ijk},(G_\mu )_{ij}=ig_{ij\mu }.$$
(106)
These definitions are all given in terms of tensors already introduced in Sec. 3.

The matrices $`M_A`$ all hermitian, and possess the trace properties

$$\mathrm{Tr}M_A=0,\mathrm{Tr}(M_AM_B)=\delta _{AB}.$$
(107)
By expanding symmetric $`A\mathrm{hom}_{}(𝒱_{ad},𝒱_{ad})`$ with respect to our basis

$$A=aI+u_aD_a+v_\alpha Y_\alpha $$
(108)
we obtain a completeness relation

$$d_{ija}d_{kla}+d_{ij\alpha }d_{kl\alpha }+\frac{1}{D}\delta _{ij}\delta _{kl}=\frac{1}{2}(\delta _{ik}\delta _{jl}+\delta _{il}\delta _{jk}),$$
(109)
the compatibility of which with (102) and its analogue involving $`D_3`$ can be checked.

Similarly we have

$$c_{ikt}c_{jlt}+g_{ik\mu }g_{jl\mu }=\frac{1}{2}(\delta _{ik}\delta _{jl}\delta _{il}\delta _{jk}),$$
(110)
which contains the same information as (88).

### 4.2 The product $`F_iF_j`$

By considering the action of $`I=I_A+I_S`$ on $`F_iF_j`$ we find

$$F_iF_j=\frac{1}{D}\delta _{ij}+\frac{1}{2}ic_{ijk}F_k+\mathrm{}_2d_{ija}D_a+\mathrm{}_3d_{ij\alpha }Y_\alpha ,$$
(111)
with no term in $`G_\mu `$ because of the closure of the Lie algebra $`𝔤`$.

Here we have used facts like

$$\mathrm{Tr}(F_iF_jD_a)=c_{piq}c_{qjr}d_{rpa}=\mathrm{}_2d_{ija},$$
(112)
evaluated using (98). The factors $`i`$ needed for the hermiticity of the $`F`$-matrices accounts for the minus sign in the definition (105).

### 4.3 The full set of product laws

It is necessary to be prepared to contemplate all the product laws within $`M_AM_B`$ and all the tensors that arise in them. The full list is

$`F_iF_j`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{D}}\delta _{ij}+\frac{1}{2}ic_{ijk}F_k+\mathrm{}_2d_{ija}D_a+\mathrm{}_3d_{ij\alpha }Y_\alpha `$ (113)
$`F_iD_a`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}im_{iab}D_b+\mathrm{}_2d_{ija}F_j+d_{ia\mu }G_\mu `$ (114)
$`F_iY_\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}im_{i\alpha \beta }Y_\beta +\mathrm{}_3d_{ij\alpha }F_j+d_{i\alpha \mu }G_\mu `$ (115)
$`F_iG_\mu `$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}ig_{i\mu \nu }G_\nu +d_{i\alpha \mu }Y_\alpha +d_{ia\mu }D_a`$ (116)
$`D_aD_b`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{D}}\delta _{ab}I+\frac{1}{2}im_{iab}F_i+\frac{1}{2}im_{\mu ab}G_\mu +d_{abc}D_c+d_{ab\alpha }Y_\alpha `$ (117)
$`D_aY_\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}im_{a\alpha \mu }G_\mu +d_{ab\alpha }D_b+d_{a\alpha \beta }Y_\beta `$ (118)
$`G_\mu D_a`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}im_{\mu ab}D_b+\frac{1}{2}im_{a\alpha \mu }Y_\alpha +d_{ia\mu }F_i+d_{a\mu \nu }G_\nu `$ (119)
$`Y_\alpha Y_\beta `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{D}}\delta _{\alpha \beta }+\frac{1}{2}im_{i\alpha \beta }F_i+\frac{1}{2}im_{\mu \alpha \beta }G_\mu +d_{\alpha \beta \gamma }Y_\gamma +d_{a\alpha \beta }D_a`$ (120)
$`Y_\alpha G_\mu `$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}im_{a\alpha \mu }D_a+\frac{1}{2}im_{\mu \alpha \beta }Y_\beta +d_{i\alpha \mu }F_i+d_{\alpha \mu \nu }G_\nu `$ (121)
$`G_\mu G_\nu `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{D}}\delta _{\mu \nu }+\frac{1}{2}ig_{i\mu \nu }F_i+\frac{1}{2}ig_{\mu \nu \rho }G_\rho +d_{a\mu \nu }D_a+d_{\alpha \mu \nu }Y_\alpha .`$ (122)
Thus we need to consider $`10`$ products with $`39`$ terms, involving $`4`$ Kronecker deltas and $`18`$ isotropic third rank tensors. Again, tensors named by the same letter, but carrying distinct types of index sets, are to be regarded as distinct tensors. To understand fully the detail contained in (113122), it is best first to consider commutators and anticommutators separately. Thus, e.g., $`[F_i,D_a]`$ is symmetric and lies in $`\mathrm{span}_{}(I,D_a,Y_\alpha )`$, while $`\{F_i,D_a\}`$ is antisymmetric and lies in $`\mathrm{span}_{}(F_i,G_\mu )`$. The question then is: why are there only three terms in (114). To answer we note some direct product results

$`adX_2`$ $`=`$ $`ad+X_2+R_2+R_3+R_5+R_6+X_3+R_9`$ (123)
$`adR_2`$ $`=`$ $`ad+X_2+R_2+R_4+R_5+R_6`$ (124)
$`adR_3`$ $`=`$ $`ad+X_2+R_3+R_6+R_8+R_9.`$ (125)
These results, all of which are relevant at this point even though we may not make this completely explicit, bring in six families of irreps which have not so far been mentioned. These are defined by their dimensions for $`𝔤_2,𝔣_4,𝔢_{68}`$ in that order, as follows

$`R_4`$ $`=`$ $`7,273,650,1463,`$ (126)
$`R_5`$ $`=`$ $`64,4096,11648,40755,147250`$ (127)
$`R_6`$ $`=`$ $`189,10829,34749,152152,779247`$ (128)
$`X_3(=R_7)`$ $`=`$ $`182,19448,70070,365750,2450240`$ (129)
$`R_8`$ $`=`$ $`273,12376,43758,238602,1763125`$ (130)
$`R_9`$ $`=`$ $`448,29172,105600,573440,4096000.`$ (131)
The point here is that the result (124) relevant to (114) contains only three terms relevant to our basis matrices $`M_A`$ namely the first three, which correspond to the $`F,G,D`$ terms of (114). There is no $`Y`$ term in (114) because $`R_3`$ does not occur in (124). Tracing with $`F_k`$ accounts for the coefficient $`\mathrm{}_2d_{ija}`$, while the other two allowed terms necessitate the introduction of two new tensors. Eqs. (123125) relate similarly to (116114). And so on one proceeds. The repetition in later products of tensors introduced in earlier products is accounted for by requiring consistency under tracing. Various tensors have obvious symmetry or antisymmetry properties. Also the order of various matrices of different types within trace definitions should be irrelevant, to within a sign; e.g. it can be proved that the three traces

$$\mathrm{Tr}(F_iD_aG_\mu )=\mathrm{Tr}(F_iG_\mu D_a)=\mathrm{Tr}(G_\mu F_iD_a)=d_{ia\mu },$$
(132)
are mutually consistent.

We draw attention to the absence of an $`F`$-term in (116). This follows from Lie algebra closure. Another view of this states that

$$\mathrm{Tr}(F_iF_jG_\mu )=0.$$
(133)
This in turn gives an identity that can be proved, using the Jacobi identity for the structure constants, in exactly the same way as (21) was proved

$$c_{piq}c_{qjr}g_{rp\mu }=0.$$
(134)
### 4.4 Tensors as Clebsches

There are in the product laws (113122) four distinct Kronecker deltas associated trivially with

$$R_1=1adad,R_2R_2,R_3R_3,X_2X_2.$$
(135)
For the third rank isotropic tensors we have drawn up Table 3. It indicates symmetry properties with respect to interchange of indices of the same type, with the letter $`T`$ standing for totally. The table also specifies the triad of irreps for which each tensors provides a set of Clebsches. We emphasise that only the terms $`ad,R_2,R_3,X_2`$ on the right sides of (123125) are relevant at present, but see Sec. 5.

### 4.5 Jacobi identities and matrix irreps of $`𝔤`$

The results, from (114116),

$`[F_i,D_a]`$ $`=`$ $`im_{iab}D_b`$
$`[F_i,Y_\alpha ]`$ $`=`$ $`im_{i\alpha \beta }Y_\beta `$
$`[F_i,G_\mu ]`$ $`=`$ $`ig_{i\mu \nu }G_\nu ,`$ (136)
imply that $`D_a,Y_\alpha ,G_\mu `$ transform under $`𝔤`$ according to the irreps $`R_2,R_3,X_2`$ of $`𝔤`$. The tensors that appear on the right side of (136) are very important ones. To see this, we use Jacobi identities of the sort $`F,F,X`$ for $`X=D,Y,G`$ in turn. The first one translates into

$`[M_i,M_j]`$ $`=`$ $`ic_{ijk}M_k,`$ (137)
where the matrices $`M_i`$ are defined by

$$(M_i)_{ab}=im_{iab}.$$
(138)
Thus $`X_iM_i`$ defines the $`D_2\times D_2`$ matrices of the irrep $`R_2`$ of $`𝔤`$.

Similarly

$`(N_1)_{\alpha \beta }`$ $`=`$ $`im_{i\alpha \beta }`$
$`(G_i)_{\mu \nu }`$ $`=`$ $`ig_{i\mu \nu },`$ (139)
defines the matrix irreps $`X_iN_i`$ and to $`G_i`$ for the irreps $`R_2`$ and $`X_2`$ of $`𝔤`$.

### 4.6 Eigenvalues of $`𝒞^{(2)}`$ for $`X_iM_i,N_i,G_i`$

It is easiest in the case of $`G_i`$ to show that the definition of Sec. 4.5 is consistent with the knowledge, already to hand, that

$$G_iG_i=2I.$$
(140)
Thus we note the results

$`(G_iG_i)_{\mu \rho }`$ $`=`$ $`g_{i\mu \nu }g_{i\nu \rho }`$
$`\frac{1}{2}ig_{m\mu \nu }`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{Tr}(G_\mu G_\nu F_m)=g_{jk\mu }g_{kl\nu }c_{jlm}.`$ (141)
We insert the second one, not directly into the first, but rather into

$$g_{m\mu \nu }g_{n\mu \nu }.$$
(142)
Then use of (21, 134, 4) and (90) enables the proof that

$$g_{m\mu \nu }g_{n\mu \nu }=(D3)\delta _{mn}.$$
(143)
This is tantamount to proving

$$g_{m\mu \nu }g_{m\nu \rho }=2\delta _{\mu \rho },$$
(144)
which is as required.

The same method can be applied to showing that

$`(M_iM_i)_{ac}`$ $`=`$ $`m_{iab}m_{ibc}=2(1+\mathrm{}_2)\delta _{ac}`$
$`(N_iN_i)_{\alpha \gamma }`$ $`=`$ $`m_{i\alpha \beta }m_{i\beta \gamma }=2(1+\mathrm{}_3)\delta _{\alpha \gamma }.`$ (145)
The first of these requires (96), (99) etc., and emerges upon use of formulas form Sec. 2.8.

In (144) and (145), the required eigenvalues of $`𝒞^{(2)}`$ are seen explicitly on the right sides.

## 5 Towards $`adadad`$

### 5.1 $`dimX_3`$ and $`c_2(X_3)`$

The result

$$(adadad)_AR_1+R_2+R_3+X_2+X_3,$$
(146)
is known from  on the basis of . It can be proved, as in , using methods based on the Molien function , a method capable  of treating higher $`ad^r`$.

Its importance resides in the fact that all but the last family of irreps of $`𝔤`$ have been treated fully already at the level of $`adad`$. Accordingly (146) gives us an easy passage to the treatment of the family $`X_3`$.

We define the operator $`M`$ via

$`𝒞^{(2)}`$ $`=`$ $`(X_1+X_2+X_3)^2=3+2M`$
$`M`$ $`=`$ $`X_1.X_2+X_2.X_3+X_3.X_1,`$ (147)
in which all the $`X_i=ad_i`$. We define projectors onto the eigenspaces of $`𝒞^{(2)}`$, and hence of $`M`$, so that

$`I_A`$ $`=`$ $`P_1+P_2+P_3+P_0+P_7`$
$`\frac{1}{6}D(D1)(D2)`$ $`=`$ $`(1+D_2+D_3)+\mathrm{\Delta }_2+\mathrm{\Delta }_3,`$ (148)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{2,3}=dimX_{2,3}`$. Hence

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_3=\frac{1}{6}D(D1)(D8).$$
(149)
Next we apply $`M=\frac{1}{2}(𝒞^{(2)}3)`$ to the first entry of (148).This gives

$$\mathrm{Tr}(MI_A)=\frac{3}{2}+(\mathrm{}_2\frac{1}{2})D_2+(\mathrm{}_3\frac{1}{2})D_3\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Delta }_2+m\mathrm{\Delta }_3,$$
(150)
where $`m`$ is the eigenvalue of $`M`$ for $`X_3`$. One calculates the left side directly getting $`D\frac{1}{2}D^2`$. All the other quantities in (150) are known as functions of $`D=dim𝔤`$. Hence, with the aid of (44), we find that $`m=0`$, so that $`𝒞^{(2)}`$ has eigenvalue

$$c_2(X_3)=3,$$
(151)
completing algebraic derivation of the expected result.

### 5.2 Trace equations for $`adadad`$

The approach here is based on the results (123125), and depends on the fact that formulas for $`c_2(R)`$ and $`dimR`$ are known for

$$R\{ad,R_2,R_3,X_2,X_3(R_7)\}.$$
(152)
It will be seen soon that the fact that $`X_3`$ has been treated (in Sec. 5.1) is crucial, enabling us to deduce corresponding results for

$$R\{R_4,R_5,R_6,R_8,R_9\}.$$
(153)
we begin by calculating

$$\mathrm{Tr}𝒞^r,r=0,1,2,3,$$
(154)
where

$$𝒞=𝒞^{(2)}{}_{adR}{}^{},R=X_2,R_2,R_3.$$
(155)
We have

$$𝒞^{(2)}{}_{adR}{}^{}=(ad_t+M_t)(ad_t+M_t)=1+c_2(R)+L_M,$$
(156)
where $`X_iM_i`$ defines the matrices of $`R`$, and $`L_M`$ is as defined in (68) by $`L_M=ad_tM_t`$, so that $`\mathrm{Tr}(L_M)^r`$ is known, from the work of Sec. 2.9, for $`r=0,1,2,3`$. It is known for $`m=4`$ also but this is not needed now. Thus we obtain

$`\mathrm{Tr}I`$ $`=`$ $`DD(R)`$
$`\mathrm{Tr}𝒞`$ $`=`$ $`DD(R)(1+c_2(R))`$
$`\mathrm{Tr}𝒞^2`$ $`=`$ $`DD(R)(1+c_2(R))^2+4c_2(R)D(R)`$
$`\mathrm{Tr}𝒞^3`$ $`=`$ $`DD(R)(1+c_2(R))^3+12c_2(R)D(R)(1+c_2(R))2c_2(R)D(R).`$ (157)
We now outline how, by reference to (123) and (124), we can evaluate $`c_2(R)`$ and $`D(R)`$ for $`R_9`$ and $`R_4`$. A similar method applied to (123) and (125) can be used to treat $`R_5`$ and $`R_8`$, leaving the easy final step of handling $`R_6`$ to complete the job.

From (123) and (124) we get

$`I`$ $`=`$ $`P_{ad}+P_0+P_2+P_3+P_5+P_6+P_7+P_9`$
$`I`$ $`=`$ $`P_{ad}+P_0+P_2+P_4+P_5+P_6.`$ (158)
We have not distinguished the different unit operators. Taking the traces of these equations and subtracting allows much cancellation and gives

$$D_9D_4=D(\mathrm{\Delta }_2D_2)(D_3+D_7)=f_0(D),$$
(159)
where $`D_9=dimR_9,D_4=dimR_4`$. Next acting on (158) with the appropriate Casimirs $`𝒞`$, taking traces using (157), and subtracting, gives

$$c_9D_9c_4D_4=f_1(D),$$
(160)
where

$$f_1(D)=3D\mathrm{\Delta }_2DD_2(1+c_2)(c_3D_3+3D_7),$$
(161)
and $`c_r=c_2(R_r),r\{9,4,2,3,7\}`$ with $`c_7=3`$. Similarly using the square and the cube of $`𝒞`$ we complete the derivation of the set of four equations

$$c_9{}_{}{}^{r}D_{9}^{}c_4{}_{}{}^{r}=f_r(D),r=0,1,2,3,$$
(162)
where we have not displayed expressions for $`f_2(D)`$ or $`f_3(D)`$. The method of Sec. 2.6 (matrixwise elimination of $`D_9`$ and $`D_4`$) now immediately yields

$`c_9+c_4`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{f_0f_3f_1f_2}{f_0f_2f_1^2}}`$
$`c_9c_4`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{f_1f_3f_2^2}{f_0f_2f_1^2}}.`$ (163)
It is obvious how to assign the two solutions of these equations appropriately to the correct families, $`R_4,R_9`$. The explicit evaluation of the right sides of (163) is a task best left to MAPLE. Because of non-rational dependence on $`D`$, it is better to work in terms of $`m`$, related to $`D`$ by (182) of Appendix A. However the results are already known: , where  was employed. Since, in confirming them, we have used a different parametrisation from that of , we quote

$`c_9=c_2(R_9)={\displaystyle \frac{3m+7}{m+2}}`$ , $`c_4=c_2(R_4)={\displaystyle \frac{2(m+1)}{m+2}}`$
$`c_5=c_2(R_5)={\displaystyle \frac{5m+8}{2(m+2)}}`$ , $`c_8=c_2(R_8)={\displaystyle \frac{3m+8}{m+2}}`$
$`c_6=c_2(R_6)={\displaystyle \frac{8}{3}}`$ . (164)
Further, for convenience of readers, we have listed the expressions in terms of $`m`$ for the dimensions of

$$X_2=R_0,R_2,\mathrm{},R_6,X_3=R_7,R_8,R_9$$
(165)
in Appendix B. Once $`c_9`$ and $`c_4`$ have been found it is a simple matter to use (159160) to reach $`D_9`$ and $`D_4`$, etc.

## 6 The case of $`𝔡_4`$, and of its quartic Casimirs

### 6.1 $`adad`$

The versions of (11) and (12) that apply to $`𝔡_4`$ read as

$`(adad)_A`$ $`=`$ $`ad+350`$ (166)
$`(adad)_S`$ $`=`$ $`1+\{35+35+35\}+300`$ (167)
$`=`$ $`(0,0,0,0)+\{(2,0,0,0)+(0,0,2,0)+(0,0,0,2)\}+(0,2,0,0).`$
The irrep $`350`$ here agrees with (13) for $`dim𝔡_4=D=28`$, but, in the role of $`R_2`$ in (12), (167) suggests the direct sum of three inequivalent irreps of $`𝔡_4`$. These three irreps, whose Dynkin labels are given explicitly above, are a set of three related by triality, all of which share the eigenvalue $`\frac{4}{3}`$ of $`𝒞^{(2)}`$ for $`𝔡_4`$. It is the latter fact that enables their direct sum, viewed as a single entity, to fulfill exactly the role of $`R_2`$ in the general discussion that applies to other members of $`𝔤`$.

Since the parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of (62) has the value $`3`$ for $`𝔡_4`$, we get $`D_2=105`$, correctly, and the expected values of $`D_3,\mathrm{}_2,\mathrm{}_3`$ for $`𝔡_4`$ by inserting $`\mathrm{\Delta }=3`$ into the results of Sec. 2.8.

The discussion of the situation surrounding irreps of $`𝔡_4`$ related by triality, such as the $`35`$’s in (167), can be refined by consideration of irreps of the group obtained by extending the group $`SO(8)`$ by the group of automorphisms of its Dynkin diagram. Here we merely refer to  for this and similar considerations for $`𝔞_2`$ and $`𝔢_6`$.

### 6.2 The quartic Casimirs of $`𝔡_4`$

Sec. 2.9 explains why the exceptional Lie algebras $``$ do not possess a primitive quartic Casimir operator. Since $`𝔡_4=so(8)`$ has two independent primitive quartic Casimir operators, it might seem that $`𝔡_4`$ fails to conform fully to its implied status within $``$. We show next that is not the case, showing explicitly exactly how it conforms.

The projector $`P_2`$ that projects onto the $`R_2`$ subspace of $`(adad)_S`$ is given by (86) for all $`𝔤`$ in the form

$$(P_2)_{ij,pq}=d_{ija}d_{pqa},$$
(168)
and a view of the $`d_{ija}`$ as a set of Clebsches for $`adadR_2`$ was indicated in Sec. 4.4. Since

$$P_2=\frac{(L+1)(L\mathrm{}_3)I_S}{(\mathrm{}_2+1)(\mathrm{}_2\mathrm{}_3)},$$
(169)
we find, with a temporary abbreviation $`g(D)`$ for the denominator of the right side of (169),

$$g(D)d_{ija}d_{pqa}=\frac{1}{2}c_{ikt}c_{ilt}(c_{kps}c_{lqs}+c_{kqs}c_{lps})\frac{1}{2}(1\mathrm{}_3)(c_{ipt}c_{jqt}+c_{iqt}c_{jpt})+\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{}_3(\delta _{ip}\delta _{jq}+\delta _{iq}\delta _{jp}).$$
(170)
If we now define a quartic Casimir invariant for the vector $`v_i`$ according to

$$Q^{(4)}=d_{ija}d_{pqa}v_iv_jv_pv_q,$$
(171)
we get

$$g(D)Q^{(4)}=c_{ikt}c_{tjl}c_{lqs}c_{spk}v_iv_jv_pv_q\mathrm{}_3v_kv_kv_lv_l,$$
(172)
which shows the definition (171) is a satisfactory alternative to that of $`𝒞^{(4)}`$ used in (65). It further reduces, as $`𝒞^{(4)}`$ itself reduced using (41), to a multiple of the square of the quadratic invariant $`v_kv_k`$. We do not exhibit the result as the multiple does not simplify into a nice enough form.

Putting $`D=28`$ and $`\mathrm{}_3=\frac{1}{6}`$ naively into our result for $`Q^{(4)}`$, we find

$$Q^{(4)}=\frac{1}{2}v_kv_kv_lv_l.$$
(173)
Using the notation $`x_a=d_{ija}v_iv_j`$ of (74), we write this as

$$2Q^{(4)}=x_ax_a.$$
(174)
As noted for the exceptionals, this is the whole story; there is one irreducible vector $`x_a`$, and one equation, e.g. (173) which means that the square $`x_ax_a`$ does not define a primitive quartic Casimir. For $`𝔡_4`$ the difference from other $`𝔤`$ lies in the reducibility of the representation $`R_2`$ for $`𝔡_4`$. In fact, the projector $`P_2`$ is the sum of three orthogonal projectors. Put otherwise, there are three orthogonal sets of Clebsch-Gordan coefficients for $`35`$’s belonging to $`(adad)_S`$ and three pairwise orthogonal $`35`$ component entities

$$w^{(r)}{}_{a}{}^{}=k_rd^{(r)}{}_{ija}{}^{}v_{i}^{}v_j,$$
(175)
in which the $`k_r`$ are constants, such that

$$x_a=w^{(1)}{}_{a}{}^{}+w^{(2)}{}_{a}{}^{}+w^{(3)}{}_{a}{}^{}.$$
(176)
Now $`x_ax_a`$ itself is not itself primitive. But, since the $`w^{(r)}`$ are orthogonal,

$$x_ax_a=w^{(1)}{}_{a}{}^{}w_{}^{(1)}{}_{a}{}^{}+w^{(2)}{}_{a}{}^{}w_{}^{(2)}{}_{a}{}^{}+w^{(3)}{}_{a}{}^{}w_{}^{(3)}{}_{a}{}^{},$$
(177)
and this leaves two linear combinations of the three squares, which can serve as independent and primitive quartic invariants. This places the known situation for $`𝔡_4`$ correctly within, and not superficially outside, the family context.

Acknowledgements

The research of AJM is supported in part by PPARC. HP is grateful to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, for a Research Fellowship. We thank Bruce Westbury for stimulating discussions, and for generously providing us with copies of manuscripts of his research work, including a preliminary version of .

Appendix A: Other parametrisations

In our work we have chosen to use the $`D=dim𝔤`$ as the parameter in formulas such as (12) for dimensions $`dimR`$, or eigenvalues $`c_2(R)`$ of $`𝒞^{(2)}`$ with

$$D=3,8,14,28,52,78,133,248,$$
(178)
for $`𝔤`$. Other workers in the general area have made different choices. In  and  one finds

$$\alpha =\frac{1}{2},\frac{1}{3},\frac{1}{4},\frac{1}{6},\frac{1}{9},\frac{1}{12},\frac{1}{18},\frac{1}{30}.$$
(179)
This has the significance that $`\alpha `$ is the inverse of the dual Coxeter number $`h^{}`$ for each $`𝔤`$,  p37. The choice has a natural interpretation also in terms of our work:

$$\alpha =\mathrm{}_3=\frac{1}{2}c_2(R_3)1.$$
(180)
Here $`\mathrm{}_3`$ denotes the eigenvalue for $`R_3`$ of the $`L`$-operator used in Sec. 2 in the analysis of $`adad`$.

In recent studies, one meets the parameter $`m`$ with values

$$m=\frac{4}{3},1,\frac{2}{3},0,1,2,4,8$$
(181)
related to $`D`$ via

$$D=\frac{2(3m+7)(5m+8)}{m+4},$$
(182)
and to $`\alpha =\mathrm{}_3`$ via

$$\alpha =\mathrm{}_3=\frac{1}{3(m+2)},$$
(183)
so that $`h^{}=3(m+2)`$.

For the Lie algebras of the last line of the Freudenthal magic square itself there is the further observation that $`m`$ is equal to the dimension of the division algebra involved in the Freudenthal construction of each one.

One other thought: suppose one solves (182) for $`m`$ in terms of $`D`$. Of the two roots of the quadratic equation in question here, one is $`m`$ and has values related to $`\mathrm{}_3`$ by (183). The other root has different values, $`m^{}`$, say, such that

$$\mathrm{}_2=\frac{1}{3(m^{}+2)},$$
(184)
where $`\mathrm{}_2`$ denotes the eigenvalue for $`R_2`$ of the $`L`$-operator used in Sec. 3. Comparison of (183) and (184) reveals a close relationship to the involution $``$ used in .

We also note the parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\mathrm{\Delta }(D)`$ of (62), and its role, see Sec. 2.7, in formulas not dependent linearly upon $`D`$. Also $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Delta }`$ corresponds to the star involution of .

Appendix B: Dimension formulas in terms of $`m`$

As mentioned above, many formulas are in essentially their simplest form when written in terms of $`m`$ rather than $`D=dim𝔤`$, especially ones which involve the quantity $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of (62), a rational function of $`m`$ but not of $`D`$. This applies to many dimension formulas. We have

$$D=dim𝔤=\frac{2(5m+8)(3m+7)}{(m+4)},$$
(185)
$$dimR_0dimX_2=\frac{5(5m+8)(3m+7)(3m+4)(2m+5)}{(m+4)^2},$$
(186)
$$dimR_2=\frac{90(3m+7)(3m+4)(m+2)^2}{(m+6)(m+4)^2},$$
(187)
$$dimR_3=\frac{45(5m+8)(2m+5)(m+2)^2}{(m+6)(m+4)},$$
(188)
$$dimR_4=\frac{5(5m+8)(3m+7)(3m+4)(2m+3)(m+2)^(8m)}{(m+6)(m+5)(m+4)^3},$$
(189)
$$dimR_5=\frac{5120(3m+7)(2m+5)(2m+3)(m+2)^2(m+1)}{(m+8)(m+6)(m+4)^3},$$
(190)
$$dimR_6=\frac{27(5m+12)(5m+8)(3m+7)(3m+4)(2m+5)(2m+3)}{(m+9)(m+5)(m+4)^2},$$
(191)
$$dimR_7=\frac{10(5m+12)(5m+8)(3m+8)(3m+7)(2m+3)(m+1)}{(m+4)^3},$$
(192)
$$dimR_8=\frac{10(5m+12)(5m+8)(3m+11)(3m+7)(2m+5)(m+2)^2}{(m+8)(m+6)(m+4)^2},$$
(193)
$$dimR_9=\frac{40(5m+12)(5m+8)(3m+8)(3m+4)(m+2)^2}{(m+6)(m+5)(m+4)}.$$
(194)
Appendix C: Racah coefficients

For more details the reader may refer to textbooks devoted to the quantum theory of angular momentum, or to the valuable reprint volume .

Racah coefficients arise in the comparison of different ways of coupling three angular momenta to define the total angular momentum. One way of presenting the definition in terms of angular momentum Clebsches is

$`{\displaystyle \underset{m}{}}j_1j_6m_1m_6|j_5m_5j_2j_4m_2m_4|j_6m_6j_3j_4m_3m_4|j_5m_5=`$
$`\sqrt{(2j_3+1)(2j_6+1)}W(j_1j_2j_5j_4,j_3j_6)`$ $`j_1j_2m_1m_2|j_3m_3,`$ (195)
in which $`m_1,m_2`$ and $`m_3`$ take on fixed values. Thus in (195), the sum over $`m`$ denotes a single sum, over $`m_6`$ for example. The Racah coefficient $`W`$ involves four triad of angular momenta

$$(j_1,j_6,j_5),(j_2,j_4,j_6),(j_3,j_4,j_5),(j_1,j_2,j_3).$$
(196)
We intend to pursue the analogy of results like (21) in a somewhat loose or qualitative way. Thus we consider the square root factors in (195) as being absorbed into the Racah coefficient $`W`$, and ignore signs.

We begin by comparing (195) and (21). We have already mentioned the view of $`c_{ijk}`$ as a set of Clebsches for $`adadad`$ in a basis of Cartesian rather than angular momentum type. Now we regard the the numerical factor $`\frac{1}{2}`$ on the right side of (21) as a Racah coefficient with all six arguments equal to $`ad`$.

Likewise, (98) suggests that the Racah coefficients with five arguments $`ad`$ and its fifth argument $`R_2`$, in the place corresponding to $`j_3`$ in (195), takes the value $`\mathrm{}_2`$, whilst (99) suggests that the Racah coefficients with five arguments $`ad`$ and its sixth argument $`R_2`$ takes the value $`\mathrm{}_2D_2/D`$.

We wish here to make the point that, if one were to define Racah coefficients systematically for $`𝔤`$, then it would be expected that they would display full uniformity across $``$. We have indicated a few simple examples in justification of this. Also

$$W(adadadad,R_2R_3)=\frac{(11+D+\mathrm{\Delta })}{2D\mathrm{\Delta }}.$$
(197)