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# A concept of Dirac-type tensor equations

## 1 Two pictures of the Dirac equation.

Let $`^{1,3}`$ be the Minkowski space with coordinates $`x^\mu `$ ($`\mu =0,1,2,3`$), with a metric tensor $`\eta _{\mu \nu }=\eta ^{\mu \nu }`$ defined by the Minkowski matrix

$$\eta =\eta _{\mu \nu }=\eta ^{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{diag}(1,1,1,1).$$

Consider the Dirac equation for an electron

$$\gamma ^\mu (_\mu \psi +ia_\mu \psi )+im\psi =0,$$
(1)
where $`_\mu =/x^\mu `$, $`\psi =\psi (x)`$ is a column of four complex valued smooth functions (an electron wave function), $`a_\mu =a_\mu (x)`$ is a real valued covector field (a potential of electromagnetic field), $`m`$ is a real constant (the electron mass), $`i=\sqrt{1}`$, and $`\gamma ^\mu `$ are (Dirac) matrices that satisfy the identities ($`\mathrm{𝟏}`$ is the identity matrix)

$$\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^\nu +\gamma ^\nu \gamma ^\mu =2\eta ^{\mu \nu }\mathrm{𝟏}.$$

In particular we may take

$`\gamma ^0`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{cccc}1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right),\gamma ^1=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 1\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),`$ (2)
$`\gamma ^2`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& i\\ 0& 0& i& 0\\ 0& i& 0& 0\\ i& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),\gamma ^3=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\end{array}\right).`$
Consider a change of coordinates

$$x^\mu \stackrel{´}{x}^\mu =p_\nu ^\mu x^\nu $$
(3)
from the proper orthochroneous Lorentz group $`\mathrm{SO}^+(1,3)`$, i.e.,

$$P^\mathrm{T}\eta P=\eta ,\mathrm{det}P=1,p_0^0>0,$$
(4)
where $`P=p_\nu ^\mu `$. Then

$$_\mu \stackrel{´}{}_\mu =q_\mu ^\nu _\nu ,a_\mu \stackrel{´}{a}_\mu =q_\mu ^\nu a_\nu ,$$

where $`q_\mu ^\nu `$ are elements of the inverse matrix $`P^1`$, i.e.,

$$q_\mu ^\nu p_\lambda ^\mu =\delta _\lambda ^\nu ,q_\nu ^\mu p_\mu ^\lambda =\delta _\nu ^\lambda $$

and $`\delta _\nu ^\mu `$ is the Kronecker tensor. P. Dirac in  postulate that $`\gamma ^\mu `$ is a vector with values in $`^𝒞(4)`$ ($`^𝒞(4)`$ is the algebra of complex valued $`4\times 4`$-matrices). That means

$$\gamma ^\mu \stackrel{´}{\gamma }^\mu =p_\nu ^\mu \gamma ^\nu $$

and eq. (1) in coordinates $`(\stackrel{´}{x})`$ has the form

$$\stackrel{´}{\gamma }^\mu (\stackrel{´}{}_\mu \psi +i\stackrel{´}{a}_\mu \psi )+im\psi =0,$$
(5)
where $`\stackrel{´}{}_\mu =/\stackrel{´}{x}^\mu `$, $`\psi =\psi (x(\stackrel{´}{x}))`$. It is proved in the theory of representations of Lorentz group that there exists a pair of nondegenerate matrices $`\pm R^𝒞(4)`$ such that

$$R^1\gamma ^\mu R=p_\nu ^\mu \gamma ^\nu =\stackrel{´}{\gamma }^\mu .$$
(6)
Substituting $`R^1\gamma ^\mu R`$ for $`\stackrel{´}{\gamma }^\mu `$ in (5), we get

$$R^1\gamma ^\mu R(\stackrel{´}{}_\mu \psi +i\stackrel{´}{a}_\mu \psi )+im\psi =0,$$
(7)
or, equivalently,

$$\gamma ^\mu (\stackrel{´}{}_\mu (R\psi )+i\stackrel{´}{a}_\mu (R\psi ))+im(R\psi )=0,$$
(8)
We see that an invariance of the Dirac equation can be proved in two ways.

If we suppose the following transformation rules for $`\gamma ^\mu `$ and $`\psi `$ under every change of coordinates (3,4):

$$\gamma ^\mu R^1\gamma ^\mu R,\psi \psi ,$$

then we get a spinorless picture of the Dirac equation.

In the case of transformation rules

$$\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^\mu ,\psi R\psi ,$$

we get a conventional spinor picture of the Dirac equation. In sect.9, considering a connection between the Dirac equation and the corresponding Dirac-type tensor equation, we shall see that the two pictures of the Dirac equation are the consequence of a gauge symmetry of the Dirac-type tensor equation with respect to the spinor group.

## 2 A Differentiable manifold $`X`$. Tensors.

Let $`X`$ be a four-dimensional orientable differentiable manifold with local coordinates $`x^\mu `$ ($`\mu =0,1,2,3`$). Summation convention over repeating indices is assumed. Let $`_p^q`$ be the set of smooth type $`(p,q)`$ real valued tensors (tensor fields) on $`X`$

$$_p^q=\{u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}=u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}(x)\}.$$

Under a change of coordinates $`(x)(\stackrel{´}{x})`$ a tensor $`u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}`$ transforms as follows:

$$u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}\stackrel{´}{u}_{\alpha _1\mathrm{}\alpha _p}^{\beta _1\mathrm{}\beta _q}=u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}\frac{\stackrel{´}{x}^{\beta _1}}{x^{\nu _1}}\mathrm{}\frac{\stackrel{´}{x}^{\beta _q}}{x^{\nu _q}}\frac{x^{\mu _1}}{\stackrel{´}{x}^{\alpha _1}}\mathrm{}\frac{x^{\mu _p}}{\stackrel{´}{x}^{\alpha _p}}.$$

Operations of addition and tensor product are defined in the usual way

$$(u+v)_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}=u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}+v_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}_p^q,u,v_p^q;$$

$$(uv)_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _{p+r}}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _{q+s}}=u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}v_{\mu _{p+1}\mathrm{}\mu _{p+r}}^{\nu _{q+1}\mathrm{}\nu _{q+s}}_{p+r}^{q+s},u_p^q,v_r^s.$$

## 3 A Parallelisable manifold with a tetrad.

An $`n`$-dimensional differentiable manifold is called parallelisable if there exist $`n`$ linear independent vector or covector fields on it. Let $`X`$ be a four dimensional parallelisable manifold with local coordinates $`x=(x^\mu )`$ and

$$e_\mu {}_{}{}^{a}=e_\mu {}_{}{}^{a}(x),a=0,1,2,3$$

be four covector fields on $`X`$. This set of four covectors is called a tetrad. The full set $`\{X,e_\mu {}_{}{}^{a},\eta \}`$, where $`\eta `$ is the Minkowski matrix, is denoted by $`𝒲`$. Here and in what follows we use Greek indices as tensorial indices and Latin indices as nontensorial (tetrad) indices.

We can define a metric tensor on $`W`$

$$g_{\mu \nu }=e_\mu {}_{}{}^{a}e_{\nu }^{}{}_{}{}^{b}\eta _{ab}^{}$$

such that

$$g_{\mu \nu }=g_{\nu \mu },g_{00}>0,g=\mathrm{det}g_{\mu \nu }<0,$$

and the signature of the matrix $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ is equal to $`2`$. Hence we may consider $`𝒲`$ as pseudo-Riemannian space with the metric tensor $`g_{\mu \nu }`$. We raise and lower Latin indices with the aid of the Minkowski matrix $`\eta ^{ab}=\eta _{ab}`$ and Greek indices with the aid of the metric tensor $`g_{\mu \nu }`$

$$e^{\nu a}=g^{\mu \nu }e_\mu {}_{}{}^{a},e_{\mu a}=\eta _{ab}e_\mu {}_{}{}^{b}.$$

With the aid of the tetrad we can replace all or part of Greek indices in a tensor $`u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}_p^q`$ by Latin indices

$$u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_p}^{b_1\mathrm{}b_q}=u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}e^{\mu _1}{}_{a_1}{}^{}\mathrm{}e^{\mu _p}{}_{a_p}{}^{}e_{\nu _1}^{}{}_{}{}^{b_1}\mathrm{}e_{\nu _q}{}_{}{}^{b_q}.$$

As a result we get a set of invariants $`u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_p}^{b_1\mathrm{}b_q}`$ enumerated by Latin indices. On the contrary we can replace Latin indices by Greek indices

$$u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q}=u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_p}^{b_1\mathrm{}b_q}e^{\nu _1}{}_{b_1}{}^{}\mathrm{}e^{\nu _p}{}_{b_p}{}^{}e_{\mu _1}^{}{}_{}{}^{a_1}\mathrm{}e_{\mu _q}{}_{}{}^{a_q}.$$

Note that

$$e^\mu {}_{a}{}^{}e_{\mu }^{}{}_{}{}^{b}=\delta _a^b,e^\mu {}_{a}{}^{}e_{\nu }^{}{}_{}{}^{a}=\delta _\nu ^\mu .$$

The metric tensor $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ defines the Levi-Civita connection, the curvature tensor, the Ricci tensor, and the scalar curvature

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu }^{}{}_{}{}^{\lambda }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}g^{\lambda \kappa }(_\mu g_{\nu \kappa }+_\nu g_{\mu \kappa }_\kappa g_{\mu \nu }),`$ (9)
$`R_{\lambda \mu \nu }^\kappa `$ $`=`$ $`_\mu \mathrm{\Gamma }_{\nu \lambda }{}_{}{}^{\kappa }_\nu \mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \lambda }{}_{}{}^{\kappa }+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \eta }{}_{}{}^{\kappa }\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\nu \lambda }^{}{}_{}{}^{\eta }\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\nu \eta }{}_{}{}^{\kappa }\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \lambda }^{}{}_{}{}^{\eta },`$ (10)
$`R_{\nu \rho }`$ $`=`$ $`R_{}^{\mu }{}_{\nu \mu \rho }{}^{},`$ (11)
$`R`$ $`=`$ $`g^{\rho \nu }R_{\rho \nu }`$ (12)
with symmetries

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu }^{}{}_{}{}^{\lambda }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\nu \mu }^{}{}_{}{}^{\lambda },R_{\mu \nu \lambda \rho }=R_{\lambda \rho \mu \nu }=R_{[\mu \nu ]\lambda \rho },R_{\mu [\nu \lambda \rho ]}=0,R_{\nu \rho }=R_{\rho \nu }$$

Covariant derivatives $`_\mu :_p^q_{p+1}^q`$ are defined via the Levi-Civita connection by the usual rules

1. If $`u=u(x),xX`$ is a scalar function, then

$$_\mu u=_\mu u.$$

2. If $`u^\nu ^1`$, then

$$_\mu u^\nu u_{;\mu }^\nu =_\mu u^\nu +\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\lambda \mu }^{}{}_{}{}^{\nu }u^\lambda .$$

3. If $`u_\nu _1`$, then

$$_\mu u_\nu u_{\nu ;\mu }=_\mu u_\nu \mathrm{\Gamma }_{\nu \mu }^{}{}_{}{}^{\lambda }u_\lambda .$$

4. If $`u=(u_{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _l}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _k})_l^k`$, $`v=(v_{\rho _1\mathrm{}\rho _s}^{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _r})_s^r`$, then

$$_\mu (uv)=(_\mu u)v+u_\mu v.$$

With the aid of these rules it is easy to calculate covariant derivatives of arbitrary type tensors. Also we can check the formulas

$`_\mu g_{\alpha \beta }=0,_\mu g^{\alpha \beta }=0,_\mu \delta _\alpha ^\beta =0,`$
$`_\alpha (R^{\alpha \beta }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}Rg^{\alpha \beta })=0,`$
$`(_\mu _\nu _\nu _\mu )a_\rho =R_{}^{\lambda }{}_{\rho \mu \nu }{}^{}a_\lambda ,`$
for any $`a_\rho _1`$.

## 4 Differential forms.

Let $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_k`$ be the set of all exterior differential forms of rank $`k=0,1,2,3,4`$ ($`k`$-forms) on $`𝒲`$ and

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mathrm{\Lambda }^0\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Lambda }^4=\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{even}}\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{odd}},$$

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{even}}=\mathrm{\Lambda }^0\mathrm{\Lambda }^2\mathrm{\Lambda }^4,\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{odd}}=\mathrm{\Lambda }^1\mathrm{\Lambda }^3.$$

The set of smooth real valued functions on $`𝒲`$ is identified with the set of 0-forms $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_0`$. A $`k`$-form $`U\mathrm{\Lambda }_k`$ can be written as

$$U=\frac{1}{k!}u_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _k}dx^{\nu _1}\mathrm{}dx^{\nu _k}=\underset{\mu _1<\mathrm{}<\mu _k}{}u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _k}dx^{\mu _1}\mathrm{}dx^{\mu _k},$$
(13)
where $`u_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _k}=u_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _k}(x)`$ are real valued components of a covariant antisymmetric ($`u_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _k}=u_{[\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _k]}`$) tensor. Differential forms from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ can be written as linear combinations of the 16 basis elements

$$1,dx^\mu ,dx^{\mu _1}dx^{\mu _2},\mathrm{},dx^0\mathrm{}dx^3,\mu _1<\mu _2<\mathrm{}.$$
(14)
The exterior product of differential forms is defined in the usual way. If $`U\mathrm{\Lambda }^r,V\mathrm{\Lambda }^s`$, then

$$UV=(1)^{rs}VU\mathrm{\Lambda }^{r+s}.$$

In the sequel we also use complex valued differential forms from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_k^𝒞,\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞,\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}^𝒞,\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{odd}}^𝒞`$.

The tetrad $`e_\mu ^a`$ can be written with the aid of four 1-forms

$$e^a=e_\mu {}_{}{}^{a}dx^\mu \text{or}e_a=\eta _{ab}e^b.$$

The $`k`$-form $`U`$ from (13) can be written as

$$U=\frac{1}{k!}u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k},$$

where invariants $`u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}=u_{[a_1\mathrm{}a_k]}`$ connected with tensor components $`u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _k}`$ by the formula

$$u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}=u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _k}e^{\mu _1}{}_{a_1}{}^{}\mathrm{}e^{\mu _k}{}_{a_k}{}^{}.$$

Differential forms from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ can be written as

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{4}{}}\frac{1}{k!}u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k},u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}=u_{[a_1\mathrm{}a_k]}$$

and the 16 differential forms

$$1,e^a,e^{a_1}e^{a_2},\mathrm{}e^0\mathrm{}e^3,a_1<a_2<\mathrm{}$$
(15)
can be considered as basis forms of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$.

## 5 A central product of differential forms.

Let us define a central product of differential forms $`U,VUV`$ by the following rules:

1. For $`U,V,W\mathrm{\Lambda },\alpha \mathrm{\Lambda }_0`$

$$1U=U1=U,(\alpha U)V=U(\alpha V)=\alpha (UV),$$

$$U(VW)=(UV)W,(U+V)W=UW+VW.$$

2. $`e^ae^b=e^ae^b+\eta ^{ab}`$.

3. $`e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k}=e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k}`$ for $`a_1<\mathrm{}<a_k`$.

Note that from the second rule we get the equality

$$e^ae^b+e^be^a=2\eta ^{ab},$$
(16)
which appear in the Clifford algebra111In a special case the central product was invented by H. Grassmann  in 1877 as an attempt to unify the exterior calculus (the Grassmann algebra) with the quaternion calculus. A discussion on that matter see in . In some papers the central product is called a Clifford product.. Substituting into (16)

$$e^a=e_\mu {}_{}{}^{a}dx^\mu ,e^b=e_\nu {}_{}{}^{b}dx^\nu ,\eta ^{ab}=g^{\mu \nu }e_\mu {}_{}{}^{a}e_{\nu }^{}{}_{}{}^{b},$$

we get

$$e_\mu {}_{}{}^{a}e_{\nu }^{}{}_{}{}^{b}(dx^\mu dx^\nu +dx^\nu dx^\mu 2g^{\mu \nu })=0.$$

Thus,

$$dx^\mu dx^\nu +dx^\nu dx^\mu =2g^{\mu \nu }.$$

Evidently, the operation of central product maps $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\times \mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. From this definition of the central product it is evident that for $`u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}=u_{[a_1\mathrm{}a_k]}`$

$$\frac{1}{k!}u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k}=\frac{1}{k!}u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k}.$$

In the sequel we use notation

$$e^{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}=e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k}=e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k}\text{for}a_1<\mathrm{}<a_k.$$

Let us define an operation of conjugation, which maps $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_k\mathrm{\Lambda }_k`$ or $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_k^𝒞\mathrm{\Lambda }_k^𝒞`$. For $`U\mathrm{\Lambda }_k^𝒞`$

$$U^{}=(1)^{\frac{k(k1)}{2}}\overline{U},$$

where $`\overline{U}`$ is the differential form with complex conjugated components (if $`U\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, then $`\overline{U}=U`$). We see that

$$(UV)^{}=V^{}U^{},U^{}=U,(e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k})^{}=e^{a_k}\mathrm{}e^{a_1}$$

and

$$U^{}=U\text{for}U\mathrm{\Lambda }_0\mathrm{\Lambda }_1\mathrm{\Lambda }_4,$$

$$U^{}=U\text{for}U\mathrm{\Lambda }_2\mathrm{\Lambda }_3.$$

Let us define a trace of differential form as linear operation $`\mathrm{Tr}:\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }_0`$ such that

$$\mathrm{Tr}(1)=1,\mathrm{Tr}(e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k})=0\text{for}k=1,2,3,4.$$

It is easy to prove that

$$\mathrm{Tr}(UVVU)=0\text{for}U,V\mathrm{\Lambda }.$$

Let us take the set of forms

$$\mathrm{Spin}(𝒲)=\{S\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}:S^{}S=1\},$$

which can be considered as a Lie group with respect to the central product. It can be shown that the real Lie algebra of the Lie group $`\mathrm{Spin}(𝒲)`$ is coincide with the set of 2-forms $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_2`$ with the commutator $`[U,V]=UVVU`$, which maps $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_2\times \mathrm{\Lambda }_2\mathrm{\Lambda }_2`$. If $`U\mathrm{\Lambda }_2`$, then $`\pm \mathrm{exp}(U)\mathrm{Spin}(𝒲)`$, where

$$\mathrm{exp}(U)=1+\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{k!}U^k.$$

In some cases it is suitable to use for calculations an exterior exponent . If $`u_{a_1a_2}=u_{[a_1a_2]}`$ and $`U=\frac{1}{2}u_{a_1a_2}e^{a_1}e^{a_2}\mathrm{\Lambda }_2`$ is such that

$`\lambda `$ $`=`$ $`1u_{01}{}_{}{}^{2}u_{02}{}_{}{}^{2}u_{03}{}_{}{}^{2}+u_{12}{}_{}{}^{2}u_{03}{}_{}{}^{2}u_{12}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}+2u_{02}u_{03}u_{12}u_{13}`$
$`+u_{13}{}_{}{}^{2}u_{02}{}_{}{}^{2}u_{13}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}2u_{01}u_{03}u_{12}u_{23}+2u_{01}u_{02}u_{13}u_{23}+u_{23}{}_{}{}^{2}u_{01}{}_{}{}^{2}u_{23}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}>0,`$
then

$$\pm \frac{1}{\sqrt{\lambda }}(1+U+\frac{1}{2}UU)\mathrm{Spin}(𝒲).$$

It is not hard to prove that if $`U\mathrm{\Lambda }_k`$ and $`S\mathrm{Spin}(𝒲)`$, then

$$S^1US\mathrm{\Lambda }_k,$$

i.e., $`S^1\mathrm{\Lambda }_kS\mathrm{\Lambda }_k`$. In particular,

$$S^1e^aS=p_b^ae^b,$$

where the matrix $`P=p_b^a`$ has the properties

$$P^\mathrm{T}\eta P=\eta ,\mathrm{det}P=1,p_0^0>0.$$

The transformation

$$e^a\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^a=S^1e^aS,$$
(17)
where $`S\mathrm{Spin}(𝒲)`$, is called a Lorentz rotation of the tetrad. Obviously,

$`S^1({\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k})S`$ $`=`$ $`S^1({\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k})S`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}(S^1e^{a_1}S)\mathrm{}(S^1e^{a_k}S)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^{a_1}\mathrm{}\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^{a_k}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{k!}}u_{a_1\mathrm{}a_k}\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^{a_1}\mathrm{}\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^{a_k}.`$
From the identities $`e^ae^b+e^be^a=2\eta ^{ab}`$ it follows that

$$\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^a\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^b+\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^b\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^a=2\eta ^{ab}.$$

## 6 Tensors from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_k_s^r`$.

Let us take a tensor

$$u_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _k}^{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _r}=u_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s[\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _k]}^{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _r}_{s+k}^r$$

antisymmetric with respect to $`k`$ covariant indices. One may consider the following objects:

$$U_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s}^{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _r}=\frac{1}{k!}u_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _k}^{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _r}dx^{\mu _1}\mathrm{}dx^{\mu _k},$$
(18)
which are formally written as $`k`$-forms. Under a change of coordinates $`(x)(\stackrel{´}{x})`$ values (18) transform as components of tensor of type $`(s,r)`$, i.e.,

$$\stackrel{´}{U}_{\beta _1\mathrm{}\beta _s}^{\alpha _1\mathrm{}\alpha _r}=q_{\beta _1}^{\nu _1}\mathrm{}q_{\beta _s}^{\nu _s}p_{\lambda _1}^{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}p_{\lambda _r}^{\alpha _r}U_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s}^{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _r},q_\beta ^\nu =\frac{x^\nu }{\stackrel{´}{x}^\beta },p_\lambda ^\alpha =\frac{\stackrel{´}{x}^\alpha }{x^\lambda }.$$

The objects (18) are called tensors of type $`(s,r)`$ with values in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_k`$. We write this as

$$U_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s}^{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _r}\mathrm{\Lambda }_k_s^r.$$

We take

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_s^r=\mathrm{\Lambda }_0_s^r\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Lambda }_4_s^r.$$

Note that $`dx^\mu =\delta _\nu ^\mu dx^\nu `$, where $`\delta _\nu ^\mu `$ is the Kronecker tensor ($`\delta _\nu ^\mu =0`$ for $`\mu \nu `$ and $`\delta _\mu ^\mu =1`$). Hence, $`dx^\mu \mathrm{\Lambda }_1^1`$.

Elements of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_0_s^r`$ are identified with tensors from $`_s^r`$. For the sequel it is suitable to write tensors (18) as

$$U_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s}^{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _r}=\frac{1}{k!}u_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _sa_1\mathrm{}a_k}^{\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _r}e^{a_1}\mathrm{}e^{a_k}\mathrm{\Lambda }_k_s^r.$$

Let us define a central product of elements $`U_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s}^{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _r}\mathrm{\Lambda }_s^r`$ and $`V_{\beta _1\mathrm{}\beta _q}^{\alpha _1\mathrm{}\alpha _p}\mathrm{\Lambda }_q^p`$ as a tensor from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{s+q}^{r+p}`$ of the form

$$W_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s\beta _1\mathrm{}\beta _q}^{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _r\alpha _1\mathrm{}\alpha _p}=U_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s}^{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _r}V_{\beta _1\mathrm{}\beta _q}^{\alpha _1\mathrm{}\alpha _p},$$

where on the right-hand side there is the central product of differential forms (the indices $`\mu _1,\mathrm{},\mu _r,\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _p,\nu _1,\mathrm{},\nu _s,\beta _1,\mathrm{},\beta _q`$ are fixed).

If $`U_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s}^{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _r}\mathrm{\Lambda }_0_s^r`$ and $`V_{\beta _1\mathrm{}\beta _q}^{\alpha _1\mathrm{}\alpha _p}\mathrm{\Lambda }_0_q^p`$, then the central product of these elements is identified with the tensor product.

Let us define operators (Upsilon) $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu `$, which act on tensors from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_s^r`$ by the following rules:

a) If $`u=(u_{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _s}^{ϵ_1\mathrm{}ϵ_r})\mathrm{\Lambda }_0_s^r`$, then

$$\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu u=_\mu u.$$

b) $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu dx^\nu =\mathrm{\Gamma }_{}^{\nu }{}_{\mu \lambda }{}^{}dx^\lambda `$.

c) If $`U\mathrm{\Lambda }_s^r`$, $`V\mathrm{\Lambda }_q^p`$, then

$$\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\lambda (UV)=(\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\lambda U)V+U\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\lambda V.$$

d) If $`U,V\mathrm{\Lambda }_s^r`$, then

$$\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\lambda (U+V)=\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\lambda U+\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\lambda V.$$

With the aid of these rules it is easy to calculate how operators $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu `$ act on arbitrary tensor from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_s^r`$.

Theorem 1.If $`U\mathrm{\Lambda }_k`$ has the form (13), then

$$\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\nu U=\frac{1}{k!}u_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _k;\nu }dx^{\mu _1}\mathrm{}dx^{\mu _k}\mathrm{\Lambda }_k_1.$$

The proof in straightforward.

From the rule b) we get

$$(\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu \mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\nu \mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\nu \mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu )dx^\lambda =R_{}^{\lambda }{}_{\rho \mu \nu }{}^{}dx^\rho .$$
(19)
Theorem 2.Under a change of coordinates $`(x)(\stackrel{´}{x})`$ operators $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu `$ transform as components of a covector, i.e.,

$$\stackrel{´}{\mathrm{{\rm Y}}}_\mu =q_\mu ^\nu \mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\nu ,q_\mu ^\nu =\frac{x^\nu }{\stackrel{´}{x}^\mu }.$$

Proof. This fact follows from the transformation rule of Christoffel symbols $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu }^\lambda `$.

Theorem 3.

$$e^aUe_a=\{\begin{array}{cc}4U\hfill & \text{for }U\mathrm{\Lambda }_0_q^p\hfill \\ 2U\hfill & \text{for }U\mathrm{\Lambda }_1_q^p\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{for }U\mathrm{\Lambda }_2_q^p\hfill \\ 2U\hfill & \text{for }U\mathrm{\Lambda }_3_q^p\hfill \\ 4U\hfill & \text{for }U\mathrm{\Lambda }_4_q^p\hfill \end{array}$$

The proof is by direct calculations.

Let us take the tensor

$$B_\mu =\frac{1}{4}e^a\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu e_a=\frac{1}{4}e^a\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu e_a\mathrm{\Lambda }_2_1.$$
(20)
Theorem 4.Under the Lorentz rotation of tetrad (17) the tensor $`B_\mu `$ transforms as a connection

$$B_\mu \stackrel{ˇ}{B}_\mu =S^1B_\mu SS^1\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu S.$$

Proof. We have

$`4\stackrel{ˇ}{B}_\mu =\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^a\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu \stackrel{ˇ}{e}_a=S^1e^aS\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu (S^1e_aS)`$
$`=S^1e^aS(\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu S^1)e_aS+S^1e^a\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu (e_a)S+S^1e^ae_a\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu S`$
$`=4S^1B_\mu S+4S^1\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu S+S^1e^aS(\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu S^1)e_aS.`$
Here we use the formula $`e^ae_a=4`$ from Theorem 3. It can be checked that $`S\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu S^1\mathrm{\Lambda }_2_1`$. Consequently from Theorem 3 we have

$$e^aS\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu S^1e_aS=0.$$

These completes the proof.

From the formula (20) it is easily shown that

$$\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu e^a=[B_\mu ,e^a],\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu e_a=[B_\mu ,e_a].$$

Hence, if we take the operators

$$𝒟_\mu =\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_\mu [B_\mu ,],$$

then

$$𝒟_\mu e^a=0,𝒟_\mu e_a=0.$$

Theorem 5.The operators $`𝒟_\mu `$ satisfy the Leibniz rule

$$𝒟_\mu (UV)=(𝒟_\mu U)V+U𝒟_\mu V\text{for}U\mathrm{\Lambda }_s^r,V\mathrm{\Lambda }_q^p$$

and

$$𝒟_\mu 𝒟_\nu 𝒟_\nu 𝒟_\mu =0.$$

Proof is by direct calculations.

Note that the volume form

$$\mathrm{}=e^0e^1e^2e^3=\sqrt{g}dx^0\mathrm{}dx^3\mathrm{\Lambda }_4$$

is constant with respect to these operators, i.e.,

$$𝒟_\mu \mathrm{}=0.$$

We have the following consequences from the theorems 4,5. Under the Lorentz rotation of tetrad (17) $`B_\mu ,𝒟_\mu `$ transform as follows

$`B_\mu `$ $``$ $`\stackrel{ˇ}{B}_\mu =B_\mu S^1𝒟_\mu S,`$ (21)
$`𝒟_\mu `$ $``$ $`\stackrel{ˇ}{𝒟}_\mu =𝒟_\mu +[S^1𝒟_\mu S,].`$
Let us denote 1-form

$$H:=e^0.$$

We define the operator of Hermitian conjugation of tensors $`:\mathrm{\Lambda }_q^p\mathrm{\Lambda }_q^p`$

$$U^{}=HU^{}H\text{for}U\mathrm{\Lambda }_q^p.$$

Evidently,

$$(UV)^{}=V^{}U^{},U^{}=U,i^{}=i.$$

We shall see in Section 10 that this operator is connected to the operator of Hermitian conjugation of matrices.

We say that a tensor $`U\mathrm{\Lambda }_q^p`$ is Hermitian if $`U^{}=U`$ and anti-Hermitian if $`U^{}=U`$. Every tensor $`U`$ can be decomposed into Hermitian and anti-Hermitian parts

$$U=\frac{1}{2}(U+U^{})+\frac{1}{2}(UU^{}).$$

Note that all discussed constructions, which were defined in this paper for tensors from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_q^p`$, are also valid for complex valued tensors from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞_q^p`$.

Now we may define the operation

$$(,):\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞\times \mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞\mathrm{\Lambda }_0^𝒞$$

by the formula

$$(U,V)=\mathrm{Tr}(U^{}V).$$

This operation has all the properties of Hermitian scalar product at every point $`xX`$

$`\alpha (U,V)=(\overline{\alpha }U,V)=(U,\alpha V),`$
$`(U,V)=\overline{(V,U)},(U+W,V)=(U,V)+(W,V),`$
$`(U,U)>0\text{for}U0,`$
where $`U,V,W\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$, $`\alpha \mathrm{\Lambda }_0^𝒞`$, and a bar means complex conjugation. The operation $`(,)`$ converts $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$ into the unitary space at every point $`xX`$.

Let us denote by $`T_0,\mathrm{}T_{15}`$ the following differential forms:

$$i,ie^0,e^1,e^2,e^3,ie^{01},ie^{02},ie^{03},e^{12},e^{13},e^{23},e^{012},e^{013},e^{023},ie^{123},e^{0123}.$$
(22)
which form an orthonormal basis of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$

$$(T_\text{k},T^\text{n})=\delta _\text{k}^\text{n},\text{k},\text{n}=0,\mathrm{}15$$

and

$$T_\text{k}=T_\text{k}^{},𝒟_\mu T_\text{k}=0,$$

where $`T^\text{n}=T_\text{n}`$. This basis is said to be the anti-Hermitian basis of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$.

A differential form $`t\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$ such that

$$t^2=t,𝒟_\mu t=0,t^{}=t$$
(23)
is called an idempotent. We suppose that under a Lorentz rotation of tetrad $`e^a\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^a=S^1e^aS`$, $`S\mathrm{Spin}(𝒲)`$ an idempotent $`t`$ transforms as

$$t\stackrel{ˇ}{t}=S^1tS.$$

In this case

$`\stackrel{ˇ}{t}^2=\stackrel{ˇ}{t},`$
$`\stackrel{ˇ}{t}^{}=\stackrel{ˇ}{H}\stackrel{ˇ}{t}^{}\stackrel{ˇ}{H}=\stackrel{ˇ}{t},`$
$`\stackrel{ˇ}{𝒟}_\mu \stackrel{ˇ}{t}=0.`$
We may consider the left ideal generated by the idempotent $`t`$

$$(t)=\{Ut:U\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞\}\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞.$$
(24)
Let us define the set of differential forms

$$L(t)=\{U(t):U^{}=U,[U,t]=0\}.$$

This set is closed with respect to the commutator (if $`U,VL(t)`$, then $`[U,V]L(t)`$) and can be considered as a real Lie algebra. With the aid of the real Lie algebra $`L(t)`$ we define the corresponding Lie group

$$G(t)=\{\mathrm{exp}(U):UL(t)\}.$$

In Section 10 we consider $`t,(t),L(t),G(t)`$ in details.

Finally let us summarize properties of the operators $`𝒟_\mu `$

$`𝒟_\mu (UV)=(𝒟_\mu U)V+U𝒟_\mu V,`$
$`𝒟_\mu 𝒟_\nu 𝒟_\nu 𝒟_\mu =0,`$
$`𝒟_\mu (U+V)=𝒟_\mu U+𝒟_\mu V,`$
$`𝒟_\mu e^a=0,𝒟_\mu e_a=0,`$
$`𝒟_\mu \mathrm{}=0,`$
$`𝒟_\mu (U^{})=(𝒟_\mu U)^{},`$
$`𝒟_\mu (U^{})=(𝒟_\mu U)^{},`$
$`𝒟_\mu (\mathrm{Tr}(U))=_\mu (\mathrm{Tr}(U))=\mathrm{Tr}(𝒟_\mu U),`$
$`𝒟_\mu (U,V)=_\mu (U,V)=(𝒟_\mu U,V)+(U,𝒟_\mu V).`$
Under a change of coordinates $`(x)(\stackrel{´}{x})`$ operators $`𝒟_\mu `$ transform as components of a covector, i.e.,

$$𝒟_\mu \stackrel{´}{𝒟}_\mu =\frac{x^\nu }{\stackrel{´}{x}^\mu }𝒟_\nu .$$

Under a Lorentz rotation of tetrad $`e^a\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^a=S^1e^aS`$ ($`S\mathrm{Spin}(𝒲)`$) operators $`𝒟_\mu `$ transform as $`𝒟_\mu \stackrel{ˇ}{𝒟}_\mu =𝒟_\mu +[S^1𝒟_\mu S,]`$.

## 7 Dirac-type tensor equations. A general case.

We begin with the following equation in $`𝒲`$ (a tetrad $`e^a`$ is given and, consequently, the tensor $`B_\mu \mathrm{\Lambda }_2_1`$ and the operators $`𝒟_\mu `$ are defined):

$$dx^\mu (𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }+\mathrm{\Phi }A_\mu +B_\mu \mathrm{\Phi })+im\mathrm{\Phi }=0,$$
(25)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$, $`i=\sqrt{1}`$, $`m`$ is a given real constant, and $`A_\mu \mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞_1`$ is such that $`A_\mu {}_{}{}^{}=A_\mu `$. We consider the differential form $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ as unknown (16 complex valued components) and $`A_\mu `$ as known. Writing eq. (25) as a system of equations for components of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, we see that the number of equations is equal to the number of unknown values.

An equation is said to be a tensor equation if all values in it are tensors and all operations in it take tensors to tensors.

In eq. (25) we have $`dx^\mu 𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Phi },dx^\mu \mathrm{\Phi }A_\mu ,dx^\mu B_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$. Hence eq. (25) is a tensor equation.

Let $`t\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$ be an idempotent and $`A_\mu `$ be a tensor from $`L(t)_1`$. Then we may consider the equation in $`𝒲`$

$$(dx^\mu (𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }+\mathrm{\Phi }A_\mu +B_\mu \mathrm{\Phi })+im\mathrm{\Phi })t=0,$$
(26)
From the identities $`𝒟_\mu t=0`$, $`[A_\mu ,t]=0`$ it follows that eq. (26) can be written as the equation for $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\mathrm{\Phi }t(t)`$

$$dx^\mu (𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }+\mathrm{\Psi }A_\mu +B_\mu \mathrm{\Psi })+im\mathrm{\Psi }=0,$$
(27)
where the idempotent $`t`$, the real constant $`m`$, and the tensor $`A_\mu L(t)_1`$ are considered as known. The differential form $`\mathrm{\Psi }(t)`$ is considered as unknown.

In Section 10 we shall see that there are four types of idempotents $`t`$. Consequently, there are four types of equations (27). These equations are called Dirac-type tensor equations. A connection of eqs. (27) with the Dirac equation will be discussed in Section 9.

Denoting $`\alpha ^\mu =Hdx^\mu (\mathrm{\Lambda }_0\mathrm{\Lambda }_2)^1`$, we see that $`(\alpha ^\mu )^{}=\alpha ^\mu `$.

Theorem 6.If $`\mathrm{\Psi }(t)`$ satisfies eq. (27), then the tensor

$$J^\mu =i\mathrm{\Psi }^{}\alpha ^\mu \mathrm{\Psi }$$

satisfies the equality

$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{g}}𝒟_\mu (\sqrt{g}J^\mu )[A_\mu ,J^\mu ]=0,$$
(28)
which is called a (non-Abelian) charge conservation law.

Note that $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\mathrm{\Psi }t`$ and $`J^\mu =tJ^\mu t`$. Therefore,

$$[J^\mu ,t]=[tJ^\mu t,t]=0,$$

i.e., $`J^\mu L(t)^1`$.

Proof of Theorem 6. Let us multiply eq. (26) from the left by $`H`$ and denote the left-hand side of resulting equation by

$$Q=\alpha ^\mu (𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }+\mathrm{\Psi }A_\mu +B_\mu \mathrm{\Psi })+imH\mathrm{\Psi }.$$
(29)
Then

$$Q^{}=(𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }^{}A_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }^{}+\mathrm{\Psi }^{}B_\mu ^{})\alpha ^\mu im\mathrm{\Psi }^{}H.$$

Consider the expression

$`i(\mathrm{\Psi }^{}Q+Q^{}\mathrm{\Psi })`$ $`=`$ $`i(\mathrm{\Psi }^{}\alpha ^\mu 𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }+𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }^{}\alpha ^\mu \mathrm{\Psi }+\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝒟_\mu \alpha ^\mu )\mathrm{\Psi })[A_\mu ,i\mathrm{\Psi }^{}\alpha ^\mu \mathrm{\Psi }]`$
$`+i\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(D_\mu \alpha ^\mu +\alpha ^\mu B_\mu +B_\mu ^{}\alpha ^\mu )\mathrm{\Psi }`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{g}}}𝒟_\mu (\sqrt{g}J^\mu )[A_\mu ,J^\mu ].`$
Here we use the formulae

$$𝒟_\mu \alpha ^\mu =\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu }{}_{}{}^{\mu }\alpha _{}^{\nu }+\alpha ^\mu B_\mu +B_\mu ^{}\alpha ^\mu ,$$

$$𝒟_\mu J^\mu +\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu }{}_{}{}^{\mu }J_{}^{\nu }=\frac{1}{\sqrt{g}}𝒟_\mu (\sqrt{g}J^\mu ).$$

which can be easily checked. In (7) equality $`Q=0`$ leads to the equality (28). These completes the proof.

Now we may write eq. (27) together with Yang-Mills equations (32,33)

$`dx^\mu (𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }+\mathrm{\Psi }A_\mu +B_\mu \mathrm{\Psi })+im\mathrm{\Psi }=0,`$ (31)
$`𝒟_\mu A_\nu 𝒟_\nu A_\mu [A_\mu ,A_\nu ]=F_{\mu \nu },`$ (32)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{g}}}𝒟_\mu (\sqrt{g}F^{\mu \nu })[A_\mu ,F^{\mu \nu }]=J^\nu ,`$ (33)
$`J^\nu =i\mathrm{\Psi }^{}\alpha ^\nu \mathrm{\Psi },`$ (34)
where $`\mathrm{\Psi }(t)`$, $`A_\mu L(t)_1`$, $`F_{\mu \nu }L(t)_2`$, $`J^\nu L(t)^1`$. In this system of equations we consider $`\mathrm{\Psi },A_\mu ,F_{\mu \nu },J^\nu `$ as unknown values and $`m,t`$ as known values.

Theorem 7.Let us denote the left-hand side of eq. (33) by $`R^\nu `$

$$R^\nu :=\frac{1}{\sqrt{g}}𝒟_\mu (\sqrt{g}F^{\mu \nu })[A_\mu ,F^{\mu \nu }],$$

where $`F_{\mu \nu }`$ satisfy (32). Then

$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{g}}𝒟_\mu (\sqrt{g}R^\mu )[A_\mu ,R^\mu ]=0.$$

The proof is by direct calculations.

This theorem means that eq. (33) is consistent with the charge conservation law (28).

## 8 Unitary and Spin gauge symmetries.

Theorem 8.Let $`\mathrm{\Psi },A_\mu ,F_{\mu \nu },J^\nu `$ satisfy eqs. (31-34) with a given idempotent $`t`$ and constant $`m`$. And let $`UG(t)`$, where the Lie group $`G(t)`$ is defined in Section 6. Then the following values with tilde:

$$\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Psi }}=\mathrm{\Psi }U,\stackrel{~}{A}_\mu =U^1A_\mu UU^1𝒟_\mu U,\stackrel{~}{F}_{\mu \nu }=U^1F_{\mu \nu }U,$$

$$\stackrel{~}{J}^\nu =U^1J^\nu U,\{\stackrel{~}{t},\stackrel{~}{B}_\mu ,\stackrel{~}{𝒟}_\mu \}=\{t,B_\mu ,𝒟_\mu \}$$

satisfy the same equations (31-34).

The proof is straightforward.

This theorem means that eqs. (31-34) are invariant under gauge transformations with the symmetry Lie group $`G(t)`$.

Theorem 9.Let $`\mathrm{\Psi },A_\mu ,F_{\mu \nu },J^\nu `$ satisfy eqs. (31-34) with a given idempotent $`t`$ and constant $`m`$. And let $`S\mathrm{Spin}(𝒲)`$. Then the following values with check:

$$\stackrel{ˇ}{\mathrm{\Psi }}=\mathrm{\Psi }S,\stackrel{ˇ}{A}_\mu =S^1A_\mu S,\stackrel{ˇ}{F}_{\mu \nu }=S^1F_{\mu \nu }S,\stackrel{ˇ}{J}^\nu =S^1J^\nu S,$$
(35)
$$\stackrel{ˇ}{t}=S^1tS,\stackrel{ˇ}{B}_\mu =B_\mu S^1𝒟_\mu S,\stackrel{ˇ}{𝒟}_\mu =𝒟_\mu +[S^1𝒟_\mu ,]$$

satisfy the same equations (31-34).

The proof is by direct calculations.

Note that for values with check the operation of Hermitian conjugation is defined by $`\stackrel{ˇ}{U}^{}=\stackrel{ˇ}{H}\stackrel{ˇ}{U}^{}\stackrel{ˇ}{H}`$, where $`\stackrel{ˇ}{H}=S^1HS`$.

This theorem means that eqs. (31-34) are invariant under gauge transformations with the symmetry Lie group $`\mathrm{Spin}(𝒲)`$.

Eqs. (31-34) can be derived from the following Lagrangian:

$$=\frac{1}{4}i\sqrt{g}\mathrm{Tr}(\mathrm{\Psi }^{}HQQ^{}H\mathrm{\Psi })+C\frac{1}{4}\sqrt{g}Tr(\frac{1}{8}F_{\mu \nu }F^{\mu \nu }),$$
(36)
where $`Q`$ is from (29), $`F_{\mu \nu }=𝒟_\mu A_\nu 𝒟_\nu A_\mu [A_\mu ,A_\nu ]L(t)_2`$, and $`C`$ is a real constant. If we have a basis $`\{t_1,\mathrm{},t_D\}`$ of $`(t)`$ and a basis $`\{\tau _1,\mathrm{},\tau _d\}`$ of $`L(t)`$ that satisfy (37),(42), then we may substitute $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\psi ^\text{k}t_\text{k}`$, $`A_\mu =a_\mu ^n\tau _n`$ into the Lagrangian $``$. Variating $``$ with respect to $`\psi ^\text{k}`$ and $`a_\mu ^n`$, we arrive at eqs. (31-34). We discuss bases of $`(t)`$ and $`L(t)`$ in Section 10.

In  we discuss a gravitational term for the Lagrangian $``$.

## 9 A connection between the Dirac-type tensor equation and the Dirac equation.

Let $`t\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$ be an idempotent with the properties (23) and $`(t)`$ be the left ideal (24) of complex dimension $`D`$. In the next section we shall see that $`D`$ may take one of four possible values $`D=4,8,12,16`$. We use an orthonormal basis $`t_\text{k}=t^\text{k}`$, $`\mathrm{k}=1,\mathrm{},D`$ of $`(t)`$ such that

$$𝒟_\mu t_\text{k}=0,(t_\text{n},t^\text{k})=\delta _\text{n}^\text{k}.$$
(37)
Small Caps font indices run from $`1`$ to $`D`$. Consider a linear operator $`|`$ that maps $`(t)`$ to $`𝒞^D`$. If

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\omega ^\text{k}t_\text{k}(t),$$

then

$$|\mathrm{\Omega }=(\omega ^1\mathrm{}\omega ^D)^\mathrm{T}.$$

In particular,

$$|t_\text{k}=(0\mathrm{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}\mathrm{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0})^\mathrm{T}$$

with only $`1`$ on the $`k`$-th place of the column.

By $`M^𝒞(D)_p^q`$ denote the set of type $`(p,q)`$ tensors with values in $`D\times D`$ complex matrices. Let $`\gamma :\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞_p^qM^𝒞(D)_p^q`$ be a map such that for $`U=(U_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q})\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞_p^q`$

$$Ut_\text{n}=\gamma (U)_\text{n}^\text{k}t_\text{k}.$$
(38)
Hence,

$$\gamma (U)_\text{n}^\text{k}=(t^\text{k},Ut_\text{n}),$$

where $`\gamma (U)_\text{n}^\text{k}`$ are elements of the matrix $`\gamma (U)`$ (an upper index enumerates rows and a lower index enumerates columns).

If $`U\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }(t)`$, then

$$U\mathrm{\Omega }=U\omega ^\text{n}t_\text{n}=\omega ^\text{n}\gamma (U)_\text{n}^\text{k}t_\text{k}.$$

That means

$$|U\mathrm{\Omega }=\gamma (U)|\mathrm{\Omega }.$$

If $`U,V\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }(t)`$, then

$$|UV\mathrm{\Omega }=\gamma (U)\gamma (V)|\mathrm{\Omega }=\gamma (UV)|\mathrm{\Omega }.$$

Consequently,

$$\gamma (UV)=\gamma (U)\gamma (V),$$

i.e., $`\gamma `$ is a matrix representation of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$. For example, if we take $`dx^\mu =\delta _\nu ^\mu dx^\nu \mathrm{\Lambda }_1^1`$, then we get

$$dx^\mu t_\text{n}=\gamma (dx^\mu )_\text{n}^\text{k}t_\text{k}.$$

Denoting $`\gamma ^\mu =\gamma (dx^\mu )`$, we see that the equality $`dx^\mu dx^\nu +dx^\nu dx^\mu =2g^{\mu \nu }`$ leads to the equality

$$\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^\nu +\gamma ^\nu \gamma ^\mu =2g^{\mu \nu }\mathrm{𝟏},$$

where $`\mathrm{𝟏}`$ is the identity matrix of dimension $`D`$.

Let us take the set of differential forms

$$𝒦(t)=\{V\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞:[V,t]=0\},$$

which can be considered as an algebra (at any point $`xX`$). Now we define a map

$$\theta :𝒦(t)_p^qM^𝒞(D)_p^q$$

such that for $`V=(V_{\mu _1\mathrm{}\mu _p}^{\nu _1\mathrm{}\nu _q})𝒦(t)_p^q`$

$$t_\text{n}V=\theta (V)_\text{n}^\text{k}t_\text{k}.$$

Therefore,

$$\theta (V)_\text{n}^\text{k}=(t^\text{k},t_\text{n}V).$$

If $`V𝒦(t)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }(t)`$, then

$$\mathrm{\Omega }V=\omega ^\text{n}t_\text{n}V=\omega ^\text{n}\theta _\text{n}^\text{k}t_\text{k}.$$

Than means

$$|\mathrm{\Omega }V=\theta (V)|\mathrm{\Omega }.$$

If $`U,V𝒦(t)`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }(t)`$, then

$$|\mathrm{\Omega }UV=\theta (V)\theta (U)|\mathrm{\Omega }=\theta (UV)|\mathrm{\Omega }.$$

Consequently,

$$\theta (UV)=\theta (V)\theta (U).$$

If $`U\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$, $`V𝒦(t)`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }(t)`$, then $`U\mathrm{\Omega }(t)`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }V(t)`$ and

$`|U\mathrm{\Omega }V`$ $`=`$ $`\gamma (U)|\mathrm{\Omega }V=\gamma (U)\theta (V)|\mathrm{\Omega },`$
$`|U\mathrm{\Omega }V`$ $`=`$ $`\theta (V)|U\mathrm{\Omega }=\theta (V)\gamma (U)|\mathrm{\Omega }.`$
Consequently,

$$[\gamma (U),\theta (V)]=0.$$

Denoting the left-hand side of eq. (27) by

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=dx^\mu (𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }+\mathrm{\Psi }A_\mu +B_\mu \mathrm{\Psi })+im\mathrm{\Psi }$$
(39)
and using formulas

$`\psi :=|\mathrm{\Psi },`$
$`|𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }=|𝒟_\mu (t_\text{k}\psi ^\text{k})=|t_\text{k}_\mu \psi ^\text{k}=_\mu \psi ,`$
$`|dx^\mu \mathrm{\Psi }A_\mu =\gamma ^\mu |\mathrm{\Psi }A_\mu =\gamma ^\mu \theta (A_\mu )\psi ,`$
$`|dx^\mu B_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }=\gamma ^\mu |B_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }=\gamma ^\mu \gamma (B_\mu )\psi ,`$
we see that

$$|\mathrm{\Omega }=\gamma ^\mu (_\mu +\theta (A_\mu )+\gamma (B_\mu ))\psi +im\psi .$$
(40)
Note that

$$B_\mu =\frac{1}{2}b_{\mu ab}e^ae^b=\frac{1}{4}b_{\mu ab}(e^ae^be^be^a).$$

Therefore,

$$\gamma (B_\mu )=\frac{1}{4}b_{\mu ab}[\gamma ^a,\gamma ^b],$$

where $`\gamma ^a=\gamma (e^a)`$ and the equalities $`e^ae^b+e^be^a=2\eta ^{ab}`$ leads to the equalities

$$\gamma ^a\gamma ^b+\gamma ^b\gamma ^a=2\eta ^{ab}\mathrm{𝟏}.$$

If we take $`VG(t)`$, then

$`\mathrm{\Omega }V`$ $`=`$ $`(dx^\mu (𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }+\mathrm{\Psi }A_\mu +B_\mu \mathrm{\Psi })+im\mathrm{\Psi })V`$
$`=`$ $`dx^\mu (𝒟_\mu (\mathrm{\Psi }V)+\mathrm{\Psi }V(V^1A_\mu VV^1𝒟_\mu V)+B_\mu (\mathrm{\Psi }V))+im(\mathrm{\Psi }V)`$
and

$`|\mathrm{\Omega }V`$ $`=`$ $`\theta (V)|\mathrm{\Omega }=P(\gamma ^\mu (_\mu +\theta (A_\mu )+\gamma (B_\mu ))\psi +im\psi )`$
$`=`$ $`\gamma ^\mu (_\mu +(P\theta (A_\mu )P^1(_\mu P)P^1)+\gamma (B_\mu ))(P\psi )+imP\psi ,`$
where $`P=\theta (V)`$ and we use formulae $`[P,\gamma ^\mu ]=0`$, $`[P,\gamma (B_\mu )]=0`$. Thus the invariance of eq. (27) under the gauge transformation ($`VG(t)`$)

$$\mathrm{\Psi }\mathrm{\Psi }V,A_\mu V^1A_\mu VV^1𝒟_\mu V$$

leads to the invariance of the equation

$$\gamma ^\mu (_\mu +\theta (A_\mu )+\gamma (B_\mu ))\psi +im\psi =0$$
(41)
under the gauge transformation ($`P=\theta (V)`$)

$$\psi P\psi ,\theta (A_\mu )P\theta (A_\mu )P^1(_\mu P)P^1.$$

Let $`S\mathrm{Spin}(𝒲)`$. Consider the Lorentz rotation of the tetrad $`e^a\stackrel{ˇ}{e}^a=S^1e^aS`$, which leads to the transformation

$$t\stackrel{ˇ}{t}=S^1tS,(t)(\stackrel{ˇ}{t}),t_\text{n}\stackrel{ˇ}{t}_\text{n}=S^1t_\text{n}S.$$

Let us define a map $`|\stackrel{ˇ}{}:(\stackrel{ˇ}{t})𝒞^D`$. If $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\varphi ^\text{k}\stackrel{ˇ}{t}_\text{k}(\stackrel{ˇ}{t})`$, then

$$|\mathrm{\Phi }\stackrel{ˇ}{}=(\varphi ^1\mathrm{}\varphi ^D)^\mathrm{T}.$$

Evidently for $`\mathrm{\Omega }(t)`$

$$|S^1\mathrm{\Omega }S\stackrel{ˇ}{}=|\mathrm{\Omega }.$$

Also we may define a map $`\stackrel{ˇ}{\gamma }:\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞_p^qM^𝒞(D)_p^q`$ such that

$$U\stackrel{ˇ}{t}_\text{n}=\stackrel{ˇ}{\gamma }(U)_\text{n}^\text{k}\stackrel{ˇ}{t}_\text{k}$$

and

$$\stackrel{ˇ}{\gamma }(UV)=\stackrel{ˇ}{\gamma }(U)\stackrel{ˇ}{\gamma }(V).$$

It is easily seen that

$$\stackrel{ˇ}{\gamma }(U)=\gamma (S)\gamma (U)\gamma (S^1).$$

In particular,

$$\stackrel{ˇ}{\gamma }(S)=\gamma (S).$$

For $`\mathrm{\Omega }(t)`$ we have

$$|\mathrm{\Omega }S\stackrel{ˇ}{}=|S(S^1\mathrm{\Omega }S)\stackrel{ˇ}{}=\stackrel{ˇ}{\gamma }(S)|S^1\mathrm{\Omega }S\stackrel{ˇ}{}=\gamma (S)|\mathrm{\Omega }.$$

If we apply these identities to

$`\mathrm{\Omega }S`$ $`=`$ $`(dx^\mu (𝒟_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }+\mathrm{\Psi }A_\mu +B_\mu \mathrm{\Psi })+im\mathrm{\Psi })S`$
$`=`$ $`dx^\mu (\stackrel{ˇ}{𝒟}_\mu \stackrel{ˇ}{\mathrm{\Psi }}+\stackrel{ˇ}{\mathrm{\Psi }}\stackrel{ˇ}{A}_\mu +\stackrel{ˇ}{B}_\mu \stackrel{ˇ}{\mathrm{\Psi }})+im\stackrel{ˇ}{\mathrm{\Psi }},`$
then we get

$`|\mathrm{\Omega }S\stackrel{ˇ}{}`$ $`=`$ $`\gamma (S)|\mathrm{\Omega }=R(\gamma ^\mu (_\mu \psi +\theta (A_\mu )\psi +\gamma (B_\mu )\psi )+im\psi )`$
$`=`$ $`R\gamma ^\mu R^1(_\mu (R\psi )+\theta (A_\mu )R\psi +(R\gamma (B_\mu )R^1(_\mu R)R^1)R\psi )+imR\psi ,`$
where $`R=\gamma (S)`$. Note that $`[R,\theta (A_\mu )]=0`$.

This implies that the invariance of eq. (27) under the gauge transformation (35) leads to the invariance of eq. (41) under the gauge transformation ($`R=\gamma (S)`$)

$$\psi R\psi ,\theta (A_\mu )\theta (A_\mu )\gamma ^\mu R\gamma ^\mu R^1,$$

$$\gamma (B_\mu )R\gamma (B_\mu )R^1(_\mu R)R^1.$$

Now consider a transformation of eqs. (27),(41) under a change of coordinates $`(x)(\stackrel{´}{x})`$. Coordinates $`(\stackrel{´}{x})`$ we denote with the aid of primed indices $`x^\mu ^{}`$. In coordinates $`(\stackrel{´}{x})`$ eq. (27) has the form

$$\stackrel{´}{\mathrm{\Omega }}dx^\mu ^{}(𝒟_\mu ^{}\mathrm{\Psi }+\mathrm{\Psi }A_\mu ^{}+B_\mu ^{}\mathrm{\Psi })+im\mathrm{\Psi }=0,$$

where

$$𝒟_\mu ^{}=\frac{x^\nu }{x^\mu ^{}}𝒟_\nu ,dx^\mu ^{}=\frac{x^\mu ^{}}{x^\nu }dx^\nu ,A_\mu ^{}=\frac{x^\nu }{x^\mu ^{}}A_\nu ,B_\mu ^{}=\frac{x^\nu }{x^\mu ^{}}B_\nu ,$$

and eq. (41) has the form

$$|\stackrel{´}{\mathrm{\Omega }}=\gamma ^\mu ^{}(_\mu ^{}+\theta (A_\mu ^{})+\gamma (B_\mu ^{}))\psi +im\psi =0,$$

where

$$_\mu ^{}=\frac{}{x^\mu ^{}},\gamma ^\mu ^{}=\frac{x^\mu ^{}}{x^\nu }\gamma ^\nu .$$

Note that

$$\gamma ^\mu =\gamma (dx^\mu )=\gamma ^ae^\mu {}_{a}{}^{},\gamma ^a=\gamma (e^a)$$

and

$$\gamma ^\mu ^{}=\gamma ^ae^\mu ^{}{}_{a}{}^{}=\gamma ^a\frac{x^\mu ^{}}{x^\nu }e^\nu {}_{a}{}^{}.$$

Finally, let us note that in the Lagrangian (36)

$$\frac{1}{4}\sqrt{g}\mathrm{Tr}(i(\mathrm{\Psi }^{}H\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Omega }^{}H\mathrm{\Psi }))=\frac{1}{4}\sqrt{g}i(\mathrm{\Psi }|\gamma ^0|\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Omega }|\gamma ^0|\mathrm{\Psi }),$$

where $`\mathrm{\Psi }|=|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}`$.

## 10 Idempotents and bases of left ideals.

Let us take the idempotent

$$t_{(1)}=\frac{1}{4}(1+e^0)(1+ie^{12})=\frac{1}{4}(1+e^0+ie^{12}+ie^{012}),$$

which satisfies conditions (23), and consider the left ideal $`(t_{(1)})`$. It can be shown that the complex dimension of $`(t_{(1)})`$ is equal to four (this $`(t_{(1)})`$ is a minimal left ideal of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$ and $`t_{(1)}`$ is a primitive idempotent) and the following differential forms

$`t^1`$ $`=`$ $`2t_{(1)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(1+e^0+ie^{12}+ie^{012}),`$
$`t^2`$ $`=`$ $`2e^{13}t_{(1)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(e^{13}+ie^{23}e^{013}+ie^{023}),`$
$`t^3`$ $`=`$ $`2e^{03}t_{(1)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(e^3+e^{03}ie^{123}+ie^{0123}),`$
$`t^4`$ $`=`$ $`2e^{01}t_{(1)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(e^1+ie^2+e^{01}ie^{02})`$
can be taken as basis forms of $`(t_{(1)})`$, which satisfy (37). This basis, according to the formula (38), defines the matrix representation of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$ ($`\gamma _{(1)}`$ is a one-to-one map)

$$\gamma _{(1)}:\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞_p^qM^𝒞_p^q.$$

In particular we get matrices $`\gamma _{(1)}^\mu =\gamma _{(1)}(dx^\mu )`$ identical to (2). Denote

$$\underset{¯}{U}:=\gamma _{(1)}(U)\text{for}U\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞_p^q.$$

Let $`Y_\text{k}^\text{n}\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$, ($`\text{k},\text{n}=1,2,3,4`$) be differential forms such that $`\underset{¯}{Y}_\text{k}^\text{n}`$ are $`4\times 4`$-matrices with only nonzero element that equal to $`1`$ on the intersection of n-th row and k-th column. We can calculate that

$`Y_1^1`$ $`=`$ $`(1+e^0+e^{012}i+e^{12}i)/4,`$
$`Y_2^1`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{013}+e^{13}+e^{023}i+e^{23}i)/4,`$
$`Y_3^1`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{03}+e^3+e^{0123}i+e^{123}i)/4,`$
$`Y_4^1`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{01}+e^1+e^{02}i+e^2i)/4,`$
$`Y_1^2`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{013}e^{13}+e^{023}i+e^{23}i)/4,`$
$`Y_2^2`$ $`=`$ $`(1+e^0e^{012}ie^{12}i)/4,`$
$`Y_3^2`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{01}+e^1e^{02}ie^2i)/4,`$
$`Y_4^2`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{03}e^3+e^{0123}i+e^{123}i)/4,`$
$`Y_1^3`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{03}e^3+e^{0123}ie^{123}i)/4,`$
$`Y_2^3`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{01}e^1+e^{02}ie^2i)/4,`$
$`Y_3^3`$ $`=`$ $`(1e^0e^{012}i+e^{12}i)/4,`$
$`Y_4^3`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{013}+e^{13}e^{023}i+e^{23}i)/4,`$
$`Y_1^4`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{01}e^1e^{02}i+e^2i)/4,`$
$`Y_2^4`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{03}+e^3+e^{0123}ie^{123}i)/4,`$
$`Y_3^4`$ $`=`$ $`(e^{013}e^{13}e^{023}i+e^{23}i)/4,`$
$`Y_4^4`$ $`=`$ $`(1e^0+e^{012}ie^{12}i)/4.`$
We see that

$$t_{(1)}=Y_1^1,\underset{¯}{t}_{(1)}=\mathrm{diag}(1,0,0,0)$$

and

$$t^1=2Y_1^1,t^2=2Y_1^2,t^3=2Y_1^3,t^4=2Y_1^4.$$

Now we may define the idempotents

$`t_{(2)}`$ $`=`$ $`Y_1^1+Y_2^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(1+e^0),`$
$`t_{(3)}`$ $`=`$ $`Y_1^1+Y_2^2+Y_3^3={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}(3+e^0+ie^{12}ie^{012}),`$
$`t_{(4)}`$ $`=`$ $`Y_1^1+Y_2^2+Y_3^3+Y_4^4=1`$
such that

$$\underset{¯}{t}_{(2)}=\mathrm{diag}(1,1,0,0),\underset{¯}{t}_{(3)}=\mathrm{diag}(1,1,1,0),\underset{¯}{t}_{(4)}=\mathrm{diag}(1,1,1,1).$$

Also we can take the following differential forms $`t^1,\mathrm{},t^{16}`$:

$$t^{4(\text{n}1)+\text{k}}=2Y_\text{n}^\text{k},\text{k},\text{n}=1,2,3,4,$$

which satisfy conditions $`𝒟_\mu t^\text{k}=0`$, $`(t_\text{k},t^\text{n})=\delta _\text{k}^\text{n}`$. Evidently, $`\{t_1,\mathrm{},t_8\}`$ is a basis of $`(t_{(2)})`$, $`\{t_1,\mathrm{},t_{12}\}`$ is a basis of $`(t_{(3)})`$, and $`\{t_1,\mathrm{},t_{16}\}`$ is a basis of $`(t_{(4)})=\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞`$. In accordance with the formula (38), these bases define the maps

$$\gamma _{(k)}:\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞_p^qM^𝒞(4k)_p^q,k=1,2,3,4$$

such that

$$\gamma _{(k)}(UV)=\gamma _{(k)}(U)\gamma _{(k)}(V)\text{for}U\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞_p^q,V\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞_r^s.$$

Also the maps $`\gamma _{(k)}`$ have the important property

$$\gamma _{(k)}(U^{})=(\gamma _{(k)}(U))^{}\text{for}U\mathrm{\Lambda }^𝒞_p^q,$$

where $`U^{}=HU^{}H`$ is the Hermitian-conjugated differential form and $`(\gamma _{(k)(U)})^{}`$ is the Hermitian conjugated matrix (transposed matrix with complex conjugated elements). Consider the set of differential forms

$$𝒦_0(t)=\{U(t):[U,t]=0\}=𝒦(t)(t)$$

and the corresponding set of $`4\times 4`$-matrices

$$\underset{¯}{𝒦}_0(t)=\{\underset{¯}{U}:U𝒦_0(t)\}.$$

Evidently $`\underset{¯}{𝒦}_0(t_{(k)})`$, ($`k=1,2,3,4`$) are sets of matrices with all zero elements except elements in the left upper $`k\times k`$-block.

Considering the sets of differential forms

$$L(t_{(k)})=\{U𝒦_0(t_{(k)}):U^{}=U\}$$

and the corresponding sets of matrices $`\underset{¯}{L}(t_{(k)})`$ as real Lie algebrae, we see that

$$L(t_{(k)})\underset{¯}{L}(t_{(k)})\mathrm{u}(k)\mathrm{u}(1)\mathrm{su}(k),$$

where $`\mathrm{u}(k)`$, ($`k=1,2,3,4`$) are Lie algebrae of anti-Hermitian $`k\times k`$-matrices, $`\mathrm{su}(k)`$ are the Lie algebrae of traceless anti-Hermitian matrices, and the sign $``$ denote isomorphism. We have the Lie groups

$$G(t_{(k)})\underset{¯}{G}(t_{(k)})\mathrm{U}(1)\mathrm{SU}(k),$$

where $`\mathrm{SU}(k)`$ are the Lie groups of unitary $`k\times k`$-matrices with determinants equal to $`1`$.

For elements of $`L(t_{(k)})`$ we define the normalized scalar product

$$(u,v)_{(k)}:=\frac{4}{k}(u,v)$$

such that

$$(it_{(k)},it_{(k)})_{(k)}=1,k=1,2,3,4.$$

Now we show that for every $`k=1,2,3,4`$ we may take generators $`\tau `$ of $`L(t_{(k)})`$ such that

$$𝒟_\mu \tau _n=0,(\tau _n,\tau ^m)_{(k)}=\delta _n^m,\tau _n^{}=\tau _n,[\tau _n,\tau _l]=c_{nl}^m\tau _m,$$
(42)
where $`\tau _n=\tau ^n`$ and $`c_{nl}^m`$ are real structure constants of the Lie algebra $`L(t_{(k)})`$.

We use differential forms

$`\lambda _1`$ $`=`$ $`Y_2^1+Y_1^2`$
$`\lambda _2`$ $`=`$ $`iY_2^1+iY_1^2`$
$`\lambda _3`$ $`=`$ $`Y_1^1Y_2^2`$
$`\lambda _4`$ $`=`$ $`Y_3^1+Y_1^3`$
$`\lambda _5`$ $`=`$ $`iY_3^1+iY_1^3`$
$`\lambda _6`$ $`=`$ $`Y_3^2+Y_2^3`$
$`\lambda _7`$ $`=`$ $`iY_3^2+iY_2^3`$
$`\lambda _8`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}}(Y_1^1+Y_2^22Y_3^3)`$
such that $`\{\underset{¯}{\lambda }_1,\mathrm{},\underset{¯}{\lambda }_8\}`$ is equivalent to the Gell-Mann basis of the real Lie algebra $`\mathrm{su}(3)`$. We take the following generators of $`L(t_{(k)})`$:

1. For $`L(t_{(1)})\mathrm{u}(1)`$

$$\tau _0=it_{(1)}.$$

2. For $`L(t_{(2)})\mathrm{u}(1)\mathrm{su}(2)`$

$$\tau _0=it_{(2)},\tau _n=i\lambda _n,n=1,2,3.$$

3. For $`L(t_{(3)})\mathrm{u}(1)\mathrm{su}(3)`$

$$\tau _0=it_{(3)},\tau _n=i\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}\lambda _n,n=1,\mathrm{},8.$$

4. For $`L(t_{(4)})\mathrm{u}(1)\mathrm{su}(4)`$ we take as a basis $`\tau _0,\mathrm{},\tau _{15}`$ the anti-Hermitian basis (22)

Therefore,

$$L(t_{(k)})=\{f_n\tau ^n\},$$

where $`f_n=f_n(x)`$ are real valued scalar functions.

Let us define the set of differential forms

$$\underset{}{L(t)}=\{UL(t):\mathrm{Tr}U=0\}.$$

We see that

$$\underset{}{L(t_{(k)})}\mathrm{su}(k),k=2,3,4.$$

If we replace $`L(t)`$ by $`\underset{}{L(t)}`$ in above considerations, then we get that all results are valid (we must take $`J^\mu =i\mathrm{\Psi }^{}\alpha ^\mu \mathrm{\Psi }\mathrm{Tr}(i\mathrm{\Psi }^{}\alpha ^\mu \mathrm{\Psi })`$ in Theorem 6 and in eq. (34)).

## 11 Special cases

Let us denote

$$I=ie^{12}.$$

Then

$$t_{(1)}=\frac{1}{4}(1+H)(1iI)$$

and

$$it_{(1)}=It_{(1)}.$$

Theorem 10.For a given $`\mathrm{\Phi }(t_{(1)})`$ the equation

$$\mathrm{\Psi }t_{(1)}=\mathrm{\Phi },$$
(43)
has a unique solution $`\mathrm{\Psi }\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}`$.

Proof. We have the orthonormal basis of $`(t_{(1)})`$

$$t_\text{k}=F_\text{k}t_{(1)},\text{k}=1,2,3,4,$$

where $`F_\text{k}\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}`$. Decomposing $`\mathrm{\Phi }(t_{(1)})`$ with respect to the basis $`t_\text{k}`$

$$\mathrm{\Phi }=(\alpha ^\text{k}+i\beta ^\text{k})t_\text{k},\alpha ^\text{k},\beta ^\text{k}\mathrm{\Lambda }_0,$$
(44)
and using the relation $`it_{(1)}=It_{(1)}`$, we see that the differential form

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=F_\text{k}(\alpha ^\text{k}+I\beta ^\text{k})\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}$$

is a solution of eq. (43).

We claim that if

$$U=u+u_{01}e^{01}+u_{02}e^{02}+u_{03}e^{03}+u_{12}e^{12}+u_{13}e^{13}+u_{23}e^{23}+u_{0123}e^{0123}\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}$$

is a solution of the homogeneous equation

$$Ut_{(1)}=0,$$

then $`U=0`$. Indeed, the differential form $`Ut_{(1)}(t_{(1)})`$ can be decomposed into the basis $`t_\text{k}`$

$$Ut_{(1)}=\frac{1}{2}(uiu_{12})t_1+\frac{1}{2}(u_{13}iu_{23})t_2+\frac{1}{2}(u_{03}iu_{0123})t_3+\frac{1}{2}(u_{01}+iu_{02})t_4.$$

Thus the identity $`Ut_{(1)}=0`$ implies $`U=0`$. So the solution (44) of eq. (43) is unique. These completes the proof.

Theorem 11.For a given $`\mathrm{\Phi }(t_{(2)})`$ the equation

$$\mathrm{\Psi }t_{(2)}=\mathrm{\Phi },$$
(45)
has a unique solution $`\mathrm{\Psi }\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}^𝒞`$.

Proof. We have the orthonormal basis of $`(t_{(2)})`$

$$t_\text{k}=F_\text{k}t_{(2)},\text{k}=1,\mathrm{},8,$$

where $`F_\text{k}\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}^𝒞`$. Decomposing $`\mathrm{\Phi }(t_{(2)})`$ with respect to the basis $`t_\text{k}`$

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=(\alpha ^\text{k}+i\beta ^\text{k})t_\text{k},\alpha ^\text{k},\beta ^\text{k}\mathrm{\Lambda }_0,$$
(46)
we see that the differential form

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=F_\text{k}(\alpha ^\text{k}+i\beta ^\text{k})\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}^𝒞$$

is a solution of eq. (45).

We claim that if

$$U=(v+iw)+\underset{0a<b3}{}(v_{ab}+iw_{ab})e^{ab}+(v_{0123}+iw_{0123})e^{0123}$$

is a solution of the homogeneous equation

$$Ut_{(2)}=0,$$

then $`U=0`$. Indeed, the differential form $`Ut_{(2)}(t_{(2)})`$ can be decomposed into the basis $`t_\text{k}`$

$$Ut_{(2)}=\varphi _\text{k}t^\text{k},\varphi _\text{k}=(t_\text{k},Ut_{(2)}).$$

We get

$`\varphi _1`$ $`=`$ $`(viv_{12}+iw+w_{12})/2`$
$`\varphi _2`$ $`=`$ $`(v_{13}iv_{23}iw_{13}+w_{23})/2`$
$`\varphi _3`$ $`=`$ $`(v_{03}iv_{0123}+iw_{03}+w_{0123})/2`$
$`\varphi _4`$ $`=`$ $`(v_{01}+iv_{02}+iw_{01}w_{02})/2`$
$`\varphi _5`$ $`=`$ $`(v_{13}iv_{23}+iw_{13}+w_{23})/2`$
$`\varphi _6`$ $`=`$ $`(v+iv_{12}+iww_{12})/2`$
$`\varphi _7`$ $`=`$ $`(v_{01}iv_{02}+iw_{01}+w_{02})/2`$
$`\varphi _8`$ $`=`$ $`(v_{03}iv_{0123}iw_{03}+w_{0123})/2.`$
Evidently the identity $`Ut_{(2)}=0`$ implies $`U=0`$. So the solution (46) of eq. (45) is unique. These completes the proof.

Denote

$$\stackrel{1}{L}(t)=\{U\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}:U^{}=U,[U,t_{(1)}]=0\}.$$

The Lie algebra $`\stackrel{1}{L}(t)`$ is isomorphic to the Lie algebra $`\mathrm{u}(1)`$ and as a generator of $`\stackrel{1}{L}(t)`$ we may take $`\tau _0=I`$.

Theorem 12.Differential forms $`\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}`$, $`\underset{\mu }{\overset{1}{A}}\stackrel{1}{L}(t)_1`$ satisfy the equation

$$dx^\mu (𝒟_\mu \stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}+\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}\underset{\mu }{\overset{1}{A}}+B_\mu \stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }})H+m\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}I=0$$
(47)
iff differential forms $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}t_{(1)}(t_{(1)})`$, $`A_\mu =\underset{\mu }{\overset{1}{A}}t_{(1)}L(t)_1`$ satisfy eq. (27).

Proof. Multiplying (47) from the right by $`t_{(1)}`$ and using relations $`Ht_{(1)}=t_{(1)}`$, $`It_{(1)}=it_{(1)}`$, we obtain that $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}t_{(1)}`$, $`A_\mu =\underset{\mu }{\overset{1}{A}}t_{(1)}`$ satisfy (27).

Conversely, let $`\mathrm{\Psi }(t)`$, $`A_\mu L(t)_1`$ satisfy (27). By Theorem 10 there exists a unique solution $`\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}`$, $`\underset{\mu }{\overset{1}{A}}\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}_1`$ of the system of equations $`\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}t_{(1)}=\mathrm{\Psi }`$, $`\underset{\mu }{\overset{1}{A}}t_{(1)}=A_\mu `$. It can be shown that $`\underset{\mu }{\overset{1}{A}}\stackrel{1}{L}(t)_1`$. Substituting $`\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}t_{(1)},\underset{\mu }{\overset{1}{A}}t_{(1)}`$ for $`\mathrm{\Psi },A_\mu `$ in (27), we arrive at the equality

$$(dx^\mu (𝒟_\mu \stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}+\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}\underset{\mu }{\overset{1}{A}}+B_\mu \stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }})H+m\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Psi }}I)t_{(1)}=0,$$

which we rewrite as

$$\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }}t_{(1)}=0.$$

We see that $`\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}`$ and, according to Theorem 10, we get

$$\stackrel{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }}=0.$$

These completes the proof.

Denote

$$\stackrel{2}{L}(t)=\{U\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}^𝒞:U^{}=U,[U,t_{(2)}]=0\}.$$

The Lie algebra $`\stackrel{2}{L}(t)`$ is isomorphic to the Lie algebra $`\mathrm{u}(1)\mathrm{su}(2)`$ and we may take the following generators of $`\stackrel{2}{L}(t)`$:

$$\tau _0=i,\tau _1=e^{23},\tau _2=e^{13},\tau _3=e^{12}.$$

Theorem 13.Differential forms $`\stackrel{2}{\mathrm{\Psi }}\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{even}}^𝒞`$, $`\underset{\mu }{\overset{2}{A}}\stackrel{2}{L}(t)_1`$ satisfy the equation

$$dx^\mu (𝒟_\mu \stackrel{2}{\mathrm{\Psi }}+\stackrel{2}{\mathrm{\Psi }}\underset{\mu }{\overset{2}{A}}+B_\mu \stackrel{2}{\mathrm{\Psi }})H+im\stackrel{2}{\mathrm{\Psi }}=0$$
(48)
iff differential forms $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\stackrel{2}{\mathrm{\Psi }}t_{(2)}(t_{(2)})`$, $`A_\mu =\underset{\mu }{\overset{2}{A}}t_{(2)}L(t)_1`$ satisfy eq. (27).

Proof is word for word identical to the proof of the preceding theorem.

Equations (47),(48) together with correspondent Yang-Mills equations were considered in -.


text:
# Generating correlated networks from uncorrelated ones

## I Introduction

One of the oldest and best studied models of networks which have the merit of being exactly solvable for many of their properties, are the random graphs of Erdös and Rényi er ; b . These graphs consist of $`N`$ nodes any two of which are connected with a probability $`p`$ and left unconnected with a probability $`1p`$. Many of the properties of these networks can be easily derived by analytical means. Among them are the degree distribution of nodes, which turns out to be Poissonian, the average shortest path between any two nodes which is of the order of $`\mathrm{log}(N)`$, and the onset of phase transition for developing a giant component which happens as $`p`$ exceeds a certain critical value.
Despite their exact solvability and their low diameter, these networks lack some of the other crucial properties of real life networks. In particular it is well known that many real networks e.g. World Wide Web, social networks, power grids, scientific and artistic collaborations, neural and metabolic networks, show clustering or transitivity which is absent in Erdös and Rényi graphs. Moreover many real networks do not possess Poissonian degree distribution and intensive studies have been made to construct models as close as to real networks ab ; s ; ws ; dm  and to study dynamic effects, e.g. spreading of a contact effect, on them.ka ; pv .
In the past few years an elegant theory has been developed to construct random graphs with desirable degree distributions to mimic the degree properties of real networks. It appears that Bender and Canfield bc ; nsw  have been the first to propose an algorithm for constructing a random graph with a specific degree distribution. We will call the ensemble of graphs constructed in this way the Bender Canfield ensemble. It is remarkable that these graphs are still exactly solvable to a large extent nsw . However these graphs still have two shortcomings. First they do not show correlation in the degree of nearest neighbors and second their clustering coefficient vanishes in the large $`N`$ limit.
It is important that the degree distribution does not determine by itself the existence or lack of correlations. For a specific degree distribution one may have or have not correlations. Moreover, it has been observed that correlation is an essential feature of real networks which can appear in different forms n . For instance, a high degree node may be connected to other high degree nodes(associative mixing), to low degree nodes(dissociative mixing) or with equal probability to both types (neutral mixing) with different resulting behaviors in networks bp ; mnl ; kr ; pvv .
For this reason algorithms have been developed to produce correlated networks with certain degree distribution dms1 ; bl ; n ; dm .

In this paper we will suggest a simple deterministic transformation on the Bender Canfield (BC) graphs and show that the transformed graphs are both correlated and clustered in the large $`N`$ limit. Given a BC graph $`G`$ with $`N`$ nodes and a degree distribution $`P(k)`$, we construct a graph $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ by assigning nodes to each edge of $`G`$. We then connect these new nodes if the corresponding edges in $`G`$ have had a common node in $`G`$. We show that many of the properties of these transformed networks can be obtained exactly or almost exactly. We obtain general formulas for the degree distribution and its correlations for the transformed graphs and will obtain also formulas for the clustering coefficients of these new graphs. As examples we apply our transformation to Bender Canfield graphs with various degree distributions.
It has been shown by Newman that percolation on BC graphs can be solved by a generating function method. The method is applicable due to the fact that in these graphs there is no clustering. By applying our transformation to these graphs we can follow similar steps and solve percolation on $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ . The interesting point is that now $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ is a highly clustered graph for which we can solve percolation.
The paper is structured as follows: In section II we give a brief review of Bender Canfield ensemble of random graphs having arbitrary degree distributions. In section III we discuss our transformation and derive various properties of general transformed graphs. In section IV we apply our general formulas to graphs with degree distributions of Poissonian, scale free and exponential types. We end the paper with a conclusion.

## II Bender-Canfield ensemble of graphs

Let $`G`$ denote a graph with $`N`$ edges and $`L`$ links. Let also the degree distribution of this graph be given by the function $`P(k)`$, that is the fraction of nodes with $`k`$ neighbors be given by $`P(k)`$. There is an algorithm bc ; nsw  for constructing graphs whose degree distribution corresponds to $`P(k)`$ for large $`N`$. More specifically given a degree sequence $`(k_1,k_2,\mathrm{}k_N)`$ corresponding to the desired degree distribution $`P(k)`$, one takes each node $`i`$ with $`k_i`$ loose ends (stubs) and then connects each pair of stubs randomly until no loose end remains. We call these types of graphs Bender-Canfield or simply BC graphs. Thus we speak of Poissonian BC graphs or scale free BC graphs to designate the degree distribution used for their construction.
Many of the properties of BC graphs can be calculated exactly. For example the average number of first neighbors of an arbitrary node, denoted by $`z_1`$ is given by

$$z_1:=k=\underset{k}{}kP(k).$$
(1)
It is useful to call a node with $`k`$ emanating edges a node of type $`k`$. Then the probability of picking up a node of type $`k`$ is given by $`P(k)`$. We can now ask a different question: What is the probability $`q(k)`$ of picking up an edge which belongs to a node of type $`k+1`$. This is equal to the fraction of stubs coming out of nodes of type $`k+1`$:

$$q(k)=\frac{(k+1)P(k+1)}{_kkP(k)}\frac{(k+1)P(k+1)}{k}$$
(2)
If we now follow a link to one of its ends the average number of new links ( the average ratio of the number of second to the first neighbors of an arbitrary node $`\frac{z_2}{z_1}`$) will be given by

$$\frac{z_2}{z_1}=\underset{k}{}kq(k)=\frac{k^2k.}{k}$$
(3)
As we will see this quantity will play a central role in many of the later derivations.

We can ask yet another question. What is the probability $`P(k,k^{})`$ of picking up an edge which is common to a node of type $`k+1`$ and a node of type $`k^{}+1`$?. This probability is given by a product which is a reflection of the absence of correlations in these networks,

$$P(k,k^{})=q(k)q(k^{}).$$
(4)
One can also calculate the clustering coefficient of these graphs. The result is nsw

$$C=\frac{z_1}{N}(\frac{k^2k}{k^2})^2=\frac{1}{n}\frac{(z_2)^2}{(z_1)^3}.$$
(5)
It is important to note that for many kinds of degree distributions (i.e. those with finite $`z_2`$ and $`z_1`$), this clustering coefficient vanishes in the limit of large graph size $`N`$. It can also be shown that the ratio $`\frac{z_2}{z_1}`$ controls the existence of an infinite cluster of connected nodes nsw ; dms2  for these graphs. For $`\frac{z_2}{z_1}>1`$ there is an infinite cluster where the average distance between two arbitrary nodes, is of order $`log(n)`$. Recently it has been found that almost all pairs of nodes have the same distance in this cluster dms2 .
It will be convenient to define two generating functions for the BC ensemble corresponding to a degree distribution:

$$G_0(t):=\underset{k}{}t^kP(k)G_1(t):=\underset{k}{}t^kq(k)=\frac{1}{z_1}G_0^{}(t)$$
(6)
where $`G^{}(t)=\frac{d}{dt}G(t)`$ and in the last relation we have used (2). In terms of these generating functions, the average number of first neighbors $`z_1`$ and second neighbors $`z_2`$ are simply given by

$$z_1=\frac{d}{dt}G_0(t)|_{t=1}z_2=z_1\frac{d}{dt}G_1(t)|_{t=1}=G_0^{\prime \prime }(1).$$
(7)
## III Transformation of BC graphs

Consider a BC graph $`G`$ with $`N`$ nodes with a degree sequence $`(k_1,k_2,\mathrm{}k_N)`$ taken from a distribution $`P(k)`$. We can transform this graph to a new graph $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ as follows. To each link of the original graph, we assign a node of the new graph. We connect any two nodes of the new graph if the corresponding links in the original graph have a node in common, see fig.(1). The number of nodes and links of $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ denoted respectively by $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{L}`$ respectively are determined from the degree distribution of $`G`$. We note that each node of type $`k`$ of $`G`$ contributes $`k`$ nodes and $`k(k1)/2`$ edges to $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$. Taking care of the fact that the new nodes are counted twice we find:

$`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}k_i`$ (8)
$`\stackrel{~}{L}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}k_i(k_i1)`$
As figure (2-a) shows the degree distribution of the new graph $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ is given by:

$$\stackrel{~}{P}(k)=\underset{r+s=k}{}q(r)q(s),$$
(9)
which is nothing but the probability that an arbitrary edge in $`G`$ is connected to a total of $`k`$ edges at its two end point nodes.
There are simple relations between the generating functions of $`G`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$. Using (9) we find:

$$\stackrel{~}{G_0}(t)=\underset{k}{}t^k\stackrel{~}{P}(k)=\underset{k}{}t^k\underset{r+s=k}{}q(r)q(s)=\underset{r,s}{}t^{r+s}q(r)q(s)=(\frac{G_0^{}(t)}{z_1})^2$$
(10)
From this last equation we find

$$\stackrel{~}{z_1}:=\frac{d}{dt}\stackrel{~}{G_0}(t)|_{t=1}=2\frac{k^2k}{k}=2\frac{z_2}{z_1}$$
(11)
In view of (6) we have

$$\stackrel{~}{G_1}(t):=\frac{1}{\stackrel{~}{z_1}}\frac{d}{dt}\stackrel{~}{G_0}(t)=\frac{G_0^{}(t)G_0^{\prime \prime }(t)}{z_1z_2}.$$
(12)
However since the graph $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ is a clustered graph as we will see, the ratio of average number of second to first neighbors of an arbitrary node, $`\frac{\stackrel{~}{z_2}}{\stackrel{~}{z_1}}`$ is not given by the expression $`_kk\stackrel{~}{q}(k)`$ as in (3). Instead we resort to a direct counting. As shown in fig. (2-b) if we follow a node of $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ to the right, the number of first neighbors that we find is given by $`\frac{z_2}{z_1}`$ inherited from $`G`$. Due to the low clustering of $`G`$, the number of second neighbors that we will meet will be $`(\frac{z_2}{z_1})^2`$. Thus the total number of second neighbors will be twice this value, that is $`\stackrel{~}{z_2}=2(\frac{z_2}{z_1})^2`$. The above reasoning indeed shows that $`\frac{\stackrel{~}{z_2}}{\stackrel{~}{z_1}}=\frac{z_2}{z_1}`$ which in turn means that the conditions nsw  for the development of a giant component in $`G`$ and$`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ are identical.
We now find the probability $`\stackrel{~}{P}(k,k^{})`$ of finding an edge the end nodes of which have $`k`$ and $`k^{}`$ other neighbors.
Looking at figure (3), the probability of finding an edge like $`AB`$ in $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ is equivalent to finding two edges $`ac`$ and $`bc`$ incident on the same node $`c`$ in $`G`$. For a moment suppose that no other edge in $`G`$ is incident on $`c`$. Then it is clear from figure (3) that the nodes $`A`$ and $`B`$ will have $`k+1`$ and $`k^{}+1`$ neighbors in $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ if the nodes $`a`$ and $`b`$ will have $`k+1`$ and $`k^{}+1`$ neighbors in $`G`$ respectively. Putting this together we find that in this simple case $`\stackrel{~}{P}(k,k^{})=P(2)q(k)q(k^{})`$, where $`P(2)`$ comes from the probability of finding a node like $`c`$ of degree $`2`$ in $`G`$. In general the node $`c`$ may be common to $`t`$ other edges in $`G`$. These extra edges contribute to the total number of neighbors of $`A`$ and $`B`$, so that in order for the node $`A`$ to have a total of $`k+1`$ neighbors in $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$, the node $`a`$ needs only have $`k+1t`$ neighbors in $`G`$. A similar statement is true also for the node $`B`$. Thus instead of the factor $`q(k)q(k^{})`$ we will have $`q(kt)q(k^{}t)`$. This should be multiplied by the probability of finding a triplet $`acb`$ which is proportional to $`\frac{(t+2)(t+1)}{2}P(t+2)`$ and finally summed over $`t`$. The final result is

$$\stackrel{~}{P}(k,k^{})=\underset{t}{}\frac{(t+2)(t+1)}{z_2}P(t+2)q(kt)q(k^{}t),$$
(13)
In this way correlations are introduced into the graph in the sense that $`P(k,k^{})`$ is no longer equal to $`q(k)q(k^{})`$.
It is also possible to calculate the clustering coefficient of $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$. It is clear that an edge with end point nodes of degree $`r+1`$ and $`s+1`$ in $`G`$ represents a node of degree $`r+s`$ in $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$. Thus the total number of potential connections among these first neighbors is $`\frac{(r+s)(r+s1)}{2}`$. Of these possible connections , there are already a number of $`\frac{r(r1)}{2}+\frac{s(s1)}{2}`$ connections present coming from the definition of $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$. Due to the clustering coefficient of $`G`$, there are configurations which increase this number for finite graphs. However since in the thermodynamic limit we know that the BC graphs have vanishing clustering coefficients we need not worry about these contributions. Thus in the thermodynamic limit we have the following formula for clustering coefficient of $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$:

$$C=\underset{r,s}{}\frac{r(r1)+s(s1)}{(r+s)(r+s1)}q(r)q(s).$$
(14)
In this way our transformation has introduced a finite clustering coefficient into the BC ensemble of graphs. In the next section we will apply this transformation to several well known ensembles with specific degree distributions, namely the Poisson, scale free and exponential ensembles.

Finally let us consider percolation on $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$. For the sake of simplicity, here we consider only site percolation but the same analysis can be applied to bond percolation as well. Let each node of $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ be occupied with probability $`p`$ and denote the probability that an arbitrary node belongs to a cluster of size $`n`$, by $`P_n`$. The generating function of this probability is denoted by $`H(x)`$, that is $`H(x)=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}P_nx^n`$. Using the same procedure as in cnsw  we write the following expression for $`H(x)`$ :

$$H(x)=1p+pxh^2(x),$$
(15)
where $`h(x)`$ is the generating function for the number of nodes reachable if we follow the neighbors of the node in one of its sides say to the right (i.e. if we follow the corresponding link on $`G`$ to the right) (see fig. (2-b)). The expression for $`h(x)`$ is obtained recursively as

$`h(x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}q(k){\displaystyle \underset{r=0}{\overset{k}{}}}(\begin{array}{c}k\\ r\end{array})p^r(1p)^{kr}h^r(x)x^r`$ (18)
$`=`$ $`G_1(xph(x)+1p)`$ (19)
Solution of these two equations will give us the probabilities $`P_n`$.

## IV Examples

### IV.1 Poisson graphs

For a poissonian distribution, where $`P(k)=\frac{\lambda ^k}{k!}e^\lambda `$, it is readily verified using () that $`q(k)=p(k)`$. We find from (9) that

$$\stackrel{~}{P}(k)=\underset{r}{}P(r)P(kr)=\frac{\lambda ^r}{r!}e^\lambda \frac{\lambda ^{(kr)}}{(kr)!}e^\lambda =\frac{(2\lambda )^k}{k!}e^{2\lambda }$$
(20)
where in the last step we have used the binomial distribution. Thus our transformation maps a poissonian graph to another poissonian graph, whose average degree is twice the original one. However this new graph is completely different from the original one in other respects. First there is correlations between the degree of neighbors and second it has a finite clustering coefficient even for large graphs (as $`N\mathrm{}`$). To see this we use (13) to calculate for the specific case of $`k=k^{}`$, the difference $`D(k):=\stackrel{~}{P}(k,k)\stackrel{~}{q}(k)\stackrel{~}{q}(k)`$ as a function of $`k`$ for various values of $`\lambda `$. The result is shown in fig. (4-a). Figure (4-b) shows the clustering coefficient (calculated from (14)) as a function of $`\lambda `$. It is clearly seen in this and the other cases considered below that there are non-vanishing correlations in the degree distributions. Also these transformed graphs have appreciable value of clustering. Moreover it is seen that the clustering coefficient approaches a maximum value of nearly $`0.5`$ for large value of average connectivity. The reason is that, in this limit an appreciable fraction of the nodes of $`G`$ have a high degree approximately equal to $`z_1`$, and thus one can estimate $`C`$ from (14) as $`C\frac{2z_1(z_11)}{2z_1(2z_11)}0.5`$. This explanation applies to the other examples discussed below.

### IV.2 Scale free graphs

For scale free graphs we have $`P(k)=\frac{1}{\zeta (\gamma )}k^\gamma `$ where $`\zeta (\gamma )=_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}k^\gamma `$. From (1,2) we find $`z_1=\frac{\zeta (\gamma 1)}{\zeta (\gamma )}`$ and $`q(k)=\frac{(k+1)^{1\gamma }}{\zeta (\gamma 1)}`$. We find from (9):

$$\stackrel{~}{P}(k)=\frac{1}{\zeta ^2(\gamma 1)}\underset{s=0}{\overset{k}{}}((s+1)(k+1s))^{1\gamma }$$
(21)
It is seen that for $`k1`$ the above sum is dominated by its first and last terms. Thus for large $`k`$, $`\stackrel{~}{P}(k)`$ behaves like $`k^{1\gamma }`$ which in turn gives $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }=\gamma 1`$. Thus the transformation maintains the power law behavior of degree distribution for large degrees. To see this behavior more precisely, we go to the continuum limit and convert the above sum into an integral which after a little rearrangement can be cast into the form:

$$\stackrel{~}{P}(k)=(\gamma 2)^2_0^k𝑑x[(\frac{k}{2}+1)^2(x\frac{k}{2})^2]^{1\gamma }$$
(22)
A change of variable $`x\frac{k}{2}=(\frac{k}{2}+1)\mathrm{sin}\theta `$ turns this integral into the form

$$\stackrel{~}{P}(k)=2(\gamma 2)^2(\frac{k}{2}+1)^{32\gamma }_0^\alpha \mathrm{cos}\theta ^{32\gamma }d\theta $$
(23)
where $`\mathrm{sin}\alpha =\frac{k}{k+2}`$. As an example for the case $`\gamma =5/2`$ we find

$$\stackrel{~}{P}(k)=\frac{k}{(k+2)^2\sqrt{k+1}},$$
(24)
which as expected, behaves like $`k^{\frac{3}{2}}`$ for large $`k`$. Like the previous example, we calculated numerically $`D(k)`$ and $`C`$. The results have been shown in figure (5).

### IV.3 Exponential graphs

Finally, let us consider exponential distributions, $`P(k)=Ae^{\frac{k}{k_0}}`$ where $`A=1e^{\frac{1}{k_0}}`$ is a normalizing factor. We find from (2) $`q(k)=\frac{A^2}{1A}(k+1)e^{\frac{k+1}{k_0}}`$. Using (9) we find

$$\stackrel{~}{P}(k)=\frac{A^4}{(1A)^2}e^{\frac{k+2}{k_0}}\underset{s=0}{\overset{k}{}}(s+1)(k+1s).$$
(25)
Converting the sum to integral, we find:

$$\stackrel{~}{P(k)}=\frac{A^4}{(1A)^2}e^{\frac{k+2}{k_0}}(\frac{k^3}{6}+k^2+k).$$
(26)
We see that transformation does not change the cutoff value, $`k_0`$, but produces some polynomial terms.

In figure (6) we display the correlation and the clustering coefficient for this type of degree distribution, using equations (13) and (14).

## V Conclusion

We have introduced a transformation which when applied to an uncorrelated network with low clustering, produces a new correlated network with a considerable clustering. The small world property of the graph is not affected by this transformation, since the shortest path on two nodes of $`G`$ is almost the same as the shortest path on two incident links on these nodes on $`G`$ or two nodes on $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$. We thus have a method to produce ensemble of graphs which resemble more closely the real networks while still being solvable in many respects. Moreover it will be possible to use this transformation and solve dynamic processes on these new graphs. For example we have shown how site percolation can be solved on these transformed graphs.

This transformation can also be applied to already correlated networks. Moreover we have considered only the deterministic form of the transformation . In some cases it may be useful to introduce a stochastic parameter in the transformation to have more degree of freedom. That is the nodes of the transformed graph $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$, can be connected with a probability $`p`$ if the corresponding edges in $`G`$ have a common node.
We hope to investigate these issues in subsequent works.