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# A Note on the correspondence betweenQubit Quantum Operations and Special Relativity

## I Preliminaries and Geometrical Setting

This paper may be viewed as a complement to conal representations of quantum states us . This section reproduces some of the material in a concise manner, in an attempt to make the presentation self-contained.

The state of a two dimensional quantum system (a qubit) is an element of $`\text{Herm}_2^+()`$ the set of $`2\times 2`$ positive complex matrices Nielsen . Traditionally one tends to consider normalized states only, i.e. unit trace $`\text{Herm}_2^+()`$ matrices (density matrices). Yet relaxing this condition has a clear physical meaning and we will often do so in this note. The most general evolution a qubit state may undergo is a generalized measurement (the only extra feature Kraus operators allow is the possibility to ignore one’s knowledge of some measurement outcomes). These are described by a finite set $`\{M_m\}`$ of $`2\times 2`$ complex matrices satisfying $`_mM_m^{}M_m=𝕀`$. If we let $`E_m=M_m^{}M_m`$ we have that $`_mE_m=𝕀`$, $`E_m\text{Herm}_2^+()`$ and $`M_m=U_m\sqrt{E_m}`$ using the polar decomposition. Applied upon a density matrix $`\rho `$, the generalized measurement $`\{M_m\}`$ yields outcome $`m`$ with probability $`p(m)=\text{Tr}(E_m\rho )`$, in which case the post-measurement state is given by $`\rho _m^{}=(1/\text{Tr}(E_m\rho ))(M_m\rho M_m^{})`$. We shall call $`\rho _m=M_m\rho M_m^{}\text{Herm}_2^+()`$ the *unrescaled* post-measurement state. Note that the generalized measurement formalism can be viewed as arising when the system is first coupled to an ancilla (through a unitary operation), which then gets measured projectively and discarded. This paper takes the more axiomatic view on generalized quantum measurements.

Let $`\{\sigma _\mu \}_{\mu =0\mathrm{}3}`$ designate the set of the Pauli matrices $`𝕀,𝐗,𝐘`$ and $`𝐙`$. These form a Hilbert-Schmidt orthogonal basis of $`2\times 2`$ hermitian matrices, that is $`\mu ,\nu \text{Tr}(\sigma _\mu \sigma _\nu )=2\delta _{\mu \nu }`$ with $`\delta `$ the Kronecker delta. Thus any matrix $`A\text{Herm}_2()`$ decomposes on this basis as

$`A`$ $`=(1/2)\left(\text{Tr}(A)𝕀+\text{Tr}(A\sigma _i)\sigma _i\right)=(1/2)\text{Tr}(A\sigma _\mu )\sigma _\mu `$
Notice that throughout this article latin indices run from $`1`$ to $`3`$, greek indices from $`0`$ to $`3`$, and repeated indices are summed unless specified. Letting $`\underset{¯}{A}_\mu =\text{Tr}(A\sigma _\mu )`$, we shall call $`\underset{¯}{A}`$ the vector $`(\underset{¯}{A}_\mu )^4`$ while $`\stackrel{}{A}=(\underset{¯}{A}_i)`$ will designate the restricted vector in $`^3`$. Note that the coordinate map

$`\varphi :\text{Herm}_2()`$ $`^4`$
$`A`$ $`\underset{¯}{A}`$
is an isometric isomorphism, in the sense that

$`\text{Tr}(AB)`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\underset{¯}{A}.\underset{¯}{B}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\underset{¯}{A}_\mu \underset{¯}{B}_\mu `$ (1)
###### Lemma 1

The cone of positive hermitian matrices $`\text{Herm}_2^+()`$ is isomorphic to the following cone of revolution in $`^4`$:

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ $`=\{(\lambda _\mu )^4/\lambda _0^2{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}}\lambda _i^20,\lambda _00\}`$
Generalized pure states lie on the boundary of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

Proof: Let $`A\text{Herm}_2()`$. Its eigenvalues are given by $`\lambda _\pm =\frac{1}{2}(\underset{¯}{A}_0\pm \sqrt{\underset{¯}{A}_i\underset{¯}{A}_i})`$. $`A`$ is positive if and only if $`\lambda _+\lambda _{}0`$ and $`\lambda _++\lambda _{}0`$. This is equivalent to:

$`\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{A}_\mu \underset{¯}{A}_\nu 0\text{and}\underset{¯}{A}_00`$
with $`\eta _{\mu \nu }=\text{Diag}(1,1,1,1)`$. Moreover $`A`$ is generalized pure when one of its eigenvalues is zero, which is equivalent to $`\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{A}_\mu \underset{¯}{A}_\nu =0`$.$`\mathrm{}`$
Thus the generalized (not necessarily normalized) density matrices of a qubit cover the whole Minkowskian future-light-cone in $`𝔼^{1,3}`$. Taking a vertical cross-section of the cone is equivalent to fixing the trace $`\underset{¯}{A}_0`$ of the density matrix, which might be thought of physically as the *overall probability of occurrence* for the state. By doing so we are left with only the spin degrees of freedom along $`𝐗`$, $`𝐘`$ and $`𝐙`$, and therefore each vertical cross-section is a Bloch sphere with radius $`\underset{¯}{A}_0`$.

Where the use of Clifford algebras is encountered such a representation is not totally uncommon. We think, for instance, of the community of geometric algebras Havel . Furthermore $`\varphi ^1`$ is precisely the isomorphism used to define Dirac spinors pages jaunes  in Quantum Field Theories. For $`n`$-dimensional extensions of the representation we refer the reader to us  and Zanardi  .

We now consider the map $`\psi `$ from $`2\times 2`$ complex matrices to endomorphisms of $`^4`$ given by:

$`\psi :A\varphi Ad_A\varphi ^1`$
i.e. $`\psi (A)`$ is the $`4\times 4`$ real matrix taking a vector $`\underset{¯}{\rho }`$ into $`\underset{¯}{A\rho A^{}}`$. Notice that $`\psi (AB)=\psi (A)\psi (B)`$. Amongst the standard results Nielsen  we have that $`\psi (U)`$, with $`U`$ unitary, is a special orthogonal transform about the axis of revolution of the cone $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Indeed without loss of generality one can assume $`\text{det}(U)=1`$, and so the special unitary matrix can be written as:

$`U=\mathrm{cos}({\displaystyle \frac{\theta }{2}})𝕀i\mathrm{sin}({\displaystyle \frac{\theta }{2}})(\stackrel{}{n_k}\sigma _k)`$ $`=e^{i\frac{\theta }{2}\stackrel{}{n_k}\sigma _k}`$ (2)
$`\text{and has image:}\psi (U)`$ $`=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& & 0\\ 0& & R_\theta (\stackrel{}{n})\end{array}\right)`$ (5)
Here $`R_\theta (\stackrel{}{n})`$ denotes the real rotation by an angle $`\theta `$ around the normalized axis $`\stackrel{}{n}`$ (to happen in the Bloch sphere). Alternatively one may use the expression $`\psi (U)_{\mu \nu }=(1/2)\text{Tr}(U\sigma _\nu U^{}\sigma _\mu )`$. The next formulae are not well-known.

###### Lemma 2

Let $`\sqrt{E_m}`$ be a matrix in $`\text{Herm}_2^+()`$, with $`\underset{¯}{\sqrt{E_m}}=[\alpha \beta \gamma \delta ]`$, and $`E_m`$ its square, with $`\underset{¯}{E_m}=[axyz]`$. Then

$`\psi (\sqrt{E_m})`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\left(\begin{array}{cccc}X+2\alpha ^2& 2\alpha \beta & 2\alpha \gamma & 2\alpha \delta \\ 2\alpha \beta & X+2\beta ^2& 2\beta \gamma & 2\beta \delta \\ 2\alpha \gamma & 2\beta \gamma & X+2\gamma ^2& 2\gamma \delta \\ 2\alpha \delta & 2\beta \delta & 2\gamma \delta & X+2\delta ^2\end{array}\right)`$ (10)
$`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\left(\begin{array}{cccc}2a& 2x& 2y& 2z\\ 2x& X+\frac{4x^2}{2a+X}& \frac{4xy}{2a+X}& \frac{4xz}{2a+X}\\ 2y& \frac{4xy}{2a+X}& X+\frac{4y^2}{2a+X}& \frac{4yz}{2a+X}\\ 2z& \frac{4xz}{2a+X}& \frac{4yz}{2a+X}& X+\frac{4z^2}{2a+X}\end{array}\right)`$ (15)
$`\text{with}X`$ $`=\alpha ^2\beta ^2\gamma ^2\delta ^2=2\sqrt{a^2x^2y^2z^2}.`$
Proof: $`\psi (\sqrt{E_m})`$ can be computed in terms of $`\underset{¯}{\sqrt{E_m}}`$ using the following simple formula:

$`\psi (\sqrt{E_m})_{\mu \mu ^{}}`$ $`=(1/2)\underset{¯}{\sqrt{E_m}}_\nu \underset{¯}{\sqrt{E_m}}_\nu ^{}\text{Tr}(\sigma _\nu \sigma _\mu ^{}\sigma _\nu ^{}\sigma _\mu )`$
This method requires lengthy calculations, subtler approaches are discussed in us . Now let $`\underset{¯}{\iota }=[\mathrm{1\hspace{0.33em}0\hspace{0.33em}0\hspace{0.33em}0}]=(1/2)\varphi (𝕀)`$ and observe that

$`\psi (\sqrt{E_m})\underset{¯}{\iota }`$ $`\varphi Ad_{\sqrt{E_m}}\varphi ^1\underset{¯}{\iota }`$
$`=(1/2)\varphi (\sqrt{E_m}𝕀\sqrt{E_m})(1/2)\underset{¯}{E_m}`$ (16)
In other words, $`(1/2)\underset{¯}{E_m}`$ has as components the first column of $`\psi (\sqrt{E_m})`$. Thus we can now proceed to the substitutions which yield the second form of $`\psi (\sqrt{E_m})`$. Finally the $`X`$ relation stems from:

$`\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{\sqrt{E_m}}_\mu \underset{¯}{\sqrt{E_m}}_\nu `$ $`=4\text{det}(\sqrt{E_m})`$ (17)
$`=4\sqrt{\text{det}(E_m)}=2\sqrt{\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{E_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{E_m}_\nu }\mathrm{}`$
## II Quantum operations as Lorentz transforms and vice-versa

We begin by showing that elements of a generalized measurement act on a qubit either as rescaled restricted Lorentz transformations or as rescaled future-directed null boosts. Then we show that the reverse is also true. Remember that a Lorentz transform $`LL_\nu ^\mu `$ is called restricted if it is proper ($`\text{det}L=1`$) and orthochronous ($`L_0^0>0`$). We will show that such an $`L`$ decomposes uniquely into the product of a proper spatial rotation and a pure (timelike future-directed velocity) boost. We like to think of null velocity boosts as limiting cases of restricted boosts, or effectively as elements of the topological boundary of the restricted Lorentz group, but they need to be *rescaled* to yield a finite linear transform. We shall call these (rescaled) future-directed null boosts. They are singular transforms. It turns out the rescaling introduced defines a natural unifying way of thinking about Lorentz transforms and null boosts.

If $`\underset{¯}{E_m}=[a,x,y,z]`$ corresponds to one particular measurement element $`E_m=M_m^{}M_m`$, we shall call $`\underset{¯}{V_m}`$ the vector of coordinates $`(\underset{¯}{V_m}_\mu )=(\frac{1}{2}\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{E_m}_\nu )`$, i.e. $`\underset{¯}{V_m}=[a/2,x/2,y/2,z/2]`$. Then $`\underset{¯}{v_m}=2\underset{¯}{V_m}/a`$ is the corresponding normalized vector and $`\stackrel{}{v_m}=[x/a,y/a,z/a]`$ can be thought of as a three vector velocity, whose norm is defined as usual: $`v_m=(\stackrel{}{v_m}.\stackrel{}{v_m})^{1/2}`$.

###### Proposition 1

Let $`\{M_m\}=\{U_m\sqrt{E_m}\}`$ be a generalized measurement on a qubit, with $`U_m`$ unitary and $`\sqrt{E_m}`$ positive. Then for all $`m`$ such that $`E_m`$ is not projective, we have:

$`\psi (M_m)`$ $`=\sqrt{\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{V_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{V_m}_\nu }R_mL(\underset{¯}{v_m})`$ (18)
where $`R_m=\psi (U_m)`$ is a proper rotation about the axis of the cone and $`L(\underset{¯}{v_m})`$ is a pure restricted Lorentz boost of normalized velocity $`\underset{¯}{v_m}`$. Thus $`\psi (M_m)`$ is a restricted Lorentz transform up to a (strictly positive) scalar. Similarly, if $`E_m`$ is projective, $`\psi (M_m)=(a/2)R_mL(\underset{¯}{v_m})`$, where $`L(\underset{¯}{v_m})`$ is a rescaled pure future-directed null boost of null velocity $`\underset{¯}{v_m}`$.

Proof: First recall that $`\psi (M_m)=\psi (U_m)\psi (\sqrt{E_m})`$, and by (2), $`\psi (U_m)`$ is a special orthogonal transformation about the axis of the cone, so a restricted Lorentz transform. Suppose $`\underset{¯}{E_m}`$ (hence $`\underset{¯}{v_m}`$) timelike future-directed. Letting $`\gamma 2a/X`$ in (15) and using the definition of $`\stackrel{}{v_m}`$, we get:

$$\frac{4}{X}\psi (\sqrt{E_m})=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\gamma & & \gamma \stackrel{}{v_m}^T\\ \gamma \stackrel{}{v_m}& & 𝕀+\frac{\gamma ^2}{1+\gamma }\stackrel{}{v_m}\stackrel{}{v_m}^T\end{array}\right)L(\underset{¯}{v_m})$$
(19)
As $`\gamma =1/\sqrt{1v_m^2}`$, $`L(\underset{¯}{v_m})`$ is precisely a pure Lorentz boost of velocity $`\underset{¯}{v_m}`$ (see pages jaunes  for example). Since $`\underset{¯}{v_m}`$ is timelike future-directed, $`\psi (M_m)`$ is a restricted Lorentz transform up to the factor $`X/4=(1/2)\sqrt{\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{E_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{E_m}_\nu }=\sqrt{\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{V_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{V_m}_\nu }`$.
Now, when $`\underset{¯}{E_m}`$ is null ($`E_m`$ projective) this factor vanishes and $`\gamma `$ becomes infinite. Nevertheless one can write (15) for $`X=0`$ as

$$\frac{2}{a}\psi (\sqrt{E_m})=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& & \stackrel{}{v_m}^T\\ \stackrel{}{v_m}& & \stackrel{}{v_m}\stackrel{}{v_m}^T\end{array}\right)$$
(20)
We can see that this is in fact a pure null boost *rescaled* by a factor $`\gamma ^1`$. Indeed, when $`v_m1`$ the right-hand-side of (19) becomes

$`L^{null}(\underset{¯}{v_m})\gamma \left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& & \stackrel{}{v_m}^T\\ \stackrel{}{v_m}& & \stackrel{}{v_m}\stackrel{}{v_m}^T\end{array}\right)`$
and since $`\frac{a}{2}=\gamma \sqrt{\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{V_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{V_m}_\nu }`$, we precisely get

$$\psi (\sqrt{E_m})\sqrt{\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{V_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{V_m}_\nu }L^{null}(\underset{¯}{v_m})$$

Here the Minkowski product vanishes and the *unrescaled* pure null velocity boost is infinite. Nevertheless rescaling $`L^{null}(\underset{¯}{v_m})`$ by the factor $`\gamma ^1`$ yields the right-hand-side of (20); thus $`\psi (\sqrt{E_m})`$ indeed corresponds to a rescaled pure null boost, which of course is not an element of the Lorentz group. $`\mathrm{}`$

As we said previously the natural rescaling by the Minkowski product precisely corresponds to an appropriate rescaling of generalized Lorentz transforms bringing null boosts to finite linear maps. Formally the essence of this Proposition can be thought of as a consequence of the Alexandrov-Zeeman theorems relating the causality group (Lorentz group and dilatations) to the Minkowskian causal structure, though this approach would not cover null velocity boosts. Note that the rescaled pure null velocity boosts (right-hand-side of (20)) are in fact proportional to projections on the null four vectors $`\underset{¯}{E_m}`$.
Maybe the reader wonders here why the Lorentz pure boosts corresponding to positive measurement elements $`E_m`$ are parametrized by $`\underset{¯}{v_m}`$ and not $`\underset{¯}{E_m}`$. However since $`E_m`$ is an operator acting on states and not a state, $`\underset{¯}{E_m}`$ is better thought of as a *co-vector*, or element of the *dual* space, in the same way as momenta are dual to positions in usual Special Relativity. The (contravariant) vector corresponding to $`\underset{¯}{E_m}`$ is precisely $`2\underset{¯}{V_m}`$, thus in the space of states, and not operators, $`E_m`$ is represented by $`2\underset{¯}{V_m}`$. The factor of two was introduced merely for convenience.

The following relations suggest the Minkowski product of the state vector of a qubit is an important quantum information theoretical quantity:

###### Proposition 2

Let $`\{M_m\}`$ be a generalized measurement, $`\underset{¯}{\rho }`$ a state vector and $`\psi (M_m)\underset{¯}{\rho }\underset{¯}{\rho _m}`$ the unrescaled post-measurement state vector if outcome $`m`$ occurs. We have:

$`\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{\rho _m}_\mu \underset{¯}{\rho _m}_\nu `$ $`=\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{V_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{V_m}_\nu \eta _{\mu ^{}\nu ^{}}\underset{¯}{\rho }_\mu ^{}\underset{¯}{\rho }_\nu ^{}`$ (21)
$`\underset{¯}{\rho _m}_0`$ $`=\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{V_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{\rho }_\nu `$ (22)
$`\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{\rho }_\mu \underset{¯}{\rho }_\nu `$ $`=2([\text{Tr}(\rho )]^2\text{Tr}(\rho ^2))`$ (23)
Proof: We make use of the previous proposition. Equation (18) implies

$$\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{\rho _m}_\mu \underset{¯}{\rho _m}_\nu =\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{V_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{V_m}_\nu \eta _{\mu ^{}\nu ^{}}(R_mL(\underset{¯}{v_m})\underset{¯}{\rho })_\mu ^{}(R_mL(\underset{¯}{v_m})\underset{¯}{\rho })_\nu ^{}$$

and (21) follows since $`R_mL(\underset{¯}{v_m})`$ is a Lorentz transform. This relation remains true of course when $`\underset{¯}{V_m}`$ is light-like ($`E_m`$ projective), since so is $`\underset{¯}{\rho _m}`$. (Purity relations us ).
For the second equation note that $`\underset{¯}{\rho _m}_0=\text{Tr}(E_m\rho )=(1/2)\underset{¯}{E_m}.\underset{¯}{\rho }`$, where the isometry (1) was applied. Introducing the definition of $`\underset{¯}{V_m}`$ in this last equation yields the required result.
Equation (23) can be shown explicitly using the components of $`\rho `$ and $`\rho ^2`$, but it seems more interesting to use our isomorphism $`\varphi :\rho \underset{¯}{\rho }`$. Consider the linear map on $`𝔼^{1,3}`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }:(\underset{¯}{\rho }_\mu )(\eta _{\nu \mu }\underset{¯}{\rho }_\nu )`$ (musical isomorphism). Then $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}:\rho \varphi ^1\mathrm{\Lambda }\varphi (\rho )`$ is a linear map on $`\text{Herm}_2()`$. One finds easily $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}(\rho )=(\text{Tr}\rho )𝕀\rho `$. Using the fact that $`\varphi `$ is an isometry (1), we get

$`\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{\rho }_\mu \underset{¯}{\rho }_\nu `$ $`(\mathrm{\Lambda }\underset{¯}{\rho }).\underset{¯}{\rho }=2\text{Tr}(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}(\rho )\rho )`$
$`=2([\text{Tr}\rho ]^2\text{Tr}(\rho ^2))\mathrm{}`$
It seems interesting that this quantity, invariant under Lorentz transforms on the state vector $`\underset{¯}{\rho }`$, in fact measures the mixedness of qubit states: recall that a density matrix $`\rho `$ is pure if and only if $`\text{Tr}(\rho ^2)=(\text{Tr}\rho )^2`$. Not only is purity preserved under a formal Lorentz boost, so is this notion of mixedness. Moreover this quantity maps according to the simple relation (21) under a generalized measurement. Note that since $`\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{V_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{V_m}_\nu 1`$, the mixedness always decreases given a measurement outcome. But (21) and (22) suggest much more: the mixedness of post-measurement states and their probabilities are invariant if both the initial vector $`\underset{¯}{\rho }`$ and the measurement vectors $`\underset{¯}{V_m}`$ are Lorentz transformed. However, the set of transformed measurement vectors does not sum to the identity, and it is unclear how to interpret it as a quantum measurement. In section III we will discuss the way a boosted observer perceives measurement probabilities, but without using the approach equation (22) might suggest. We now show that any Lorentz transformation can be thought of as an element of a generalized measurement up to scale.

###### Proposition 3

Let L a restricted Lorentz transform or a rescaled future-directed null boost of $`𝔼^{1,3}`$. $`L`$ decomposes as $`L=RL(\underset{¯}{v})`$ where $`R`$ is a proper Lorentz rotation and $`L(\underset{¯}{v})`$ a pure velocity boost, rescaled when $`\underset{¯}{v}`$ is null. Then there exits a particular element of a measurement scheme $`\{M_m\}`$, $`M_1`$ say, such that for any qubit $`\rho `$,

$$L\underset{¯}{\rho }\psi (M_1)\underset{¯}{\rho }$$
(24)
Thus the effect of a Lorentz boost on a qubit can essentially be viewed as applying a particular measurement element whose outcome occurs. More precisely there exits a family of such possible measurement elements $`M(\lambda )=U\sqrt{E(\lambda )}`$ defined by $`U=U(R)`$ as in (2) and $`\sqrt{E(\lambda )}`$ satisfying the following:
If $`L=RL(\underset{¯}{v})`$ is a restricted Lorentz transform:

$`\underset{¯}{\sqrt{E(\lambda )}}`$ $`=(1+\sqrt{1v^2})^{1/2}[\lambda (1+\sqrt{1v^2}),\lambda \stackrel{}{v}]`$
$`\text{with}0<\lambda \sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2}{1+v}}}`$
while if $`L=RL(\underset{¯}{v})`$ is a rescaled future-directed null boost:

$`\underset{¯}{\sqrt{E(\lambda )}}`$ $`=[\lambda ,\lambda \stackrel{}{v}]\text{with}0<\lambda 1.`$
Proof: For completeness we first show the decomposition of restricted Lorentz transforms $`L`$ into $`L=RL(\underset{¯}{v})`$ as above. This relies on the well-known spinor representation of the restricted Lorentz group, or the two-to-one group homomorphism between unimodular $`2\times 2`$ complex matrices and restricted Lorentz transforms (see pages jaunes  for example):

$`\psi :SL(2,)`$ $`SO(1,3)^+`$
$`A`$ $`\psi (A)\varphi Ad_A\varphi ^1`$
Indeed as $`Ad_A`$ preserves the determinant and $`\varphi `$ is such that for all $`\rho \text{Herm}_2()`$, $`\text{det}\rho =(1/4)\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{\rho }_\mu \underset{¯}{\rho }_\nu `$, $`\psi (A)`$ preserves the Minkowski product. The fact that $`\psi (A)SO(1,3)^+`$ and that $`\psi `$ is two-to-one and onto can be checked explicitly. Let $`L`$ any restricted Lorentz transform. There exits a unique $`ASL(2,)`$ such that $`\psi (\pm A)=L`$. Polar decompose $`A`$ into $`A=U|A|`$ with $`U`$ unitary and $`|A|`$ positive. ($`U`$ is in fact special unitary and $`|A|`$ positive definite since $`\text{det}A=1`$, and by unicity of the polar decomposition for $`A`$ non-singular, $`A=(U)|A|`$). Applying Proposition 1 to $`|A|`$ with $`\text{det}|A|^2=1`$, $`\psi (|A|)`$ is a *pure* restricted Lorentz boost, thus $`L=\psi (U)\psi (|A|)`$ provides a decomposition. Since $`\psi (U)=\psi (U)`$, this decomposition is unique.
Thus given $`L=RL(\underset{¯}{v})`$, with $`R`$ a proper rotation and $`L(\underset{¯}{v})`$ a pure boost of future-directed timelike velocity $`\underset{¯}{v}=[1,\stackrel{}{v}]`$, we use Proposition 1 to find $`M=U\sqrt{E}`$ such $`\psi (M)L`$. $`U=U(R)`$ is given by (2) and we choose $`\underset{¯}{E}=[1,\stackrel{}{v}]`$.
We then have to find $`\lambda >0`$ such that $`\lambda M`$ can be part of a measurement scheme. This is equivalent to $`\lambda ^2M^{}M`$ positive (satisfied) and $`𝕀\lambda ^2M^{}M`$ positive too. ($`\lambda M`$ and $`\lambda M`$ are equivalent in terms of measurement elements). With $`\lambda M=U\sqrt{E(\lambda )}`$, we have

$$\underset{¯}{E(\lambda )}=[\lambda ^2,\lambda ^2\stackrel{}{v}],$$

from which we find $`\underset{¯}{\sqrt{E(\lambda )}}`$ using (16):

$`\underset{¯}{\sqrt{E(\lambda )}}`$ $`=(1+\sqrt{1v^2})^{1/2}[\lambda (1+\sqrt{1v^2}),\lambda \stackrel{}{v}].`$
Then requiring $`𝕀E(\lambda )`$ positive is equivalent to ($`\lambda >0`$):

$$\lambda \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+v}}$$

Applying Proposition 1 we get:

$$\psi (M(\lambda ))=\frac{\lambda ^2}{2}\sqrt{1v^2}RL(\underset{¯}{v})$$

Thus for such $`\lambda `$ the measurement elements $`M(\lambda )=U\sqrt{E(\lambda )}`$ are all possible measurements whose occurrence is equivalent up to a factor to the restricted Lorentz boost $`L=RL(\underset{¯}{v})`$.

Now let $`L`$ a rescaled future-directed null boost. As we have shown, any restricted Lorentz transform can be decomposed into a product of a proper rotation and a boost of time-like future-directed velocity. Future-directed null boosts are just limits of these, and thus the rescaled null boosts $`L`$ may be assumed to be the product of a rotation $`R`$ and a rescaled null pure boost $`L(\underset{¯}{v})`$ of type (20). The rotation can be dealt with as in the previous case. Defining $`\underset{¯}{E}=[1,\stackrel{}{v}]`$ null future-directed, we have $`L(\underset{¯}{v})\psi (\varphi ^1(\underset{¯}{\sqrt{E}}))`$. Then again we consider $`\underset{¯}{E(\lambda )}=\lambda ^2\underset{¯}{E}`$ $`(\lambda >0)`$ such that $`𝕀E(\lambda )`$ is positive. This is equivalent to $`0<\lambda 1`$, and using (16) we have

$$\underset{¯}{\sqrt{E(\lambda )}}=[\lambda ,\lambda \stackrel{}{v}]$$

which gives $`\psi (\sqrt{M(\lambda )})=(\lambda ^2/2)RL(\underset{¯}{v})`$. $`\mathrm{}`$
Note that the scaling factor is always less than 1, indeed less than $`\sqrt{(1v)/(1+v)}`$ in the restricted case, and $`1/2`$ in the null case.

Overall we have shown that elements of generalized measurements on a qubit are *equivalent* to rescaled restricted or null Lorentz transforms. Projective measurement elements are future-directed null boosts, while mixed ones correspond to restricted Lorentz boosts. One can of course think of these linear transforms as elements or limits of elements of the causality group of $`𝔼^{1,3}`$.

## III Discussion

The following is a somewhat original discussion of Propositions 1 to 3. Our formalism and its consequences suggest that qubit states may be viewed as spatio-temporal objects, or indeed as four-vectors of a Minkowski space-time. This differs only slightly from the notion of spin as a spatial polarization direction, and thus may apply to 2 dimensional quantum systems whose degrees of freedom can be thought of as spacelike. We shall adopt this point of view from now, i.e consider naively qubits as four-vectors, and analyse the physical implications.
Let us begin by merely rephrasing the content of the correspondence that was established in section II. Suppose Alice proceeds to a generalized measurement $`\{M_m\}=\{U_m\sqrt{E_m}\}`$, $`_mM_m^{}M_m=𝕀`$ on a qubit density matrix $`\rho `$ ($`\rho `$ is unit trace). With probability $`p(m)=\text{Tr}(E_m\rho )`$ this will yield her a (non-normalized) post-measurement state $`\rho _m=M_m\rho M_m^{}`$. This rather common situation turns out to be equivalent, according to Proposition 1, to the following less usual scenario:

*Scenario 1:* Suppose Alice is standing at the origin of an inertial frame of Minkowski spacetime, contemplating the four-vector $`\underset{¯}{\rho }`$. Say she gives herself a set of rotations $`\{R_m\}`$ and four-vectors $`\{\underset{¯}{V_m}\}`$ such that $`_m\underset{¯}{V_m}=[\mathrm{1\hspace{0.33em}0\hspace{0.33em}0\hspace{0.33em}0}]`$. Now, with probability $`p(m)=\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{V_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{\rho }_\nu `$ she chooses to Lorentz boost herself up to velocity vector $`\underset{¯}{v_m}=\underset{¯}{V_m}/\underset{¯}{V_m}_0`$, to rotate the resulting space-frame by $`R_m`$ and to rescale her coordinates by a factor of $`\sqrt{\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{V_m}_\mu \underset{¯}{V_m}_\nu }`$ (we are assuming $`E_m`$ is not projective). She then looks back upon her object of contemplation and sees $`\underset{¯}{\rho _m}`$, the unrescaled post-measurement state. The case with $`E_m`$ projective is the limit of the previous one when the boost vector $`\underset{¯}{v_m}`$ becomes null, and the rescaling yields finiteness of the corresponding linear transform.
Therefore a quantum measurement can be thought of, up to scale, as the observer taking a Lorentz boost relative to his or her qubit. Notice that applying a second quantum measurement $`\{N_n\}`$ similarly corresponds to the observer taking a second (successive) Lorentz transformation at random amongst $`\{L_n\}`$, say. Thus qubit quantum mechanics can easily be axiomatized within the mathematics of special relativity, and pure measurement elements go hand-in-hand with future-directed null boosts.

Difficulties are prompt to arise when one seeks to equate a measurement interaction, in which the qubit is physically acted upon, with a (somewhat passive) coordinate transformation in Minkowski space-time: indeed the latter is purely kinematical, thus reversible, whereas the former usually implies a collapse of the state. In the following scenario we dissociate one from the other. In other words we consider special relativity and qubit quantum theory in their most usual fashion, save for the fact that we continue to interpret the spin a a four-vector.

*Scenario 2:* Suppose Alice at the origin of an inertial frame of Minkowski space, together with a qubit density matrix $`\rho `$ (unit trace) which we think of as a (normalized) space-time vector $`\underset{¯}{\rho }`$. If we consider the point of view of Bob as he passes by in an inertial frame, this suggests that Bob sees a boosted version of $`\rho `$, i.e. a state $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\underset{¯}{\rho }`$. This seemingly innocuous point raises an important issue however: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is not restricted to Bloch sphere rotations, and thus may indeed not correspond to a unitary operation. To understand its effect upon $`\rho `$ we must refer to Proposition 3: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ acts, up to a factor, as a measurement element $`M_1`$ whose outcome always happens, even though $`\text{Tr}(M_1\rho M_1^{})1`$. Thus $`\{M_1\}`$ can be thought of as a non trace-preserving quantum operation ($`M_1M_1^{}𝕀`$) which systematically occurs. We shall let $`\underset{¯}{\rho ^{Bob}}\mathrm{\Lambda }\underset{¯}{\rho }\underset{¯}{M_1\rho M_1^{}}`$ and proceed to reassure the reader: such a phenomenon would not violate the principle of relativity. Bob does not *make happen* a non trace-preserving quantum operation on the qubit. The laws of quantum mechanics remain exactly the same in every inertial frame: only the *change of observers*, or more precisely the way a boosted observer perceives a non-boosted state, is a non-orthodox quantum operation. If Bob were then to decelerate down to the speed of Alice, his mathematical description of the qubit would return to be $`\rho `$ again.
Now suppose Alice measures $`\rho `$ under a generalized measurement $`\{N_n\}`$. The probability associated with the transition from $`\rho `$ to $`\rho _n`$ is given by $`p(n)\text{Tr}(N_n^{}N_n\rho )/\text{Tr}(\rho )=\underset{¯}{\rho _n}_0`$, as usual when $`\underset{¯}{\rho }`$ is normalized. As Bob passes, he sees the initial state $`\underset{¯}{\rho ^{Bob}}=\mathrm{\Lambda }\underset{¯}{\rho }`$, and the post-measurement states $`\underset{¯}{\rho _n^{Bob}}=\mathrm{\Lambda }\underset{¯}{\rho _n}`$. Remember that the probability associated to a state is simply given by the first component of its vector representation. Assuming $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is a pure boost of non-null normalized velocity $`\underset{¯}{v(\mathrm{\Lambda })}`$, we get:

$$p^{Bob}(n)\frac{\text{Tr}(\rho _n^{Bob})}{\text{Tr}(\rho ^{Bob})}=\frac{\underset{¯}{\rho _n^{Bob}}_0}{\underset{¯}{\rho ^{Bob}}_0}=\frac{p(n)\stackrel{}{v(\mathrm{\Lambda })}.\stackrel{}{\rho _n}}{1\stackrel{}{v(\mathrm{\Lambda })}.\stackrel{}{\rho }}0$$

In other words the probabilities associated with the transitions from $`\underset{¯}{\rho }`$ to $`\underset{¯}{\rho _n}`$, in the same way as lengths of objects, are not invariant under a change of observer. Thus if one believes probabilities are absolute quantities independent of notions of space and time, one must abandon trying to interpret the qubit as a 4-vector.
Otherwise, the notion of probability as a physical quantity needs to be redefined ($`_np(n)`$ is not conserved, as the probability of a state transforms just like the time-component of a four vector). The idea is disturbing, and certainly worth comparing with the contraction of any spatial object (a ruler, say) under a Lorentz boost. As he passes by Bob will see Alice’s $`20cm`$ ruler shrunk down to $`15cm`$. But what we now have is that if Alice’s quantum ruler has half a chance of being $`22cm`$ long, and another half chance of measuring $`18cm`$, it may well turn out that Bob instead perceives a quantum ruler of length $`17cm`$ with probability a third, and $`14cm`$ two third of the times.

Allowing the Lorentz boosts $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ to act on $`\underset{¯}{\rho }`$ as on space-time vectors thus seems a radical departure from Quantum Field Theories in Minkowski space, where the approach is to seek *unitary* representations of the Poincaré group, i.e. the full Lorentz group together with translations. However, Poincaré invariance (see Wald  for example) does not require any given state of a theory to transform unitarily under a change of *observer*: for any two inertial observers Alice and Bob, it requires the existence, given any state of the theory possibly measured by Alice in her frame, of another state of the theory measured by Bob in his frame, such that the statistics of their measurement outcomes on their respective states be the same. In this sense, the action of a particular Poincaré transform on a state in Quantum Field Theory corresponds to a change of *inertial frame*: it maps a given solution for an inertial family of observers to another *equivalent* solution for another family of observers, hence it simply cannot change the measurement statistics. Our second scenario does not involve a change of inertial frame, but just a change of observer. It is true that nonetheless, Alice’s non-boosted qubit viewed by a boosted observer Bob, though not necessarily unitarily equivalent to the same non-boosted state viewed by Alice, should be an admissible state of the theory which could be measured by Bob to yield measurement statistics with the usual properties. We are not in this case, since in scenario 2, Bob is not performing a quantum operation on Alice’s qubit. Note also that in the formalism developed above, pure states, whether viewed in their inertial frame or not, remain pure.

But if we begin to think of quantum measurement outcome probabilities as not invariant under Lorentz transformations, then the Von Neumann entropy should not be either. On the other hand the invariant quantity $`\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{\rho }_\mu \underset{¯}{\rho }_\nu `$ seems a good measure of the mixedness of $`\rho `$, an idea which is strongly supported by its equivalent form (23). With $`I(\underset{¯}{\rho })`$ proportional to the logarithm of $`\eta _{\mu \nu }\underset{¯}{\rho }_\mu \underset{¯}{\rho }_\nu `$ equation (21) becomes:

$`I(\underset{¯}{\rho _m})=I(\underset{¯}{V_m})+I(\underset{¯}{\rho })`$
This result is rather interesting as an information conservation law.

The lines of thought suggested in this last section need to be anchored in firmer ground and generalized to higher dimensional quantum systems. Although most of the mathematical results of this paper stem from the exceptional isomorphism between $`\text{Herm}_2^+()`$ and the future cone of Minkowski space, there is hope to find a special relativistic interpretation to $`d`$ dimensional systems us . This is currently being investigated. More generally the authors feel that the correspondence between qubit quantum operations and special relativity transforms deserves further attention.

## IV Acknowledgments

C.E.P would like to thank Gary Gibbons for motivating discussions, EPSRC, the DAMTP, the Cambridge European and Isaac Newton Trusts for financial support. P.J.A would like to thank Anuj Dawar for his patient listening, EPSRC, Marconi, the Cambridge European and Isaac Newton Trusts for financial support.


text:
# 0 Introduction.

## 0 Introduction.

We consider the set $`\sigma _P`$ of the power non-negative polynomials of several variables.By $`Q_P`$ we denote the class of the polynomials from $`\sigma _1`$ which can be represented as a sum of squares.It is shown in the classic work by D.Hilbert that $`Q_P`$ does not coincide with $`\sigma _P`$.Step by step a number of polynomials belonging to $`\sigma _P`$ but not belonging to $`Q_P`$ was constructed(see-).It is interesting to note that many of these polynomials turn to be extremal in the class $`\sigma _P`$ .
In our paper we have made an attempt to work out a general approach to the investigation of the extremal elements of the convex sets $`Q_P`$ and $`\sigma _P`$.It seems to us that we have achieved a considerable progress in the case of $`Q_P`$.In the case of $`\sigma _P`$ we have made only the first steps.We also consider the class $`\sigma _R`$ of the non-negative rational functions. The article is based on the following methods:
1.We investigate non-negative trigonometrical polynomials and then with the help of the Calderon transformation we proceed to the power polynomials.
2.The way of constructing support hyperplanes to the convex sets $`Q_P`$ and $`\sigma _P`$ is given in the paper.
Now we start with a more detailed description of the results of this article.
Let us denote by $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ the set of the trigonometrical polynomials

$$f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=\underset{|k|N_1}{}\underset{|\mathrm{}|N_2}{}\underset{|m|N_3}{}q(k,\mathrm{},m)e^{i(k\alpha +\mathrm{}\beta +m\gamma )}$$
(1)
satisfying the condition

$$f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )0,(\alpha =\overline{\alpha },\beta =\overline{\beta },\gamma =\overline{\gamma }).$$
(2)
We denote by $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ the set of trigonometrical polynomials of the class $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ admitting representation

$$f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}|F_j(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )|^2$$
(3)
where

$$F_j(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=\underset{0kN_1}{}\underset{0\mathrm{}N_2}{}\underset{0mN_3}{}q_j(k,\mathrm{},m)e^{i(k\alpha +\mathrm{}\beta +m\gamma )}$$
(4)
It is clear that the set $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ is convex.In this article we give a method of constructing the support hyperplanes to the set $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$.Hence we receive a number of general facts referring to the extremal points and faces of the set $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$.Here we also introduce concrete examples of extremal points and faces.
Analogues results are received for the convex set $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ as well.In addition to the set of the non-negative trigonometrical polynomials we shall introduce the class $`\sigma _P(2N_1,2N_2,2N_3)`$ of the power non-negative polynomials of the form

$$f(x,y,z)=\underset{0k2N_1}{}\underset{0\mathrm{}2N_2}{}\underset{0m2N_3}{}a_{k,\mathrm{},m}x^ky^{\mathrm{}}z^m$$
(5)
By $`Q_P(2N_1,2N_2,2N_3)`$ we denote the set of the power non-negative polynomials of the class $`\sigma _P(2N_1,2N_2,2N_3)`$ admitting the representation

$$f(x,y,z)=\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}|F_j(x,y,z)|^2$$
(6)
where $`F_j(x,y,z)`$are polynomials of x,y,z.With the help of the Calderon transformation the results obtained for the classes of the trigonometrical polynomials $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ and $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ we transfer onto the classes of the power polynomials $`\sigma _P(2N_1,2N_2,2N_3)`$ and $`Q_P(2N_1,2N_2,2N_3)`$.Let us note that a number of concrete examples of the extremal power polynomials is contained in important works ,.
In our paper we consider the case of three variables,but the obtained results can be easily transferred to any number of variables.

## 1 Main Notions

Let S be a set of points of the space $`R^3`$.Let us denote by $`\mathrm{\Delta }=SS`$ the set of points $`xR^3`$ which can be represented in the form $`x=yz,y,zS`$.The function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$ is called Hermitian positive on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ if for any points $`x_1,x_2,\mathrm{}x_NS`$ and numbers $`\xi _1,\xi _2,\mathrm{}\xi _N`$ the inequality

$$\underset{i,j}{}\xi _i\overline{\xi }_j\mathrm{\Phi }(x_ix_j)0$$
(7)
is true.We shall consider the lattice $`S(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ consisting of the points $`M(k,\mathrm{},m)`$ where $`0kN_1,0\mathrm{}N_2,0mN_3`$. The set $`\mathrm{\Delta }(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ consists of the points $`M(k,\mathrm{},m)`$ where $`|k|N_1,|\mathrm{}|N_1,|m|N_3`$.By $`P(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ we denote the class of functions which are Hermitian positive on $`\mathrm{\Delta }(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$.
With each function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)`$ from $`P(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$
we associate the Toeplitz matrices (see ,:

$$B(l,m)=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\mathrm{\Phi }(0,l,m)\hfill & \mathrm{\Phi }(1,l,m)\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{\Phi }(N_1,l,m)\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Phi }(1,l,m)\hfill & \mathrm{\Phi }(0,l,m)\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{\Phi }(N_11,l,m)\hfill \\ \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Phi }(N,l,m)\hfill & \mathrm{\Phi }(N_1+1,l,m)\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{\Phi }(0,l,m)\hfill \end{array}\right]$$
(8)
¿From the matrices $`B(l,m)`$ we construct the block Toeplitz matrices

$$C_m=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}B(0,m)\hfill & B(1,m)\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & B(N_2,m)\hfill \\ B(1,m)\hfill & B(0,m)\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & B(N_21,m)\hfill \\ \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill \\ B(N_2,m)\hfill & B(N_2+1,m)\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & B(0,m)\hfill \end{array}\right],|m|N_3$$

Finally from $`C_k`$ we make yet another block Toeplitz matrix

$$A(N_1,N_2,N_3)=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}C_0\hfill & C_1\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & C_{N_3}\hfill \\ C_1\hfill & C_0\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & C_{N_31}\hfill \\ \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill \\ C_{N_3}\hfill & C_{N_3+1}\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & C_0\hfill \end{array}\right]$$
(9)
Proposition 1(see ,). *Inequality (7) is equivalent to the inequality
$`A(N_1,N_2,N_3)0`$*.
With the help of the function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)`$
we introduce the linear functional (see):

$$L_\mathrm{\Phi }(f)=\underset{|k|N_1}{}\underset{|\mathrm{}|N_2}{}\underset{|m|N_3}{}q(k,\mathrm{},m)\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)$$
(10)
Proposition 2(see ,).*If
$`\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)P(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ and $`f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=|F(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )|^2`$ then the relation*

$$L_\mathrm{\Phi }(f)=e^{}Ae0$$
(11)
*holds.*
Here the matrix A is defined by relations (8),(9),the function $`F(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ and the vector e have the forms

$$F(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=\underset{0kN_1}{}\underset{0\mathrm{}N_2}{}\underset{0mN_3}{}q(k,\mathrm{},m)e^{i(k\alpha +\mathrm{}\beta +m\gamma )}$$
(12)
where

$$e=col[h(0),h(1),\mathrm{},h(N_3],$$
(13)
$$h(m)=col[g(o,m),g(1,m),\mathrm{},g(N_2,m)],$$
(14)
$$g(\mathrm{},m)=col[d(0,\mathrm{},m),d(1,\mathrm{},m),\mathrm{},d(N_1,\mathrm{},m)].$$
(15)
## 2 Support hyperplanes,extremal points and extremal faces of $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$

Let $`L`$ be a linear a linear functional.The hyperplane $`H=[L,\alpha ]`$ is said to bound the set $`U`$ if either
$`L(f)\alpha `$ for all $`fU`$ or $`L(f)\alpha `$ for all $`fU`$.
A hyperplane $`H=[L,\alpha ]`$ is said to support a set U at a point $`f_0U`$ if $`L(f_0)=\alpha `$ and if H bound U.
Further we shall consider only such support hyperplanes $`H`$ which have at least one common point with the corresponding convex set U.
A point $`f_0`$ in the convex set $`U`$ is called an extremal point of $`U`$ if there exists no non-degenerate line segment in $`U`$ that contains $`f_0`$ in its relative interior(see). From Proposition 2 we obtain the following important assertion.
Corollary 1.*The set of support hyperplanes for $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ coincides with the set of hyperplanes*

$$L_\mathrm{\Phi }(f)=0$$
(16)
*where $`\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)P(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ and the corresponding matrix $`A(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ is such that*

$$detA(N_1,N_2,N_3)=0.$$
(17)
Let us denote by $`\nu _A`$ the dimension of the kernel of the matrix $`A(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$.If vector $`e0`$ belongs to the kernel of $`A(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ then the corresponding polynomial $`f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ (see (1) and (14)-(18)) belongs to $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ and satisfies relation (19).The convex hull of such polynomials we denote by $`D_A`$.Using classical properties of a convex set we obtain the following assertions.
Corollary 2.*If $`\nu _A=1`$ and $`f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )D_A`$ then the $`f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ is the extremal polynomial in the class $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$.*
Corollary 3.*If $`\nu _A>1`$ then $`D_A`$ is the extremal face*.
Corollary 4.*If $`f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ is an extremal polynomial in the class $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ then there exists a non trivial function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)P(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ such that $`L_\mathrm{\Phi }(f)=0`$.*

Example 1 . Let the relations

$$N_1=N_2=N_3=1$$

be valid. We set

$$\begin{array}{cc}B(0,0)=\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right],\hfill & B(0,1)=B(1,0)=\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& 0\\ 0& 0\end{array}\right]\hfill \\ & \\ B(1,1)=\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right],\hfill & B(1,1)=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 0& \hfill 1\\ \hfill 1& \hfill 0\end{array}\right]\hfill \end{array}$$

Then we have

$$C_0=E_4,C_1=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 1\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 1& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 1& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 1& \hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\end{array}\right],A=\left[\begin{array}{cc}E_4^{}\hfill & C_1^{}\hfill \\ C_1^{}\hfill & E_4\hfill \end{array}\right]$$
(18)
It is easy to see that the following linearly independent vectors

$$\{\begin{array}{c}e_1=\text{col }[0,0,0,1,1,0,0,0]\hfill \\ e_2=\text{col }[0,0,1,0,0,1,0,0]\hfill \\ e_3=\text{col }[0,1,0,0,0,0,1,0]\hfill \\ e_4=\text{col }[1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1]\hfill \end{array}$$
(19)
form the basis of the kernel $`A(1,1,1)`$.The corresponding polynomials $`F_k(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ have the forms

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}F_1(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=e^{i(\alpha +\beta )}+e^{i\gamma },\hfill & F_2(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=e^{i\beta }+e^{i(\alpha +\gamma )}\hfill \\ F_3(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=e^{i\alpha }+e^{i(\beta +\gamma )},\hfill & F_4(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=1+e^{i(\alpha +\beta +\gamma )}\hfill \end{array}$$
(20)
It means that polynomials

$$f_k(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=|F_k(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )|^2,(1k4)$$
(21)
belong to the face $`D_A`$.
Proposition 3.*The polynomials $`f_k(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ constructed by formulas (20)and (21) are extremal in the class $`Q(1,1,1)`$.*
Proof.Let $`B(0,0),B(0,1)`$ and $`B(1,0)`$ be defined as above and let

$$B(1,1)=\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& \gamma _1\\ \gamma _2& 0\end{array}\right],$$
(22)
$$B(1,1)=\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& \gamma _4\\ \gamma _3& 0\end{array}\right].$$
(23)
We consider the cases when $`\gamma _j=1,|\gamma _k|<1,(kj)`$.In this cases vector $`e_j`$ (see(19))belongs to the kernel of the corresponding matrix $`A_j(1,1,1)`$ and
$`\nu _j=1`$.Hence the polynomials $`f_j(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ are extremal.

## 3 Support hyperplanes,extremal points and extremal faces of $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$

We will say that the function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)P(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ is extendible if $`\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)`$ admits an extension to the function of the class $`P(\mathrm{},\mathrm{},\mathrm{})`$. We will use the following Rudin’s result .
Proposition 4.*A function can be extended to a member of $`P(\mathrm{},\mathrm{},\mathrm{})`$ if and only if $`L_\mathrm{\Phi }(f)0`$ for every $`f\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$*.
¿From Proposition 4 we deduce the following important assertion.
Corollary 5.*The set of support hyperplanes of $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ coincides with the set of hyperplanes $`L_\mathrm{\Phi }(f)=0`$ where $`\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)`$ is an extendible function from $`P(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ and there exists a non-trivial polynomial $`f_0\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ such that*
$`L_\mathrm{\Phi }(f_0)=0`$.
The convex hull of polynomials $`f_0\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ satisfying relation
$`L_\mathrm{\Phi }(f_0)=0`$ we denote by $`D_\mathrm{\Phi }`$.The number of linearly independent polynomials $`f_0`$ from $`D_\mathrm{\Phi }`$ we denote by $`\nu _\mathrm{\Phi }`$.From classical properties of a convex set we obtain the following assertions.
Corollary 6.*1.If $`\nu _\mathrm{\Phi }=1`$ and $`f_0D_\mathrm{\Phi }`$ then $`f_0`$ is the extremal polynomial in the class $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$.
2.If $`\nu _\mathrm{\Phi }>1`$ then $`D_\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is the extremal face in the class $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$.
3.If $`f_0`$ is an extremal polynomial in the class $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ then there exists a non-trivial extendible function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)P(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ such that
$`L_\mathrm{\Phi }(f_0)=0`$*.
If $`\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)`$ is an extendible function then there exists a positive measure $`\mu (\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ such that (Bochner theorem)

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(k,\mathrm{},m)=\frac{1}{(2\pi )^3}_Ge^{i(k\alpha +\mathrm{}\beta +m\gamma )}𝑑\mu $$
(24)
where Domain $`G`$ is defined by the inequalities $`\pi \alpha ,\beta ,\gamma \pi `$.From relations (1),(10) and (24)we deduce the following well-known representation (see)

$$L_\mathrm{\Phi }(f)=\frac{1}{(2\pi )^3}_Gf(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )𝑑\mu .$$
(25)
Corollary 7.*If $`f_0(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ belongs to the class $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ and in a certain point $`f_0(\alpha _0,\beta _0,\gamma _0)=0`$ then $`f_0(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ is either extremal or belongs to the extremal face.*

## 4 The power non-negative polynomials

We shall use the linear Calderon transformation

$$(Cf)(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=f_1(x,y,z)$$
(26)
which is defined by formulas
$`e^{i\alpha }=\frac{x+i}{xi},e^{i\beta }=\frac{y+i}{yi},\frac{y+i}{yi}`$,

$$f_1(x,y,z)=f(\frac{x+i}{xi},\frac{y+i}{yi},\frac{y+i}{yi})(x^2+1)^{N_1}(y^2+1)^{N_2}(z^2+1)^{N_3}.$$
(27)
Proposition 5(see ,Ch.3).*The Calderon transformation C maps $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ onto $`\sigma _P(2N_1,2N_2,2N_3)`$ and $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ onto$`Q_P(2N_1,2N_2,2N_3)`$*.
Using linearity of the operator C we deduce from Proposition 5 the following assertion.
Corollary 8.*The Calderon transformation C maps the extremal points and faces of $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ and $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ onto extremal points and faces of $`\sigma _P(2N_1,2N_2,2N_3)`$ and $`Q_P(2N_1,2N_2,2N_3)`$ respectively.*
Example 2.Let us consider the polynomials

$$P_1(x,y,z)=(xyzz+y+x)^2,$$
(28)
$$P_2(x,y,z)=(yzxz+xy+1)^2,$$
(29)
$$P_3(x,y,z)=(yzxzxy1)^2,$$
(30)
$$P_4(x,y,z)=(xz+yz+xy1)^2,$$
(31)
Proposition 6.*Polynomials $`P_k(x,y,z)`$ (k=1,2,3,4) are extremal polynomials in the classes $`Q_P(2,2,2)`$ and $`\sigma _P(2,2,2)`$.*
Proof.Using Example 1 and Corollary 8 we deduce that polynomials $`P_k(x,y,z)`$ (k=1,2,3,4) are extremal in the class $`Q_P(2,2,2)`$. We remark that
$`degP_k(x,y,z)6`$. It is proved for this case (see)that the extremal polynomials in the class $`Q_P`$ are extremal in the class $`\sigma _P(2,2,2)`$ as well.The proposition is proved.
We remark that an extremal polynomial in the class $`Q_P`$ is given in the paper .

## 5 Extremal trigonometrical and power polynomials in the classes $`\sigma `$ and $`\sigma _P`$

In my book  I give the method of constructing trigonometrical polynomials belonging to $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ but not belonging to $`Q(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$.This method can also be used for constructing extremal polynomials in the classes $`\sigma (N_1,N_2,N_3)`$ and $`\sigma _P(N_1,N_2,N_3)`$. For illustrating this fact we consider the following example.
Example 3.Let us introduce the polynomial

$$f_0(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=4cos(\alpha +\beta +\gamma )cos(\alpha +\beta +\gamma )cos(\alpha \beta +\gamma )+cos(\alpha +\beta \gamma )$$
(32)
It is shown in the book (Ch.3)that $`f_0(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )m(0<m42^{3/2})`$ belongs to $`\sigma (1,1,1)`$ but does not belongs to $`Q(1,1,1)`$.
Now we consider the polynomial

$$f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=2^{3/2}cos(\alpha +\beta +\gamma )cos(\alpha +\beta +\gamma )cos(\alpha \beta +\gamma )+cos(\alpha +\beta \gamma )$$
(33)
The last equality we rewrite in the form

$$f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=2[2^{1/2}cos\alpha cos(\beta +\gamma )+sin\alpha sin(\beta \gamma )]$$
(34)
Proposition 7.*The polynomial $`f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ is an extremal one in the class $`\sigma (1,1,1)`$.*
Proof.It follows from formula (34) that the polynomial $`f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ has the following zeroes:
1. $`\alpha _1=\pi /4,\beta (0,1),\gamma (0,1)`$.
2. $`\alpha _2=\pi /4,\beta (0,0),\gamma (0,0)`$.
3. $`\alpha _3=\pi /4,\beta (0,1),\gamma (0,1)`$
4. $`\alpha _4=\pi /4,\beta (0,2),\gamma (0,2)`$.
5. $`\alpha _5=3\pi /4,\beta (1,1),\gamma (1,1)`$.
6. $`\alpha _6=3\pi /4,\beta (1,0),\gamma (1,0)`$.
7. $`\alpha _7=3\pi /4,\beta (1,1),\gamma (1,1)`$.
8. $`\alpha _8=3\pi /4,\beta (1,0),\gamma (1,0)`$.
Since the polynomial $`f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ is non-negative all its first derivatives in the points of zeroes are equal to zero.This is also true for the polynomials $`g(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )\sigma (1,1,1)`$ and such that $`g(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )f(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$. Thus we obtain 32 linear equations on 27 coefficients of the polynomial $`g(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$.This linear system is of 26th rank,that is only $`cf(c=const)`$ satisfies this system.The proposition is proved.
¿From Proposition 7 using the Calderon transformation we obtain the following assertion.
Proposition 8.*The polynomial*

$$f(x,y,z)=2^{3/2}(1+x^2)(1+y^2)(1+z^2)+8z(y+x)(yx1)2(z^21)[(yx+1)^2(xy)^2]$$
(35)
*is an extremal in the class $`\sigma _P(2,2,2`$)*.
As it was mentioned in the introductory part some other extremal polynomials in the class $`\sigma _P`$were known earlier .

## 6 Non-negative rational functions

Let us consider the class $`\sigma _R(N,M)`$ of the non-negative rational functions of the form
$`R(x,y)=\frac{p(x,y)}{q(x,y)}`$
where $`p(x,y)`$ and $`q(x,y)`$ are polynomials with real coefficients and $`degp(x,y,z)N,`$ and $`degq(x,y,z)M`$.
As Artin’s result shows the function $`R(x,y,z)`$ can be represented in the form

$$R(x,y)=\underset{k=1}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{p_k^2(x,y)}{q_k^2(x,y)}$$
(36)
where $`p_k(x,y,z)`$ and $`q_k(x,y,z)`$ are polynomials.It is clear that $`\sigma _R(N,M)`$ is a convex set.
Proposition 9.*If $`R(x,y,z)`$ is an extremal function of the convex set $`\sigma (N,M)`$ then $`R(x,y,z)`$ admits the representation
*

$$R(x,y)=\frac{p^2(x,y)}{q^2(x,y)}$$
(37)
*where $`p(x,y,z)`$ and $`q(x,y,z)`$ are polynomials and $`p(x,y)^2`$ is extremal in the class of the polynomials $`Q_P`$.*
Thus the results concerning the class $`Q_P`$(section 4) can be useful for the investigation of the non-negative rational functions.
I am very grateful to professor B.Reznick for having sent me a number of his papers which stimulated my work.I greatly thank doctor I.Tydniouk for his help in counting the rank of the linear system in Example 3.

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