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# Submillimeter Studies of Prestellar Cores and Protostars: Probing the Initial Conditions for Protostellar Collapse

## 1 Introduction

Although the formation of low-mass stars is now reasonably well understood in outline (see, e.g., Mannings, Boss, & Russell 2000 for recent reviews), several important aspects remain poorly known, such as the initial stages of the collapse process, the mechanism(s) selecting stellar masses, or the formation of multiple systems. Some progress on the earliest stages of star formation was achieved over the last decade thanks to the use of sensitive receivers on large (sub)millimeter radiotelescopes such as JCMT, CSO, and the IRAM 30m. Young protostars were identified at the beginning of the main accretion phase (Class 0 objects – André, Ward-Thompson, & Barsony 1993), and the starless dense cores extensively studied in NH3 by Myers and collaborators (e.g. Benson & Myers 1989) were found to be characterized by flat inner density gradients (Ward-Thompson et al. 1994). Direct evidence for infall motions was observed toward a large number of Class 0 protostars and prestellar cores (e.g. Gregersen et al. 1997 – see § 3 below and Evans, this volume). Class 0 objects were also found to drive more powerful outflows than more evolved (Class I) protostars, suggesting a marked decrease of the mass accretion/ejection rates in the course of protostellar evolution (Bontemps et al. 1996). As advocated by Henriksen, André, & Bontemps (1997), there may be a causal relationship between these results, in the sense that the accretion/ejection decline during the protostellar phase may be a direct consequence of the form of the density profile at the prestellar stage.
Further studying the detailed properties of prestellar cores and young protostars is of prime importance to distinguish between collapse models and shed light on the origin of stellar masses. Indeed, the effective reservoirs of mass available for the formation of individual stars may be largely determined at the prestellar stage, and it is during the main protostellar accretion phase that stars accrete some fraction of these reservoirs and build up the masses they will have on the zero-age main sequence.

After a brief introduction of the theoretical background (§ 1.1), we review recent observational advances concerning the density and velocity structure of cloud cores in § 2 and § 3, respectively. We conclude in § 4 with a comparison between observations and theoretical models.

### 1.1 Collapse Initial Conditions: Theory

The inside-out collapse model of Shu (1977), starting from a singular isothermal sphere (SIS) or toroid (cf. Li & Shu 1996, 1997), is well known and underlies the ‘standard’ picture of isolated, low-mass star formation (e.g. Shu, Adams, & Lizano 1987).
Other collapse models exist, however, which adopt different initial conditions. In particular, Whitworth & Summers (1985) have shown that there is a two-parameter continuum of similarity solutions to the problem of isothermal spherical collapse. One of the parameters measures how close to hydrostatic equilibrium the system is initially, while the other parameter reflects how important external compression is in initiating the collapse. In this continuum, the solutions proposed by Shu (1977) and Larson (1969)-Penston (1969) represent two extreme limits. All of the similarity solutions share a universal evolutionary pattern. At early times ($`t<0`$), a compression wave (initiated by, e.g., an external disturbance) propagates inward leaving behind it a $`\rho (r)r^2`$ density profile. At $`t=0`$, the compression wave reaches the center and a point mass forms which subsequently grows by accretion. At later times ($`t>0`$), this wave is reflected into a rarefaction or expansion wave, propagating outward through the infalling gas (at the isothermal sound speed $`a_s`$), and leaving behind it a free-fall $`\rho (r)r^{1.5}`$ density distribution. Several well-known features of the Shu model (such as the expansion wave) are thus in fact common to all solutions. The various solutions can be distinguished by the absolute values of the density and velocity at $`t0`$. In particular, the Shu (1977) solution has $`\rho (r)=(a_\text{s}^2/2\pi G)r^2`$ and is static ($`v=0`$) at $`t=0`$, while the Larson-Penston (1969) solution is $`4.4`$ times denser and far from equilibrium ($`v3.3a_\text{s}`$). During the accretion phase ($`t>0`$), the infall envelope is a factor $`7`$ denser in the Larson-Penston solution. Accordingly, the mass infall rate is also much larger in the Larson-Penston case ($`47a_\text{s}^3/G`$) than in the Shu case ($`a_\text{s}^3/G`$).

In practice, however, protostellar collapse is unlikely to be strictly self-similar, and the above similarity solutions can only be taken as plausible asymptotes. More realistic initial conditions than the SIS are provided by the so-called ‘Bonnor-Ebert’ spheres (e.g. Bonnor 1956), which represent the equilibrium states for self-gravitating isothermal spheres and have a flat density profile in their central $``$ Jeans length region. Such spheres are stable for a center-to-edge density contrast $`<14.3`$ and unstable for a density contrast $`>14.3`$ (e.g. Bonnor 1956). Numerical hydrodynamic simulations of cloud collapse starting from such initial conditions (e.g. Foster & Chevalier 1993, Hennebelle et al. 2002) find that the Larson-Penston similarity solution is generally a good approximation near point-mass formation ($`t=0`$) at small radii, but that the Shu solution is more adequate at intermediate $`t0`$ times, before the expansion wave reaches the edge of the initial, pre-collapse dense core. In general, the mass accretion rate is thus expected to be time-dependent.

Observationally, it is by comparing the (density and velocity) structure of prestellar cores such as L1544 (see Fig. 1a) with the structure of the envelopes surrounding Class 0 protostars such as IRAM 04191 (cf. Fig. 1b) that one may hope to constrain the initial conditions for collapse and to discriminate between the various existing models.

## 2 Density Structure

### 2.1 Prestellar cores

Two main approaches have been used to trace the density structure of cloud cores: (1) mapping the optically thin (sub)millimeter continuum emission from the cold dust contained in the cores, and (2) mapping the same cold core dust in absorption against the background infrared emission (originating from warm cloud dust or remote stars). Mapping the molecular gas component is generally less effective as most molecules tend to freeze out onto dust grains in the dense, cold inner parts of cloud cores (e.g. Kramer et al. 1999, Walmsley et al. 2001, Bacmann et al. 2002, and Bergin 2002).

Ward-Thompson et al. (1994, 1999) and André et al. (1996) employed the first approach to probe the structure of prestellar cores (see also Shirley et al. 2000). Under the simplifying assumption of spatially uniform dust (temperature and emissivity) properties, they concluded that the radial density profiles of isolated prestellar cores were not consistent with the single $`\rho (r)r^2`$ power law of the SIS but were flatter than $`\rho (r)r^1`$ in their inner regions (for $`rR_{flat}`$), and approached $`\rho (r)r^2`$ only beyond a typical radius $`R_{flat}`$ 2500–5000 AU. The details of this conclusion have been challenged by \[Evans et al. (2001)\] and \[Zucconi et al. (2001)\] who made the important point that starless cores are not strictly isothermal. Accounting for a realistic temperature distribution inside the cores (see § 2.3 below), these authors found smaller values for $`R_{flat}`$ and even claimed that in some cases the observed profiles could not be distinguished from a SIS profile. We will return to this point below (e.g. § 2.3).

More recently, it has been possible to use the absorption approach, both in the mid-IR from space (e.g. Bacmann et al. 2000, Siebenmorgen & Krügel 2000) and in the near-IR from the ground (e.g. Alves et al. 2001). In particular, using the ISOCAM infrared camera aboard the $`ISO`$ satellite, Bacmann et al. (2000) carried out a 7 $`\mu `$m survey of 24 low-mass starless cores (all undetected by $`IRAS`$) and observed absorption features in 23 of them. As an example, Fig. 2a shows the ISOCAM image obtained at 6.75 $`\mu `$m for the prestellar core L1689B in the Ophiuchus complex ($`d150`$ pc). The core is seen in absorption against the diffuse mid-IR background arising from the rear side of the parent molecular cloud (e.g. Bernard et al. 1993, see also § 2.3 below).

The column density structure of the absorbing cores can be derived from a simple modeling of the ISOCAM observations. The mid-IR intensity measured at projected radius $`\overline{r}`$ from core center may be expressed as:

$$I(\overline{r})=I_{back}e^{\tau (\overline{r})}+I_{fore},$$
(1)
where $`\tau `$ is the core optical depth (directly related to the column density N$`_{H_2}`$ via the dust opacity) and $`I_{back}`$ and $`I_{fore}`$ are the background and foreground intensities, respectively. Both $`I_{back}`$ and $`I_{fore}`$ are uncertain but their values are well constrained when independent millimeter measurements of the H2 column density in the centers and outer parts of the cores are available (see Bacmann et al. 2000 for details).

Using these constraints on $`I_{back}`$ and $`I_{fore}`$, a range of possible column density profiles can be derived for each core imaged in absorption with ISOCAM. This is shown in Fig. 2b for L1689B, where the crosses display our ‘best’ estimate of the column density profile (derived using a revised estimate of $`8\times 10^{22}`$ cm-2 for the central column density from millimeter continuum data, in agreement with a central temperature of $`8`$ K – see § 2.3 below – instead of 12.5 K as assumed by Bacmann et al. 2000). The dashed curves lying above and below the ‘best’ profile show the most extreme column density profiles that are consistent with the mid-IR absorption data, given the range of permitted values for $`I_{back}`$ and $`I_{fore}`$. In general, four different regimes can be distinguished on the prestellar column density profiles (see, e.g., Fig. 2b):

a) a flat inner region (of radius $`R_{flat}=5000\pm 1000`$ AU for L1689B according to the fitting analysis shown in Fig. 2b), b) a region roughly consistent with $`N{}_{\text{H2}}{}^{}\overline{r}^1`$ (corresponding to $`\rho r^2`$ for a spheroidal core), c) an edge where the column density falls off typically more rapidly than $`N{}_{\text{H2}}{}^{}\overline{r}^2`$ with projected radius (suggesting a density gradient steeper than $`\rho r^3`$), until d) the end of the core is reached (at $`R_{out}=28000\pm 1000`$ AU for L1689B) and $`N_{\text{H2}}`$ fluctuates about the mean value $`N_{out}12\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2 characterizing the ambient molecular cloud.

A qualitatively similar column density profile was derived by Alves et al. (2001) for the Bok globule B68 (for which $`R_{flat}4000`$ AU and $`R_{out}12500`$ AU), based on VLT and NTT measurements of the near-IR colors of background stars seen through, and suffering extinction from, this globule.

Thus, the inner flattening of the density profiles of prestellar cores first observed in submillimeter emission (see above) is confirmed by infrared absorption/extinction measurements, which are essentially independent of the temperature distribution. Moreover, a new result emerges: at least in some cases, such as L1689B and B68, isolated prestellar cores appear to be characterized by sharp edges defining typical outer radii $`R_{out}20000\mathrm{AU}0.1\mathrm{pc}`$.

### 2.2 Comparison with theoretical models

These observed features, i.e., flat inner region and sharp outer edge, set constraints on possible models of core structure. First of all, it is clear that self-similar, singular models such as the SIS or magnetized, non-spherical generalizations of it (e.g. Shu 1977, Li & Shu 1996), cannot account for the detailed density structure of prestellar cores. As pointed out by Bacmann et al. (2000), the logotropic models of McLaughlin & Pudritz (1996), which behave as $`\rho r^1`$ over a wide range of radii, are also inconsistent with the observations of (low-mass) starless cores. On the other hand, the circularly-averaged column density profiles can often be fitted remarkably well with models of pressure-bounded Bonnor-Ebert spheres, as first demonstrated by Alves et al. (2001) for B68. This is also the case of L1689B as illustrated in Fig. 2b. The quality of such fits shows that Bonnor-Ebert spheres provide a good, first order model for the structure of isolated prestellar cores. In detail, however, there are several problems with these Bonnor-Ebert models. First, most starless cores exhibit elongated shapes (see, e.g., Fig. 1a and Fig. 2a) which are not consistent with spherical models beyond $`0.03`$ pc. Second, the inferred density contrasts (from center to edge) are generally larger (i.e., $`\stackrel{>}{}`$ 20–80 – see Fig. 2b) than the maximum contrast of $``$ 14 for a stable Bonnor-Ebert sphere (cf. § 1.1). Third, the effective core temperature needed in these models (for thermal pressure gradients to balance self-gravity) is often significantly larger than both the average dust temperatures measured with ISOPHOT (e.g. Ward-Thompson et al. 2002) and the gas temperatures measured in NH3 (e.g. Lai et al., this volume). In the case of L1689B, for instance, the effective temperature of the Bonnor-Ebert fit shown in Fig. 2b is $`T_{eff}50`$ K, while the dust temperature observed with ISOPHOT is only $`T_d11`$ K (Ward-Thompson et al. 2002). Finally, the physical process responsible for bounding the cores at some external pressure is unclear. These arguments suggest that prestellar cores cannot be described as simple isothermal hydrostatic structures and are either already contracting (see § 3.1 below) or experiencing extra support from static or turbulent magnetic fields (e.g. Curry & McKee 2000).

One way of accounting for large density contrasts and high effective temperatures is to consider models of cores threaded by a static magnetic field and evolving through ambipolar diffusion (e.g. Ciolek & Mouschovias 1994, Basu & Mouschovias 1995). In these models, at any given time prior to protostar formation, the cores are expected to feature a uniform-density central region whose size corresponds to the instantaneous Jeans length. This agrees well with the characteristics of the flat inner regions seen in starless cores. Furthermore, the observed sharp edges (e.g. Fig. 2b) are consistent with the model predictions (shortly) after the formation of a magnetically supercritical core. Physically, this is because when a supercritical core forms, it collapses dynamically inward, while the outer, subcritical envelope is still efficiently supported by the magnetic field and remains essentially “held in place”. As a result, a steep density profile develops at the outer boundary of the supercritical core (see Fig. 8 of Basu & Mouschovias 1995).
A problem, however, with these ambipolar diffusion models involving only a static magnetic field is that they require fairly large field strengths ($``$ 30–100 $`\mu `$G, see Bacmann et al. 2000), which seem to exceed the (few) existing Zeeman measurements for low-mass dense cores (e.g. Crutcher 1999, Crutcher & Troland 2000). It is possible that more elaborate versions of the models, incorporating the effects of a non-static, turbulent magnetic field in the outer parts of the cores and in the ambient cloud, would be more satisfactory and could also account for the filamentary shapes often seen on large ($`\stackrel{>}{}0.25`$ pc) scales (cf. Curry 2000, 2002 and Jones & Basu 2002).

### 2.3 Temperature distribution in starless cores

The models discussed in § 2.2 above assume that prestellar cores are isothermal, which is quite a good first approximation (e.g. Larson 1969, Tohline 1982). In actual fact, however, there are good reasons to believe that the central regions of starless cores are somewhat cooler than their outer regions. Indeed, the results of $`ISO`$ imaging in the mid-IR (Bacmann et al. 2000) and far-IR (Ward-Thompson et al. 2002) are consistent with the idea that starless cores are heated only from outside by the local interstellar radiation field (ISRF): the amount of energy radiated by such cores in the far-IR is roughly equal to the fraction of ISRF energy absorbed at shorter (e.g. mid-IR) wavelengths, with no evidence for any central heating source (Ward-Thompson et al. 2002). In such a situation, recent dust radiative transfer calculations (Evans et al. 2001; Zucconi et al. 2001) predict that there should be a positive temperature gradient from the cores’ centers (with $`T_d`$ as low as $``$ 5–7 K) to their edges (at $`T_d`$ 15 K). \[Note that, in the dense ($`n_{\text{H}_2}>3\times 10^4\mathrm{cm}^3`$) inner regions, one expects the temperature of the gas to be well coupled to that of the dust (e.g. Doty & Neufeld 1997).\] The first calculations published by \[Evans et al. (2001)\] and \[Zucconi et al. (2001)\] assumed rather a simplistic input radiation field, based on current estimates of the average radiation field in the solar neighborhood (e.g. Black 1994). We have more recently carried out similar calculations in which we use the levels of the diffuse mid-IR and far-IR backgrounds observed toward the cores to make more realistic estimates of the effective radiation field directly impinging on their surfaces. Fig. 3a gives an illustration for the prestellar core L1689B already discussed in § 2.1 (see Fig.2). In this case, the radiation field differs (in strength and spectrum) from the Black standard radiation field for several reasons: (1) due to the presence of early-type stars such as HD 147889 (B2 V) only a few parsecs away from the Ophiuchus cloud (e.g. Liseau et al. 1999), the ambient far-UV field is significantly stronger (i.e., $`G_012`$) than the solar neighborhood average; (2) this strong FUV field in turn excites small PAH-like grains in the outer ($`A_V\stackrel{<}{}1`$) layers of the cloud which are responsible for a high level of diffuse mid-IR emission distributed in several spectral bands (cf. Bernard et al. 1993 and Fig. 3a); (3) the L1689B core is itself embedded at some depth ($`A_V1`$) inside the cloud, so that a good fraction of the external FUV radiation is effectively reprocessed to longer wavelengths. Consequently, the effective radiation field for L1689B is about one order of magnitude stronger in both the mid-IR and the far-IR than the Black radiation field (cf. Fig. 3a), in agreement with the strong mid-IR and far-IR backgrounds measured by Bacmann et al. (2000) and Ward-Thompson et al. (2002) with ISOCAM and ISOPHOT ($`4`$ MJy/sr at 7 $`\mu `$m and $`120`$ MJy/sr at 200 $`\mu `$m, as opposed to $`0.25`$ MJy/sr and $`30`$ MJy/sr, respectively, in the Black radiation field). Based on this estimate of the effective radiation field, we have used the MODUST radiative transfer code (e.g. Bouwman 2001, Kemper et al. 2001) to compute the temperature distribution in the L1689B core for several plausible density distributions consistent with the 1.3 mm continuum emission map of André et al. (1996) and the 7 $`\mu `$m absorption map of Bacmann et al. (2000). The results are illustrated in Fig. 3b.

Our calculations confirm some of the conclusions of \[Evans et al. (2001)\] and \[Zucconi et al. (2001)\], namely that the temperature reaches a minimum $`<10`$ K in the centers of prestellar cores and that the central temperature depends primarily on the central optical depth (directly related to the degree of shielding from the external ISRF). However, we find that the minimum temperature may not be as low as reported by \[Evans et al. (2001)\] and \[Zucconi et al. (2001)\] and that the shape of the temperature profile may be quite different: it can be seen in Fig. 3b that the major drop in temperature occurs in the outer parts of the core in our preferred model of L1689B (red curve), while it occurs closer to the center in the \[Evans et al. (2001)\] model (dashed curve). We also stress that all of the models we have run have a relatively high mass-averaged dust temperature of $`11`$ K, comparable to the temperature estimated by fitting a greybody to the global SED (cf. Fig. 13 of Ward-Thompson et al. 2002). (Note that Doty & Palotti 2002 have independently reached a similar conclusion.) Furthermore, if our assumptions about the effective radiation field and the dust opacity law (see Fig. 3b) are correct, then the radius of the flat inner region in the density profile of L1689B must lie between $`R_{flat}=3300`$ AU (smallest value consistent with the 1.3 mm constraints of André et al. 1996) and $`R_{flat}=6600`$ AU (value found by Bacmann et al. 2000 assuming a central core temperature of 12.5 K – see § 2.1). A value as small as $`R_{flat}=2000`$ AU (cf. Evans et al. 2001) is ruled out according to our analysis. Thus, conclusions derived from (sub)millimeter emission maps on the density structure of prestellar cores under the simplifying hypothesis that the dust temperature is uniform (e.g. Ward-Thompson et al. 1999) are probably not seriously flawed.

In our opinion, the final word on the structure of prestellar cores will come from high-resolution mapping at far-IR and submillimeter wavelengths with future space-borne telescopes such as $`Herschel`$ to be launched by ESA in 2007 (e.g. Pilbratt et al. 2001). Using $`Herschel`$ images at 75–500 $`\mu `$m (in combination with ground-based dust continuum mapping at longer submillimeter wavelengths) to construct SED maps for at least the nearest, spatially resolved prestellar cores, it will be possible to reconstruct their intrinsic temperature and density distributions simultaneously as illustrated in Fig. 4. Such multi-band mapping observations will also set strong constraints on the dust emissivity properties (e.g. the opacity index $`\beta `$) and their spatial variation across dense cores.

### 2.4 Structure of protostellar envelopes

In the case of protostellar envelopes, the accretion luminosity released close to the central protostar provides an additional source of heating compared to starless cores. In practice, however, the thermal structure of the envelopes surrounding low-luminosity protostars ($`L_{bol}\stackrel{<}{}`$ 1–10 $`L_{}`$), including most Taurus embedded YSOs, is strongly affected by external heating from the ambient ISRF (Shirley et al. 2002), and the simple isothermal assumption (with T$`10`$K) is often not too bad over a wide range of radii ($`r`$ 3000–15000 AU – cf. Motte & André 2001).

The density structure of YSO envelopes has been studied primarily with the (sub)millimeter emission approach (although see Harvey et al. 2001 for a recent extinction study). In contrast to prestellar cores, protostellar envelopes are always found to be strongly centrally condensed (see, e.g., Fig. 1b) and do not exhibit any marked inner flattening in their radial (column) density profiles. This is illustrated in Fig. 5 which shows the circularly-averaged radial intensity profiles measured at 1.3 mm for the circumstellar envelopes of the Class 0 objects L1527 in Taurus and HH211-MM and L1448-N in Perseus (Motte & Andr 2001). (Note that the inner disk contribution has been subtracted from the profiles based on high-resolution interferometric measurements with the IRAM Plateau de Bure interferometer.) Apart from a small overdensity factor ($`2`$), the profile of the L1527 envelope closely follows the shape of the SIS model profile (see Fig. 5a), and is significantly steeper than the profile of the prestellar core L1544 at small radii.

More generally, several (sub)millimeter continuum stu-dies indicate that protostellar envelopes in regions of isolated star formation such as Taurus have radial density gradients consistent with $`\rho (r)r^p`$ with $`p`$ 1.5–2 over more than $``$ 10000–15000 AU in radius (e.g. Ladd et al. 1991, Chandler & Richer 2000, Hogerheijde & Sandell 2000, Shirley et al. 2000, Motte & Andr 2001, Jørgensen et al. 2002). The density gradient estimated for (Class 0 and Class I) protostars (i.e., $`p`$ 1.5–2) agrees with most collapse models which predict a value of $`p`$ between 2 and 1.5 during the protostellar accretion phase (before and after the passage of the collapse expansion wave, respectively – see § 1.1 above). Furthermore, the median envelope mass measured by Motte & André (2001) for the bona-fide protostars of Taurus \[$`\overline{M_{env}}(r<4200AU)0.3M_{}`$\] is roughly consistent with the predictions of the inside-out collapse model of Shu (1977) for $`10^5`$ yr-old protostars.

The situation is markedly different in regions where stars form in tight groups or clusters, such as Serpens, Perseus, and the $`\rho `$ Oph main cloud. In this case, the observed envelopes are clearly not scale-free: they merge with dense cores, other envelopes, and/or the diffuse ambient cloud at a finite radius $`R_{\text{out}}\stackrel{<}{}\mathrm{5\hspace{0.17em}000}`$ AU (Motte, André, & Neri 1998; Motte & André 2001; see also Fig. 5 of Mundy, Looney, & Welch 2000). Moreover, as can be seen in Fig. 5b for HH211-MM and L1448-N, the Class 0 envelopes mapped in cluster-forming regions are found to be 3 to 12 times denser than the SIS at T$`=10`$K (which is the typical gas kinetic temperature expected in these clouds prior to massive star formation – see Goldsmith & Langer 1978, Evans 1999, Goldsmith 2001, and Fig. 3b). Static magnetic fields can only account for moderate overdensity factors ($`\stackrel{<}{}2`$) compared to an unmagnetized SIS (see Li & Shu 1997). Turbulence could in principle contribute to the support of the initial dense core (e.g. Myers & Fuller 1992, Mardones et al. 1997). However, the small-scale condensations corresponding to the precursors of protostars in star-forming clusters (e.g. Motte et al. 1998) appear to be largely devoid of turbulence (see § 3.1 below). A more likely explanation is that, in such regions, protostellar collapse is induced by strong external disturbances and starts from non-singular initial conditions, resulting in a non-equilibrium density configuration with a large overdensity factor ($`\stackrel{<}{}10`$) and significant inward velocities near $`t0`$ (see also § 4 and Fig. 9 below).

## 3 Velocity Structure

### 3.1 Internal motions in starless cores

On large ($`\stackrel{>}{}`$ pc) scales, the spectral line profiles/widths observed in molecular clouds are indicative of supersonic turbulent motions (e.g. Falgarone & Phillips 1990). The nonthermal component of the line width, $`\sigma _{NT}`$, roughly follows the scaling law $`\sigma _{NT}R^{0.5}`$ (e.g. Fuller & Myers 1992), which is believed to arise from MHD turbulence (e.g. Mouschovias & Psaltis 1995). On intermediate ($`\stackrel{>}{}0.1`$ pc) scales, there are strong differences between the “low-mass” cores observed in regions of distributed star formation (e.g. Taurus), whose line widths are dominated by thermal motions (e.g. Benson & Myers 1989), and the “massive”, cluster-forming cores of, e.g., Ophiuchus and Orion, whose line widths are still dominated by turbulent motions (e.g. Caselli & Myers 1995). On small ($`\stackrel{<}{}0.03`$ pc) scales, however, the prestellar condensations of the Ophiuchus, Serpens, Perseus, and Orion cluster-forming regions are always characterized by very narrow line widths (e.g. Belloche et al. 2001, Myers 2001), which is reminiscent of the thermal cores of Taurus. In the $`\rho `$ Oph protocluster, for instance, the nonthermal velocity dispersion is about half the thermal velocity dispersion of H2 ($`\sigma _{NT}/\sigma _T0.7`$) toward the starless condensations of the dense cores Oph B1, C, E, F (Belloche et al. 2001). This indicates that, even in cluster-forming clouds, the initial conditions for individual protostellar collapse are “coherent” (cf. Goodman et al. 1998) and essentially free of turbulence. The dissipation, on small ($`<0.1`$ pc) scales, of a significant fraction of the turbulent motions observed on large scales is thus a prerequesite for the formation of prestellar condensations (e.g. Nakano 1998, Myers 1998, Falgarone & Pety 2001). Apart from low levels of turbulence, low-mass prestellar cores are also characterized by small rotation rates in general ($`\mathrm{\Omega }10^{14}10^{13}`$ rad s-1 – e.g. Goodman et al. 1993), and subsonic, extended infall motions (e.g. Lee, Myers, & Tafalla 2001 – see also Evans, this volume).

### 3.2 Rotation and infall in Class 0 objects

The velocity structure of only a few Class 0 objects has been studied in detail up to now. Here, we mostly discuss the example of the nearby ($`d=140`$ pc) and relatively isolated Class 0 object IRAM 04191$`+`$1522 (IRAM 04191 for short) found by André, Motte, & Bacmann (1999) in the vicinity of the Taurus Class I source IRAS 04191$`+`$1523 (e.g. Tamura et al. 1991 – see Fig. 1b).

IRAM 04191 features a very high envelope mass to luminosity ratio ($`M_{env}^{<4200AU}/L_{bol}3M_{}/L_{}`$) and a low bolometric temperature ($`T_{bol}18`$ K), suggesting an age $`t\stackrel{<}{}3\times 10^4`$ yr since the beginning of the accretion phase (see André et al. 1999). It is also remarkable in that it has a very low bolometric luminosity ($`L_{bol}0.15L_{}`$), and no or only a tiny accretion disk ($`R_{disk}<15`$ AU, $`M_{disk}<2\times 10^3M_{}`$). Accordingly, IRAM 04191 is probably the youngest accreting protostar currently known in Taurus.

IRAM 04191 is associated with a flattened circumstellar envelope, seen in the dust continuum (Fig. 1b) and in dense gas tracers such as N2H+, C3H2, H13CO+, and DCO+ (Belloche et al. 2002). All of the maps taken in small optical depth lines show a clear velocity gradient across this envelope of $`7\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$pc-1 increasing from west to east along the long axis, i.e., roughly perpendicular to the outflow axis (see Fig. 1b and Fig. 6). Strongly suggestive of rotation, this velocity gradient corresponds to a mean angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }3\times 10^{13}`$ rad s-1 in the inner $`3000`$ AU region (after deprojection from a viewing angle $`i=50^{}`$). Furthermore, this rotation does not occur in a rigid-body, but differential, fashion: the inner $``$ 3500 AU-radius region seems to be rotating significantly faster than the outer parts of the core (see Fig. 6). The “S” shape of the position-velocity diagram shown in Fig. 6 can be fitted with a rotation curve of the form $`V_{rot}(r)r^{0.1\pm 0.4}`$ for $`r<3500`$ AU and $`V_{rot}(r)r^{1.5\pm 0.5}`$ for $`3500<r<11000`$ AU, corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Omega }(r)r^{0.9\pm 0.4}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }(r)r^{2.5\pm 0.5}`$, respectively (see Fig. 8a and Belloche et al. 2002 for details).

Direct evidence for infall motions over a large portion of the IRAM 04191 envelope is also observed in optically thick lines such as CS(2–1), CS(3–2), H2CO($`2_{12}1_{11}`$), and H2CO($`3_{12}2_{11}`$). These lines are double-peaked and skewed to the blue up to $`\stackrel{>}{}`$ 40′′ from source center (see Fig. 7), which is indicative of infall motions up to a radius $`R_{inf}\stackrel{>}{}5000`$ AU from center (cf. Evans 1999 and Evans, this volume). Radiative transfer modeling confirms this view, suggesting a relatively flat infall velocity profile ($`V_{inf}0.1\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) for $`3000\stackrel{<}{}r\stackrel{<}{}11000`$ AU and larger infall velocities scaling as $`V_{inf}r^{0.5}`$ for $`r\stackrel{<}{}3000`$ AU (see Fig. 8b and Belloche et al. 2002 for details). The mass infall rate is estimated to be $`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{inf}}23\times a_s^3/G3\times 10^6`$ M yr-1 (with $`a_s0.150.2\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ for $`T610`$ K), roughly independent of radius.

Another Class 0 object whose kinematics has been quantified in detail recently is the IRAS 4 system in the NGC 1333 protocluster (Di Francesco et al. 2001). IRAS 4 is a triple system (A/B/C) on scales of $`10000`$ AU, whose primary component (A) itself breaks up into a $`600`$ AU binary (e.g. Looney et al. 2000). Using the IRAM Plateau de Bure interferometer, Di Francesco et al. (2001) observed inverse P-Cygni profiles in H2CO($`3_{12}2_{11}`$) toward IRAS 4A and IRAS 4B, from which they derived very large mass infall rates of $`1.1\times 10^4`$ M yr-1 and $`3.7\times 10^5`$ M yr-1 at $`r2000`$ AU for A and B, respectively. Even if a warmer initial gas temperature ($`20`$ K) than in IRAM 04191 and some initial level of turbulence are accounted for (see Di Francesco et al. 2001), these values of $`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{inf}}`$ correspond to more than $`15`$ and $`6`$ times the canonical $`a_{\mathrm{eff}}^3/G`$ value, respectively (where $`a_{\mathrm{eff}}\stackrel{<}{}0.3\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ is the effective sound speed). These very high infall rates result both from very dense envelopes (see Motte & André 2001) and large, supersonic infall velocities ($`0.68\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and $`0.47\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ for A and B, respectively, according to Di Francesco et al. 2001). Evidence of fast rotation, producing a velocity gradient as high as $`40\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$pc-1, was also found by Di Francesco et al. (2001) toward IRAS 4A.

## 4 Conclusions: Comparison with collapse models

In the case of low-mass, isolated dense cores, the SIS model of Shu (1977) describes global features of the collapse (e.g. the mass infall rate) reasonably well and thus remains a useful, approximate guide. In detail, however, the extended infall velocity profiles observed in prestellar cores (e.g. Lee et al. 2001) and in the very young Class 0 object IRAM 04191 (§ 3.2 above) are inconsistent with the pure inside-out collapse picture of Shu (1977). The shape of the density profiles observed in prestellar cores are well fitted by purely thermal Bonnor-Ebert sphere models, but the absolute values of the densities are suggestive of some additional magnetic support (§ 2.2). The observed infall velocities are also marginally consistent with isothermal collapse models starting from Bonnor-Ebert spheres (e.g. Foster & Chevalier 1993, Hennebelle et al. 2002), as such models tend to produce somewhat faster velocities. This suggests that the collapse of ‘isolated’ cores is essentially spontaneous and somehow moderated by magnetic effects in magnetized, probably not strictly isothermal Bonnor-Ebert cloudlets. Furthermore, the contrast seen in Fig. 8 between a steeply declining rotation velocity profile and a flat infall velocity profile beyond $`3500`$ AU suggests that angular momentum is not conserved in the outer envelope of IRAM 04191. Such a behavior is very difficult to explain in the context of non-magnetic collapse models. In the presence of a relatively strong ($`60\mu `$G) magnetic field, on the other hand, the outer envelope can be coupled to, and spun down by, the (large moment of inertia of the) ambient cloud (e.g. Basu & Mouschovias 1994). Based on a qualitative comparison with the ambipolar diffusion models of Basu & Mouschovias, Belloche et al. (2002) propose that the rapidly rotating inner envelope of IRAM 04191 corresponds to a magnetically supercritical core decoupling from an environment still supported by magnetic fields and strongly affected by magnetic braking. (Quantitatively, however, the models published so far are rotating too slowly to fit the observations.) In this view, the inner $`3500`$ AU radius envelope of IRAM 04191 would correspond to the effective mass reservoir ($`0.5M_{}`$) from which the central star is being built. Moreover, comparison of these results with the rotational characteristics of other objects in Taurus (Ohashi et al. 1997) suggests that IRAM 04191 behaves in a typical manner and is simply observed particularly soon after point mass formation (i.e., at $`t\stackrel{>}{}0`$). If this is correct, the masses of the stars forming in clouds such as Taurus may be largely determined by magnetic decoupling effects.

In protoclusters, by contrast, the large overdensity factors measured for Class 0 envelopes compared to hydrostatic isothermal structures (cf. § 2.4), as well as the fast supersonic infall velocities and very large infall rates observed in some cases (e.g. § 3.2), are inconsistent with self-initiated forms of collapse and require a strong external influence. This point is illustrated in Fig. 9 with the results of recent SPH simulations by Hennebelle et al. (2002). These simulations follow the evolution of a Bonnor-Ebert sphere whose collapse has been induced by an increase in external pressure $`P_{ext}`$. Large overdensity factors (compared to a SIS), together with supersonic infall velocities, and large infall rates ($`\stackrel{>}{}10a_\text{s}^3/G`$) are found near $`t=0`$ when (and only when) the increase in $`P_{ext}`$ is strong and very rapid (e.g. Fig. 9b), resulting in a violent compression wave. Such a violent collapse may be conducive to the formation of both massive stars (through higher accretion rates) and multiple systems (when realistic, non-isotropic compressions are considered). Future high-resolution studies with the next generation of (sub)millimeter instruments (e.g., ALMA) will greatly help test this view and shed further light on the physics of collapse in cluster-forming regions.


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# Long-range ferromagnetic dipolar ordering of high-spin molecular clusters

## Abstract

We report the first example of a transition to long-range magnetic order in a purely dipolarly interacting molecular magnet. For the magnetic cluster compound Mn6O4Br4(Et2dbm)6, the anisotropy experienced by the total spin $`S=12`$ of each cluster is so small that spin-lattice relaxation remains fast down to the lowest temperatures, thus enabling dipolar order to occur within experimental times at $`T_c=0.16`$ K. In high magnetic fields, the relaxation rate becomes drastically reduced and the interplay between nuclear- and electron-spin lattice relaxation is revealed.

Few examples of long-range magnetic order induced by purely dipolar interactions are known as yet White93 ; Bitko96 . Therefore, the possibility to study such phase transitions and the associated long-time relaxation phenomena in detail in high-spin molecular cluster compounds, with varying crystalline packing symmetries and different types of anisotropy, presents an attractive subject Fernandez00-02 . However, for the most extensively studied molecular clusters sofar such as Mn12, Fe8 and Mn4 Sangregorio97 ; Aubin98 ; Thomas99 ; Mettes01  the uniaxial anisotropy experienced by the cluster spins is very strong. Consequently, the electronic spin-lattice relaxation time $`T_1^{el}`$ becomes very long at low temperatures and the cluster spins become frozen at temperatures of the order of 1 K, i.e. much higher than the ordering temperatures $`T_c0.1`$ K expected on basis of the intercluster dipolar couplings Fernandez00-02 . Although quantum tunneling of these cluster spins has been observed Sangregorio97 ; Aubin98 ; Thomas99 ; Mettes01 , and could in principle provide a relaxation path towards the magnetically ordered equilibrium state Fernandez00-02 , the associated rates in zero field are extremely small ($`<100`$ Hz). For these systems, tunneling only becomes effective when strong transverse fields $`B_t`$ are applied to increase the tunneling rate. Although the tunability of this rate and thus of $`T_1^{el}`$ by $`B_t`$ could recently be demonstrated for Mn12, Fe8 and Mn4 Mettes01 , no ordering has yet been observed.

The obvious way to obtain a dipolar molecular magnet is thus to look for a high-spin molecule having sufficiently weak magnetic anisotropy and negligible inter-cluster super-exchange interactions. Here we report data for Mn6O4Br4(Et2dbm)6, hereafter abbreviated as Mn6 Aromi99 . The molecular core of Mn6 is a highly symmetric octahedron of Mn3+ ions (with spin $`s=2`$) that are ferromagnetically coupled via strong intra-cluster super-exchange interactions (Fig. 1). Accordingly, the ground state is a $`S=12`$ multiplet and the energy of the nearest excited state is approximately $`150`$ K higher Aromi99 . The unit cell is monoclinic, with space group Pc and contains $`4`$ molecules crystal  bound together only by Van der Waals forces. Inter-cluster superexchange is therefore negligible and only dipolar interactions couple the cluster spins. The net magnetocrystalline anisotropy of this cluster proves to be sufficiently small to enable measurements of its equilibrium magnetic susceptibility and specific heat down to our lowest temperatures ($`15`$ mK).

The main results of this paper follow. We have observed that the magnetic clusters do undergo a transition to a long-range ferromagnetically ordered state at $`T_c=0.161(2)`$ K. This transition can be observed within experimental times ($`1100`$ s) because the magnetic relaxation is not too slow at very low temperatures. We have obtained further information on the magnetic relaxation by applying a magnetic field. It turns out that the relaxation rate vanishes exponentially as the field increases. The interplay between nuclear- and electron-spin lattice relaxation is also revealed.

Polycrystalline samples of Mn6 were prepared as in Ref. Aromi99 . The specific heat of a few milligrams of sample, mixed with Apiezon grease, was measured at low-T in a home-made calorimeter Mettes01  that makes use of the thermal relaxation method. An important advantage of this method is that the characteristic time $`\tau _e`$ of the experiment (typically, $`\tau _e1100`$ seconds at low-T) can be varied by changing the dimensions (and therefore the thermal resistance) of the Au wire that acts as a thermal link between the calorimeter and the mixing chamber of the 3He-4He dilution refrigerator. The ac susceptibility data were taken between $`0.015`$ and $`4`$ K with a mutual inductance bridge. The frequency was varied from $`230`$ to $`7700`$ Hz. Magnetic data for $`T>1.8`$ K were taken with a SQUID magnetometer.

We first discuss the magnitude of the anisotropy. The spin Hamiltonian for the molecule is:

$$=DS_z^2g\mu _B\stackrel{}{B}\stackrel{}{S}.$$
(1)
Previously published magnetic data for $`T>1.8`$ K already indicated an upper limit of about 0.01 K for $`D/k_B`$ Aromi99 . In order to obtain an independent estimate of $`D`$, high-frequency ESR data were taken in the range $`95380`$ GHz. Owing to the combination of very small $`D`$ and large $`S`$, as well as the presence of a signal at $`g=2.00`$ arising from a minute amount of Mn2+ impurity (often seen in ESR of Mn3+ compounds), the interpretation of the spectra was not fully conclusive. Nevertheless, signals with a clearly visible structure on the low-field end of the spectra could be obtained. It could be identified as fine structure originating from zero-field splitting (ZFS), since it was independent of field and frequency. Simulations of the spectra performed using Eq. (1) agree well with the experiment taking $`|D|/k_B0.03`$ or $`0.05`$ K, depending on the sign of $`D`$ (which could not be unequivocally determined). Although a smaller rhombic component could be present, the data do not justify a more elaborate fitting.

The isotropic character of the molecular spin might seem paradoxical at first, considering that the individual Mn3+ ions, being Jahn-Teller ions, experience strong anisotropy. However, the spin Hamiltonian for the cluster is determined by the vectorial addition of the local tensors of the individual atoms, which can give rise to a low net anisotropy for highly symmetric molecules such as Mn6 (cf. Fig. 1), no matter how large the ZFS of the constituting atoms Bencini90 . In fact, the possibility to tune the net anisotropy of the cluster spin is one of the attractive properties of molecular superparamagnets.

As first evidence for ordering of the magnetic moments we show zero-field ac susceptibility data in Fig. 2. The real part $`\chi ^{}`$ shows a sharp maximum at $`T_c=0.161(2)`$ K. We found that $`\chi ^{}`$ at $`T_c`$ is close to the estimated limit for a ferromagnetic powder sample, $`1/(\rho N_s+\rho _{sam}N_c)0.14\pm 0.02`$ emu/g, where $`\rho =1.45`$ g/cm3 and $`\rho _{sam}0.45`$ g/cm3 are respectively the densities of bulk Mn6 and of the powder sample, $`N_s=4\pi /3`$ is the demagnetizing factor of a crystallite, approximated by a sphere, and $`N_c2.51`$ is the demagnetizing factor of the sample holder. This indicates that Mn6 is ferromagnetically ordered below $`T_c`$. Susceptibility data $`\chi _i`$ corrected for the demagnetizing field ($`\chi _i=\chi ^{}/[1(\rho N_s+\rho _{sam}N_c)\chi ^{}]`$) follow the Curie-Weiss law $`\chi =C/(T\theta )`$ down to approximately $`0.3`$ K, with $`C=0.034(1)`$ cm3K/g and $`\theta =0.20(3)`$ K. The constant $`C`$ equals, within the experimental errors, the theoretical value for randomly oriented crystals with Ising-like anisotropy $`N_Ag^2\mu _B^2S(S+1)/3k_BP_m=0.0332`$ cm3K/g, where $`S=12`$, $`g=2`$, and the molecular weight $`P_m=2347.06`$. The positive $`\theta `$ confirms the ferromagnetic nature of the ordered phase. From the mean-field equation $`\theta =2zJ_{eff}S(S+1)/3k_B`$, we estimate the effective inter-cluster magnetic interaction $`J_{eff}1.6\times 10^4`$ K, and the associated effective field $`H_{eff}=2zJ_{eff}S/g\mu _B=3.5\times 10^2`$ Oe coming from the $`z=12`$ nearest neighbors.

The maximum value of $`\chi ^{}`$ is seen to vary only weakly with $`\omega `$, which we attribute to the anisotropy. The total activation energy of Mn6 amounts to $`DS^21.5`$ K, i.e., it is about $`45`$ times smaller than for Mn12. Accordingly, one expects the superparamagnetic blocking of the Mn6 spins to occur when $`TT_B(`$Mn$`{}_{12}{}^{})/45`$, that is below $`0.12`$ K. In other words, for $`TT_c`$, the approach to equilibrium begins to be hindered by the anisotropy of the individual molecular spins. We stress however, that the frequency dependence of $`\chi ^{}`$ observed here is very different from that of the well known anisotropic superparamagnetic clusters or that of spin glasses. Below $`T_c`$, $`\chi ^{}`$ decreases rapidly, as expected for an anisotropic ferromagnet in which the domain-wall motions become progressively pinned. The associated domain-wall losses should then lead to a frequency dependent maximum around $`T_c`$ in the imaginary part, $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }`$, as seen experimentally. Indeed, although the Mn6 spins can be considered as nearly isotropic at high temperatures, the anisotropy energy ($`2DS`$) is of the same order as the dipolar interaction energy $`\mu ^2/r^30.1`$ K between nearest neighbor molecules. Thus the ordering should be that of an Ising dipolar ferromagnet.

Additional evidence for the ferromagnetic transition at $`T_c`$ is provided by the electronic specific heat $`c_e`$ Ce , shown in Fig. 3, which reveals a sharp peak at $`0.15(2)`$ K. Numerical integration of $`c_e/T`$ between $`0.08`$ K and $`4`$ K gives a total entropy change of about $`3.4k_B`$ per molecule, very close to the value for a fully-split $`S=12`$ spin multiplet (i.e., $`k_B\mathrm{ln}(2S+1)=3.22k_B`$). We thus may attribute the peak to the long-range order of the molecular spins. We note, however, that at $`T_c`$ the entropy amounts to about $`1k_B`$ per spin, showing that only the lowest energy spin states take part in the magnetic ordering.

We have performed Monte-Carlo (MC) simulations for an $`S=12`$ Ising model of magnetic dipoles on an orthorhombic lattice with axes $`a_x=15.7`$ Å, $`a_y=23.33`$ Å, and $`a_z=16.7`$ Å, which approximates the crystal structure of Mn6. The model includes dipolar interactions as well as the anisotropy term $`DS_z^2`$ given in Eq. (1). Neglecting interactions, the ZFS of the $`S=12`$ multiplet produced by this crystal field term lead to a Schottky anomaly in $`c_e`$, as shown by the dotted curve in Fig. 3. The fit in the range above 0.5 K yields $`D/k_B0.013`$ K, in good agreement with our above estimates. The intermolecular dipolar interactions remove the remaining degeneracy of the $`|\pm m`$ spin doublets. The MC simulations show that the ground state is ferromagnetically ordered, as observed, and predict a shape for $`c_e`$ that is in very good agreement with the experiment. In Fig. 3, we show $`c_e`$ calculated assuming all molecular easy ($`z`$) axes to point along $`a_z`$, i.e. one of the two nearly equivalent short axes of the actual lattice. Similar results were obtained for other orientations chosen for the anisotropy ($`z`$) axis. We note that the Ising simulations give $`T_c=0.22`$ K, which is slightly higher than the experimental $`T_c=0.161(2)`$ K. This difference may be related to the finite value of the anisotropy. Model calculations for this crystal structure, assuming classical anisotropic Heisenberg spins with varying anisotropy fernandez03 , show that different ferromagnetic ground states are possible, depending on the competition between local crystal field effects and long-range dipolar interactions. The variation of $`T_c`$ with anisotropy, as well as the form of the calculated and observed specific heat anomaly, are specific for dipolar interactions, and differ widely from the analogues for the usual superexchange ferromagnets deJongh01 .

We next turn to the specific heat data obtained in varying magnetic field $`B`$, plotted in Fig. 4. Even for the lowest $`B`$ value, the ordering anomaly is fully suppressed, as expected for a ferromagnet deJongh01 . Accordingly, we may account for these data with the Hamiltonian (1) neglecting dipolar interactions. The Zeeman term splits the otherwise degenerate $`|\pm m`$ doublets, and already for $`B0.5`$ T the level splittings become predominantly determined by $`B`$, so that the anisotropy term can also be neglected. As seen in Fig. 4, the calculations performed with $`D=0`$ reproduce the data quite satisfactorily at higher temperatures (dotted curves).

However, when the maxima of the Schottky anomalies are shifted to higher $`T`$ by increasing $`B`$, an additional contribution at low $`T`$ is revealed. It is most clearly visible in the curves for $`1`$ T$`<B<2.5`$ T, and varies with temperature as $`cT^2/R=4\times 10^3`$. We attribute this to the high-temperature tail of the specific heat contribution $`c_{nucl}`$ arising from the Mn nuclear spins ($`I=5/2`$), whose energy levels are split by the hyperfine interaction with the Mn3+ electronic spins $`s`$. This interaction can be approximated by $`_{hf}=sA_{hf}m_I`$, where $`A_{hf}`$ is the hyperfine constant and $`m_I`$ is the projection of the nuclear spin along the electronic spin. At high temperatures (i.e., when $`A_{hf}sk_BT`$) $`c_{nucl}/R\frac{1}{3}A_{hf}^2s^2I(I+1)T^2`$ Abragam70 . Taking $`A_{hf}=7.6`$ mK as used previously to simulate ESR spectra measured on a Mn4 cluster Zheng96 , we obtain the dashed line of Fig. 4. This contribution was subtracted from the zero-field data shown in Fig. 3.

A remarkable feature of the experimental data that is not reproduced by these calculations is that, at the lowest $`T`$, the nuclear specific heat drops abruptly to about $`10^5`$ J/gK. The temperature $`T_B`$ where the drop occurs depends on $`B`$ but also on the characteristic time constant $`\tau _e`$ of our (time-dependent) specific heat experiment: the deviation from the (calculated) equilibrium specific heat is found at a lower $`T`$ when the system is given more time to relax. We conclude that the drop indicates that nuclear spins can no longer reach thermal equilibrium within time $`\tau _e`$. We may write $`c_{nucl}(\tau _e)=c_{nucl}^{eq}[1\mathrm{exp}(\tau _e/T_1)]`$, showing that the transition should occur when the nuclear spin-lattice relaxation time $`T_1`$ becomes of the order of $`\tau _e`$. These transitions to non-equilibrium provide therefore direct information on the temperature and field dependence of $`T_1`$, which can be related to the fluctuation of the transverse hyperfine field, as produced by the phonon-induced transitions between different levels of the electronic spin Abragam61 .

At low $`T`$ and high $`B`$, only the ground and the first excited states, $`m=+12`$ and $`m=+11`$, need be considered. We may write $`1/T_1(1/\tau _0)\mathrm{exp}\{[g\mu _BB]/k_BT\}`$, where $`1/\tau _0`$ plays the role of an attempt frequency for the electron spin transitions. Clearly, the nuclear spins can be taken out of of equilibrium either by decreasing $`T`$ down to $`T_B`$ at constant field (as in Fig. 4) or by increasing $`B`$ up to a given value $`B_B`$ at constant $`T`$. This is indeed observed experimentally (not shown). The effect of the field is just to polarize the electronic spins, which reduces the fluctuations of the hyperfine field, thus effectively disconnecting nuclear spins from the lattice. For a given $`\tau _e`$, $`B_B`$ must increase linearly with $`T_B`$, which is confirmed by the experimental data plotted in the inset of Fig. 4. The slope gives $`\tau _03\times 10^4`$ s. Using this value, we have calculated the time-dependent $`c_{nucl}`$, shown as the full lines in Fig. 4, and seen to be in reasonable agreement with the experimental data at all $`T`$ and $`B`$.

The authors have enjoyed illuminating discussions with Dr. E. Palacios, and Prof. P. C. E. Stamp. This work is part of the research program of the ”Stichting voor Fundamenteel Onderzoek der Materie” (FOM). F. L. acknowledges a TMR grant from the European Union. J. F. F. acknowledges grant BMF2000-0622 from DGESIC of Spain.

To whom all correspondence should be addressed. E-mail address: dejongh@phys.leidenuniv.nl


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# Low-momentum nucleon-nucleon potential and Hartree-Fock Calculations

## 1 Introduction

A central problem in nuclear theory has long been the calculation of nuclear structure properties starting from realistic nucleon-nucleon ($`NN`$) potentials. There are various models for these potentials, such as the Bonn and CD-Bonn, Paris, Nijmegen, and the new Idaho potential. They all describe the observed deuteron and $`NN`$ scattering data very accurately. However, owing to their strong repulsive core, none of them can be used directly in nuclear structure. To overcome this difficulty, the Brueckner $`G`$ matrix has traditionally been the starting point, but, as is well known, its energy dependence is an undesirable feature, in particular when dealing with Hartree-Fock calculations.

In this paper, we make use of a different approach to renormalize the short-range repulsion of realistic $`NN`$ potentials, which is motivated by the recent applications of effective field theory (EFT) and renormalization group (RG) to low-energy nuclear systems.

A fundamental theme of the RG-EFT approach is that the details of the short-distance dynamics are irrelevant for physics in the infrared region. One can therefore have infinite theories that differ substantially at short distance, but still give the same low-energy physics. In nuclear physics, various meson models for $`V_{NN}`$, sharing the same one-pion tail, give the same phase shifts and deuteron binding energy even if they differ significantly in the treatment of the shorter distance pieces.

Motivated by these considerations, we derive a low-momentum $`NN`$ potential $`V_{lowk}`$ by integrating out the high-momentum components of $`V_{NN}`$ in the sense of the RG, and use this smooth potential in nuclear structure.

In this paper, we calculate the bulk properties of 16O in the framework of the Hartree-Fock theory, using $`V_{lowk}`$’s derived from different $`NN`$ potentials. The paper is organized as follows. In section 2 we describe our method for carrying out the high-momentum integration. Section 3 is devoted to the comparison of our results with experiment. A summary of our conclusions is given in the last section.

## 2 Outline of Calculations

The first step in our approach is to integrate out the high-momentum components of $`V_{NN}`$. According to the general definition of a renormalization group transformation, the decimation must be such that low-energy observables calculated in the full theory are preserved exactly by the effective theory. Once the relevant low-energy modes are identified, all remaining modes or states have to be integrated out.

For the nucleon-nucleon problem in vacuum, we require that the deuteron binding energy, the low-energy phase shifts, and the low-momentum half-on-shell $`T`$ matrix calculated from $`V_{NN}`$ must be reproduced by $`V_{lowk}`$.

The full-space nuclear Schrödinger equation may be written as

$$H\mathrm{\Psi }_\mu =E_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }_\mu ;H=H_0+V_{NN},$$
(1)
where $`H_0`$ is the unperturbed Hamiltonian, in this case the kinetic energy. The above equation can be reduced to a model-space one of the form

$$PH_{\mathrm{eff}}P\mathrm{\Psi }_\mu =E_\mu P\mathrm{\Psi }_\mu ;H_{\mathrm{eff}}=H_0+V_{\mathrm{eff}},$$
(2)
where $`P`$ denotes the model-space, which is defined by momentum $`kk_{cut}=\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`k`$ being the relative momentum and $`k_{cut}`$ a cut-off momentum.

The half-on-shell $`T`$ matrix of $`V_{NN}`$ is defined as

$$T(k^{},k,k^2)=V_{NN}(k^{},k)+$$

$$+_0^{\mathrm{}}q^2𝑑qV_{NN}(k^{},q)\frac{1}{k^2q^2+i0^+}T(q,k,k^2),$$
(3)
and the corresponding model-space $`T`$ matrix given by $`V_{lowk}`$ is

$$T_{lowk}(p^{},p,p^2)=V_{lowk}(p^{},p)+$$

$$+_0^\mathrm{\Lambda }q^2𝑑qV_{lowk}(p^{},q)\frac{1}{p^2q^2+i0^+}T_{lowk}(q,p,p^2).$$
(4)
Note that for $`T_{lowk}`$ the intermediate states are integrated up to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$.

It is required that, for $`p`$ and $`p^{}`$ both belonging to $`P`$ ($`p,p^{}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$), $`T(p^{},p,p^2)=T_{lowk}(p^{},p,p^2)`$. In Refs. 11,12 it has been shown that the above requirements are satisfied when $`V_{lowk}`$ is given by the folded-diagram series

$$V_{lowk}=\widehat{Q}\widehat{Q^{}}\widehat{Q}+\widehat{Q^{}}\widehat{Q}\widehat{Q}\widehat{Q^{}}\widehat{Q}\widehat{Q}\widehat{Q}+\mathrm{},$$
(5)
where $`\widehat{Q}`$ is an irreducible vertex function, in the sense that its intermediate states must be outside the model space $`P`$. The integral sign represents a generalized folding operation,  and $`\widehat{Q^{}}`$ is obtained from $`\widehat{Q}`$ by removing terms of first order in the interaction $`V_{NN}`$.

The above $`V_{lowk}`$ can be calculated by means of iterative techniques. In Ref. 14 some iteration methods have been proposed which are suitable for non-degenerate model spaces. The method that we use here, which we refer to as Andreozzi-Lee-Suzuki (ALS) method, consists in constructing solutions of the Lee-Suzuki type. The ALS method converges to the lowest (in energy) $`d`$ states of $`H`$, $`d`$ being the dimension of the $`P`$ space. We have found this method to be very convenient for our calculations.

Since the $`V_{lowk}`$ obtained by this technique is non-hermitian, we have hermitized it by using the simple and numerically convenient procedure suggested in Ref. 14.

We have verified that the deuteron binding energy and the phase shifts up to the cut-off momentum $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ are preserved by $`V_{lowk}`$. By way of illustration, we compare in Fig. 1 some $`{}_{}{}^{1}S_{0}^{}`$ phase shifts calculated using a cut-off momentum $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=2\mathrm{fm}^1`$ (squares), with those obtained using the full Idaho potential (continuous line). It can be seen that the phase shifts from the full $`V_{NN}`$ are well reproduced by those obtained from $`V_{lowk}`$ up to the value of $`E_{lab}`$ corresponding to the cut-off momentum.

This evidences the physical equivalence of $`V_{lowk}`$ and $`V_{NN}`$ in the sense of RG.

An important issue is what value one should use for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. Guided by general EFT arguments, the minimum value for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ must be large enough so that $`V_{lowk}`$ explicitly contains the necessary degrees of freedom for the physical system under investigation. For nuclear structure calculations $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ turns out to be around $`2\mathrm{fm}^1`$. This is consistent with the following considerations. Most $`NN`$ potentials are constructed to fit empirical phase shifts up to $`E_{lab}350`$ MeV. Since $`E_{lab}2\mathrm{}^2\mathrm{\Lambda }^2/M`$, $`M`$ being the nucleon mass, and one requires $`V_{lowk}`$ to reproduce the empirical phase shifts, a choice of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ in the vicinity of $`2\mathrm{fm}^1`$ seems to be appropriate. In our calculations we have used $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=2.1\mathrm{fm}^1`$.

## 3 Realistic Hartree-Fock Calculations

As stated before, $`V_{lowk}`$ is energy independent and well-behaved, so that one can use it directly to compute the bulk properties of 16O in the framework of the self-consistent Hartree-Fock (HF) theory. The HF equations are solved using a basis of harmonic-oscillator wave-functions.

The single-particle states $`|i`$ are expanded in a finite series of oscillator wave-functions $`|\alpha `$:

$$|i=\underset{\alpha }{}C_\alpha ^i|\alpha .$$
(6)
The expansion coefficients $`C_\alpha ^i`$ and the oscillator parameter $`\mathrm{}\omega `$ are determined solving self-consistently the HF equations

$$\underset{\beta }{}\left[\alpha |T|\beta +\underset{j_h}{}\alpha ,j_h|V_{lowk}|\beta ,j_h\right]C_\beta ^i=ϵ_iC_\alpha ^i.$$
(7)
Since we assume that 16O is a spherical nucleus, the $`|i`$’s have good orbital and total angular momentum. The Coulomb correction is included exactly by taking the total two-body interaction as $`V_{lowk}`$ plus the Coulomb potential.

Once Eqs.(11) have been solved, we use the HF wave-functions to calculate both the binding energy and r.m.s. mass radius. We also evaluate the second-order contribution to the above quantities within the framework of the Goldstone linked cluster perturbation expansion. In Fig. 2 we report the results obtained using all the $`NN`$ potentials mentioned in the Introduction. It is worth noting that the differences between the various $`NN`$ potentials are not very relevant, and that second-order corrections improve remarkably the agreement with experiment. The latter point confirms the need to go beyond a mean-field description of ground-state properties of finite nuclei.

## 4 Summary and Conclusions

In the present work, we have used a new technique to derive a low-momentum $`NN`$ potential $`V_{lowk}`$ from realistic potentials by integrating out the high-momentum modes. With this smooth $`V_{lowk}`$ we have calculated the bulk properties of 16O in the framework of the Goldstone expansion using a self-consistent Hartree-Fock basis. The quality of the results, obtained using several modern realistic $`NN`$ potentials, is quite good. We conclude that this new method, that it has also been successfully employed in shell-model calculations, may contribute to a better understanding of the role of realistic $`NN`$ interactions in nuclear structure.

## Acknowledgments

This work was supported in part by the U.S. DOE Grant No. DE-FG02-88ER40388, and the Italian Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca (MIUR).


text:
# Parsec–scale radio jets in 𝛾–ray loud sources

## 1 Introduction

The blazar phenomenon is now believed to be the result of an anisotropic relativistic jet propagating at a small angle to the observer’s line of sight. Variability at all wavelengths and the peculiar radio properties on the parsec scale, such as one–sidedness, jet bending, misalignement and superluminal features, can all be accounted for under these assumptions.
In a number of blazars the emission extends out to the MeV regime, i.e. to the $`\gamma `$–rays. Many models have been proposed to explain the origin of this very high energy emission, such as for example synchrotron self-Compton (i.e. Maraschi et al. 1992), inverse Compton scattering, with a variety of origins for the scattered photons (i.e. Dermer et al. 1992; Sikora et al. 1994), synchrotron emission by ultra relativistic electrons and positrons (Ghisellini et al. 1993). However, no consensus on the dominant process has been reached yet.
The connection between the $`\gamma `$–ray emission and the parsec–scale radio properties is under study, and many questions are still unexplained. For example, it is still unclear if (1) $`\gamma `$–ray loud blazars are characterised by higher apparent speeds and/or higher Lorentz factors; (2) jet bending, wiggling and misalignement are more prominent in $`\gamma `$–ray loud sources. Beyond this, the correlation between radio variability and changes in the magnetic field structure is still unclear for all classes of radio loud AGNs.
In order to increase the statistics, and to shed light on these important questions, detailed multifrequency studies for a high number of radio loud blazars is necessary. In this paper we present a multiepoch study of three radio blazars, carried out at 8.4 GHz with the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA). Among our sources, two are also $`\gamma `$–ray loud.
We defined $`h`$=H0/100 and $`q_0=0.5`$.

## 2 Observations and data analysis

We performed multiepoch VLBA observations of the three blazars 0954+658 (LBL, z=0.368), PKS 1510–089 (HPQ, z=0.361) and 1749+096 (LBL, z=0.322). The first two sources have a measured $`\gamma `$–ray flux (Hartman et al. 1999), while only an upper limit exists for 1749+096 (Fichtel et al. 1994). Snapshot observations were carried out in January 1999, December 2000 and May 2001 in dual polarisation mode at 8.4 GHz and 22 GHz, for a total of 12 hours each run. The resulting total time on source was $``$ 2 hr/frequency. Here we will present and discuss the 8.4 GHz observations only.
The angular resolution of the VLBA at 8.4 GHz is $``$ 1 mas, and the typical noise on the images is in the range 0.07 – 0.3 mJy/beam, depending on the peak flux density value.
Data calibration and imaging were carried out with the AIPS NRAO package. The final datasets were then exported into the Difmap package, where modelfitting of the visibilities was performed. In Figs. 1 and 2 contour plots of 0954+658, PKS 1510–089 and 1749+096 are given, with superposed magnetic field vectors.

## 3 The parsec–scale radio jets

All sources in our project showed considerable total flux density variations during the period of our monitoring, up to $``$ 40%.

We modelfitted the final visibilities at each epoch for each source with gaussian components, in order to investigate the presence of moving features.
PKS 1510-089 shows major structural changes. The inner 6 mas are well fitted with two components along the jet, labelled as B and C in Fig. 1, whose location with respect to the core (most likely associated with the image peak, based on multifrequency analysis, Venturi et al. in prep.) increases with time. The positions of B and C at the various epochs are given in Fig. 3. Here the position of component C at the epoch 1997 is taken from Homan et al. (2001).
Both components are found to be superluminal, with a similar value for the velocity, i.e. $`\beta _{app}`$(B) = $`10.0\pm 0.3h^1`$c, and $`\beta _{app}`$(C) = $`10.4\pm 1.2h^1`$c. These values agree, within the uncertainties, with the motion reported by Homan et al. (2001), and imply a Lorentz factor $`\gamma _{min}>`$ 10.

The jet component in 1749+096 is also found superluminal, with $`\beta _{app}8.2h^1`$c.

Our analysis suggests that the jet in 0954+658 is stationary. A comparison among our epochs and literature images (Gabuzda & Cawthorne 1996) leads either to no apparent motion, or to very high superluminal speed along the jet, with $`\beta _{app}>`$ 50c. Kellermann et al. (2003) show that very high superluminal features are found among the sources in the 2 cm VLBA survey, however the case of 0954+658 would be very extreme. We note that this source alternates core flux density flares to long periods of quiescence (Venturi et al. 2001).

A preliminary analysis of the polarised emission at 8.4 GHz shows that all sources have polarised flux in the core region and along the jet. The core polarised intensity and polarisation angle change in all sources from epoch to epoch. On the other hand, the polarised flux and the magnetic field orientation along the jet remain stationary, regardless of the flux density variability and of superluminal motion in the knot.

In PKS 1510–089 the magnetic field shows structure along the jet. From Fig. 1 (right panel) it is clear that the fractional polarisation is higher in the external part of the jet, while the jet spine is less polarised. This behaviour is found at all epochs.

## 4 Summary and conclusions

Our monitoring program on three blazars revealed different properties on the parsec–scale jets. In particular:

– superluminal motion is detected in PKS 1510–089 (two superluminal knots) and in 1749+096. In all cases an apparent velocity $`\beta _{app}10h^1`$c is found;

– a stationary jet is present in 0954+658, despite the major variability in the radio band during the period of our monitoring program;

– the polarisation properties along the parsec–scale jet remain stationary from epoch to epoch in all sources, regardless of their flux density variability and the presence of superluminal features;

– magnetic field structure is found in PKS 1510–089, where a higher percentage of polarisation is detected along the outer edges of the jet.


text:
# Coarse graining and a new strategy for renormalization

## I Introduction

Recently, we proposed a new approach for calculating radiative corrections without introducing any form of regulator and any form of removal of UV divergence, which is a differential equation approach with ambiguities to be fixed through rational boundary conditions. In this simple approach, many complicated aspects associated with conventional regularizations (e.g., the subtle definition of Dirac matrices $`\{\gamma ^5,\gamma ^\mu \}`$ and metric tensor $`g^{\mu \nu }`$ in dimensional regularization; the notorious power law divergences in cutoff regularization, and so on) simply do not show up. It is especially efficient in the nonperturbative contexts where conventional regularization and/or subtraction schemes often make it very hard to extract physical information from the calculated quantities, as the proposed approach can dramatically reduce the difficulty in extracting physical information. It is also applied in Ref. to massless $`\lambda \varphi ^4`$ to discuss the problem of nontrivial symmetry breaking solution in various regularization and renormalization prescriptions.

In this short report, we shall: (1) to present the natural rationality of the simple approach in Sec. II; (2) sketch a simple derivation of the renormalization group equation as a natural decoupling theorem of the underlying short distance modes in Sec. III. The final section is devoted to discussion and summary. Part of these arguments have been available in the e-print form.

## II Underlying theory and finiteness of QFT

Our starting point is the well known point of view that the conventional QFT should be replaced by a complete quantum theory of everything (QTOE) with correct high energy details. The low energy physics are defined by the coarse grained low energy sectors of QTOE with the extremely short distance processes integrated out. The high energy modes’ contributions are physically suppressed by certain physical mechanism defined in QTOE (unknown to us) rather than ’cut off’ by hand. This understanding naturally motivates the presence of a set of parameters(denoted as $`\left\{\sigma \right\}`$) to characterize the high energy modes’ contributions in the coarse grained objects. Technically, it is these constants and the way they appear in the generating functional that suppress the high energy modes while keep the ’effective’ quanta dominant. For this coarse graining or emergence scenario to be effective, the magnitude of the parameters in energy unit must be such that $`sup\left\{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QFT}\right\}inf\left\{\sigma \right\}`$ with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QFT}`$ representing a general dimensional parameter (momenta or masses) in the QFT in under consideration.

The preceding magnitude order analysis automatically activates a limit operation with respect to $`\left\{\sigma \right\}`$ on the coarse grained amplitudes for describing ’low’ energy processes, which will be denoted as $`L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}`$($`lim_{\left\{\sigma \right\}0}`$ in length unit). Then the coarse grained vacuum functional in the presence of the external sources for low energy processes reads

$`Z\left(J\left(x\right)|\{\overline{c}\}\right)L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}Z\left(J\left(x\right)|\{\sigma \}\right)L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}{\displaystyle D\mathrm{\Phi }\left(x|\left\{\sigma \right\}\right)\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}S(\mathrm{\Phi }\left(x|\left\{\sigma \right\}\right);\left\{\sigma \right\}J)\right]},`$ (1)
where the $`\left\{\sigma \right\}`$ dependence of a function(al) indicates that they are coarse grained objects well defined in QTOE. The appearance of the constants $`\{\overline{c}\}`$ (including $`\overline{\mu }`$) in the RHS of Eq.(1) implies that the order of functional integration and $`L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}`$ can not be trivially exchanged, otherwise we would get the ill defined QFT’s or divergences, i.e.,

$`L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}{\displaystyle D\mathrm{\Phi }\left(x|\left\{\sigma \right\}\right)\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}S(\mathrm{\Phi }\left(x|\left\{\sigma \right\}\right);\left\{\sigma \right\}J)\right]}{\displaystyle D\mathrm{\Phi }\left(x\right)\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}S\left(\mathrm{\Phi }\left(x\right)J\right)\right]},`$ (2)
with $`S\left(\mathrm{\Phi }\left(x\right)J\right)L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}S(\mathrm{\Phi }\left(x|\left\{\sigma \right\}\right);\left\{\sigma \right\}J)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }\left(x\right)L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}\mathrm{\Phi }\left(x|\left\{\sigma \right\}\right)`$.

In terms of Feynman diagram algorithm, this is (for a one loop divergent diagram in QFT),

$`L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\left(p\right),\left(m\right);\{\sigma \})L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}{\displaystyle d^DQ\overline{f}_\mathrm{\Gamma }(Q,\left(p\right),\left(m\right);\{\sigma \})}{\displaystyle d^DQf_\mathrm{\Gamma }(Q,\left(p\right),\left(m\right))},`$ (3)
with $`f_\mathrm{\Gamma }(Q,\left(p\right),\left(m\right))`$ being the integrand of this diagram defined in conventional QFT. The loop momentum, external momenta and masses are denoted respectively by $`Q,\left(p\right)`$and $`\left(m\right)`$.

In principle we could not evaluate the generating functional or the Feynman amplitudes without knowing the exact dependence upon $`\{\sigma \}`$. However, we can determine each one loop amplitude (ill defined in QFT) $`L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\left(p\right),\left(m\right);\{\sigma \})`$ up to an appropriate polynomial of momenta and masses with finite but undetermined coefficients as long as we accept that the QTOE version of the loop diagram exists.

THEOREM. *A one loop amplitude $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ defined in QTOE (ill defined in the conventional QFTs) satisfies the following kind of natural differential equation,*

$`\left(_p\right)^{\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }+1}L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}(\left(p\right),\left(m\right)|\left\{\sigma \right\})={\displaystyle d^DQ\left(_p\right)^{\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }+1}f_\mathrm{\Gamma }(Q,\left(p\right),\left(m\right))}\left(\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\left(\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }\right)}((p),(m))\right)`$ (4)
*with $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ being the superficial divergence degree or scaling dimension of such a diagram*.

$`\mathrm{𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓}`$: Since QTOE is completely well defined, then in any dimension $`D`$ of spacetime we have

$$\begin{array}{c}\left(_p\right)^{\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }+1}L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}(\left(p\right),\left(m\right)|\left\{\sigma \right\})=L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}d^DQ\left(_p\right)^{\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }+1}\overline{f}_{\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}}(Q,\left(p\right),\left(m\right)|\left\{\sigma \right\})\hfill \\ =d^DQ\left(_p\right)^{\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }+1}L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}\overline{f}_{\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}}(Q,\left(p\right),\left(p\right)|\left\{\sigma \right\})=d^DQ\left(_p\right)^{\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }+1}f_\mathrm{\Gamma }(Q,\left(p\right),\left(m\right))Q.E.D.\hfill \end{array}$$

Similar differential equations also hold with $`_p`$ replaced by $`_m`$. The key observation here is that differentiating a Feynman amplitude with respect to external parameters lower the divergence degrees of the amplitude.

The solutions to such differential equations are easy to obtain as

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }((p),(m);\{\overline{c}\})L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}(\left(p\right),\left(m\right)|\left\{\sigma \right\})\left({\displaystyle _p}\right)^{\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }+1}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\left(\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }\right)}((p),(m))`$ (5)
$`=\left({\displaystyle _p}\right)^{\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }+1}{\displaystyle d^DQ\left(_p\right)^{\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }+1}f_\mathrm{\Gamma }(Q,\left(p\right),\left(m\right))}`$ (6)
with the symbol ’$``$’ indicating that the two sides are equal up to certain integration constants in a polynomial of momenta and masses of power $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. To determine the integration constants (which is definitely defined as $`\{\overline{c}\}`$ in QTOE from the limit operation$`L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}`$) we need ’boundary conditions’ like symmetries, sum rules and finally experimental data, which parallels the procedure of choosing renormalization conditions. For later convenience we note that there must be a dimensional constant characterizing the typical length or energy of the QFT under consideration and we denote it as $`\overline{\mu }`$. Eq.( 4) or ( 5) is just our general recipe for evaluating the Feynman amplitudes that dispenses the notorious divergences and the associated subtraction. This recipe works in the same way for multiloop diagrams, for details please refer to Ref.. The guideline is to insert a pair of $`\left(_p\right)^{\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }+1}`$ and $`\left(_p\right)^{\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }+1}`$ to the two sides of each divergent loop integration as $`L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}`$ crosses the loop integration from the left until the $`L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}`$ is finally removed from all loops in the diagram. For convergent loops $`L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}`$ can safely cross the loop integrations. However, by defining that $`()^n()^{|n|},()^n()^{|n|},`$for$`n<0,()^n=()^n=1,`$ for$`n=0`$ and noting that $`()^n\times ()^n=()^{|n|}\times ()^{|n|}=1`$ for $`n<0`$ we can also put a convergent loop into the form of Eq.(5) with now $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ denoting the negative scale dimension of the convergent loop diagram.

We emphasize that the above expressions are correct provided the magnitude order $`sup\{|p|,m,\overline{\mu }\}inf\left\{\sigma \right\}`$ is satisfied, no matter how large the mass or momentum is. It is clear that no subtraction is necessary, no infinite counterterms and bare parameters is present except finite ’bare’ parameters—the tree parameters in Lagrangian. It is also evident that our strategy is obviously applicable to any interactions (fields with any spin) in any spacetime, even for nonlocal interactions, as our deduction does not need any specifics about interaction. Even the Lorentz invariance and other symmetry status are not needed at all, as long as the whole dynamics are consistently defined.

Among the integration constants (which will be denoted as $`\left\{C\right\}`$ in contrast to $`\left\{\overline{c}\right\}`$), there must be a dimensional scale to balance the dimensions in the logarithmic function of momenta (which will be denoted as $`\mu _{int}`$ that corresponds to $`\overline{\mu }`$). The integration constants $`\left\{C\right\}`$ span a space in which the QTOE prediction $`\left\{\overline{c}\right\}`$ just lies on one point of this space. Obviously, the QTOE definition of the Lagrangian constants and the ’loop’ constants $`\left\{\overline{c}\right\}`$ (including $`\overline{\mu }`$) should be scheme and scale invariant. This may accentuate and accelerate the extraction of physical parameters out of renormalization scheme and scale dependent parametrization, namely, once we fixed the Lagrangian parameters in some physical way, we can in principle systematically extract $`\left\{\overline{c}\right\}`$ from experiments. Thus inequivalent choices of $`\left\{C\right\}`$ would correspond to different physics. (Note that here the words ’bare parameters’ does not mean no interaction. The ’bare’ or tree parameters in QFT in fact characterize the ’elementary’ quantum dynamics of the low energy processes in the lagrangian level.)

For perturbative Feynman diagram representation, our differential equation approach is similar to the celebrated BPHZ algorithm. However, we must point out that: 1)in practice one must first specify a regularization scheme (that is, introducing certain kind of artificiality in the computation) before BPHZ is implemented; 2)the subtraction procedure in BPHZ could only lead to special set of constants that solve the differential equations for relevant Feynman amplitudes; 3)the BPHZ program ends up with the introduction of infinite bare quantities while there is no room for such infinite quantities at all if one adopts the underlying theory standpoint; 4) the application of BPHZ (and other conventional programs) in nonperturbative circumstances is rather involved that might preclude any useful (or trustworthy) predictions, while the differential equation approach makes the calculation easier and the physical predictions more accessible. We think our differential equation approach (and the underlying theory scenario) generalizes, refines or improves various conventional renormalization programs in a natural way. Moreover, we could get rid of the various shortcomings in conventional programs due to inevitable introduction of a regularization scheme, an artificial substitute for the true short distance physics. This drawback is especially troublesome in nonperturbative applications.

## III Renormalization group equation and decoupling of underlying modes

From the preceding discussions on the constants $`\{\overline{c}\}`$, we can parametrize them in such a way that $`\{\overline{c}\}=\{\overline{\mu },\left[\overline{c}^0\right]\},`$ dim$`\left\{\overline{c}^0\right\}=0,_{\overline{\mu }}\overline{c}^0=_g\overline{c}^0=0,\overline{c}^0,g:`$ dim$`\left\{g\right\}0`$,i.e., we parametrize all the dimensional constants in $`\{\overline{c}\}`$ as $`\{\overline{\mu }\overline{c}^0\}`$ with $`\{\overline{c}^0\}`$ dimensionless constants. This is legitimate as $`\{\overline{c}\}`$ are all of the same order as $`\{g\}`$, otherwise they should belong to the same set of the underlying constants $`\{\sigma \}`$ and vanish from the explicit formulation of QFTs.

Rescaling every dimensional parameters in a general vertex function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\left(n\right)}(\left(p\right),\left(g\right);\{\overline{c}\})`$ (we denote masses and couplings collectively as $`\left(g\right)`$) that is well defined in QTOE, we have

$$\left\{s_s+\mathrm{\Sigma }d_gg_g+\overline{\mu }_{\overline{\mu }}d_{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}}\right\}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}(\left(sp\right),\left(g\right);\{\overline{c}\})=0.$$
(7)
with $`d_{\mathrm{}}`$ denoting the mass dimensions of the associated constants. Since all the constants $`\{\overline{c}\}`$ only appear in the local parts of 1PI vertices, then $`\mathrm{\Sigma }d_{\overline{c}}\overline{c}_{\overline{c}}=\overline{\mu }_{\overline{\mu }}`$ induces the insertion of all the vertex operators $`\{O\}`$, i.e., $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\{O\}}\delta _O\widehat{I}_O`$

$`\overline{\mu }_{\overline{\mu }}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}(\left(p\right),\left(g\right);\{\overline{\mu },[\overline{c}^0]\})=\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\{O\}}\delta _O\widehat{I}_O\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}(\left(p\right),\left(g\right);\{\overline{\mu },[\overline{c}^0]\}).`$ (8)
This is just the general form of renormalization group equation (RGE) in our approach. Close investigation of the solutions of Eq.(4) in terms of masses will show that the anomalous dimension $`\delta _O`$ of a vertex operator $`O`$ must be functions of dimensionless tree couplings $`[g^0]`$ and $`[\overline{c}^0]`$, i.e., $`\delta _O=\delta _O([g^0],[\overline{c}^0])`$. The insertion of all the Lagrangian operators with couplings $`\left(g\right)`$ can be realized by $`g_g`$ (for mass, it is $`m^k_{m^k},k=1(\text{fermion}),2(\text{boson})`$), i.e., $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\{O\}}\delta _O\widehat{I}_O=\mathrm{\Sigma }\delta _gg_g+\mathrm{\Sigma }\delta _\varphi \widehat{I}_{\varphi \varphi }+\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\{\overline{O}\}}\delta _{\overline{O}}\widehat{I}_{\overline{O}},`$ with $`\varphi `$ and $`\overline{O}`$ denoting respectively the ’elementary’ fields in Lagrangian and the operators not defined in Lagrangian. (Here we use $`\varphi \varphi `$ to refer to the kinetic vertex for both fermionic and bosonic fields of any spin for simplicity, this does not affect the following deduction as the kinetic terms must be quadratic in the field operators.) Apparently $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\{\overline{O}\}}\delta _{\overline{O}}\widehat{I}_{\overline{O}}`$ is absent in renormalizable theories, while for unrenormalizable models, there will be infinitely many $`\overline{O}`$ operators. The insertion of the kinetic operator $`\delta _\varphi \widehat{I}_{\varphi \varphi }`$ will induce a rescaling of the field operator $`\varphi `$ by amount $`\frac{\delta _\varphi }{2}`$. Thus in renormalizable theories, we obtain that

$$\left\{\overline{\mu }_{\overline{\mu }}\mathrm{\Sigma }\overline{\delta }_gg_g\overline{\delta }_{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\left(n\right)}}\right\}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}(\left(p\right),\left(g\right);\{\overline{\mu },[\overline{c}^0]\})=0$$
(9)
with $`\overline{\delta }_g\delta _g\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\left[\varphi \right]_g}\frac{\delta _\varphi }{2}`$. Since $`\left(g\right)`$ and $`\{\overline{\mu },\left[\overline{c}^0\right]\}`$ should be uniquely determined by QTOE, the variation in Eq.( 9) should be understood as the change due to the global rescaling of everything. Thus by introducing a natural set of scale co-moving (or ’running’) parameters basing on Coleman’s bacteria analogue, we finally arrive at the standard form of RGE which replaces Eq.( 9)

$$\left\{\mu _\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }\overline{\delta }_{\overline{g}}\overline{g}_{\overline{g}}\overline{\delta }_{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\left(n\right)}}\right\}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}(\left(p\right),\left(\overline{g}\right);\{\mu ,[\overline{c}^0]\})=0,$$
(10)
with $`\mu _\mu \overline{g}(\mu ;\left(g\right))=\overline{g}(\mu ;\left(g\right))\overline{\delta }_{\overline{g}}(\left[\overline{g}^0(\mu ;[g^0])\right],[\overline{c}^0]),`$ $`\overline{g}(\mu ;\left(g\right))|_{\mu =\overline{\mu }}=g,\mu t\overline{\mu },t:\mathrm{max}\left[\mu \right]inf\left\{\sigma \right\}`$. Now we see that the ’running’ of the parameters is closely related to the rescaling procedure of $`\overline{\mu }`$ whose appearance is naturally guaranteed in QTOE by the low energy limit operation, the mystery atmosphere around the dimensional transmutation phenomenon is therefore removed.

Inserting Eq.( 10) back into Eq.( 7) we will get the full scaling law due to Callan-Symanzik

$`\left\{s_s+\mathrm{\Sigma }\overline{\delta }_{\overline{g}}\overline{g}_{\overline{g}}+\overline{\delta }_{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\left(n\right)}}d_{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}}\right\}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}(\left(sp\right),\left(\overline{g}\right);\{\overline{\mu },[\overline{c}^0]\})=i\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{\Theta }^{(n)}(0,\left(sp\right),\left(\overline{g}\right);\{\overline{\mu },[\overline{c}^0]\}),`$ (11)
where

$`s_s\overline{g}(s\overline{\mu };\left(g\right))=\overline{g}(s\overline{\mu };\left(g\right))\overline{\delta }_{\overline{g}}([\overline{g}^0(s\overline{\mu };[g^0])],[\overline{c}^0]),\overline{g}(s\overline{\mu };(g))|_{s=1}=g,`$ (13)
$`i\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{\Theta }^{(n)}(0,\left(sp\right),\left(\overline{g}\right);\{\overline{\mu },[\overline{c}^0]\})\mathrm{\Sigma }d_{\overline{g}}\overline{g}_{\overline{g}}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}(\left(sp\right),\left(\overline{g}\right);\{\overline{\mu },[\overline{c}^0]\}),`$ (14)
with $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ being the trace of the energy tensor of the theory. Of course in reality we are forced to replace $`\{\overline{c}\}`$ with $`\{C\}=\{\mu _{int},\left[C^0\right]\}`$***Here $`\mu _{int},\left[C^0\right]`$ parallel $`\overline{\mu },[\overline{c}^0]`$ with $`\mu _{int}`$ standing for the dimensional constant scale that will necessarily appear in the indefinite momentum integration and $`\left[C^0\right]`$ for dimensionless constants., but in principle we can start with tree parameters and determine $`\{C\}`$ by confronting our calculations with experimental data as mentioned above.

One might oppose that the QTOE is never seen. Our answer is that the present QFT or field equations has been verified only within a limited region of the phase space. As a matter of fact, it is no harm to start with a postulated underlying regularity. If there is no need of this property, then one can freely remove it at any time. While in the present QFTs, we do need such underlying regularity.

Before ending our presentation, we show that RGE can be interpreted as a decoupling theorem of the underlying high energy modes. This is easy to see: since the constants $`\{\overline{c}\}`$ arise from the low energy limit operation, then before taking this limit Eq.( 7) must be written as

$`\left\{s_s+\mathrm{\Sigma }d_gg_g+\mathrm{\Sigma }d_\sigma \sigma _\sigma d_{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}}\right\}\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}^{(n)}(\left(sp\right),\left(g\right);\{\sigma \})=0`$ (15)
with the $`\mathrm{\Sigma }d_{\overline{c}}\overline{c}_{\overline{c}}`$ or $`\overline{\mu }_{\overline{\mu }}`$ replaced by $`\mathrm{\Sigma }d_\sigma \sigma _\sigma `$. This is obviously a normal scaling law in QTOE. However, as the constants $`\left\{\sigma \right\}`$ are vanishingly small the high energy modes become ’formally’ decoupled while their contributions in the scaling law persist and appear as ’anomalies’ in terms of the ’tree’ parameters $`\{g\}`$, i.e., the terms $`\left\{\mathrm{\Sigma }\overline{\delta }_{\overline{g}}\overline{g}_{\overline{g}}+\overline{\delta }_{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\left(n\right)}}\right\}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}\left(\mathrm{}\right)`$ in Eq.( 10), which are subsumed into $`\overline{\mu }_{\overline{\mu }}`$, a coarse grained way to reproduce the underlying structures’ contributions according to Eq.( 10),

$`L_{\left\{\sigma \right\}}\left(\mathrm{\Sigma }d_\sigma \sigma _\sigma \overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}^{(n)}(\mathrm{})\right)=\left\{\mathrm{\Sigma }\overline{\delta }_{\overline{g}}\overline{g}_{\overline{g}}+\overline{\delta }_{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\left(n\right)}}\right\}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}\left(\mathrm{}\right)=\overline{\mu }_{\overline{\mu }}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(n)}(\mathrm{}).`$ (16)
Thus it is the ’decoupling effects of high energy modes’ that lead to the violation of naive scaling law in terms of the QFT parameters $`\{g\}`$, no divergence is involved here. Since such scaling ’anomalies’ can be absorbed into the redefinition of the tree parameters, we see that such ’anomalies’ from the underlying modes decoupling lead to finite ’renormalization’ of the tree parameters. One might understand this mechanism from the decoupling effects of heavy fermions upon the beta function in QCD or QED as was illustrated in Ref., where $`lim_M\mathrm{}M_M\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Delta }\beta \alpha _\alpha \mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Thus the physical meaning of RGE is deepened in the new strategy, namely, RGE is an inevitable consequence of the fact that QFTs are incomplete formulations of the low energy sectors of a complete theory.

## IV Remarks and summary

Conventionally, one is forced to use some artificial regulators to define the UV or high energy ends of a QFT so that the loop amplitudes could be calculated. Such procedures do not automatically make the loop amplitudes finite and subsequent subtraction of divergent pieces is necessary. The subtraction leads to a residual ambiguity that is in fact encoded in RGE. The order of logic is first (1) regularization, then (2) subtraction/renormalization and finally (3) renormalization group. While in the underlying theory (QTOE) scenario, the amplitudes that are only formally defined in QFT are coarse grained ones in QTOE with high energy details integrated out or coarse grained away. In the decoupling (or low energy) limit, the coarse grained objects or sectors are subject to certain freedom of redefinition, which is just the freedom corresponding to renormalization group. No extra procedures for regularization and subtraction are needed here except the natural coarse graining and decoupling limit operation. Had we established the QTOE first in history, RGE would still be a natural corollary following from coarse graining and decoupling limit operation, perhaps under a different name. In a sense, we provide a more physical and reasonable foundation for renormalization group and finite renormalization without the somewhat unnatural procedures of regularization and subtraction of infinities.

We remind that the present formulation are only valid provided the underlying modes’ typical time scale is vanishingly small in comparison with the QFT processes’ time scale. In this sense the parameters in QFT’s are some kind of collective ’coordinates’ of the coarse grained objects. So our approach is in fact pointing towards a unified framework for quantization, coarse graining, renormalization and unification of interactions, at least in the conceptual sense.

Finally, we stress again the there is no need to introduce counter terms in the differential equation approach, one only needs to fix the ambiguities, which are especially important for the electroweak theory with spontaneous symmetry breaking whose renormalization is rather complicated. Nonetheless, since we have heavily relied upon the effective theory versus underlying complete theory duality, our strategy could be readily applied to the effective field theory approach, especially to nonperturbative problems such as nucleon interactions. Further applications in these perspectives will be pursued in the future.

In summary, we provided natural arguments in favor of a recently proposed simple strategy for renormalization. The key point is the existence of a complete quantum theory of everything which contains full information of high energy physics that are lacking in the present the QFT’s. From this QTOE scenario, the Callan-Symanzik equation and RGE can be derived in a natural way with the RGE recognized as a decoupling theorem of the high energy modes that underlie the present QFTs or similar quantum theories. The conceptual foundation for renormalization group is more reasonable in the QTOE scenario and is not entangled with divergence at all.

## Acknowledgement

The author is grateful to W. Zhu for helpful conversations. This work is supported in part by the National Nature Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 10075020 and 10205004.