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# Fokker-Planck Equation for Boltzmann-type and Active Particles: transfer probability approach

## I Introduction

Brownian dynamics nowadays is in the focus of interest due to the wide new fields of applications: physical-chemical systems, so-called active walkers, e.g., cells and other objects in biological systems, dusty plasmas with natural and artificial grains and many other systems. The characteristic property of such systems is the velocity dependent friction and diffusion coefficients. Existence of the Einstein relation and even the correct specific forms of the Fokker-Planck equation for such systems are not still completely clarified. In particular, the attempts to use the Langevin equation as a stochastic basis for derivation of the Fokker-Planck equation lead to non-sign-valued result. The different forms of the Fokker-Planck equation, such as so-called Ito and Stratonovich \[1-4\] ones, appear. For the systems close to equilibrium Brownian particles keep stationary random motion under action of the stochastic forces, which are compensated by the particle friction and thus, the work produced by the Langevin sources is equal to the energy dissipated in course of the Brownian particle motion. This energy balance is described by the fluctuation-dissipation theorem in the form of the Einstein law. Obviously, the fluctuation-dissipation theorem and the Einstein relation can be violated in the case of non-equilibrium systems (even in the stationary case), in particular in the open systems. Starting from the classical Lord Rayleigh work  many studies of the non-equilibrium motion of Brownian particles with an additional (inner, or external) energy supply have been performed. In particular, such studies are of great importance for physical-chemical  and biological  systems, in which non-equilibrium Brownian particle motion is referred as the motion of active Brownian particles. The dynamical and energetic aspects of motion for the active Brownian particles have been described recently on the basis of the Langevin equation and the appropriate Fokker-Planck equation . Possibility of negative friction (negative values of the friction coefficient) for Brownian particles was regarded, as a result of energy pumping. For some phenomenological dependence of the friction coefficient as a function of the grain’s velocity the one-particle stationary non-Maxwellian distribution function was found.

The traditional formulations of the non-equilibrium Brownian motion are based on some phenomenological expressions for the friction and diffusion coefficients. In particular, it means that deviations from the Einstein relation, as well as the velocity dependence of these coefficients are postulated and high level of uncertainty for application of such models to the real systems takes place. Recently we considered another situation, when the kinetic coefficients can be calculated explicitly on the basis of microscopically derived Fokker-Planck equation for dusty plasmas . It was recently shown  that in the case of strong Coulomb interaction of highly charged grains in dusty plasmas, due to ion absorption by grains, the friction coefficient can become negative. The necessary criterion for negative friction due to ion absorption is found as $`\mathrm{\Gamma }e^2Z_gZ_i/aT_i>1`$ (here $`Z_g`$, $`Z_i`$ are the charge numbers for the grains and ions respectively, $`a`$ is the grain radius, $`T_i`$ is the ion temperature). The appropriate threshold value of the grain charge was determined. The stationary solution of the Fokker-Planck equation with the velocity-dependable kinetic coefficients was obtained and the considerable deviation of such solution from the Maxwellian distribution was demonstrated. The physical reason for manifestation of negative friction in that case is clear: the cross-section for ion absorption by grain increases, when the relative velocity between the ion and grain decreases, due to the charge-dependent part of the cross-section. Therefore, for a moving highly-charged grain $`(\mathrm{\Gamma }1)`$ the momentum transfer from ions to the grain in the direction of grain velocity can be higher than in the opposite direction.

In this paper we develop more general approach, based on probability transition, to simplify the Fokker-Planck equation and to calculate the velocity dependent friction and diffusion coefficients for the different systems. On that way we find the various forms of probability transition for the Boltzmann-type and for absorption collision integrals. The crucial peculiarity of the exact expressions for the mentioned coefficients follows from the exact representation of these coefficients through the function of probability transition:
-it is impossible to define the coefficients independently not only for the processes, which describe the systems close to thermodynamic equilibrium, when the Einstein relation is $`\stackrel{`}{a}`$  *priory* valid, but also for the systems in which there is stationary, but non-equilibrium state, or for the systems far from equilibrium;
-any rigorous approximate model of the Fokker-Planck equation have to be based on self-consistent expressions for the friction and diffusion coefficients, based on the PT.

As an example we consider a wide class of open or far from equilibrium systems, where the Einstein relation is not applicable. For active particles the suggested consideration can be easily applied by construction of the probability transition on basis of the physical arguments.

## II Probability transition and velocity-dependable friction and diffusion coefficients

The appropriate kinetic equation describing motion of Brownian particles in some medium with the momentum exchange may be written as

$`{\displaystyle \frac{df_g(𝐏,t)}{dt}}=I_g(𝐏,t)={\displaystyle }d𝐪\{w(𝐏+𝐪,𝐪)f_g(𝐏+𝐪,𝐭)`$ (1)
$`w(𝐏,𝐪)f_g(𝐏,t)\},`$ (2)
where $`f_g(𝐏)`$ is the distribution function of Brownian particles (grains) of the mass $`M`$. The elementary process is change of momentum of the grain $`𝐏`$ to $`(𝐏𝐪)`$. The probability transition $`w(𝐏,𝐪)`$ in Eq. (2) describes the probability for grain with linear momentum $`𝐏`$ to lose the momentum $`𝐪`$. The Eq. (2) has a form of master equation. In general the probability transition is the function of time itself. To simplify Eq. (2) for the processes with the momentum transfer $`𝐪𝐏`$ we have expand the right side of Eq. (2) by $`𝐪`$. The result of the expansion is the Fokker-Planck equation for grains:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{df_g(𝐏,t)}{dt}}={\displaystyle \frac{}{P_i}}\left[A_i(𝐏)f_g(𝐏)+{\displaystyle \frac{}{P_j}}\left(B_{ij}(𝐏)f_g(𝐏)\right)\right]`$ (3)
The coefficients $`A_i(𝐏)`$ and $`B_{ij}(𝐏)`$, as easy to see by expansion of the Eq. (2), are expressed explicitly through the probability transition $`w(𝐏,𝐪)`$ by the relations (e.g. ):

$`A_i(𝐏)={\displaystyle 𝑑𝐪q_iw(𝐏,𝐪)},`$ (4)
$`B_{ij}(𝐏)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle 𝑑𝐪q_iq_jw(𝐏,𝐪)}.`$ (5)
Let us suggest that probability transition $`w(𝐏,𝐪)`$ is a function of only two vectors $`𝐏`$ and $`𝐪`$. It means, for example, there is no, let say, drift velocity of the media, surrounded the grain, as well as some inner vector inside the grain, which can influence on the probability transition. For that case the general structure of the coefficients $`A_i`$ and $`B_{ij}`$ is evident:

$$A_i(𝐏)=P_i\beta (P),B_{ij}(𝐏)=\frac{P_iP_j}{P^2}B_{}(P)+(\delta _{ij}\frac{P_iP_j}{P^2})B_{}(P),$$
(6)
where $`\beta (P)`$, $`B_{}(P)`$ and $`B_{}(P)`$ are the functions of modulus $`P`$. Let us consider at first the stationary case to understand the form of the Fokker-Planck equation and solution, when the friction and diffusion coefficients are the functions of grain’s velocity. On this basis, in particular, the well known problem related to the Ito  and Stratonovich  forms of Langevin and Fokker-Planck equations can be solved and applicability of the Einstein relation for the various kinds of functions of probability transitions can be investigated. The results can be used also for unstationary case, if the initial distribution function is isotropic (what is not always valid, naturally). Then, taking into account isotropy of the distribution function $`f_g(𝐏,𝐭)`$, the Fokker-Planck equation is given by

$$\frac{df_g(V)}{dt}=\frac{}{V_i}\left[\beta ^{}(V)V_if_g(V)+\frac{V_i}{V}\frac{}{V}\left(D_{}(V)f_g(V)\right)\right].$$
(7)
or in the equivalent form:

$$\frac{df_g(V)}{dt}=(s+V\frac{}{V})\left[\beta ^{}(V)f_g(V)+\frac{1}{V}\frac{}{V}\left(D_{}(V)f_g(V)\right)\right].$$
(8)
Here $`s`$ is the dimension of the velocity space and the scalar functions of $`V`$ are the same as ones of $`P`$, but expressed via the equality $`P=MV`$. We use above the velocity variable for grains $`𝐕`$ instead momentum $`𝐏`$ and the diffusion tensor $`D_{ij}(𝐕)=M^2B_{ij}(𝐕)`$. We also use these notations below. The functions $`\beta ^{}(V)`$ and $`D_{}(V)`$ are determined via the transition probability as

$`\beta ^{}(V)`$ $`=`$ $`\beta (V)+{\displaystyle \frac{s1}{V^2}}\left(D_{}(V)D_{}(V)\right)`$ (9)
$`\beta (V)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{P^2}}{\displaystyle d^s𝐪(\mathrm{𝐏𝐪})w(𝐏,𝐪)},`$ (10)
$`D_{}(V)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2M^2P^2}}{\displaystyle d^s𝐪(\mathrm{𝐏𝐪})^2w(𝐏,𝐪)},`$ (11)
$`D_{}(V)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2(s1)M^2P^2}}{\displaystyle d^s𝐪\left[P^2q^2(\mathrm{𝐏𝐪})^2\right]w(𝐏,𝐪)},`$ (12)
where $`(\mathrm{𝐏𝐪})`$ is the scalar product in the velocity space with dimension $`s`$. Eq. (9) can be rewritten in the form:

$$\beta ^{}(V)=\beta (V)+\frac{1}{2P^2}𝑑𝐪w(𝐏,𝐪)\left[s(\mathrm{𝐏𝐪})^2/P^2q^2\right],$$
(13)
We see that the three scalar functions of $`P`$, determined by the different moments of probability transition, permit to find the coefficients in the Fokker-Planck equation.

For the anisotropic velocity distribution function or for presence of the external fields, which do not change the friction and diffusion (what is not always valid, naturally), Eq. (3) can be rewritten as:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{df_g(𝐕)}{dt}}={\displaystyle \frac{}{V_i}}[V_i\beta ^{}(V)f_g(𝐕)+{\displaystyle \frac{V_iV_j}{V^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{}{V_j}}\left(D_{}(V)f_g(𝐕)\right)`$ (14)
$`+(\delta _{ij}{\displaystyle \frac{V_iV_j}{V^2}}){\displaystyle \frac{}{V_j}}\left(D_{}(V)f_g(𝐕)\right)].`$ (15)
For simplicity external fields are not included in Eq. (15). The useful equivalent representation of Eq. (15) has a form:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{df_g(𝐕)}{dt}}={\displaystyle \frac{}{V_i}}[V_i(\beta ^{}(V)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}{\displaystyle \frac{D_{}(V)}{V}})f_g(𝐕)+D_{}(V){\displaystyle \frac{V_iV_j}{V^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{f_g(𝐕)}{V_j}}`$ (16)
$`+D_{}(V)(\delta _{ij}{\displaystyle \frac{V_iV_j}{V^2}}){\displaystyle \frac{f_g(𝐕)}{V_j}}].`$ (17)
The stationary solution of the Fokker-Planck equation with the kinetic coefficients from Eq. (9,11) for the grain distribution function $`f_g(V)`$ is

$$f_g(V)=\frac{C}{D_{}(V)}\mathrm{exp}\left[\underset{0}{\overset{V}{}}𝑑\upsilon \upsilon \frac{\beta ^{}(\upsilon )}{D_{}(\upsilon )}\right],$$
(18)
where $`C`$ is a constant, providing normalization. As easy to see from the Eq. (7) for isotropic case the stationary (as well as non-stationary) Fokker-Planck equation with the velocity-dependent coefficients has well defined form and the question of ”renormalized” friction coefficient is solved completely by the Eq. (9). The uncertainty in choice of the Fokker-Planck equation in the forms suggested, e.g., in  and , created by attempts to connect the Langevin and the respective Fokker-Planck equations by one-to-one correspondence, starting from the Langevin equation. The real structure of this renormalization, due to tensorial character of the diffusion $`D_{ij}(𝐕)`$ as follows from the Eq. (9), permits to reformulate the problem: what must be the structure of Langevin equation for s-dimensional case to be relevant to the single-valued Fokker-Planck equation, based on the specific probability transition. Because we use, as the basis, transition probability we can establish validity or violation of the Einstein relation between the friction and diffusion coefficients directly, without usual suggestion of Maxwellian form of the static distribution function for Brownian particles, which is valid for the equilibrium state (when the Einstein relation is fulfilled $`\stackrel{`}{a}`$ *priory*). In particular, existence of the Einstein (or some different from one) relation between the momentum-dependable coefficients can be investigated. Correspondence between the Fokker-Planck and Langevin equations for s-dimensional case on the basis of PT approach will be considered in detail in a separate publication. Below we find the probability transition and investigate the various cases for the PT and Fokker-Planck equations.

## III The Boltzmann-type collisions

Let us consider the Boltzmann collision integral for two species of particles-light component (called below atoms) with the mass $`m`$ and grains with the mass $`M`$ ( $`mM`$), which interact one with another (generalizations can be easily done). To find for such a process the PT function $`w_s(𝐏,𝐪)`$ it is enough, for example, to transform the part of the Boltzmann collision integral, describing the loss of grains in the phase volume $`d𝐏`$ near the point $`𝐏`$, to the variables $`𝐏`$ and $`𝐪`$, where $`𝐪`$ is the momentum transferred during the elementary act of collision between atom and grain. Than, comparing the result of transformation with the Eq. (2), for 3D case we find

$`w_s(𝐏,𝐪)={\displaystyle \frac{m}{\mu }}{\displaystyle }d𝐨{\displaystyle \frac{q^2}{2\mu (\mathrm{𝐪𝐧})}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma }{d𝐨}}({\displaystyle \frac{q^2}{2\mu (\mathrm{𝐪𝐧})}},\chi )\times `$ (19)
$`f_n\left[{\displaystyle \frac{m}{M}}𝐏{\displaystyle \frac{m}{\mu }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{q^2𝐧}{2(\mathrm{𝐪𝐧})}}𝐪\right)\right],`$ (20)
Here $`d𝐨=\mathrm{sin}\chi d\chi d\varphi `$ is the element of the space angle for scattering with the differential cross-section $`d\sigma `$, $`f_n`$ is the distribution function of atoms, $`𝐪=(𝐩^{}𝐩)=(𝐏𝐏^{})`$, $`q\mathrm{cos}\chi =(\mathrm{𝐪𝐧})`$, vector $`𝐧`$ is the unit vector along the velocity $`𝐯_\mathrm{𝟎}^{}`$ of atom after collision in the system of center mass for colliding particles and $`\mu `$ is the reduced mass. The values of the limiting angles for $`\chi `$ above and below are usually equal $`\chi _{min}=0`$ and $`\chi _{max}=\pi `$, except some special situations, when the integral over $`\chi `$ diverges, as for example, for the purely Coulomb interaction, when the known cutting with $`0<\chi _{min}\chi _{max}<\pi `$ is necessary. Taking into account the relation $`q^2/(2(\mathrm{𝐪𝐧}))=(𝐯𝐕)`$ Eq. (20) can be rewritten in the form more useful for applications:

$`w_s(𝐕,𝐪)={\displaystyle }d𝛀{\displaystyle }d𝐯\delta [𝐪+\mu 𝐯\mu 𝐯𝐧]\times `$ (21)
$`f_n(𝐯+𝐕)𝐯{\displaystyle \frac{𝐝\sigma }{𝐝𝐨}}(𝐯,\chi ).`$ (22)
We can use the representation (22) to obtain the useful general expressions for the friction and diffusion coefficients:

$`\beta (𝐕)={\displaystyle \frac{\mu }{\mathrm{𝐌𝐕}^\mathrm{𝟐}}}{\displaystyle }𝐝𝛀{\displaystyle }𝐝𝐯[𝐕(𝐯𝐧𝐯)]\times `$ (23)
$`f_n(𝐯+𝐕)𝐯{\displaystyle \frac{𝐝\sigma }{𝐝𝐨}}(𝐯,\chi ).`$ (24)
$`D_{}(𝐕)={\displaystyle \frac{\mu }{\mathrm{𝐌𝐕}^\mathrm{𝟐}}}{\displaystyle }𝐝𝛀{\displaystyle }𝐝𝐯[𝐕(𝐯𝐧𝐯)]^\mathrm{𝟐}\times `$ (25)
$`f_n(𝐯+𝐕)𝐯{\displaystyle \frac{𝐝\sigma }{𝐝𝐨}}(𝐯,\chi ).`$ (26)
The similar expression can be written for $`D_{}`$. When the distribution function of atoms $`f_n`$ has the Maxwellian form with the temperature $`T`$, the function $`w(𝐕,𝐪)`$ can be simplified, taking into account the inequality $`𝐪`$$`𝐏`$.

If $`𝐕v_T`$, where for the thermal velocity of neutral particles (atoms) we use the notation $`v_T`$, the distribution function in PT can be expanded and we arrive, with respective accuracy of the order $`\mu /Mm/M`$, at the expression for $`w_s(𝐕,𝐪)`$:

$`w_s(𝐕,𝐪)={\displaystyle \frac{m}{T}}n_n\left({\displaystyle \frac{m}{2\pi T}}\right)^{3/2}{\displaystyle }d𝛀{\displaystyle }d𝐯\delta [𝐪+\mu 𝐯\mu 𝐯𝐧]\times `$ (27)
$`exp\left({\displaystyle \frac{mv^2}{2T}}\right)𝐯(𝐯𝐕){\displaystyle \frac{𝐝\sigma }{𝐝𝐨}}(𝐯,\chi ).`$ (28)
If atoms with the density $`n_n`$ are considered as the point particles and grains have the radius $`a`$ it is easy to find from Eqs. (24-28) the values of the coefficients $`\beta `$ and $`D_{}`$:

$$\beta (V)=8\frac{\sqrt{2\pi }}{3}(m/M)a^2n_nv_T,$$
(29)
$$D_{}(V)=8\frac{\sqrt{2\pi }}{3}(m/M^2)a^2n_nTv_T,$$
(30)
We see that the Einstein relation is fulfilled:

$$D(V)=M^1T\beta (V).$$
(31)
Calculations of $`\beta `$ and $`D_{}`$ were done independently on the basis of the appropriate PT function.

Let us now consider under general condition $`𝐪`$$`𝐏`$ the opposite case $`𝐕v_T`$ to solve the problem of validity of the Einstein relation for the velocity- dependable coefficients of the Fokker-Planck equation for arbitrary values of grain velocities . In fact the answer can be found already for the particular case of atoms, scattering by grains, considering as the hard spheres. Even in this simple case, as it will be shown, the Einstein relation is violated for high grain velocity. In the limit of extremely high grain velocity we can use the simplest approximation for the distribution function $`f_n(𝐯+𝐕)=n_n\delta (𝐯+𝐕)`$ and from Eqs. (12,22-26) obtain:

$$\beta (V)=(2m/3M)\pi a^2n_nV,$$
(32)
$$D_{}(V)=(m/M^2)\pi a^2n_nV^3,$$
(33)
For $`D_{}`$ by similar calculations we find

$$D_{}(V)=\frac{D_{}(V)}{4},$$
(34)
Therefore in that limit instead the Einstein relation we find another relation between velocity-dependable $`\beta (V)`$ and $`D_{}(V)`$:

$$D(V)=\frac{2}{3M}mV^2\beta (V).$$
(35)
This situation can be classified as far from equilibrium. For the considering case of uncharged spherical grains the simplest interpolation relation between the friction and diffusion coefficients can be suggested:

$$D(V)=\frac{T}{M}\left(1+\frac{2mV^2}{3T}\right)\beta (V).$$
(36)
The similar interpolations as well as the exact velocity-dependent relations for the arbitrary cross-sections can be found from Eqs. (24), (26). As it follows from the relations considered above $`\beta ^{}(V)\beta (V)`$ for all the cases with accuracy $`m/M`$. In general, by use the expansions to higher order of the small relation $`q/P`$, the expressions for the functions $`\beta ^{}(V)`$, $`D_{}(V)`$ and $`D_{}(V)`$ can be calculated and possibility to neglect the difference between $`\beta ^{}(V)`$ and $`\beta (V)`$ can be established for the considered Boltzmann-type collisions.

The essential influence of velocity dependence on the values of the friction and diffusion coefficients and violation of the Einstein relation for the Boltzmann type collisions takes place only for the extreme velocities much higher than the thermal velocity of the light particles. For the case of low grain velocity on basis of general representation (24), (26) for the friction and diffusion coefficients it can be shown applicability of the Einstein relation for arbitrary cross-section of scattering.

## IV Absorption collisions

Now turn to other type of collisions, namely to the absorption collisions, which are typical, for example, for dusty plasmas and some other open systems. As well known the process of grain charging by absorption of the electrons and ions by grains leads to the stationary (but non-equilibrium) state in plasma discharges. In so called OML (orbital motion limited) approximation the electrons and ions approaching to the grain on the distance less than the grain radius $`a`$ are assumed to be absorbed. It is clear that the absorption collisions cannot be described by the Boltzmann-type collision integral. The appropriate correct form of the absorption collision integral have been postulated and applied in . The rigorous kinetic theory of the electron and ion absorption in dusty plasmas, which exists in parallel with the usual processes of electron and ion scattering by grains, have been developed in , where also the Fokker-Planck equation for the charged grains was justified. Below we use the simplest form of the Fokker-Planck equation for grains with a fixed charge (distribution by charge assumed narrow, what is often in reality). Our aim here is to find the probability transition function for absorption and to demonstrate efficacy of such approach. More complicated cases can be considered similarly. We also ignore increase of the grain mass , assuming that neutral atoms generated in the course of the surface electron-ion recombination escape from the grain surface into a plasma. Naturally this process also changes the momentum balance for the particles, but we will not consider this process in our present model. Then the kinetic equation for grains can be written as:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{df_g(𝐏,Q,t)}{dt}}=I_g(𝐏,Q,t)=`$ (37)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{\alpha }{}}{\displaystyle }d𝐩f_\alpha (𝐩)\{W_\alpha (𝐩,𝐏𝐩,Q)f_g(𝐏𝐩,Q)`$ $`W_\alpha (𝐩,𝐏,Q)f_g(𝐏,Q)\},`$ (38)
where $`f_\alpha (𝐩)`$ is the distribution functions for the electrons ($`\alpha =e`$) and ions ($`\alpha =i`$) and $`Q=eZ_g`$. The elementary process is the absorption of electron or ion with the mass $`m_\alpha `$. The probability of absorption is given by:

$$W_\alpha (𝐩,𝐏,Q)=\sigma _c(\left|\frac{𝐏}{M}\frac{𝐩}{m}\right|,Q)\left|\frac{𝐏}{M}\frac{𝐩}{m_\alpha }\right|,$$
(39)
where $`\sigma _c(v,Q)`$ with $`v(\frac{𝐏}{M}\frac{𝐩}{m})`$ is the cross-sections for absorption (or collection) of the light plasma particles by grain in OML theory:

$$\sigma _c(Q,v)=\pi a^2\left(1\frac{2e_\alpha Q}{m_\alpha v^2a}\right)\theta \left(1\frac{2e_\alpha Q}{m_\alpha v^2a}\right).$$
(40)
Below on the basis of the Eqs. (38)-(40) two different, but related problems are solved. At first, to consider the problem of absorption in simplest form, we accept the next simplification in spirit of , namely we will consider absorption of neutral atoms of a one sort. It means we put $`Q=0`$ and instead summation by $`\alpha `$ save only notation with the index $`n`$ (for the neutral atoms) in the Eqs. (38)-(40). Generalization of this simplest model to the case of charge absorption with a fixed charge is quite simple.

The second problem in focus of our interest is connected with a real dusty plasma, when there is ion stream and so called drag force, applied to the grains and created by ion absorption and ion scattering, exists.

Let us start with a system of neutral particles, absorbing by grains. The momentum transferred to the grain due to absorption, is equal to the momentum of the atom $`𝐩`$ colliding with the grain. Therefore the probability transition $`w_c(𝐏,𝐪)`$ for the considered case can be immediately found by comparison of the Eqs. (2), (38)

$$w_c(𝐏,𝐪)=f_n(𝐪)\sigma _c\left(\left|\frac{𝐏}{M}+\frac{𝐪}{m}\right|\right)\left|\frac{𝐏}{M}+\frac{𝐪}{m}\right|,$$
(41)
If we choose the Maxwellian distribution for atoms and suppose, to consider the simplest case, that absorption is purely geometrical $`\sigma _c=\pi a^2`$ (the particular case of the Eq. (40) for $`Q=0`$), we easily obtain with accuracy $`m/M`$, that $`\beta ^{}(V)\beta (V)`$. A simple calculation leads to the relation between $`\beta (V)`$ and $`D_{}(V)`$:

$$D_{}(V)=2M^1T\beta (V)$$
(42)
This relation is different from the Einstein one already for low $`V`$ and for $`V=0`$ coincides with the result obtained in , as the limiting case ($`Q=0`$) of the Fokker-Planck equation for dusty plasma in the case of the dominant absorption collisions. Here we found this relation, on basis of the theory with velocity-dependent coefficients, based on the probability transition approach, developed above. For more general form of the probability transition, which contains the free functions $`\psi (P)`$,$`\chi (q)`$ and a small parameter $`\zeta \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$, $`w(𝐏,𝐪)=\psi (P)\varphi (\left|𝐪+\zeta 𝐏\right|)\chi (q)`$ it is possible to show, that as above (with accuracy to $`m/M`$) $`\beta ^{}(V)\beta (V)`$ and the relation between $`\beta (V)`$ and $`D_{}(V)`$ also has a form independent from $`V`$ and different from the Einstein one

$$\frac{\beta (V)}{D_{}(V)}=\frac{2\zeta M^2𝑑𝐪q\chi (q)(\frac{\varphi (q)}{q})}{𝑑𝐪q^2\chi (q)\varphi (q)}.$$
(43)
This consideration shows that the structure of the Fokker-Planck equation for the processes, based on the Boltzmann-type collision integrals, is very different from the processes of other type, when the Boltzmann-type collisions are not relevant. For the first type of processes the Einstein relation is valid, even for the case of velocity dependent the friction and diffusion coefficients, but in the limit of low grain velocity $`𝐕v_T`$ . For non-Boltzmann type of momentum transferring the fluctuation-dissipation theorem does not exist even for $`V=0`$, through some relation between the friction and diffusion coefficients can take place (specific for the each type of PT). These results have deep consequences for many physical systems, as well as for the systems of biological nature, e.g., cells, moving in solutions and other, so called, active walkers.

## V Friction and drag force in dusty plasma

In this section as an application of the developed theory we consider the problem of momentum transfer from the ion stream to grains in dusty plasmas. Due to ion absorption and scattering by grains the drag force, acting on grains, appears. This force plays a crucial role in many experimental observations and, probably, is important for formation of voids in dusty plasmas for both ”earthly” \[18-20\] and microgravity  conditions; the theory of voids essentially based on the drag force was given in . The ion drag force $`𝐃_I`$ consists of two parts, so called collection $`𝐃_{Ic}`$ and scattering $`𝐃_{Is}`$ ones. In the paper of Barnes et al. the approximate analytical expressions for the drag collection and scattering forces were done. Later on the theory of drag force was actively developed analytically and numerically \[23-28\] to improve the description of drag force. It was achieved for the scattering part $`𝐃_{Is}`$, in particular, in the recent publications .

Here we are focusing on generalized description of friction and relation between the friction and drag forces. Let us calculate the generalized expression for the friction force $`𝐅_f`$ on basis of the Fokker-Planck equation for the charged grains ((Eqs. (4),(38)). We calculate here $`𝐅_f`$ only for ions, because we are interested the ion part of friction. Generalization for many species of the light components (electrons, atoms) is simple. By integration of Eq. (3) on momentum we find for the time evolution of the average momentum $`𝐏_g`$:

$$\frac{(n_g𝐏_{gi})}{t}=𝑑𝐏\stackrel{~}{A}_i(𝐏,𝐲)f_g(𝐏,t),$$
(44)
The function $`\stackrel{~}{A}_i(𝐏,𝐲)`$ is a generalization of $`A_i(𝐏)`$ of the Eq. (6) for the case of existence of some additional vector in the probability transition. In the case under consideration this vector $`𝐲`$ is the momentum, determined by the velocity of the ion stream $`𝐲=M𝐮`$:

$$\stackrel{~}{A}_i(𝐏,𝐲)=𝑑𝐪q_i\stackrel{~}{w}(𝐏,𝐲,𝐪),$$
(45)
To find $`\stackrel{~}{w}(𝐏,𝐲,𝐪)`$, when there is ion flow in plasma, it is quite natural to use the shifted Maxwellian distribution function of ions.

At first we consider the scattering part $`𝐅_{fs}`$ of $`𝐅_f`$. The probability transition $`\stackrel{~}{w}_s(𝐏,𝐲,𝐪)`$ in this case has the evident property:

$$\stackrel{~}{w}_s(𝐏,𝐲,𝐪)=w_s(𝐏𝐲,𝐪).$$
(46)
Then we obtain the general expression for the friction force $`𝐅_{fs}`$:

$`𝐅_{fs}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle 𝑑𝐏(𝐏𝐲)\beta (\left|𝐏𝐲\right|)f_g(P,t)},`$ (47)
$`\beta (𝐏𝐲)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(𝐏𝐲)^2}}{\displaystyle 𝑑𝐪[𝐪(𝐏𝐲)]w_s(𝐏𝐲,𝐪)},`$ (48)
$`\stackrel{~}{𝐀}(𝐏𝐲)`$ $`=`$ $`(𝐏𝐲)\beta (\left|𝐏𝐲\right|)={\displaystyle 𝑑𝐪𝐪w_s(𝐏𝐲,𝐪)},`$ (49)
In the limit cases of the scattering friction itself $`𝐅_{f0s}𝐅_{fs}^>`$ and scattering ion drag itself $`𝐃_{Is}𝐅_{fs}^<`$ the Eq. (47) can be rewritten as:

$$𝐅_{fs}^>=𝑑𝐏𝐏\beta (\left|𝐏\right|)f_g(P,t),𝐏𝐲$$
(50)
$$𝐅_{fs}^<=n_g𝐲\beta (\left|𝐲\right|),𝐏𝐲$$
(51)
For the momentum distribution function of grains $`f_g=\delta (𝐏𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎})`$ (if the force is calculated for one particle) Eq. (47) takes a form:

$$𝐅_{fs}=(𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}𝐲)\beta (\left|𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}𝐲\right|),$$
(52)
and describes both the friction force itself and the drag force. In general, according to Eq. (47), (52), there is competition between friction and acceleration. For the limiting case of the friction force itself $`𝐅_{f0s}`$ for the grain with momentum $`𝐆`$ and immobile ions and the opposite case - ion drag itself $`𝐃_{\text{I\hspace{0.17em}s}}`$ with the ion velocity $`𝐮=𝐆/𝐌`$ there is natural relation:

$$𝐅_{f0s}𝐅_{fs}^>(𝐆)=𝐅_{\text{f\hspace{0.17em}s}}^<(𝐆)𝐃_{\text{I\hspace{0.17em}s}}(𝐆),$$
(53)
This picture can be easily generalized for a few species of the light particles. From Eqs. (22), (52) we find for $`𝐅_{fs}`$ the representation:

$$𝐅_{fs}=\frac{m(𝐕𝐮)}{(𝐕𝐮)^\mathrm{𝟐}}𝑑𝐯f_i(𝐯𝐕+𝐮)[(𝐮𝐕)𝐯]\left|𝐯\right|\sigma _{tr}(𝐯),$$
(54)
$$\sigma _{tr}(𝐯)=_{\chi _{min}}^{\chi _{max}}𝑑𝛀\frac{d\sigma }{d𝛀}(1\mathrm{cos}\chi ),$$
(55)
Here we use the limits for the angles of integration, taking into account to provide convergence for the Coulomb cross-section in the case of ion-grain scattering. Eq. (54) coincides in the limit case $`𝐕=\mathrm{𝟎}`$ with the well known general formulae for the transferring of momentum from light to heavy particle in the process of scattering, which can be justified from the simple physical arguments, as it was done, e.g., in . For the opposite limit case $`𝐮=\mathrm{𝟎}`$ it describes the friction force $`𝐅_{f0s}`$ for grain. This equation is also applicable, naturally, for the short-range scattering potentials, when $`\chi _{min}=0`$ and $`\chi _{max}=\pi `$. The specific result for $`𝐃_{\text{I\hspace{0.17em}s}}`$ can be written for the Coulomb cross-section in the form:

$`𝐃_{\text{I\hspace{0.17em}s}}=2A_0M𝐮\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Lambda }.`$ (56)
where $`A_0=\frac{\sqrt{2\pi }}{3}(m_i/M)a^2n_iv_{T_i}`$ and $`v_{T_i}\sqrt{T_i/m_i}`$. The parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }e^2Z_gZ_i/aT_i`$ and usually $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$ for dusty plasmas. The structure of the generalized Landau logarithm $`\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ for dusty plasma is very important and have been recently considered in . For very strong interaction the problem of the correct form of $`\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ as function of plasma parameters is still not completely solved.

Let us consider now the generalized collecting friction $`𝐅_{fc}`$ and in particular the collecting drag force $`𝐃_{Ic}`$. The formula of the similar to Eq. (54)structure, but with $`𝐕=0`$ and with the collecting non-transport cross-section, instead transport scattering cross-section, was applied also for the collecting drag force in  and other papers on phenomenological basis. Our goal here to investigate the collecting drag force by use the PT Eq. (41) for absorption and to find the relation between the friction force and the friction coefficient for the collecting process. Recently in  the friction coefficient $`\beta (V)`$ in dusty plasmas was calculated explicitly for arbitrary grain velocity and parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. It was found, that $`\beta (V)`$ can change sign (”negative friction”) from positive to negative for some velocity domain if the parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>1`$. Here we reproduce the result of  for the total friction coefficient for a grain $`\beta (V)`$ (for the particular but important case $`\eta (m_iv^2/2T_i)1`$ and arbitrary $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$):

$`\beta (\eta ,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ $`=`$ $`2A_0[1\mathrm{\Gamma }+4{\displaystyle \frac{n_a}{n_i}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T_am_a}{T_im_i}}\right)^{1/2}`$ (57)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\eta }{5}}(13\mathrm{\Gamma })+\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Lambda }].`$ (58)
The terms in Eq. (58) are proportional to the atom density $`n_a`$ and to $`\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ describe friction respectively with atoms and with ions by scattering. These terms are always positive. Other terms in Eq. (58) describe ”negative friction” due to ion absorption by grains and are negative in the considering limit case $`\eta 1`$ if $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>1`$. ”Negative friction” exists for small $`\eta `$, if the Coulomb scattering is strongly suppressed, when the Coulomb logarithm $`\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is small  (some additional reasons for it reduction are discussed in ), that is typical for strong interaction in dusty plasmas. The level of ionization has to be enough high to provide negative value of the friction coefficient. As we know these conditions in present are not reached in the experimental set-ups. Opportunity for manifestation of ”negative friction” in the experiments requires as we already mentioned the special conditions. From Eqs. (44),(45) and (58) it follows straightforward that the collection friction force itself $`𝐅_{f0c}`$ for a moving grain can be written as:

$$𝐅_{f0c}=𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}\beta (\eta ,\mathrm{\Gamma }).$$
(59)
To find the generalized collecting friction force $`𝐅_{fc}`$ (and therefore also the drag force) we have find the function $`\stackrel{~}{w}_c(𝐏,𝐲,𝐪)`$ for collection. The crucial fact is that the relation similar to Eqs. (46) or (59) for PT function is not correct for the absorption in the case when an ion flow exists ($`𝐮\mathrm{𝟎}`$), due to the different structure of the PT functions for the scattering and collection processes.

To describe the ion stream with the velocity $`𝐮0`$ we use again the shifted Maxwellian distribution of ions. As it easy to see in this case the PT function $`\stackrel{~}{w}_c(𝐏,𝐲,𝐪)`$ can be expressed via $`w_c`$ determined by Eq. (41):

$$\stackrel{~}{w}_c(𝐏,𝐲,𝐪)=w_c(𝐏𝐲,𝐪+\text{m}𝐮).$$
(60)
For the momentum distribution function of grains $`f_g=\delta (𝐏𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎})`$ (if the force is as above calculated for one particle) the friction $`𝐅_{fc}`$ takes the form:

$$𝐅_{fc}=\stackrel{~}{𝐀}(𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎},𝐲)=\mathrm{𝐝𝐪}(𝐪\text{m}𝐮)\text{w}_𝐜(𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}𝐲,𝐪).$$
(61)
This equality can be written in the equivalent form:

$$𝐅_{fc}=m𝐮\beta _1(𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}𝐲)(𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}m𝐮)\beta _2(𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}𝐲),$$
(62)
where the coefficients $`\beta _i`$ are related with the zero and first moments of the PT function:

$$\beta _1=𝑑𝐪w_c(𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}𝐲,𝐪)$$
(63)
$$\beta _2=\frac{1}{(𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}𝐲)^2}𝑑𝐪[𝐪(𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}𝐲)]w_c(𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}𝐲,𝐪)$$
(64)
Let us consider the simple and practically important case, when the both vectors $`𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}`$ and $`𝐲`$ are directed parallel or antiparallel to the same unit vector $`𝐥`$: $`𝐏_\mathrm{𝟎}=\pi _0𝐥`$ and $`𝐲=y_0𝐥`$. Then for the friction we arrive at the following expression:

$`𝐅_{fc}=𝐥\left\{u_0\left[m\beta _1(\pi _0y_0)+M\beta _2(\pi _0y_0)\right]\pi _0\beta _2(\pi _0y_0)\right\},`$ (65)
Here and below we use velocities related with the momenta $`\pi _0MV_0`$ and $`y_0Mu_0`$. Eq. (65) can be represented in the equivalent and explicit form:

$`𝐅_{fc}=𝐥\{mu_0{\displaystyle }\mathrm{𝐝𝐯}{\displaystyle \frac{𝐯𝐥(u_0V_0)}{(u_0V_0)^2}}f_i[𝐯+𝐥(u_0V_0)]v\sigma _c(v)`$ (66)
$`mV_0{\displaystyle }\mathrm{𝐝𝐯}{\displaystyle \frac{[𝐯𝐥+u_0V_0](u_0V_0)}{(u_0V_0)^2}}f_i[𝐯+𝐥(u_0V_0)]v\sigma _c(v)\},`$ (67)
Let us consider the special cases of Eq. (67).
a) $`V_0u_0,u_00`$. In this case we arrive to the friction force $`𝐅_{f0c}`$:

$`𝐅_{f0c}=m𝐕_0{\displaystyle 𝑑𝐯\frac{[𝐕_0(𝐯𝐕_0)]}{V_0^2}f_i[𝐯𝐕_0]v\sigma _c(v)},`$ (68)
This expression coincides with the collecting ion friction force, which leads to the negative collecting friction coefficient for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>1`$  and to the respective relations (58), (59).

b) $`u_0V_0,V_00`$. In this case the generalized collecting friction $`𝐅_{fc}`$ describes the collecting ion drag force $`𝐃_{\text{I\hspace{0.17em}c}}`$ :

$`𝐃_{\text{I\hspace{0.17em}c}}=m𝐮{\displaystyle 𝑑𝐯\frac{𝐮𝐯}{u^2}f_i[𝐯𝐮]v\sigma _c(v)}`$ (69)
This equation coincides with the expression for the collecting drag force, which have been suggested in  and used also in .

c) $`u_00,V_00`$. Temperature of ions is low $`(u_0V_0)v_{Ti}`$, the ion distribution function tends to delta function $`n_i\delta (𝐯+𝐮_0𝐕_0)`$. Then $`𝐅_{fc}`$ tends to the force directed along the ion stream, which we denote as $`𝐃_{I0c}`$:

$`𝐃_{I0c}=mn_i𝐮(u_0V_0)\sigma _c((u_0V_0)),`$ (70)
As it follows from Eq. (70) ion wind in the considered limit always accelerates grains. If $`u_0`$ is parallel to $`V_0`$ and they are close one to another, but both are higher than $`v_{Ti}`$, the enhancement of the drag force $`𝐃_{I0c}`$ occurs with decrease of the relative velocity $`(u_0V_0)`$. It is the consequence of the OML collecting cross-section, which probably can be observable for very fast grains, discovered in some experiments , or in cryogenic discharges.

## VI Active particles

During the last decade investigation of motion of the self-organized objects, as, e.g., cells, is in a focus of interest, due to numerous measurements and observations of their dynamical behavior . Our goal in this work to show, that construction of the relevant probability transition on basis of the simple physical requirements permits to justify the relevant description of such systems. In particular, we show, that for the simplest structure of PT for motion of an active particle, the known (and experimentally verified) structure of the velocity distribution of grains (cells) , which are able to the directed motion near a fixed non-zero velocity, can be justified. The coefficients of this distribution are calculated.

Let us formulate some general conditions to find the structure of the PT for active particles. We suppose that the linear momentum, transferred from a grain (cell) to the surrounding medium, is created by loss of the inner energy of this grain. Below we ignore the processes of energy supply, which can be included separately in more complicated schemes.

At first we assume that the transferred to medium momentum $`𝐪𝐏`$ is distributed near some fixed value $`𝐪_\mathrm{𝟎}`$. The frequency of generation of the transferring momentum q will be denoted as $`\mu (𝐪)`$. It can be approximated, for example, by the product of the functions, describing distributions on modulus $`𝐪=q`$ and on the space angles $`\theta ,\phi `$ between the vectors $`𝐪`$ and $`𝐏`$, if there are no others, besides $`𝐪`$ and $`𝐏`$, characteristic vectors for the system. In this simplest case we can put $`\mu (𝐪)=\nu _0\mu _1(q)\mu _2(\theta ,\phi )`$, where $`\nu _0`$ is the q-independent frequency of momentum generation by a grain (cell). Below we suggest that the $`\phi `$-dependence of $`\mu _2`$ is absent. The distribution $`\mu _1(q)`$ can be gaussian or, for the limit case of very narrow distribution of the transferring momentum, can be approximated by the delta-function $`\mu _1(q)=\lambda _0\delta (qq_0)/q_0^2`$, where $`\lambda _0`$ is a dimensionless constant. For the function $`\mu _2(\theta )`$ we suppose, that the angle $`\theta `$ between the direction of the transferred momentum and the momentum of the active grain is enclosed between the values $`\pi \theta _0<\theta <\pi `$, where $`\theta _0`$ is some acute angle. Due to this amplification of the grains takes place. Consideration for the 2D and 1D cases is evident.

The ”weight function” $`\mathrm{\Delta }(\theta )`$ for the angle $`\theta `$ can be included to describe the axis-symmetrical non-homogeneity of amplification for the different angles $`\theta `$. We can also include two additional weight ”functions”: $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(P)`$ and $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(\epsilon \epsilon _0)`$. The first one describes dependence PT from the modulus $`P`$ of the momentum $`𝐏`$, the second one provides that momentum transferring is possible only if the inner energy of a grain (cell) $`\epsilon `$ is bigger than some fixed minimal value of the inner energy $`\epsilon _0`$, let say $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(\epsilon \epsilon _0)=\vartheta (ϵ\epsilon _0)`$, where $`\vartheta `$ is the step-like function.

Under these assumptions the PT for the momentum transferring $`w_\epsilon `$, due to loss of the inner energy of an active particle, can be written in the case under consideration as:

$$w_\epsilon (𝐏,𝐪)=\nu _0\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(\epsilon \epsilon _0)\mathrm{\Sigma }(P)\mathrm{\Delta }(\theta )\mu _1(q)\vartheta (\theta \pi +\theta _0)\vartheta (\pi \theta ).$$
(71)
The values of the friction and diffusion coefficients follows from general Eqs. (9)-(12):

$`\beta _\epsilon (V)`$ $`=`$ $`2\pi \nu _0\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(\epsilon \epsilon _0){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }(P)}{P}}{\displaystyle \underset{0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}𝑑qq^3\mu _1(q){\displaystyle \underset{\pi \theta _0}{\overset{\pi }{}}}𝑑\theta \mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\theta \mathrm{\Delta }(\theta ),`$ (72)
$`D_\epsilon (V)`$ $`=`$ $`2\pi \nu _0\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(\epsilon \epsilon _0){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }(P)}{M^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}𝑑qq^4\mu _1(q){\displaystyle \underset{\pi \theta _0}{\overset{\pi }{}}}𝑑\theta \mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}^2\theta \mathrm{\Delta }(\theta )`$ (73)
To find the total expressions for $`\beta (P)`$ and $`D(p)`$ we have add to the values (72),(73) of $`\beta _\epsilon (P)`$ and $`D_\epsilon (P)`$ the parts of the friction and diffusion coefficients aroused due to collisions between the cell, moving with the momentum P, and the surrounding particles (atoms) of the solution. For the case of 3D elastic collisions and the hard sphere interaction these parts were calculated on the basis of Eqs. (29)-(30). For the velocities of cells essentially less, than the characteristic velocity of atoms we can ignore the velocity-dependent multipliers and consider the parts of the coefficients $`\beta _{el}(V)=\beta _0`$ and $`D_{el}(V)=D_0`$, connected with the elastic collisions, as the constants. These constants, as well as the initial velocity-dependent functions (for $`V<v_{Ta}`$) (see Eq.(31)) are connected by the Einstein relation $`D_{el}(V)=M^1T\beta _{el}(V)M^1T\beta _0`$.

If we make the natural assumption, that $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(P)`$ is a constant, what means that the PT $`w_\epsilon `$ is not dependent on the cell velocity (as the process, which is determined by the inner state of the grains), we find from the Eq. (72), that $`\beta _\epsilon (P)1/P`$. Due to this specific dependence the Fokker-Planck equation for cells can be written as

$$\frac{df_g(V)}{dt}=\frac{}{V}\left\{[V\beta _0K_\epsilon ]f_g(V)+[D_0+D_\epsilon ]\frac{f_g(V)}{V}\right\},$$
(74)
where $`K_\epsilon >0`$ is a constant, determined by the equality $`\beta _\epsilon \frac{K_\epsilon }{V}`$ and the Eq.(72), and $`D_\epsilon `$ is determined by the Eq.(73). For $`\beta _0`$ can be used the Eq. (29). Finally, the result is $`\beta _0=8\sqrt{2T}mn_aS/(3M\sqrt{\pi m})`$, where $`S=\pi a^2`$ is the area of the grain and $`n_a`$ is the density of the atoms. The stationary solution of the Eq.(74) is the Gaussian distribution:

$$f_g(V)=Cexp\left\{\frac{\beta _0}{2D_\mathrm{\Sigma }}\left(V\frac{K_\epsilon }{\beta _0}\right)^2\right\},$$
(75)
Here $`C`$ is the constant of normalization and $`D_\mathrm{\Sigma }(D_0+D_\epsilon )`$.

The velocity dependence of the distribution function $`f_g(V)`$ (75) coincides with one, which has been found in  on basis of the phenomenological assumption, concerning the structure of the friction coefficient in the Langevin equation. This type of the velocity distribution function in our consideration is the consequence of physically clear choice of the perturbation transition function. It can be generalized for more complicated and practically important cases, when there are one or more (additional to $`𝐏`$) vectors, which determine the direction of $`𝐪`$. It can be some inner vector - ”driver”, which can be orientated on the external (e.g., surface) gradients of density, or temperature, or concentration of some ingredient in the ambient medium. In that case, naturally, the equilibrium state is not effectively one-dimensional. Active particle (e.g., cell) can turn during motion. These problems will be considered separately.

## VII Conclusions

Here we use the simple and effective way for concretization of the Fokker-Planck equation on basis of self-consistent determination of the friction and diffusion coefficients. Both are determined as the functionals of probability transition. This function possesses a very different structure for the Boltzmann-type collisions and the other ones. We found PT for the Boltzmann-type collisions and proved that velocity dependent friction and diffusion coefficients are connected by the Einstein relation for the velocities of grain less than thermal velocity of the small particles. At the same time there is crucial violation of the Einstein relation for the higher grain velocity. Therefore in general for the velocity-dependable friction and diffusion coefficients even for the Boltzmann-type collisions the applicability of the Einstein relation is limited by not very high (nevertheless practically most important) values of the grain velocity. The velocity dependence of these coefficients and renormalization of the friction coefficient in 2D and 3D cases, as a consequence of the tensorial structure of diffusion are found. Because the Fokker-Planck equation is single-valued also for the velocity-dependent coefficients the problem of connection between Langevin and Fokker-Planck equation has to be reformulated as a problem of the relevant (to the Fokker-Planck equation) Langevin equation.

For the non-Boltzmann collisions, e.g. for the absorption collisions, the structure of PT follows from the structure of the collision integral, obtained earlier  and leads, in particular, to the different from the Einstein’s relations between the coefficients in the relevant Fokker-Planck equation already for the region of low grain velocities.

As the example of application of the PT method to the more complicated systems we considered the generalized friction force in dusty plasma. The scattering and collecting parts of this force are determined by the generalized friction coefficient, as a function of ion stream and grain velocities. The remarkable fact is that the sign of the collecting friction coefficient can be negative for some plasma parameters, as it was recently shown . Of cause realization of negative total friction coefficient for grains for dusty plasmas in experiment requires the special conditions, because other mechanisms of friction are exist. The ion drag force in such approach, as well as the friction force itself, are the particular cases of this generalized friction. The ion scattering and collecting drag forces are found and calculated for the various particular cases. Some phenomenological expressions, which have been used for calculations before, are rigorously proved and generalized.

We also constructed the PT for the active particles (e.g., grains or cells) in an ambient medium for some simple situation. On basis of physically clear assumptions we found that the part of the generalized friction coefficient, responsible for self-motion, can possess the peculiarity $`\frac{1}{P}`$, where P is the momentum of a grain. Given appropriate also the usual friction mechanism the stationary solution of the relevant Fokker-Planck equation is gaussian with a peak around some non-zero velocity. Some generalizations of the obtained results for more complicated cases are suggested.

## Acknowledgment

I am very indebted to Sergei Filimonow for his kind and permanent support that provided possibility to write this paper.
Author thanks E.A. Allahyarov, W. Ebeling, U. Erdmann, M.V. Fedorov, V.E. Fortov, A.M. Ignatov, L. Schimansky-Geier, P.P.J.M.Schram, I.M. Sokolov, A.G. Zagorodny for valuable discussions of the various problems, reflected in this work.
Author is grateful to G. Morfill for invitation in the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Garching and to him and S.A. Khrapak for useful discussion of drag force in dusty plasmas.


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# On the effective lagrangian in spinorelectrodynamics with added violationof Lorentz and CPT symmetries

## 1 Introduction

Although conservation of the Lorentz and CPT symmetries belongs to the fundamental laws of nature, various extensions of quantum electrodynamics and, more generally, the standard model with tiny violation of these symmetries have generated current interest in the last decade . In gauge vector sector of quantum electrodynamics a plausible extension is achieved  by adding a Chern-Simons term  to the conventional Maxwell term in the lagrangian

$$(A,k)=\frac{1}{4e^2}SpF^2k\stackrel{~}{F}A,$$
(1.1)
where $`A^\mu `$ is the electromagnetic potential, $`F_{\mu \nu }=_\mu A_\nu _\nu A_\mu `$ is the field strength tensor, $`\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \nu }=\frac{1}{2}\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }F_{\alpha \beta }`$ is its dual, $`Sp`$ is the trace over the Lorentz indices: $`SpMN=M_{\mu \nu }N^{\nu \mu }`$, and metric of the Minkowski space is chosen as $`g_{\mu \nu }=diag(1,1,1,1)`$. Second term in the right hand side of Eq.(1.1) is obviously non-gauge invariant, however, if vector $`k^\mu `$ is space-time independent, then the integral of the second term over the whole space-time is gauge invariant. Consequently, the action and equations of motion of the theory with lagrangian (1.1) are gauge invariant. Position independent vector $`k^\mu `$ selects a preferred direction in space-time, thus violating both the Lorentz and CPT symmetries. Observation of distant galaxies puts a stringent bound on the value of $`k^\mu `$: it should effectively vanish .

An obvious extension of the spinor sector of quantum electrodynamics is

$$(\psi ,\overline{\psi },A,b)=\overline{\psi }(ı\widehat{}\widehat{A}+\widehat{b}\gamma ^5m)\psi ,$$
(1.2)
where $`\widehat{}=\gamma ^\mu _\mu `$, $`[\gamma ^\mu ,\gamma ^\nu ]_+=2g^{\mu \nu }`$ and $`\gamma ^5=ı\gamma ^0\gamma ^1\gamma ^2\gamma ^3`$. If vector $`b^\mu `$ is space-time independent, then a natural question arises, whether a Chern-Simons term can be radiatively induced as a result of interaction of quantized spinor fields in the theory with lagrangian (1.2). Different answers to this question have been obtained, which can be summarized as follows. Perturbative (and even nonperturbative but based on the Feynman diagram technique) calculations yield the induced Chern-Simons term with fixed coefficient, but the value of this coefficient differs depending on a concrete calculation scheme . This discrepancy is analyzed further, and the claim is made that the Chern-Simons term is induced with finite but intrinsically ambiguous coefficient . There are also nonperturbative (nondiagrammatic or functional) approaches which yield either fixed or ambiguous values of the coefficient before the induced Chern-Simons term . At last there are rather diverse arguments that the Chern-Simons term is not radiatively induced .

To shed more light on this problem, we shall compute the effective action of the theory with lagrangian (1.2) in the approximation keeping all orders of position independent electromagnetic field strength $`F_{\mu \nu }`$ and up to the second order in position independent vector $`b^\mu `$. We use the Fock-Schwinger  proper time method and find out that, indeed, the Chern-Simons term is not induced. Moreover, the linear in $`b^\mu `$ terms are absent at all, and the effective action is parity invariant.

## 2 Effective action and its regularization

The effective action is obtained by integrating out the fermionic degrees of freedom in the theory with lagrangian (1.2):

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }(A,b)=ı\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle 𝑑\overline{\psi }𝑑\psi \mathrm{exp}\left[ıd^4x(\psi ,\overline{\psi },A,b)\right]}=`$
$`=ı\mathrm{ln}Det(ı\widehat{}\widehat{A}+\widehat{b}\gamma ^5m)={\displaystyle d^4x^{eff}(A,b)},`$ (2.1)
where

$$^{eff}(A,b)=ıtr<x|\mathrm{ln}(ı\widehat{}\widehat{A}+\widehat{b}\gamma ^5m)|x>$$
(2.2)
is the effective lagrangian, and the trace over spinor indices is denoted by $`tr`$. In the most general case (i.e. for arbitrary space-time dependent vectors $`A^\mu (x)`$ and $`b^\mu (x)`$) the effective action can be represented as a sum of two terms

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(A,b)=\frac{ı}{2}Tr\mathrm{ln}Tr\mathrm{arctan}[(\widehat{}+ı\widehat{A}ı\widehat{b}\gamma ^5)m^1],$$
(2.3)
where

$$=(ı\widehat{}\widehat{A}+\widehat{b}\gamma ^5)^2+m^2,$$
(2.4)
and $`Tr`$ is the trace of the differential operator in functional space: $`TrU=d^4xtr<x|U|x>`$. Since the trace of odd number of $`\gamma `$-matrices vanishes, one gets relation

$$\frac{\delta }{\delta A_\mu (x)}Tr\mathrm{arctan}[(\widehat{}+ı\widehat{A}ı\widehat{b}\gamma ^5)m^1]=\frac{\delta }{\delta b_\mu (x)}Tr\mathrm{arctan}[(\widehat{}+ı\widehat{A}ı\widehat{b}\gamma ^5)m^1]=0,$$
(2.5)
and, therefore, the second term in the right-hand side of Eq.(2.3) can be neglected as inessential. As to the first term in the right-hand side of Eq.(2.3), it can be related to the zeta function of operator $``$

$$\frac{ı}{2}Tr\mathrm{ln}=\frac{ı}{2}\left(\frac{d}{dz}Tr^z\right)|_{z=0}.$$
(2.6)
Using integral representation for the zeta function

$$Tr^z=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(z)}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau \tau ^{z1}Tre^\tau ,Rez>0,$$
(2.7)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(z)`$ is the Euler gamma function, one gets integral representation for the effective action

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(A,b)=\frac{ı}{2}_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{d\tau }{\tau }Tre^\tau .$$
(2.8)
Taking functional derivatives of Eq.(2.3), let us define vector current

$$J^\mu (x)\frac{\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }(A,b)}{\delta A_\mu (x)}=ıtr\gamma ^\mu G(x,x),$$
(2.9)
and axial-vector current

$$J^{\mu 5}(x)\frac{\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }(A,b)}{\delta b_\mu (x)}=ıtr\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^5G(x,x),$$
(2.10)
where

$$G(x,y)=<x|(ı\widehat{}\widehat{A}+\widehat{b}\gamma ^5+m)^1|y>,$$
(2.11)
is the Green’s function. One can write integral representation for the latter:

$$G(x,y)=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau <x|(ı\widehat{}\widehat{A}+\widehat{b}\gamma ^5+m)e^\tau |y>.$$
(2.12)
In the case when $`b_\mu `$ is space-time independent, the effective action can be presented in the form

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(A,b)=\mathrm{\Gamma }(A,0)+_0^1𝑑ud^4xb_\mu J^{\mu 5}(x;u),$$
(2.13)
where $`J^{\mu 5}(x;u)`$ is the axial-vector current with $`ub`$ substituted for $`b`$.

It should be emphasized that most of the above relations are purely formal, since they suffer from ultraviolet divergencies. For instance, Green’s function (2.11) is well-defined at $`xy`$, and diverges at $`xy`$. To regularize the divergence, one introduces a cut off at the lower limit of the integral in representation (2.12). In this way one gets a regularized definition of currents (2.9) and (2.10), which, after appropriate integration, yield the regularized expression for the effective action.

In the present paper we restrict ourselves to the case of space-independent field tensor $`F^{\mu \nu }`$ and vector $`b^\mu `$. Then operator $``$ (2.4) takes form

$$=\pi ^\mu \pi _\mu 2ı\gamma ^5\sigma ^{\mu \nu }b_\mu \pi _\nu +\frac{1}{2}F_{\mu \nu }\sigma ^{\mu \nu }+b^\mu b_\mu +m^2,$$
(2.14)
where

$$\pi _\mu =ı_\mu A_\mu ,\sigma ^{\mu \nu }=\frac{ı}{2}[\gamma ^\mu ,\gamma ^\nu ]_{}.$$
(2.15)
Our aim is to find currents (2.9) and (2.10) and then effective lagrangian (2.2).

## 3 Proper time method

Rotating the integration path in Eq.(2.12) by angle $`\pi /2`$ in the anticlockwise direction (i.e. substituting $`\tau `$ by $`ıs`$), we present the Green’s function in the form

$$G(x,y)=ı_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑s<x|(\widehat{\pi }+\widehat{b}\gamma ^5+m)e^{ıs}|y>,$$
(3.1)
where it is implied that the mass squared in $``$ entails a small negative imaginary part, $`m^2m^2iϵ`$. The idea of the proper time method of Fock  and Schwinger  is to treat operator $``$ as a Hamilton operator that governs evolution in "time" $`s`$ of a hypothetical quantum mechanical system. Then transition amplitude (matrix element of evolution operator $`\mathrm{exp}(ıs)`$)

$$<x|e^{ıs}|y><x(s)|y(0)>,$$
(3.2)
where

$$|y(0)>=|y>,|x(s)>=e^{ıs}|x>,$$
(3.3)
satisfies evolution equation

$$ı_s<x(s)|y(0)>=<x(s)||y(0)>,$$
(3.4)
with boundary conditions

$$\underset{s0}{lim}<x(s)|y(0)>=\delta (xy),\underset{s\mathrm{}}{lim}<x(s)|y(0)>=0.$$
(3.5)
Commutation relations

$`[x^\mu ,\pi ^\nu ]_{}=ıg^{\mu \nu },[\pi ^\mu ,\pi ^\nu ]_{}=ıF^{\mu \nu },`$
$`[\sigma ^{\mu \nu },\sigma ^{\omega \rho }]_{}=2ı(\sigma ^{\mu \rho }g^{\nu \omega }\sigma ^{\nu \rho }g^{\mu \omega }\sigma ^{\mu \omega }g^{\nu \rho }+\sigma ^{\nu \omega }g^{\mu \rho }),`$ (3.6)
$`[x^\mu ,x^\nu ]_{}=[x^\mu ,\sigma ^{\omega \rho }]_{}=[\pi ^\mu ,\sigma ^{\omega \rho }]_{}=0,`$
are invariant under unitary transformation

$`X^\mu (s)`$ $`=`$ $`e^{ıs}X^\mu (0)e^{ıs},\mathrm{\Pi }^\mu (s)=e^{ıs}\mathrm{\Pi }^\mu (0)e^{ıs},`$ (3.7)
$`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\mu \nu }(s)`$ $`=`$ $`e^{ıs}\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\mu \nu }(0)e^{ıs},`$
where

$$X^\mu (0)=x^\mu ,\mathrm{\Pi }^\mu (0)=\pi ^\mu ,\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\mu \nu }(0)=\sigma ^{\mu \nu },$$
(3.8)
can be regarded as quantum mechanical observable operators in the Schrodinger representation, while $`X^\mu (s),\mathrm{\Pi }^\mu (s),\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\mu \nu }(s)`$ as those in the Heisenberg representation. The latter satisfy evolution equations:

$$\dot{X}^\mu (s)=ı[,X^\mu (s)]_{},\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}^\mu (s)=ı[,\mathrm{\Pi }^\mu (s)]_{},\dot{\mathrm{\Sigma }}^{\mu \nu }(s)=ı[,\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\mu \nu }(s)]_{}.$$
(3.9)
Using the explicit form of Hamilton operator $``$ and commutation relations (3.6), one can compute commutators in the right hand sides of Eq.(3.9), and then solve this system of equations. Using the solution, one can compute the matrix element in the right hand side of Eq.(3.4), and then solve this equation and find transition amplitude (3.2). The consistency relations must hold:

$`<x(s)|\mathrm{\Pi }_\mu (s)|y(0)>`$ $`=`$ $`[ı_\mu ^{(x)}A_\mu (x)]<x(s)|y(0)>,`$
$`<x(s)|\mathrm{\Pi }_\mu (0)|y(0)>`$ $`=`$ $`[ı_\mu ^{(y)}A_\mu (y)]<x(s)|y(0)>,`$
$`<x(s)|X^\mu (s)|y(0)>`$ $`=`$ $`x^\mu <x(s)|y(0)>,`$ (3.10)
$`<x(s)|X^\mu (0)|y(0)>`$ $`=`$ $`y^\mu <x(s)|y(0)>,`$
$`<x(s)|\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\mu \nu }(s)|y(0)>`$ $`=`$ $`\sigma ^{\mu \nu }<x(s)|y(0)>,`$
$`<x(s)|\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\mu \nu }(0)|y(0)>`$ $`=`$ $`<x(s)|y(0)>\sigma ^{\mu \nu }.`$
Let us find the transition amplitude in the case of $``$ given by Eq.(2.14) with constant uniform electromagnetic field strength. System of evolution equations (3.9) takes form

$`\dot{X}^\mu (s)`$ $`=`$ $`2\mathrm{\Pi }^\mu (s)2ı\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\mu \nu }(s)b_\nu \gamma ^5,\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}_\mu (s)=2F_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{\Pi }^\nu (s)2ıF_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\nu \omega }(s)b_\omega \gamma ^5,`$
$`\dot{\mathrm{\Sigma }}^{\mu \nu }(s)`$ $`=`$ $`2[F^{\mu \omega }g_{\omega \rho }\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\rho \nu }(s)\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\mu \omega }(s)g_{\omega \rho }F^{\rho \nu }]+4ı\{[\mathrm{\Pi }^\mu (s)b_\omega b^\mu \mathrm{\Pi }_\omega (s)]\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\omega \nu }(s)`$
$`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{\mu \omega }(s)[\mathrm{\Pi }_\omega (s)b^\nu b_\omega \mathrm{\Pi }^\nu (s)]\}\gamma ^5.`$
The system is solved in the linear in $`b`$ approximation yielding, in obvious matrix notations,

$`X(s)X(0)=2e^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}\mathrm{\Pi }(0)2ıe^{2Fs}\mathrm{\Sigma }(0){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}b\gamma ^5,`$
$`\mathrm{\Pi }(s)=e^{2Fs}\mathrm{\Pi }(0)2ıe^{2Fs}F\mathrm{\Sigma }(0){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}b\gamma ^5,`$
$`\mathrm{\Sigma }(s)=e^{2Fs}\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)e^{2Fs}+4ıe^{2Fs}\{[\mathrm{\Pi }(0)be^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}b\mathrm{\Pi }(0)]\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)`$
$``$ $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)[\mathrm{\Pi }(0)be^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}b\mathrm{\Pi }(0)]\}e^{2Fs}\gamma ^5.`$
Using two last relations in Eq.(3.12), we get

$``$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Pi }^2(s)+2ı\gamma ^5\mathrm{\Pi }(s)\mathrm{\Sigma }(s)b{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}SpF\mathrm{\Sigma }(s)+m^2=\mathrm{\Pi }^2(0)+`$
$`+`$ $`2ı\gamma ^5\mathrm{\Pi }(0)\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)b{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}SpF\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)+m^2.`$
The last equation states that the Hamilton operator in the Heisenberg representation coincides with that in the Schrodinger representation being independent of $`s`$, as it should be. However, the matrix element of $``$ in the right hand side of Eq.(3.4) is s-dependent, and, to find this dependence, one has to express operator (3.13) through operators $`X(s),X(0)`$ and either $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(s)`$ or $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)`$. Using the first relation in Eq.(3.12), we get

$`\mathrm{\Pi }(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e^{Fs}F}{2\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}[X(s)X(0)]+ıe^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}\mathrm{\Sigma }(0){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}b\gamma ^5,`$ (3.14)
$`\mathrm{\Pi }(s)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e^{Fs}F}{2\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}[X(s)X(0)]+ıe^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}\mathrm{\Sigma }(s){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}b\gamma ^5,`$
and, consequently,

$`\mathrm{\Pi }^2(s)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}[X(s)X(0)]{\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(Fs)}}[X(s)X(0)]+`$
$`+`$ $`ı[X(s)X(0)]{\displaystyle \frac{e^{2Fs}F^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(Fs)}}\mathrm{\Sigma }(s){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}b\gamma ^5.`$
Using commutational relation

$$[X_\mu (s),X_\nu (0)]_{}=ı\left(\frac{e^{Fs}\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}\right)_{\mu \nu },$$
(3.16)
and adding relevant terms to $`\mathrm{\Pi }^2(s)`$, we get $``$ (3.13) as a proper-time-ordered function of X(s) and X(0)

$``$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}X(s){\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(Fs)}}X(s)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}X(s){\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(Fs)}}X(0){\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}X(0){\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(Fs)}}X(0)`$
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{ı}{2}}SpF\mathrm{coth}(Fs){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}SpF\mathrm{\Sigma }(s)+m^2+`$
$`+`$ $`ı[X(s)X(0)]{\displaystyle \frac{e^{Fs}F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}\left[\mathrm{\Sigma }(s){\displaystyle \frac{e^{Fs}F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}\mathrm{\Sigma }(s){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}\right]b\gamma ^5,`$
or, alternatively
$``$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}X(s){\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(Fs)}}X(s)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}X(s){\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(Fs)}}X(0){\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}X(0){\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(Fs)}}X(0)`$
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{ı}{2}}SpF\mathrm{coth}(Fs){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}SpF\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)+m^2`$
$``$ $`ı\gamma ^5b\left[\mathrm{\Sigma }(0){\displaystyle \frac{e^{Fs}F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}\mathrm{\Sigma }(0){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}\right]{\displaystyle \frac{e^{Fs}F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}[X(s)X(0)],`$
Using the last four relations in Eq.(3.10), we find two forms of the matrix element of $``$

$$<x(s)||y(0)>=P^{(a)}(x,y;s)<x(s)|y(0)>=<x(s)|y(0)>P^{(b)}(x,y;s),$$
(3.18)
where

$`P^{(a)}(x,y;s)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}(xy){\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(Fs)}}(xy){\displaystyle \frac{ı}{2}}SpF\mathrm{coth}(Fs){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}SpF\sigma +m^2+`$ (3.19a)
$`+`$ $`ı(xy){\displaystyle \frac{e^{Fs}F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}\left[\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{e^{Fs}F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}\right]b\gamma ^5,`$
and
$`P^{(b)}(x,y;s)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}(xy){\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(Fs)}}(xy){\displaystyle \frac{ı}{2}}SpF\mathrm{coth}(Fs){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}SpF\sigma +m^2`$ (3.19b)
$``$ $`ı\gamma ^5b\left[\sigma e^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{Fe^{Fs}}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}\right]{\displaystyle \frac{e^{Fs}F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}(xy),`$
Substituting Eq.(3.19) into the right hand side of evolution equation (3.4), and solving the latter, we get two equivalent expressions for the transition amplitude:

$`<x(s)|y(0)>={\displaystyle \frac{ı}{(4\pi )^2}}\mathrm{exp}\{ı{\displaystyle _y^x}d\xi [A+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}F(\xi y)]\}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{s^2}}\times `$ (3.20a)
$`\times `$ $`\mathrm{exp}[{\displaystyle \frac{ı}{4}}(xy)F\mathrm{coth}(Fs)(xy){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}Sp\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{Fs}}ısm^2]\times `$
$`\times `$ $`\mathrm{exp}\left[(xy)e^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}b\gamma ^5\right]\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{ıs}{2}}SpF\sigma \right),`$
and
$`<x(s)|y(0)>={\displaystyle \frac{ı}{(4\pi )^2}}\mathrm{exp}\{ı{\displaystyle _y^x}d\xi [A+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}F(\xi y)]\}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{s^2}}\times `$ (3.20b)
$`\times `$ $`\mathrm{exp}[{\displaystyle \frac{ı}{4}}(xy)F\mathrm{coth}(Fs)(xy){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}Sp\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{Fs}}ısm^2]\times `$
$`\times `$ $`\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{ıs}{2}}SpF\sigma \right)\mathrm{exp}\left[\gamma ^5be^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}e^{Fs}(xy)\right],`$
where the $`b`$ dependent exponential should be understood as expanded up to the first order in $`b`$. Also we get relations

$`\gamma ^\mu <x(s)|\mathrm{\Pi }_\mu (s)|y(0)>`$ $`=`$ $`[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\gamma e^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}(xy)+ı\gamma e^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}e^{Fs}b\gamma ^5]\times `$ (3.21a)
$`\times `$ $`<x(s)|y(0)>,`$
and
$`<x(s)|\mathrm{\Pi }_\mu (0)|y(0)>\gamma ^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`<x(s)|y(0)>[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(xy)e^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}\gamma `$ (3.21b)
$`ı\gamma ^5be^{Fs}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}{F}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sinh}(Fs)}}e^{Fs}\gamma ],`$
and one can verify that the first two relations in Eq.(3.10) are valid. Consequently, we get two equivalent representations for Green’s function $`G(x,y)`$ which, after rotating the integration path in Eq.(3.1) back $`(s=ı\tau )`$, take form

$`G(x,y)={\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}d\tau [{\displaystyle \frac{ı}{2}}\gamma e^{ıF\tau }{\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}}(xy)+ı\gamma e^{ıF\tau }{\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}{F}}e^{ıF\tau }b\gamma ^5+`$
$`+\gamma b\gamma ^5+m]<x(ı\tau )|y(0)>,`$ (3.22a)
and
$`G(x,y)={\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}d\tau <x(ı\tau )|y(0)>[{\displaystyle \frac{ı}{2}}(xy){\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sinh}(F\tau )}}e^{ıF\tau }\gamma `$
$`ı\gamma ^5be^{ıF\tau }{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}{F}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}}e^{ıF\tau }\gamma \gamma ^5b\gamma +m].`$ (3.22b)
## 4 Currents

Inserting either Eq.(3.20a) or (3.20b) into Eqs.(3.22a) and (3.22b), taking limit $`yx`$ and retaining terms which are not higher than first order in $`b^\mu `$, we get two equivalent expressions for vector current (2.9):

$`J^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(4\pi )^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau }{\tau ^2}}\mathrm{exp}[\tau m^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}Sp\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}{F\tau }}]\times `$ (4.1a)
$`\times `$ $`tr\gamma ^5\gamma ^\mu \gamma [ıe^{ıF\tau }{\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}{F}}e^{ıF\tau }+1]b\mathrm{exp}({\displaystyle \frac{\tau }{2}}Sp\sigma F),`$
and
$`J^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(4\pi )^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau }{\tau ^2}}\mathrm{exp}[\tau m^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}Sp\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}{F\tau }}]\times `$ (4.1b)
$`\times `$ $`tr\mathrm{exp}({\displaystyle \frac{\tau }{2}}Sp\sigma F)b[ıe^{ıF\tau }{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}{F}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}}e^{ıF\tau }+1]\gamma \gamma ^\mu \gamma ^5,`$
and for axial-vector current (2.10):

$`J^{\mu 5}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(4\pi )^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau }{\tau ^2}}\mathrm{exp}[\tau m^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}Sp\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}{F\tau }}]\times `$ (4.2a)
$`\times `$ $`tr\gamma ^\mu \gamma [ıe^{ıF\tau }{\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}{F}}e^{ıF\tau }+1]b\mathrm{exp}({\displaystyle \frac{\tau }{2}}Sp\sigma F),`$
and
$`J^{\mu 5}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(4\pi )^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau }{\tau ^2}}\mathrm{exp}[\tau m^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}Sp\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}{F\tau }}]\times `$ (4.2b)
$`\times `$ $`tr\mathrm{exp}({\displaystyle \frac{\tau }{2}}Sp\sigma F)b[ıe^{ıF\tau }{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}{F}}\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{F}{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}}e^{ıF\tau }+1]\gamma \gamma ^\mu .`$
One can notice that

$$(J^{}_{}{}^{}\mu )^{}=J^\mu ,(J^{{}_{}{}^{}\mu 5})^{}=J^{\mu 5},$$
(4.3)
and, therefore, both vector and axial-vector currents have to be real, if representations (3.22a) and (3.22b) are indeed equivalent.

In order to take traces over $`\gamma `$-matrices in Eqs.(4.1)–(4.2), one uses expansion of the exponential of the $`\sigma `$-matrix,

$$\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{\tau }{2}Sp\sigma F\right)=C_1(\tau )I+C_2(\tau )Sp\sigma F+C_3(\tau )ı\gamma ^5+C_4(\tau )ı\gamma ^5Sp\sigma F,$$
(4.4)
and relations

$$(\stackrel{~}{F}^2)_{\mu \nu }=(F^2)_{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{2}g_{\mu \nu }SpF^2,(F\stackrel{~}{F})_{\mu \nu }=(\stackrel{~}{F}F)_{\mu \nu }=\frac{1}{4}g_{\mu \nu }Sp(F\stackrel{~}{F}),$$
(4.5)
$$\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }(FK)_{\alpha \beta }=(\stackrel{~}{F}K)^{\mu \nu }(K\stackrel{~}{F})^{\mu \nu }+\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \nu }SpK,$$

where $`K_{\mu \nu }`$ is an arbitrary symmetric second-rank Lorentz tensor, and evident identities $`tr\gamma ^5\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^\nu \sigma ^{\alpha \beta }=4\epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }`$, $`tr\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^\nu \sigma ^{\alpha \beta }=4ı(g^{\mu \alpha }g^{\nu \beta }g^{\mu \beta }g^{\nu \alpha })`$. Thus, we get

$$ReJ^\mu =\frac{1}{(2\pi )^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau e^{\tau m^2}\omega ^{\mu \nu }(\tau )b_\nu ,ImJ^\mu =\frac{1}{(2\pi )^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau e^{\tau m^2}\rho ^{\mu \nu }(\tau )b_\nu ,$$
(4.6)
and

$$ReJ^{\mu 5}=\frac{1}{(2\pi )^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau e^{\tau m^2}\omega _5^{\mu \nu }(\tau )b_\nu ,ImJ^{\mu 5}=\frac{1}{(2\pi )^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau e^{\tau m^2}\rho _5^{\mu \nu }(\tau )b_\nu ,$$
(4.7)
where

$`\omega ^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=C_0(\tau )\{C_1(\tau )\left(\stackrel{~}{F}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }+C_2(\tau )[4\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \nu }\left(\stackrel{~}{F}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ]+`$
$`+C_3(\tau )[(\mathrm{sin}2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ]C_4(\tau )[4(F\mathrm{cos}2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }`$ (4.8)
$`(\mathrm{sin}2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau +2\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF^2]\},`$
$`\rho ^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=C_0(\tau )\{2C_1(\tau )\left(\stackrel{~}{F}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }2C_2(\tau )\left(\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau `$ (4.9)
$``$ $`C_3(\tau )[2(\mathrm{cos}^2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ]C_4(\tau )[4(F\mathrm{sin}2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }`$
$`2(\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau \left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF^2]\},`$
$`\omega _5^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=C_0(\tau )\{C_1(\tau )[2(\mathrm{cos}^2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ]+`$
$`+C_2(\tau )\left[4(F\mathrm{sin}2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }2(\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau \left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF^2\right]+`$
$`+2C_3(\tau )\left(\stackrel{~}{F}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }2C_4(\tau )\left(\stackrel{~}{F}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}(F\tau )\},`$ (4.10)
$`\rho _5^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=C_0(\tau )\{C_1(\tau )[(\mathrm{sin}2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ]`$
$``$ $`C_2(\tau )[4(F\mathrm{cos}2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }(\mathrm{sin}2F\tau )^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau +2\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF^2]`$
$`C_3(\tau )\left(\stackrel{~}{F}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }C_4(\tau )[4\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \nu }\left(\stackrel{~}{F}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ]\},`$
and notation

$$C_0(\tau )=\tau ^2\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{2}Sp\mathrm{ln}\frac{\mathrm{sin}F\tau }{F\tau }\right)$$
(4.12)
is introduced for brevity. Coefficient functions $`C_j(\tau )`$ ($`j=\overline{1,4}`$) are given explicitly by expressions

$`C_1(\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`Re\mathrm{cosh}\left[\tau \sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(SpF^2+ıSpF\stackrel{~}{F})}\right],`$
$`C_2(\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`Re{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}\left[\tau \sqrt{\frac{1}{2}(SpF^2+ıSpF\stackrel{~}{F})}\right]}{\sqrt{2(SpF^2+ıSpF\stackrel{~}{F})}}},`$
$`C_3(\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`Im\mathrm{cosh}\left[\tau \sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(SpF^2+ıSpF\stackrel{~}{F})}\right],`$ (4.13)
$`C_4(\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`Im{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}\left[\tau \sqrt{\frac{1}{2}(SpF^2+ıSpF\stackrel{~}{F})}\right]}{\sqrt{2(SpF^2+ıSpF\stackrel{~}{F})}}},`$
and $`C_0(\tau )`$ (4.12) is expressed as (see Ref.)

$$C_0(\tau )=SpF\stackrel{~}{F}[4C_3(\tau )]^1.$$
(4.14)
There are remarkable relations among $`C_j(\tau )`$:

$$C_1(\tau )(\mathrm{tan}F\tau )^{\mu \nu }=2[C_2(\tau )F^{\mu \nu }+C_4(\tau )\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \nu }]$$
(4.15)
and

$$C_3(\tau )(\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^{\mu \nu }=2[C_2(\tau )\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \nu }C_4(\tau )F^{\mu \nu }].$$
(4.16)
In Appendix we prove these relations and find out that

$$\omega ^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=\rho ^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=\rho _5^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=0,$$
(4.17)
and

$`\omega _5^{\mu \nu }(\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`g^{\mu \nu }\{SpF^2+{\displaystyle \frac{[SpF^4\frac{1}{2}(SpF^2)^2](SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^2+4(SpF^3\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^2}{2[4SpF^4(SpF^2)^2]}}\}+`$ (4.18)
$`+`$ $`(F^2)^{\mu \nu }\left[2{\displaystyle \frac{SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau (SpF^2SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau 4SpF^3\mathrm{cot}F\tau )}{4SpF^4(SpF^2)^2}}\right].`$
Thus, vector current $`J^\mu `$ (2.9) is vanishing, whereas axial-vector current $`J^{\mu 5}`$ (2.10) is real (as it should be) and divergent. Regularizing the divergence by introducing a small positive $`\tau _0`$ as the lower limit of the $`\tau `$-integral in Eq.(4.7), and separating the divergent at $`\tau _00`$ term from the convergent one, we get

$$J^{\mu 5}=\frac{b^\mu }{2\pi ^2}\left[\frac{1}{\tau _0}+m^2\mathrm{ln}(m^2\tau _0e^{\gamma 1})\right]+\frac{1}{(2\pi )^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau e^{\tau m^2}\left[\omega _5^{\mu \nu }(\tau )+\frac{2}{\tau ^2}g^{\mu \nu }\right]b_\nu ,$$
(4.19)
where $`\gamma `$ is the Euler constant.

## 5 Effective lagrangian

Using either (3.20a) or (3.20b), we get

$$<x(ı\tau )|x(0)>=\frac{ı}{(4\pi )^2}\frac{1}{\tau ^2}\mathrm{exp}\left[\tau m^2\frac{1}{2}Sp\mathrm{ln}\frac{\mathrm{sin}(F\tau )}{F\tau }\right]\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{\tau }{2}Sp\sigma F\right),$$
(5.1)
and, consequently,

$$\frac{ı}{2}_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{d\tau }{\tau }tr<x|e^\tau |x>=\frac{1}{8\pi ^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{d\tau }{\tau }e^{\tau m^2}C_0(\tau )C_1(\tau ),$$
(5.2)
where $`C_0(\tau )`$ and $`C_1(\tau )`$ are given by Eqs.(4.13) and (4.14). This coincides with the Schwinger’s result , proving that the linear in $`b`$ corrections to the effective action are absent, which is consistent with the vanishing of vector current $`J^\mu `$. The nonvanishing of axial-vector current $`J^{\mu 5}`$ results in the appearance of the quadratic in $`b`$ corrections to the effective action.

Really, Eq.(2.13), rewritten in terms of the effective lagrangian (density of the effective action), takes form

$$^{eff}(A,b)^{eff}(A,0)=\frac{1}{2}b_\mu J^{\mu 5},$$
(5.3)
where we have used the linearity of $`J^{\mu 5}`$ (4.19) in $`b`$ and integrated over parameter $`u`$. Thus, identifying $`^{eff}(A,0)`$ with Eq.(5.2) we get

$$^{eff}(A,b)=\frac{1}{8\pi ^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau e^{\tau m^2}[\frac{1}{\tau }C_0(\tau )C_1(\tau )b\omega _5(\tau )b],$$
(5.4)
where $`\omega _5^{\mu \nu }(\tau )`$ is given by Eq.(4.18) and the first term in square brackets can be also presented in a similar manner as Eq.(4.18):

$$C_0(\tau )C_1(\tau )=\frac{1}{16}\left[(SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^2\frac{(SpF^2SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau 4SpF^3\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^2}{4SpF^4(SpF^2)^2}\right].$$
(5.5)
Regularizing divergence of the integral in Eq.(5.4) by introducing cut off $`\tau _0`$ and separating the divergent at $`\tau _00`$ terms from the convergent ones, we get

$`^{eff}(A,b)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{(4\pi )^2}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau _0^2}}2{\displaystyle \frac{m^2}{\tau _0}}m^4\mathrm{ln}(m^2\tau _0e^{\gamma \frac{3}{2}})\right]{\displaystyle \frac{SpF^2}{3(4\pi )^2}}\mathrm{ln}(m^2\tau _0e^\gamma )`$
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{b^2}{(2\pi )^2}}[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau _0}}+m^2\mathrm{ln}(m^2\tau _0e^{\gamma 1})]{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}d\tau e^{\tau m^2}[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau }}C_0(\tau )C_1(\tau )`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau ^3}}+{\displaystyle \frac{SpF^2}{6\tau }}b\omega _5(\tau )b2{\displaystyle \frac{b^2}{\tau ^2}}].`$
Subtraction of terms in the first square brackets in the right hand side of Eq.(5.6) corresponds to the requirement that the effective lagrangian should vanish at vanishing $`F`$ and $`b`$. Subtraction of other terms which are not included into the convergent integral corresponds to the redefinition (renormalization) of bare parameters of the lagrangian of the bosonic sector. Namely, the logarithmically divergent term which is proportional to $`SpF^2`$ is combined with the Maxwell term to produce the charge renormalization: $`\frac{SpF^2}{4e^2}\frac{SpF^2}{4e_{ren}^2}`$ . In a quite similar way, the terms in the second square brackets in the right hand side of Eq.(5.6) are absorbed into the renormalization of the coefficient before $`b^2`$: $`\kappa ^2b^2\kappa _{ren}^2b^2`$. Thus, we are left with the finite renormalized effective lagrangian,

$$_{ren}^{eff}(A,b)=\frac{1}{8\pi ^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau e^{\tau m^2}\left[\frac{1}{\tau }C_0(\tau )C_1(\tau )\frac{1}{\tau ^3}+\frac{SpF^2}{6\tau }b\omega _5(\tau )b2\frac{b^2}{\tau ^2}\right],$$
(5.7)
which with the use of Eqs.(4.18) and (5.5) is rewritten in explicit form

$`_{ren}^{eff}(A,b)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}d\tau e^{\tau m^2}({\displaystyle \frac{1}{16\tau }}[(SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^2`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{(SpF^2SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau 4SpF^3\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^2}{4SpF^4(SpF^2)^2}}]{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau ^3}}+{\displaystyle \frac{SpF^2}{6\tau }}+`$
$`+b^2\left\{SpF^2+{\displaystyle \frac{[SpF^4\frac{1}{2}(SpF^2)^2](SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^2+4(SpF^3\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^2}{2[4SpF^4(SpF^2)^2]}}{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\tau ^2}}\right\}`$ (5.8)
$`bF^2b[2{\displaystyle \frac{SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau (SpF^2SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau 4SpF^3\mathrm{cot}F\tau )}{4SpF^4(SpF^2)^2}}]).`$
In the case of weak field strength, $`F^{\mu \nu }m^2`$, the last expression takes form

$$_{ren}^{eff}(A,b)=\frac{1}{12\pi ^2}\left\{\frac{1}{120m^4}\left[7SpF^4\frac{5}{2}(SpF^2)^2\right]+\frac{1}{m^2}\left(bF^2b\frac{1}{2}b^2SpF^2\right)\right\};$$
(5.9)
note that the terms of the zeroth order in $`b`$ were first obtained more than 65 years ago by Heisenberg and Euler  and Weisskopf .

In the case of purely electric or magnetic field one has $`SpF^4=\frac{1}{2}(SpF^2)^2`$ and $`SpF^2=2E^2`$ or $`SpF^2=2H^2`$, where $`E`$ and $`H`$ are the absolute values of the electric and magnetic field strengths, correspondingly. Expression (5.8) takes form

$`_{ren}^{eff}(A,b)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}d\tau e^{\tau m^2}\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau }}({\displaystyle \frac{E}{\tau }}\mathrm{cot}E\tau {\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau ^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}E^2)`$
$`2[𝐛^2E^2(\mathrm{𝐛𝐄})^2]({\displaystyle \frac{E^2}{\mathrm{sin}^2E\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau ^2}})\}`$ (5.10)
in the case of purely electric field with strength $`𝐄(|𝐄|=E)`$, and

$`_{ren}^{eff}(A,b)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}d\tau e^{\tau m^2}\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau }}({\displaystyle \frac{H}{\tau }}\mathrm{coth}H\tau {\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}H^2)+`$
$`+2[(b^0)^2H^2(\mathrm{𝐛𝐇})^2]({\displaystyle \frac{H^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2H\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau ^2}})\}`$ (5.11)
in the case of purely magnetic field with strength $`𝐇(|𝐇|=H)`$. Note that the effective lagrangian does not depend on the time component of $`b^\mu `$ in the case of purely electric field.

In the case of vector $`𝐄`$ directed along vector $`𝐇`$ one has $`SpF^{2n}=2[E^{2n}+(1)^nH^{2n}]`$, and expression (5.8) takes form

$`_{ren}^{eff}(A,b)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}d\tau e^{\tau m^2}\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau }}[EH\mathrm{cot}E\tau \mathrm{coth}H\tau {\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau ^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}(E^2H^2)]+`$
$`+2b^2({\displaystyle \frac{H^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2H\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau ^2}})2[𝐛^2{\displaystyle \frac{(\mathrm{𝐛𝐄})^2+(\mathrm{𝐛𝐇})^2}{E^2+H^2}}]({\displaystyle \frac{E^2}{\mathrm{sin}^2E\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{H^2}{\mathrm{sinh}^2H\tau }})\}.`$ (5.12)
At last, in the case of $`E=H`$, when $`SpF^2=0`$ and $`SpF^4=\frac{1}{4}(SpF\stackrel{~}{F})^2=4H^4\mathrm{cos}^2\theta `$ ($`\theta `$ is the angle between vectors $`𝐄`$ and $`𝐇`$), expression (5.8) takes form

$`_{ren}^{eff}(A,b)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}d\tau e^{\tau m^2}\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau }}[H^2\mathrm{cos}\theta \mathrm{cot}(\tau H\sqrt{\mathrm{cos}\theta })\mathrm{coth}(\tau H\sqrt{\mathrm{cos}\theta }){\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau ^2}}]`$
$`2b^2H^2\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2\frac{\theta }{2}}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\tau H\sqrt{\mathrm{cos}\theta })}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{cos}^2\frac{\theta }{2}}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(\tau H\sqrt{\mathrm{cos}\theta })}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\tau ^2H^2}}\right]`$
$`[2𝐛^2H^2(\mathrm{𝐛𝐄})^2(\mathrm{𝐛𝐇})^2][{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\tau H\sqrt{\mathrm{cos}\theta })}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sinh}^2(\tau H\sqrt{\mathrm{cos}\theta })}}]\}.`$ (5.13)
## 6 Conclusion

In the present paper we have used the proper time method  to calculate the effective action of the theory with lagrangian (1.2) in the case when electromagnetic field strength $`F^{\mu \nu }`$ and vector $`b^\mu `$ are space-time independent. Previous attempts to solve this task  were unconvincing , because the dependence of $`\gamma `$-matrices on the proper time had not been adequately taken into account. Really, since the commutator of Hamilton operator $``$ (2.14) with $`\sigma `$ is nonzero, the latter has to evolve in proper time as well as canonical variables, and the correct system of the evolution equations is given by Eq.(3.11)<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1In the case of $`b^\mu `$ equal to zero, the evolution equation for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(s)`$ decouples, and Hamilton operator (3.13) loses the dependence on the evolution of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(s)`$, owing to relation $`SpF\mathrm{\Sigma }(s)=SpF\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)`$ in this case.. We solve this system in the linear in $`b`$ approximation and get transition amplitude (3.20) and Green’s function (3.22). Further, we find that vector current $`J^\mu `$ (2.9) is vanishing, which ensures that the Chern-Simons term is not induced, because, otherwise, the current would be nonvanishing, $`J^\mu =\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \nu }k_\nu `$, see Eq.(1.1). Moreover, the vanishing of $`J^\mu `$ means that corrections to the effective action of the first order in $`b`$ are absent, and parity is not violated in this approximation, although it is explicitly violated in initial lagrangian (1.2). Also, we find that axial-vector current $`J^{\mu 5}`$ (2.10) is nonvanishing and is given by gauge invariant expressions (4.18)–(4.19). This allows us to get corrections to the effective action of the second order in $`b`$, and we find that the renormalized (finite) effective lagrangian is given by Eq.(5.8). It should be noted that the $`\tau `$-integral for the quadratic in $`b`$ terms in Eq.(5.8) is indeed convergent in the case of purely magnetic field only, see Eq.(5.11). In the case of nonvanishing electric field, when the terms of zeroth order in $`b`$ develop nonvanishing imaginary part due to simple poles of the cotangent function, the $`\tau `$-integral for the quadratic in $`b`$ terms is divergent due to double poles of the inverse squared sine function, see Eqs.(5.10), (5.12) and (5.13). Thus, the latter $`\tau `$-integral is not to be understood literally but, instead, regarded just as a mere algorithm to get terms up to any finite order in powers of $`F^2/m^4`$; in particular, for the lowest nonvanishing order, see Eq.(5.9).

It should be emphasized that vanishing of vector current $`J^\mu `$ is related to the use of the approximation of the space-time independent field strength. If the field strength is inhomogeneous, then the current is nonvanishing even in the zeroth order in $`b`$. Whether the inhomogeneity of the field strength results in linear in $`b`$ corrections to $`J^\mu `$ and, consequently, in parity violating terms in the effective action, remains to be an open question which needs further investigation.

## Acknowledgements

The work was supported by INTAS (grant INTAS OPEN 00-00055) and Swiss National Science Foundation (grant SCOPES 2000-2003 7 IP 62607).

## Appendix

Let us consider quantity

$`\lambda ^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=\omega ^{\mu \nu }+(\rho \mathrm{cot}F\tau )^{\mu \nu }=C_0\{4C_2\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \nu }+C_3[2(\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^{\mu \nu }(F^1)^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ]+`$
$`+2C_4[2F^{\mu \nu }(F^1)^{\mu \nu }SpF^2]\}.`$ (A.1)
Since $`\lambda ^{\mu \nu }`$ contains only odd powers of the field strength, see Eqs.(4.8) and (4.9), its most general form is

$$\lambda ^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=\mathrm{\Lambda }_1(\tau )F^{\mu \nu }+\mathrm{\Lambda }_2(\tau )\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \nu },$$
(A.2)
where

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_1(\tau )=\frac{4SpF^3\lambda (\tau )SpF^2SpF\lambda (\tau )}{(SpF^2)^2+(SpF\stackrel{~}{F})^2},$$

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_2(\tau )=(SpF\stackrel{~}{F})^1\left[SpF\lambda (\tau )SpF^2\frac{4SpF^3\lambda (\tau )SpF^2SpF\lambda (\tau )}{(SpF^2)^2+(SpF\stackrel{~}{F})^2}\right].$$
(A.3)
Multiplying Eq.(A.1) by appropriate powers of the field strength and taking traces, we find

$`SpF\lambda (\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`2C_0(C_3SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau 2C_2SpF\stackrel{~}{F}+2C_4SpF^2),`$
$`SpF^3\lambda (\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}C_0SpF\stackrel{~}{F}(C_3Sp\stackrel{~}{F}\mathrm{cot}F\tau +2C_2SpF^2+2C_4SpF\stackrel{~}{F}).`$ (A.4)
By using the eigenvalue method of Schwinger (see Ref. ), one can express $`SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau `$ and $`Sp\stackrel{~}{F}\mathrm{cot}F\tau `$ via $`SpF^2`$ and $`SpF\stackrel{~}{F}`$. The eigenvalue equation for $`F`$ has four solutions with eigenvalues $`\pm f^{(1)}`$ and $`\pm f^{(2)}`$, where

$`f^{(1)}={\displaystyle \frac{ı}{2\sqrt{2}}}[(SpF^2+ıSpF\stackrel{~}{F})^{\frac{1}{2}}+(SpF^2ıSpF\stackrel{~}{F})^{\frac{1}{2}}],`$
$`f^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{ı}{2\sqrt{2}}}[(SpF^2+ıSpF\stackrel{~}{F})^{\frac{1}{2}}(SpF^2ıSpF\stackrel{~}{F})^{\frac{1}{2}}],`$ (A.5)
and eigenvalues of $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ are related to those of $`F`$:

$$\stackrel{~}{f}^{(l)}=\frac{SpF\stackrel{~}{F}}{4f^{(l)}},l=1,2.$$
(A.6)
Thus we get

$$SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau =2[f^{(1)}\mathrm{cot}(f^{(1)}\tau )+f^{(2)}\mathrm{cot}(f^{(2)}\tau )],$$
(A.7)
and

$$Sp\stackrel{~}{F}\mathrm{cot}F\tau =\frac{SpF\stackrel{~}{F}}{2f^{(1)}f^{(2)}}[f^{(2)}\mathrm{cot}(f^{(1)}\tau )+f^{(1)}\mathrm{cot}(f^{(2)}\tau )],$$
(A.8)
which, upon substitution of Eq.(A.5), yield

$$SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau =\frac{2}{C_3}(C_2SpF\stackrel{~}{F}C_4SpF^2)$$
(A.9)
and

$$Sp\stackrel{~}{F}\mathrm{cot}F\tau =\frac{2}{C_3}(C_2SpF^2+C_4SpF\stackrel{~}{F}).$$
(A.10)
The last relations ensure that traces in Eq.(A.4) are equal to zero, and consequently,

$$\lambda ^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=0.$$
(A.11)
Now, using Eq.(A.9), we can get rid of terms $`(F^1)^{\mu \nu }`$ in Eq.(A.1), and get relation (4.16) in Section 4.

Let us consider quantity

$`\lambda _5^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=\omega _5^{\mu \nu }+(\rho _5\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^{\mu \nu }=2C_0\{C_2[2(F\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^{\mu \nu }g^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ]+C_3(\stackrel{~}{F}F^1)^{\mu \nu }+`$
$`+C_4[2(\stackrel{~}{F}\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^{\mu \nu }(\stackrel{~}{F}F^1)^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ]\}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\{{\displaystyle \frac{C_2}{C_3}}SpF\stackrel{~}{F}[2(F\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^{\mu \nu }`$
$`g^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ]+4(\stackrel{~}{F}^2)^{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{C_4}{C_3}}[2(F\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^{\mu \nu }SpF\stackrel{~}{F}4(\stackrel{~}{F}^2)^{\mu \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ]\},`$ (A.12)
where in the last line Eq.(4.14) is used. Since $`\lambda _5^{\mu \nu }`$contains only even powers of the field strength, see Eqs.(4.10) and (4.11), its most general form is

$$\lambda _5^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=\mathrm{\Omega }_1(\tau )g^{\mu \nu }+\mathrm{\Omega }_2(\tau )(\stackrel{~}{F}^2)^{\mu \nu }=[\mathrm{\Omega }_1(\tau )\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Omega }_2(\tau )SpF^2]g^{\mu \nu }+\mathrm{\Omega }_2(\tau )(F^2)^{\mu \nu },$$
(A.13)
where, due to the first relation in Eq.(4.5), either $`(\stackrel{~}{F}^2)^{\mu \nu }`$ or $`(F^2)^{\mu \nu }`$ can be chosen as complimentary to $`g^{\mu \nu }`$. Similarly to Eq.(A.3), scalar functions in Eq.(A.13) are related to appropriate traces:

$`\mathrm{\Omega }_1(\tau )={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}Sp\lambda _5(\tau )+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}SpF^2{\displaystyle \frac{4SpF^2\lambda _5(\tau )SpF^2Sp\lambda _5(\tau )}{(SpF^2)^2+(SpF\stackrel{~}{F})^2}},`$
$`\mathrm{\Omega }_2(\tau )={\displaystyle \frac{4SpF^2\lambda _5(\tau )SpF^2Sp\lambda _5(\tau )}{(SpF^2)^2+(SpF\stackrel{~}{F})^2}}.`$ (A.14)
Using Eqs.(A.9), (A.10) and first two relations in Eq.(4.5), we get

$`\mathrm{\Omega }_1(\tau )=8C_0^2(C_2^2+C_4^2)={\displaystyle \frac{(SpF\stackrel{~}{F})^2[(SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^2+(Sp\stackrel{~}{F}\mathrm{cot}F\tau )^2]}{8[(SpF^2)^2+(SpF\stackrel{~}{F})^2]}},`$ (A.15)
and

$`\mathrm{\Omega }_2(\tau )=2[12C_3^2C_4(C_2SpF\stackrel{~}{F}C_4SpF^2)]=`$
$`=2+SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau {\displaystyle \frac{SpF^2SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau +SpF\stackrel{~}{F}Sp\stackrel{~}{F}\mathrm{cot}F\tau }{(SpF^2)^2+(SpF\stackrel{~}{F})^2}}.`$ (A.16)
Using Eqs.(A.9) and (4.16), we reduce Eq.(4.9) to the form

$`\rho ^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=2C_0[C_1g_\beta ^\mu 2(C_2F^{\mu \alpha }+C_4\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \alpha })(\mathrm{cot}F\tau )_{\alpha \beta }]\left(\stackrel{~}{F}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau }{F}}\right)^{\beta \nu },`$ (A.17)
and, similarly, Eq.(4.11) with the use of Eq.(4.16) is reduced to the form

$`\rho _5^{\mu \nu }(\tau )=C_0[C_1g_\beta ^\mu 2(C_2F^{\mu \alpha }+C_4\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \alpha })(\mathrm{cot}F\tau )_{\alpha \beta }]\times `$
$`\times [(\mathrm{sin}2F\tau )^{\beta \nu }({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2F\tau }{F}})^{\beta \nu }SpF\mathrm{cot}F\tau ].`$ (A.18)
Thus, in order to prove the vanishing of $`\rho ^{\mu \nu }`$ and $`\rho _5^{\mu \nu }`$, it is sufficient to prove relation

$$C_1g_\beta ^\mu 2(C_2F^{\mu \alpha }+C_4\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \alpha })(\mathrm{cot}F\tau )_{\alpha \beta }=0.$$
(A.19)
First, using again Eq.(4.16), we get

$$(C_2F^{\mu \alpha }+C_4\stackrel{~}{F}^{\mu \alpha })(\mathrm{cot}F\tau )_{\alpha \beta }=g_\beta ^\mu (2C_3)^1[(C_2^2C_4^2)SpF\stackrel{~}{F}2C_2C_4SpF^2].$$
(A.20)
Then, using explicit form of $`C_j`$ (4.13), we find relation

$$C_1C_3=(C_2^2C_4^2)SpF\stackrel{~}{F}2C_2C_4SpF^2,$$
(A.21)
which, together with the previous relation, proves Eq.(A.19) and, consequently, Eq.(4.15).

Thus, $`\rho ^{\mu \nu }`$ and $`\rho _5^{\mu \nu }`$ are equal to zero, and, in view of Eq.(A.11), $`\omega ^{\mu \nu }`$ is also equal to zero, whereas $`\omega _5^{\mu \nu }`$ is equal to $`\lambda _5^{\mu \nu }`$ (A.13), which with the use of Eq.(4.5) is recast into the form with dual field $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ eliminated, resulting in Eq.(4.18).