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# Assessing the state of galaxy formation.

## 1. Introduction

What is the current state of galaxy formation in the local universe? There have been many recent detections of H i clouds near larger spiral galaxies in the local universe. Such detections include H i clouds around NGC 925 (Pisano, Wilcots, & Elmegreen 1998), IC 10 (Wilcots & Miller 1998), four of five barred Magellanic spirals (Wilcots, Lehman, & Miller 1996), four of 16 low surface brightness dwarf galaxies and four of nine H ii galaxies (Taylor et al. 1993, 1996), and high-velocity clouds (HVCs) around M101 (Kamphuis 1993), NGC 628 (Kamphuis & Briggs 1992, and in our own Local Group (see Wakker & van Woerden 1997; Blitz et al. 1999). Typical clouds have 107-108$`M_{}`$ of H i amounting to 1%-50% of the mass of the primary galaxy.

In numerous cases these H i clouds have been suggested to be remnant material from the galaxy formation process (e.g. NGC 925, IC 10, NGC 628, etc…). Current models of cold dark matter galaxy formation in which disk galaxies were built up via the accretion of smaller bodies in a hierarchical merging process predict such remnant material to exist (e.g. Navarro, Frenk, & White 1995). Unfortunately the serendipitous nature of these detections inhibit our ability to divine the true origin of the H i clouds. These H i clouds could be primordial material, but could also be material ejected via a galactic fountain or superwind, tidal debris from a recent interaction, or simply a small dwarf galaxy companion. Therefore, few, if any, of the H i clouds represent unambiguous detections of the remnant reservoir of gas from which galaxies formed.

To determine what the current state of galaxy formation is, we have conducted a systematic search for the remnant gas around a sample of extremely isolated and quiescent galaxies. The results from the pilot survey of six galaxies were reported in Pisano & Wilcots 1999, here we report of the current status of the expanded survey.

## 2. Sample

In order to determine the origin of H i clouds around other galaxies it is important to have a well-defined sample. We chose galaxies from the Nearby Galaxies Catalog (Tully 1988). The galaxies were classified as isolated such that they had no known companions with $`M_B`$-16 mag within 1 Mpc of them. In addition, galaxies were chosen that were classified as non-peculiar. These two conditions minimize the chance of the galaxy having had a recent interaction or merger so there should be no tidal debris around our sample galaxies. Our galaxies were also chosen to be quiescent (i.e. not Seyferts or starbursts) so that any gas around these galaxies is unlikely to be galactic ejecta from a galactic fountain or superwind.

Finally, galaxies were chosen such that they were large enough and close enough to resolve with the VLA in D configuration and the ATCA .750 configuration (D$`{}_{25}{}^{}`$1, R$``$45 Mpc), yet far enough away to probe out at least 90 kpc (R$``$21 Mpc). This left us with 60 galaxies in the entire sky; we observed 34 of those galaxies

## 3. Observations

Between November 1997 and February 2000 we observed a total of 34 galaxies with the VLA and ATCA. A total of 600 km s-1 was covered at a resolution of 5.2 km s-1 for each observation. The sample galaxies had distances between 21 Mpc and 45 Mpc, allowing us to survey out to a radius of 92 - 192 kpc at a resolution of $``$1(6.1-12.8 kpc). The resulting observations have $`\sigma `$0.5-1$`\times `$1019cm-1 per channel for the column density. The mass detection limits are 8.3$`\pm `$3.5$`\times `$106$`M_{}`$ for a 5$`\sigma `$ detection over 2 channels (10.4 km s-1). The range of mass detection limits comes from varying sensitivity and distance for each galaxy.

## 4. Results

Of the 34 galaxies surveyed we detected gas-rich companions in H i around 7 of them (see figures 1 & 2). Another 5 galaxies have “disturbed” H i morphologies (figures 3 & 4); either severe warps or lopsided distributions possibly indicative of a recent minor merger. The remaining 22 galaxies are relatively normal with all of the idiosyncrasies we typically see in galaxies such as small warps and asymmetries.

The detected companions have M$`_\text{}\text{i}`$ between 108$`M_{}`$ and 109$`M_{}`$, which corresponds to 3%-30% of the primary galaxy’s mass in H i. The companions appear show signatures of rotation, so based on the rotation widths and sizes of the companions we determined their dynamical masses to be between 109$`M_{}`$ and 1010$`M_{}`$, which is 0.5%-10% of the main galaxy’s dynamical masses. The ratio of H i mass to dynamical mass for the companions range from 7%-85%. All H i clouds detected have spatially coincident optical emission, with the possible exception of UGC 11152. All of these properties are consistent with the gas-rich companions being typical dwarf galaxies.

This does not, however, mean that we have not detected the gaseous remnants of galaxy formation, but simply that these gas clouds formed stars before being accreted by the primary galaxy. It is important to confirm, however, that these gas-rich companions will eventually be accreted. Our companions have projected separations of 20-100 kpc (1-6 Rgal) in radius and 20-100 km s-1 in velocity. These numbers imply an orbit time, which is roughly equal to the dynamical friction timescale, of 5-10 Gyr. These companions turn out to be in relatively stable orbits.

## 5. Implications for the nature of High-Velocity Clouds

The Blitz et al. (1999) model for the origin of HVCs in the Local Group suggests that they are primordial material left over from the formation of the Local Group. In this model HVCs are at large distances from the Milky Way (R$``$750kpc-1Mpc) and, therefore, have large masses (M$`{}_{\text{}\text{i}}{}^{}`$107$`M_{}`$).

While our survey was not optimized to examine the origin of HVCs, there are some intriguing implications from its results. We detected no objects that resembled HVCs (i.e. no gas-rich companions without stars). Furthermore, we detected no companions smaller than 108$`M_{}`$ in H i down to our detection limit at $``$107$`M_{}`$. This implies that if HVCs are associated with galaxy formation, they must either have masses lower than 107$`M_{}`$ and/or be at projected separations greater than 140 kpc. The former suggestion is somewhat unlikely, because we do detect larger companions and while one might expect more H i clouds at lower masses, we do not detect any down to our detection limit. Another possible explanation for our non-detection of HVCs is that they are associated with group formation, and not with the formation of individual, isolated galaxies. Either way, any explanation for a primordial origin of HVCs in the Local Group must account for our non-detection of them around isolated galaxies.

## 6. Implications for Galaxy Formation

The main goal of this work was to assess the state of galaxy formation in the local universe. At this point in time, this work has yielded three main implications for galaxy formation:

First, galaxy formation appears to be an efficient process. As discussed above, we found no companions with H i masses below 108$`M_{}`$ implying that there is not a population of low mass H i clouds within $``$100 kpc of these galaxies.

Second, galaxy formation has basically concluded. Only $``$20% of isolated galaxies have low-mass ($``$10%Mgal), gas-rich companions, (which are in stable orbits). Therefore most of the gas must already be in the main galaxy. The mass outside of the main galaxy will take a long time ($``$5 Gyr) to be accreted.

Third, galaxy formation may have recently ended. Another 15% of isolated galaxies have disturbed H i morphologies suggesting that they may have recently (in the last 1 Gyr) undergone a minor merger ($``$10% Mgal).

The accretion rates implied by this work (10% of Mgal over 6 Gyr for $``$40% of galaxies) are consistent with those derived by Toth & Ostriker (1992) from the scale height of the Milky Way, Zaritsky & Rix (1997) from the frequency of asymmetries, and Navarro, Frenk, & White (1995) from galaxy formation simulations. Future work on this project will involve further increasing the number of galaxies surveyed, comparing the stellar properties of the main galaxies and companions with their H i properties and more detailed comparisons of our detection rates with theoretical predictions.

### Acknowledgments.

D.J.P. wishes to thank the Wisconsin Space Grant Consortium for support for this work and the conference organizers for providing a student travel grant to help attend the conference. D.J.P. and E.M.W. were supported by NSF grants AST-9616907 and AST-9875008.

## References

Blitz, L., Spergel, D.N., Teuben, P.J., Hartmann, D., & Burton, W.B., 1999, ApJ, 514, 818

Kamphuis, J., 1993, Ph.D. thesis

Kamphuis, J., & Briggs, F.H., 1992, A&A, 253, 335

Navarro, J.F., Frenk, C.S., & White, S.D.M., 1995, MNRAS, 275, 56

Pisano, D.J., Wilcots, E.M., & Elmegreen, B.G., 1998, AJ, 115, 975

Pisano, D.J., & Wilcots, E.M., 1999, AJ, 117, 2168

Taylor, C.L., Brinks, E., & Skillman, E.D., 1993, AJ, 105, 128

Taylor, C.L., Thomas, D.L., Brinks, E., & Skillman, E.D., 1996, ApJS, 107, 143

Toth, G., & Ostriker, J.P., 1992, 389, 5

Tully, R.B., 1988, Nearby Galaxies Catalog (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press)

Wakker, B.P., & van Woerden H., 1997, ARA&A, 35, 217

Wilcots, E.M., Lehman, C., & Miller, B., 1996, AJ, 111, 1575

Wilcots, E.M., & Miller, B., 1998, AJ, 116, 2363

Zaritsky, D., & Rix, H.-W., 1997, ApJ, 477, 118


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# The Orbit Space Approach to the Theory of Phase Transitions: The Non-Coregular Case

## 1 The Orbit Space (OS) Approach

Invariant functions under the transformations of a Compact Linear Group (CLG) acting in $`1\mathrm{R}^n`$ can be expressed in terms of functions defined in the OS of the group, i.e. as functions of a finite set of basic invariant polynomials $`p(x)(p_1(x),\mathrm{},p_q(x))`$, $`x1\mathrm{R}^n`$, which may be chosen to form a Minimal Integrity Basis (MIB) for the group $`G`$. Such an observation, originally due to Gufan (1971), simplifies the determination of the patterns of spontaneous symmetry breaking (SSB) in theories in which the ground state is determined by the minimum of an invariant potential $`V(x)`$. When $`p`$ ranges in the domain spanned by $`p(x),x1\mathrm{R}^n`$, the function $`\widehat{V}(p)`$ has the same range as $`V(x)`$, but is not plagued by the same degeneracies. A correct exploitation of this idea required, however, the determination of the ranges of the functions $`p_i(x)`$, a problem which was completely solved only using the powerful tools of geometric invariant theory. An excellent review with motivations and references was written by G. Sartori . He discovered a simple recipe allowing to determine the structure of the OS of any CLG (the $`\widehat{P}`$-matrix approach). The OSs admit an analytical image in terms of connected semi-algebraic varieties, whose defining relations can be expressed from (semi)positivity conditions of matrices $`\widehat{P}(p)`$, which are constructed only through the knowledge of a MIB for the group. In solid state physics, the OS approach was applied to the Landau theory of phase transitions, but it was mainly reduced to a naive numerical technique. Since the free energy expansion is commonly considered up to the 6th degree in the order parameter, the OS was realized through a “projection” onto the subspace of $`1\mathrm{R}^q`$ corresponding to invariants $`p_a(x)`$ such that $`\text{deg}p_a(x)6`$. On the contary, using the $`\widehat{P}`$-matrix-approach, it is possible to get an exact, complete analytical determination of the primary stratification of the OS, as it was shown for the “classical” example of $`\text{Ba Ti O}_3`$ transitions . Nevertheless the complete MIB’s are at disposal only for finite groups generated by reflections, and for simple Lie groups . A way to obtain the matrices $`\widehat{P}(p)`$ generated by CLG’s, bypassing the problem, is to use an axiomatic approach, which is based on the notion of MIB transformations . An equivalence relation is defined on the set of $`\widehat{P}`$-matrix, consequently on the set of OSs. Thus, universality properties of the schemes of SSB are pointed out; here, we shall examine the non-coregular case.

## 2 Non-Coregular Compact Linear Groups

Given a MIB $`p(x)(p_1(x),\mathrm{},p_q(x))`$, if polynomial functions $`\widehat{F}`$ exist such that $`\widehat{F}(p_1(x),\mathrm{},p_q(x))0`$, then $`G`$ is said to be non-coregular.

Examples: Consider the 2-dimensional point groups $`C_n`$, $`n2`$ and the 3-dimensional point groups $`Y`$, $`O`$, $`T_h`$, $`T`$.

Let $`\{\widehat{F}_A(p)\}_{1AK}`$ be a complete set of basic homogeneous relations among the elements of a MIB. The polynomials $`\widehat{F}_A(p)`$ can be chosen to be $`w`$-homogeneous and irreducible on $`\mathrm{C}\text{ }`$. The associated equations $`\widehat{F}_A(p)=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$, define an irreducible algebraic variety in $`1\mathrm{R}^q`$ (and in $`\mathrm{C}\text{ }^q`$ for $`p\mathrm{C}\text{ }^q`$), the variety $`𝒵`$ of the relations among the elements of the MIB.

The variety $`𝒵`$ has a singularity in $`p=0`$. In fact, for all $`A`$, $`\widehat{F}_A(p)`$ cannot be solved polynomially with respect to anyone of the basic invariants $`p_a`$. The absence of linear terms in any $`p_a`$ implies the vanishing of $`\widehat{F}_A(0)`$ and $`\widehat{F}_A(0)`$ for all $`A=1,\mathrm{},K`$. For $`k=\text{dim}(𝒵)`$, the couple $`(q,k)`$ will define the regularity type (called $`r`$-type) of $`G`$.

## 3 Characterizing the matrices $`\widehat{P}(p)`$

The $`\widehat{P}`$-matrices associated to CLG’s will be characterized through a set of structural properties that can be put in the form of differential relations.

Therefore, forgetting altogether the original definition of the matrices $`\widehat{P}(p)`$, we shall be able to determine the $`\widehat{P}`$-matrices as solutions of a system of differential equations obeying convenient initial conditions.

Although we cannot enter the details of the generalization of the coregular approach , we shall point out the new initial conditions which fit the non-coregular case . We shall show the striking results obtained for groups of r-type $`(q,q1)`$ in the simplest case of MIBs having cardinality $`q=3`$.

Let $`\sigma `$ be a general primary stratum of $`\overline{𝒮}p(1\mathrm{R}^n)`$, and $`(\sigma )`$ the ideal formed by all the polynomials in $`p1\mathrm{R}^q`$ vanishing on $`\sigma `$. Every $`\widehat{f}(p)(\sigma )`$ defines in $`1\mathrm{R}^n`$ an invariant polynomial function $`f(x)=\widehat{f}(p(x))`$, and $`f(x)=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$ for all $`x\mathrm{\Sigma }_f=p^1(\sigma )`$. As in the coregular case, the gradient $`f(x)`$ is obviously orthogonal to $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_f`$ at every $`x\mathrm{\Sigma }_f`$, but, it must also be tangent to $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_f`$ since $`f(x)`$ is a G–invariant function . Consequently, it has to vanish on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_f`$:

$$0=f(x)=\underset{1}{\overset{q}{}}{}_{b}{}^{}_{b}^{}\widehat{f}(p)p_b(x)|_{p=p(x)},x\mathrm{\Sigma }_f.$$
(1)
By taking the scalar product of (1) with $`p_a(x)`$, we end up with the following boundary conditions:

$$\underset{1}{\overset{q}{}}{}_{b}{}^{}\widehat{P}_{ab}^{}(p)_b\widehat{f}(p)(\sigma ),\widehat{f}(\sigma )\text{and}\sigma \overline{𝒮}.$$
(2)
Relation (2) can be re-proposed in the form of a differential relation involving only polynomial functions of $`p`$. According to the Hilbert basis theorem, the ideal $`(\sigma )`$ is finitely generated. Let $`\{f^{(1)}(p),f^{(2)}(p),\mathrm{},f^{(m)}(p)\}`$ be a $`w`$-homogeneous basis for $`(\sigma )`$, then (2) is equivalent to the following relations:

$$\underset{1}{\overset{q}{}}{}_{b}{}^{}\widehat{P}_{ab}^{}(p)_bf^{(r)}(p)=\underset{1}{\overset{m}{}}{}_{s}{}^{}\lambda _{a}^{(rs)}(p)f^{(s)}(p),a=1,\mathrm{},q;r=1,\mathrm{},m,$$
(3)
where the $`\lambda ^{(rs)}`$’s are $`w`$-homogeneous polynomial functions of $`p`$.

If, in particular, $`\sigma `$ is a $`(q1)`$-dimensional primary stratum, the ideal $`(\sigma )`$ has a unique irreducible generator, $`a(p)`$, and (3) reduces to the simpler form

$$\underset{1}{\overset{q}{}}{}_{b}{}^{}\widehat{P}_{ab}^{}(p)_ba(p)=\lambda _a(p)a(p),a=1,\mathrm{},q.$$
(4)
Equation (4) will be quoted as master relation. It is valid for the principal stratum of the OS of a group of $`r`$-type $`(q,q1)`$.

The structure of (4) has been completely analyzed . We just recall that, like in the coregular case, $`a(p)`$ is a polynomial factor of $`det\widehat{P}(p)`$; besides, there exist particular MIB’s, which we shall call $`A`$-bases, in which the master relation takes the following canonical form:

$$\underset{1}{\overset{q}{}}{}_{b}{}^{}\widehat{P}_{ab}^{}(p)_bA(p)=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\delta _{aq}w(A)A(p),a=1,\mathrm{},q.$$
(5)
But there are further properties which are peculiar to the coregular case. They play the role of initial conditions, because they are so restrictive to select among the solutions of the canonical equation just the ones which may correspond to (images) of OSs of coregular CLGs (allowable solutions).

* Consider the hyperplane $`\mathrm{\Pi }=\{p(p_1,\mathrm{},p_q)|p_q=1\}`$ of $`1\mathrm{R}^q`$. The restriction $`A(p)|_\mathrm{\Pi }`$, of $`A(p)`$ to $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ has a unique local non degenerate maximum lying at $`p^{(0)}=(0,\mathrm{},0,1)`$.
* The matrix $`\widehat{P}(p^{(0)})`$ is block diagonal and, for standard $`A`$-bases, it is diagonal: $`\widehat{P}_{ab}(p^{(0)})=d_ad_b\delta _{ab}`$, $`(a,b=1,\mathrm{},q)`$.

### 3.1 Second order boundary conditions

The $`\widehat{P}`$-matrices generated by non-coregular groups do not satisfy the set of “initial conditions” specified above, but the presence of relations connecting the elements of any MIB gives rise to interesting constraints.

Let us consider a compact non-coregular group $`G`$, whose OS is realized as a semi-algebraic subset $`\overline{𝒮}`$ of the variety $`𝒵`$ of the relations. Let $`(𝒵)`$ be the ideal of the polynomial functions of $`p`$ vanishing on $`𝒵`$. Any polynomial $`\widehat{F}(p)(𝒵)`$ defines an identity in $`1\mathrm{R}^n`$:

$$F(x)=\widehat{F}(p(x))=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},x1\mathrm{R}^n,$$
(6)
which, after differentiating twice with respect to $`x_i`$ and summing over $`i`$, gives rise to the following condition, valid $`x1\mathrm{R}^n`$:

$$\underset{1}{\overset{n}{}}{}_{i}{}^{}\{\underset{1}{\overset{q}{}}{}_{a,b}{}^{}_{ab}^{}\widehat{F}(p(x))_ip_b(x)_ip_a(x)+\underset{1}{\overset{q}{}}{}_{a}{}^{}_{a}^{}\widehat{F}(p(x))_i^2p_a(x)\}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}.$$
(7)
Since $`G`$ is a matrix subgroup of $`\text{O}_n(1\mathrm{R})`$, the $`n`$-dimensional Laplacian of any invariant polynomial function of $`x`$ is a $`G`$-invariant polynomial. Thus Hilbert’s theorem ensures the existence of a set $`\{\widehat{l}_a(p)\}_{a=1,2,\mathrm{},q}`$ of $`w`$-homogeneous polynomials in $`p1\mathrm{R}^q`$ with weights $`w(\widehat{l}_a)=d_a2`$, such that:

$$l_a(x)=\underset{1}{\overset{n}{}}{}_{i}{}^{}_{i}^{2}p_a(x)=\widehat{l}_a(p(x)),a=1,2,\mathrm{},q.$$
(8)
The identity expressed in (7) induces, through the orbit map, the following polynomial relation, valid for all $`p\overline{𝒮}=p(1\mathrm{R}^n)`$, and consequently, for all $`p𝒵`$, as $`p(1\mathrm{R}^n)`$ is a semi-algebraic subset of $`𝒵`$ of the same dimension as $`𝒵`$:

$$\underset{1}{\overset{q}{}}{}_{a,b}{}^{}\widehat{P}_{ab}^{}(p)_a_b\widehat{F}(p)+\underset{1}{\overset{q}{}}{}_{a}{}^{}\widehat{l}_{a}^{}(p)_a\widehat{F}(p)=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},p𝒵.$$
(9)
We stress that, owing to the convention $`p_q=_{j=1}^nx_j^2`$, we get $`l_q=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}n`$. Even if in our approach the explicit form of the polynomials of a MIB is not specified, we have a clue of the power of relation (9), since it is linked with the effective group action. The parameter $`n`$ interprets the role of the dimension of the real space in which $`G`$ acts. Therefore (9) will be considered as a sort of second order boundary condition in which $`l_q=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}n4`$ .

If the group $`G`$ is of r-type $`(q,q1)`$, the ideal $`(𝒵)`$ has a unique generator $`\widehat{F}(p)`$, which fulfils the canonical equation (5). It may be proved that (9) holds identically $`p1\mathrm{R}^q`$, essentially for weight reasons . The solution procedure consists in expressing all the polynomials involved in (5) and (9) in the most general form in agreement with their structural properties. For groups $`G`$ of r-type $`(3,2)`$ we get a complicated system of coupled algebro-differential equations. Some simplifications are obtained replacing (9) with a form in which it appears only the first order derivative of $`\widehat{F}(p)`$. The $`_3\widehat{F}(p)`$ term can be eliminated using the w-homogeneity conditions on $`\widehat{F}(p)`$.

### 3.2 Allowable $`\widehat{P}`$-matrices: the non-coregular case

A proper solution is a couple $`(\widehat{P}(p),\widehat{F}(p))`$, where $`\widehat{F}(p)`$ is the factor of $`\text{det}\widehat{P}(p)`$ which defines the variety $`𝒵`$. Consider the semialgebraic variety $`^{()}=\{p𝒵|\widehat{P}(p)0\}`$. In our approach for non-coregular groups, $`^{()}`$ and its algebraic stratification may potentially be identified with (the image of) the OS of an actual group only if the following conditions hold:

* On $`𝒵`$, $`\text{rank}(\widehat{P}(p))k`$ and the set $`=\{p𝒵|\widehat{P}(p)0,\text{rank}(\widehat{P}(p))=k\}`$ is $`k`$-dimensional and connected; its closure $`\overline{}^{()}`$.
* $`\widehat{P}(p)`$ satisfies the boundary conditions (2), for each primary stratum $`\sigma _{i}^{}{}_{}{}^{(\alpha )}`$ of $`\overline{}`$, and the second order boundary condition (9) for each $`\widehat{F}(p)(𝒵)`$.

If that is the case, we speak of allowable non-coregular solution $`(\widehat{P}(p),\widehat{F}(p))`$.

## 4 The results

We proved that Eq. 5 with Eq. 9 as initial condition admits only 3 families of proper solutions .

Solution family S1: It is found in correspondence with the degrees $`d_1=k(1+2m),d_2=2k,`$ for $`k,m\text{ }1\mathrm{N}_{}`$. It depends on the parameter $`ϵ=\pm 1`$. For $`ϵ=+1`$, the set $`^{()}`$ is not connected, neither the boundary conditions are satisfied at the peripherical strata. For $`ϵ=1`$, the set $`^{()}\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is 0-dimensional. Thus, this family does not determine allowable $`\widehat{P}`$-matrices.

Solution family S2: The degrees are $`d_1=6k,d_2=4k,`$ for $`k\text{ }1\mathrm{N}_{}`$. It is a one-parameter collection of distinct classes of equivalent $`\widehat{P}`$-matrices, which defines an allowable solution only for the value $`z=0`$ of the parameter. Nevertheless, the generator of $`𝒵`$ is $`\widehat{F}(p)=p_{1}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}+p_{2}^{}{}_{}{}^{3}`$. Thus, the existence of a generating group can be excluded on the basis of a general proposition .

Solution family S3: Among the 4 distinct classes of proper solutions, we get only 1 class of allowable $`\widehat{P}`$-matrices which exactly coincides with the coregular solution of r-type $`(3,3)`$ for the class I(1,1) . Generating coregular groups of the first element of the family are, for instance, the linear groups $`\text{SO}(n,1\mathrm{R})`$ acting in $`1\mathrm{R}^n1\mathrm{R}^n`$ for $`n3`$.

Thus we can assert that coregular and non-coregular groups may share the same $`\widehat{P}`$-matrix. The non-coregular solution for degrees $`d_1=d_2=k2,k\text{ }1\mathrm{N}`$ corresponds for instance to the action of a $`2`$-dimensional representation of the point group $`C_n`$, $`n2`$, that is the cyclic group of rotations about an axis of the $`n`$-th order. The variety $`𝒵`$ is determined by the relation $`p_1(x)^2=p_3(x)^np_2(x)^2`$; the image of the OS $`\overline{𝒮}\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is the unit circumference.

Finally, if the action of $`G`$ is restricted to the unit sphere $`(p_3=1)`$, all the orbit spaces of groups of r-type $`(3,2)`$ turn out to be isomorphic.

## Acknowledgments

My special thanks to Prof. G. Sartori for reading the manuscript and for all the suggestions and helpful discussions during my Ph.D. studies.


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# Chandra measurements of the distribution of mass in the luminous lensing cluster Abell 2390

## 1 Introduction

Accurate measurements of the masses of clusters of galaxies are of profound importance to cosmological studies. Originally, most measurements of cluster masses were based on optical studies of their galaxy dynamics, wherein the motions of individual galaxies were used to trace the cluster potentials. Although such studies were shown to be sensitive to systematic uncertainties due to velocity anisotropies, substructure and projection effects (e.g. Lucey 1983; Frenk et al. 1990; van Haarlem, Frenk & White 1997), more recent work based on large galaxy samples and employing careful selection techniques, has lead to significant progress (e.g. Carlberg et al. 1996; den Hartog & Katgert 1996; Fadda et al. 1996; Mazure et al. 1996; Borgani et al. 1999; Geller, Diaferio & Kurtz 1999; Koranyi & Geller 2000).

Recent years have also seen the development of two further techniques for measuring the masses of clusters, based on X-ray observations and studies of gravitational lensing by clusters, respectively. X-ray mass measurements use the assumption that the X-ray emitting gas which pervades clusters is in hydrostatic equilibrium; the total mass distribution is determined once the radial distributions of the X-ray gas density and temperature are known (see e.g. Sarazin 1988). Since the X-ray emissivity is proportional to the square of the gas density, and the relaxation timescale for the X-ray gas is relatively short (of the order of a few sound crossing times), the X-ray method is relatively free from the projection and substructure effects which hamper the aforementioned optical studies.

In contrast to the X-ray and optical dynamical techniques, gravitational lensing offers a method for measuring the projected masses through clusters that is essentially free from assumptions about the dynamical state of the gravitating matter (see e.g. Fort & Mellier 1994; Bartelmann & Schneider 1999; Mellier 1999 for reviews). The primary observational challenges of requiring deep exposures, excellent seeing conditions, wide field imaging and accurate point spread function models have now been mostly overcome with improved instrumentation (e.g. Bacon et al. 2000 and references therein), although the recovery of the three-dimensional mass distributions in clusters can be complicated by projection effects and uncertainties in the redshift distributions of the lensed sources.

Clearly, the best approach when attempting to reliably measure the masses of clusters is to combine these three methods. The first combined X-ray and lensing studies of galaxy clusters (Miralda-Escudé & Babul 1995) suggested that strong lensing masses, measured within $`r<200`$ kpc of the cluster centre, might typically overestimate X-ray-determined masses by a factor of $`23`$. This sparked debate into the possible effects of oblate/prolate cluster geometries, projection effects, complex temperature structures and pressure support from bulk and/or turbulent motions and magnetic fields in the X-ray gas (e.g. Miralda-Escudé & Babul 1995; Loeb & Mao 1994; Waxman & Miralda-Escudé 1995; Kneib et al. 1995; Bartelmann & Steinmetz 1996). Later work (Allen, Fabian & Kneib 1996; Allen 1998; Böhringer et al. 1998; Wu 2000) highlighted a clear difference between the results obtained for cooling-flow (hereafter CF) and non-cooling flow (NCF) clusters. For CF clusters, the X-ray and strong lensing mass measurements generally show good agreement, once the effects of the cooling flows are accounted for in the X-ray analysis. For NCF systems, however, the masses inferred from the strong lensing data invariably exceed the X-ray values, determined under the hydrostatic assumption, by a factor of $`24`$.

The origin of the different results obtained for CF and NCF clusters is thought to lie in the different dynamical states of these systems: whereas X-ray and optical imaging and detailed lensing analyses of CF clusters show them to be relatively regular and dynamically-relaxed systems, NCF clusters generally appear to be undergoing major subcluster merger events (e.g. Edge, Stewart & Fabian 1992; Buote & Tsai 1996; Kneib et al. 1995; Smail et al. 1995, 1997; Squires et al. 1997). Significant offsets between the X-ray and lensing centroids are observed in NCF clusters, demonstrating a loss of hydrostatic equilibrium in their central regions. The X-ray core radii for NCF systems also appear to have been inflated by the dynamical activity, in agreement with the predictions from numerical simulations (e.g. Roetigger et al. 1996); this inflation of the X-ray core radii can account for the bulk of the X-ray/strong lensing mass discrepancy in most NCF systems (Allen 1998). On larger spatial scales ($`r>0.5`$ Mpc), comparisons between weak lensing, X-ray and optical dynamical mass measurements generally provide a consistent picture, with excellent agreement between the results obtained for both CF and NCF clusters (e.g. Squires et al. 1996; Smail et al. 1997; Wu & Fang 1997; Allen 1998; Lewis et al. 1999). This suggests that the loss of hydrostatic equilibrium in NCF clusters is primarily restricted to their inner regions.

The most significant uncertainty associated with the X-ray mass measurements in previous joint X-ray/lensing studies has been the absence of any direct measurements of the X-ray temperature profiles in the clusters, which impacts directly on the mass measurements through the hydrostatic equation. Although limited spatially-resolved spectroscopy for bright, nearby clusters was possible using ASCA and Beppo-SAX observations (e.g. Markevitch et al. 1998; Kikuchi et al. 1999; de Grandi & Molendi 1999; White 2000; Irwin & Bregman 2000), for the more distant lensing clusters, typically observed at redshifts $`z>0.2`$, only a single, integrated cluster spectrum was normally available. In most cases, only a mean emission-weighted X-ray temperature was therefore determined, although more sophisticated studies also accounted for the effects of cooling flows on the X-ray data (e.g. Allen 1998; Böhringer et al. 1998). For the mass analyses, it was then necessarily assumed that the mass-weighted temperature profile followed some particular form, and usually that it remained approximately isothermal with radius. However, the validity of this assumption remains uncertain, especially within the strong lensing regime.

The launch of the Chandra Observatory (Weisskopf et al. 2000) in 1999 July provides the first opportunity for detailed, spatially-resolved X-ray spectroscopy of clusters of galaxies at moderate redshifts. The Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer (ACIS) on Chandra permits the first direct, simultaneous measurements of the X-ray temperature and density profiles and, via the hydrostatic assumption, the mass distribution in luminous lensing clusters, spanning both the weak and strong lensing regimes. In this paper we present the first results from Chandra observations of the massive CF lensing cluster Abell 2390, which has been the subject of several previous combined X-ray/optical/lensing studies (e.g. Piere et al. 1996, Squires et al. 1996, Allen 1998, Böhringer et al. 1998, Lewis et al. 1999). We present detailed results on the mass distribution in the cluster determined from the Chandra data and compare our results with those from detailed strong and weak lensing analyses and optical dynamical studies. We also re-examine the properties of the cooling flow in the cluster and discuss their relation to the dynamical history of the system.

The cosmological parameters $`H_0`$=50 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }=1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ are assumed throughout. At the redshift of Abell 2390 ($`z=0.2301`$) an angular scale of 1 arcsec corresponds to a physical length of 4.652 kpc.

## 2 Observations

The Chandra observations of Abell 2390 were carried out using the ACIS on 1999 November 7. The target was observed in the back-illuminated CCD detectors, close to the nominal aim point for the ACIS S3 detector. (The source was positioned near the centre of node-1 on the chip). The focal plane temperature at the time of the observations was -110C.

We have used the CIAO software (version 1.1.3) and the level-2 events file provided by the standard Chandra pipeline processing for our analysis. The light curve for the observation was of high quality with no strong background flaring. Only those X-ray events with grade classifications of 0,2,3,4 and 6 were included in our final cleaned data set, for which the net exposure time was 9.13ks.

## 3 X-ray imaging analysis

### 3.1 X-ray morphology

The raw $`0.37.0`$ keV image of the central $`6\times 6`$ arcmin2 ($`1.8\times 1.8`$ Mpc2) region of Abell 2390 is shown in Fig. 1(a). The pixel size is $`1.97\times 1.97`$ arcsec2, corresponding to $`4\times 4`$ raw detector pixels. Fig. 1(b) shows an adaptively smoothed version of the same image, using the smoothing algorithm of Ebeling, White & Rangarajan (2000). The position of the peak of the X-ray emission from the cluster, 21h53m36.77 +17d41m42.8s (J2000.), is in excellent agreement with the optical centroid for the dominant cluster galaxy of 21h53m36.76 +17d41m42.9s (J2000.; Pierre et al. 1996). The X-ray image is elongated along an approximately northwest-southeast direction, in a similar manner to the optical isophotes of the dominant galaxy (Pierre et al. 1996).

Some substructure is apparent in the Chandra image. In the central region, a relatively bright ridge of enhanced emission extends $`34`$ arcsec to the northwest of the X-ray peak (Fig. 2). Enhanced emission in the same direction is also observed in the optical blue continuum and optical/UV line emission from the dominant cluster galaxy (Lémonon et al. 1998; Edge et al. 1999; Hutchings & Balogh 2000). A correspondence between the brightest X-ray emission with excess blue continuum and optical/UV line emission (probably associated with the formation of young, massive stars) is also observed in the nearby CF clusters Hydra-A (McNamara et al. 2000) and Abell 1795 (Fabian et al. 2000b). A second, fainter region of enhanced X-ray emission extends $`6`$ arcsec to the south-southeast.

On medium ($`r4080`$ arcsec) scales, the X-ray emission is extended to the west-northwest, in a similar manner to the optical luminosity distribution and lensing mass models of Piere et al. (1996; these authors also note the presence of an X-ray extension in the same direction using ROSAT High Resolution Imager data). On large scales ($`>2`$ arcmin) the X-ray emission is extended towards the east. The presence of such substructure in the Chandra image suggests that the cluster has not fully relaxed following it’s most recent merger activity. However, the agreement between the X-ray, optical and gravitational lensing mass measurements discussed in Section 5.2 argues that overall the assumption of hydrostatic equilibrium in the cluster is a reasonable one.

Three point sources are detected to the west of the X-ray peak, in the central regions of the cluster, at positions 21h53m33.19 +17d42m08.4s, 21h53m33.74 +17d41m13.3s, and 21h53m34.02 +17d42m39.9s. The X-ray and sub-mm properties of these sources are discussed by Fabian et al. (2000a). Four more point sources are also visible at larger radii in Fig. 1(b).

### 3.2 The surface brightness profile

The azimuthally-averaged, $`0.37.0`$ keV X-ray surface brightness profile for Abell 2390 is shown in Fig. 3. The profile has been flat-fielded and background subtracted using a rectangular background region of size $`400\times 50`$ arcsec2, located $`5`$ arcmin from the cluster centre. All obvious point sources were excluded from the analysis.

The X-ray emission from the cluster extends beyond the 5 arcmin ($`1.4`$ Mpc) radius associated with our on-chip background region (see also Pierre et al. 1996; Böhringer et al. 1998). However, beyond this radius background counts dominate the flux in the ACIS-S3 detector. Fig. 3 shows the data for the central 900 kpc ($`193`$ arcsec), for which systematic errors associated with the background subtraction and flat fielding are negligible. The bin-size in Fig. 3(a) is 2 detector pixels (0.984 arcsec). Fig. 3(b) shows the data for the outer regions of the cluster with a larger binsize of 8 detector pixels (3.94 arcsec).

Within a radius of 500 kpc ($`107`$ arcsec), the X-ray surface brightness profile can be parameterized ($`\chi ^2=119`$ for 106 degrees of freedom) by a standard $`\beta `$-model (e.g. Jones & Forman 1984) of the form $`S(r)=S(0)\left[(1+r/r_\mathrm{c})^2\right]^{1/23\beta }`$, with a core radius $`r_\mathrm{c}=28.7\pm 1.3`$ kpc and a slope parameter $`\beta =0.412\pm 0.003`$ ($`1\sigma `$ errors; $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=1.0`$). On larger scales, however, the $`\beta `$-model does not provide an acceptable fit: examining the data for the central 900 kpc radius, we obtain $`\chi ^2=909`$ for 194 degrees of freedom, with best-fit parameter values of $`r_\mathrm{c}=55`$ kpc and $`\beta =0.48`$). Ignoring the central $`r80`$ kpc (18 arcsec) region, associated with the possible cooling flow (Section 6), the fit is improved ($`\chi ^2=485`$ for 177 degrees of freedom, with best-fit parameter values $`r_\mathrm{c}=160`$kpc and $`\beta =0.58`$) although is still formally unacceptable.

The main reason for the poor fit obtained with the $`\beta `$-model at larger radii is the presence of a ‘break’ in the surface brightness profile at $`r500`$ kpc (Fig. 3b). This break is not obviously due to substructure in any particular direction in the cluster: Fig. 4 shows the surface brightness profile measured in the four quadrants covering position angles $`45135`$, $`135225`$, $`225315`$ and $`31545`$ degrees. We see that the profile appears remarkably similar in three of the four directions, although the emission is slightly more extended towards the east (as is also evident in the images presented in Fig. 1).

A good fit to the surface brightness profile beyond the central cooling region can be obtained using a simple broken power-law model. Fitting the data from $`80900`$ kpc, we obtain $`\chi ^2=173`$ for 176 degrees of freedom, with a break at a radius of $`491_7^{+16}`$ kpc, and slopes in the regions internal and external to the break radius of $`1.46\pm 0.02`$ and $`3.60\pm 0.17`$, respectively. Interestingly, these slopes are similar to the values expected at small and large radii for the dark matter in a Navarro, Frenk & White (1997; hereafter NFW) potential in which $`\rho 1/((r/r_\mathrm{s})(1+r/\mathrm{r}_\mathrm{s})^2`$). However, isothermal gas in an NFW-like potential should not exhibit a sharp break at the scale radius $`r_\mathrm{s}`$, but rather a slow rollover (although individual clusters in the simulations presented by Thomas et al. 2000 do exhibit sharp breaks in their dark matter distributions). Fitting the surface brightness profile external to the cooling flow ($`80900`$ kpc) with the prescription for isothermal gas in an NFW potential described by Ettori & Fabian (1999), we measure $`r_\mathrm{s}=610_{50}^{+60}`$ kpc (formal $`1\sigma `$ errors), with $`\chi ^2=420`$ for 177 degrees of freedom. Thus, the fit with the NFW mass model assuming strict isothermality in the X-ray gas is formally unacceptable, although provides a better description of the data in the $`80900`$ kpc region than the $`\beta `$-model. As discussed in Section 4, the Chandra data show that the X-ray gas in Abell 2390 is not isothermal and that the temperature rises with increasing radius within the central $`r200`$ kpc. In Section 5 we show that an NFW mass model can provide a good description of the Chandra data, once the assumption of isothermality is relaxed.

## 4 Spatially-resolved spectroscopy

### 4.1 Method of analysis

For our spectral analysis, we divided the cluster into annular regions, as detailed in Table 1. A spectrum was extracted from each region in 1024 Pulse Height Analyser (PHA) channels. The spectra were re-grouped to contain a minimum of 20 counts per PHA channel, thereby allowing $`\chi ^2`$ statistics to be used. (For the two outer annuli, a larger grouping of 40 counts per PHA channel was used, due to the increased background contribution). Background spectra, appropriate for the regions studied, were extracted from the ACIS-S3 blank-field data sets available from the Chandra X-ray Center. All obvious point sources were masked out and excluded from the analysis. Separate photon-weighted response matrices and effective area files were constructed for each region using the calibration and response files appropriate for the focal plane temperature, available from the Chandra X-ray Centre.

Two separate energy ranges were examined. Firstly, a conservative $`0.57.0`$ keV band was used over which the calibration of the back-illuminated CCD detectors is currently best understood. Secondly, for the central 100 kpc region, where a cooling flow is thought to exist (Section 6), we have also examined a more extended $`0.37.0`$ keV energy range, which provides extra constraints on the presence of cool emission components and/or intrinsic absorption in the cluster.

### 4.2 The spectral models

The analysis of the spectral data has been carried out using the XSPEC software package (version 11.01; Arnaud 1996). The spectra were modeled using the plasma emission code of Kaastra & Mewe (1993; incorporating the Fe L calculations of Liedhal, Osterheld & Goldstein 1995) and the photoelectric absorption models of Balucinska-Church & McCammon (1992). We first examined each annular spectrum using a simple, single-temperature model with the absorbing column density fixed at the nominal Galactic value ($`N_\mathrm{H}=6.8\times 10^{20}`$atom cm-2; Dickey & Lockman 1990). This model is hereafter referred to as model A. The free parameters in model A were the temperature ($`kT`$) and metallicity ($`Z`$) of the plasma (measured relative to the solar photospheric values of Anders & Grevesse 1989, with the various elements assumed to be present in their solar ratios) and the emission measure ($`K`$). We also examined a second single-temperature model (model B) which was identical to model A but with the absorbing column density $`(N_\mathrm{H})`$ also included as a free parameter in the fits.

The image deprojection and X-ray colour profile analyses discussed in Section 6 indicate the presence of a strong cooling flow in the central $`r<100`$ kpc region of the cluster. We have therefore also examined the spectral data for this region using a series of more sophisticated, multiphase models in which the emission properties of the cooling flow were explicitly accounted for. The first such model (model C1) introduced an extra emission component into model A, with a spectrum appropriate for gas cooling at constant pressure from the ambient cluster temperature (following the prescription of Johnstone et al. 1992). The normalization of this component was parameterized in terms of a mass deposition rate, $`\dot{M}`$, which was a free parameter in the fits. In the second case, model C2, the cooling gas was modelled as an isothermal cooling flow, following Nulsen (1998; we assume a value for $`\eta =1`$, where the integrated mass deposition rate within radius r, $`\dot{M}r^\eta `$). The mean gas temperature and metallicity in both the cooling flow and isothermal emission component (which accounts for the emission from gas at larger radii viewed in projection) were assumed to be equal. Finally, we also examined a more general emission model, model D, in which the cooling gas was modelled by a second, cooler isothermal emission component, with the temperature and normalization of this component included as free fit parameters. Model D provides a more flexible parameterization, with an additional degree of freedom over models C1 and C2, and invariably provides a good match to the more specific cooling-flow models at the spectral resolution and signal-to-noise ratios typical of ACIS cluster observations. However, the parameter values determined with model D were not well constrained for Abell 2390, and thus we do not quote explicit results for this model here.

With each of the cooling-flow emission models, we have also examined the effects of including extra absorption, using a variety of different absorption models. In the first case (absorption model i), the only absorption included was that due to cold gas in our Galaxy, with the equivalent column density fixed to the nominal Galactic value (Dickey & Lockman 1990; For a single temperature emission model, this is identical to spectral model A). In the second model (model ii), the absorption was again assumed to be due to Galactic (zero redshift) cold gas, but with the column density, $`N_\mathrm{H}`$, included as a free parameter in the fits. (For a single temperature emission model, this would be equivalent to spectral model B.) In the third case (absorption model iii), an intrinsic absorption component with column density, $`\mathrm{\Delta }N_\mathrm{H}`$, due to cold gas at the redshift of the cluster was introduced. The absorber was assumed to lie in a uniform screen in front of the cooling flow, with the column density included a free fit parameter. In the fourth case (model iv), the intrinsic absorption was assumed to cover only a fraction, $`f`$, of the emission from the cooling flow. The fifth and final absorption model (model v) was similar to model (iii) but with the gaseous absorber replaced by an intrinsic absorption edge, with the edge depth, $`\tau `$, and energy, $`E_{\mathrm{edge}}`$, free parameters in the fits. This more general absorption model may be used to approximate the effects of a dusty and/or ionized absorber.

In those cases where the absorption has been quantified in terms of an equivalent hydrogen column density, solar metallicity in the absorbing gas is assumed. We note that in absorption models (iii–v), the absorption acting on the ambient cluster emission was fixed at the nominal Galactic value. However, allowing the Galactic absorption to vary from this value did not significantly improve the fits.

### 4.3 Results from the single-phase analysis

The best-fit parameter values and $`1\sigma `$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=1.0`$) and 90 per cent ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=2.71`$) confidence limits determined from the fits in the $`0.57.0`$ keV band with the single temperature models are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. The temperature profile determined with spectral model A is shown in Fig. 5(a). The measured temperature is approximately isothermal beyond a radius of 200 kpc, out to the limits of the data at $`r1`$ Mpc. A combined fit to the data in the $`0.21.0`$ Mpc range with model A gives a mean temperature of $`11.5_{1.3}^{+1.6}`$ keV. Fitting the $`0.21.0`$ Mpc results with a simple power-law model of the form $`kTr^\alpha `$ we measure $`\alpha =0.0\pm 0.2`$ ($`1\sigma `$ bootstrap errors obtained using the Akritas & Bershady 1996 modification of the ordinary least squares statistic.) We observe a clear drop in the emission weighted temperature within the central 100 kpc, with a value for the central $`r=50`$ kpc of $`5.58_{0.42}^{+0.52}`$ keV.

We detect marginal evidence for a metallicity gradient in the cluster, with a mean, best-fit value for the central 100 kpc of $`Z=0.48_{0.10}^{+0.11}Z_{\mathrm{}}`$, which compares to a mean value of $`0.23_{0.13}^{+0.12}Z_{\mathrm{}}`$ for the outer $`0.21.0`$ Mpc region (Fig. 6a; $`1\sigma `$ errors). The results determined with spectral model B in the $`0.57.0`$ keV band also provide marginal evidence for increased absorption towards the cluster core (Fig. 6b).

In all cases, the $`\chi ^2`$ values obtained from the fits to the $`0.57.0`$ keV data with the single-temperature models are acceptable, the only marginal case being the data for the central 50 kpc region, where the spectrum is complicated by the effects of the cooling flow.

### 4.4 Multiphase analysis of the cooling core

The results determined from the more detailed, multiphase analysis of the central 100 kpc radius in the extended $`0.37.0`$ keV energy band are summarized in Table 3. The results demonstrate a clear requirement for excess absorption in this region, over and above the nominal Galactic value (Dickey & Lockman 1990), using each of the different emission models. The systematic variations between the column density measurements obtained with the different emission and absorption models are similar to those determined from previous ASCA studies (e.g. Allen 2000). Unfortunately, the present Chandra data for Abell 2390 cannot statistically discriminate between the single-phase and multiphase emission models for the central 100 kpc region, which provide comparable $`\chi ^2`$ values with each absorption model. (We note, however, that at some level the spectrum for the central 100 kpc must be multiphase simply due projection effects, given the results on the temperature profile shown in Fig. 5(a).)

For our preferred cooling-flow emission models including intrinsic absorption, which provide the most consistent physical description of the spectral and imaging data for the central 100 kpc region (Section 6), we measure an integrated mass deposition rate $`\dot{M}=200300`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$. Fig. 5(b) shows the projected temperature profile for Abell 2390, corrected for the effects of the cooling flow using spectral model C2(iii). (For $`r>100`$ kpc the results determined with spectral model A in the $`0.57.0`$ keV band have been used). We see that correcting for the effects of the cooling flow does not have a major impact on the temperature profile measured in the central regions of the cluster. Assuming that the isothermal cooling flow model provides a reasonable description of the data, the drop in the central temperature shown in Figs. 5(a,b) should then reflect the mass distribution in the cluster core.

The data for Abell 2390 do not provide firm constraints on the nature of the intrinsic absorption in the cluster. Using the partial-covering absorption model (iv), we find that high covering fractions are preferred. For the edge-like absorption model (v), the lower limit on the edge energy is essentially unconstrained: for emission models C1(v) and C2(v), however, the upper limit on the edge energy is inconsistent with the OI K edge of oxygen ($`E_{\mathrm{edge}}0.54`$ keV), suggesting that the absorption is unlikely to be due to oxygen rich dust grains (e.g. Arnaud & Mushotzky 1998; Allen et al. 2000b) or a warm, ionized absorber (Buote 2000).

Assuming that the intrinsic absorption is due to cold gas lying in a uniform screen in front of the cooling flow, using spectral model C2(iii), we measure $`\mathrm{\Delta }N_\mathrm{H}=2.2_{0.8}^{+1.1}\times 10^{21}`$ atom cm-2. The mass of absorbing gas implied by this model is then $`M_{\mathrm{abs}}3\times 10^7r_{\mathrm{abs}}^2\mathrm{\Delta }N_\mathrm{H}\mathrm{M}_{}`$, where $`r_{\mathrm{abs}}`$ is the radial extent of the absorber in kpc and $`\mathrm{\Delta }N_\mathrm{H}`$ is the equivalent hydrogen column density in units of $`10^{21}`$ atom cm-2. For $`r_{\mathrm{abs}}50`$ kpc (Section 6.2) we obtain $`M_{\mathrm{abs}}1.7_{0.6}^{+0.8}\times 10^{11}`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ ( although Allen & Fabian 1997 and Wise & Sarazin 2000 argue that for a geometry in which the absorbing material is distributed throughout the X-ray emitting region, the true mass is likely to be a few times higher). This mass is in reasonable agreement with the mass expected to have been accumulated by the cooling flow within the same radius over its lifetime; $`\dot{M}t/22.8\pm 1.4\times 10^{11}`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ (the factor two in the denominator arises from the assumption that the integrated mass deposition rate, $`\dot{M}`$, grows approximately linearly with time).

### 4.5 Spectral deprojection analysis

The results discussed in the previous subsections are based on the analysis of projected spectra. In order to determine the effects of projection on the spectral results, we have also carried out a simple deprojection analysis of the Chandra spectral data.

For this analysis we have used the same annular regions and have assumed that the emission from each spherical shell (the shells are defined by the same inner and outer radii as the annular regions) is isothermal and absorbed by the Galactic column density (spectral model A). The fit to the outermost annulus is used to determine the temperature and emission measure in the outermost spherical shell. The contribution from that shell to each inner annulus is then determined by purely geometric factors (e.g. Kriss, Cioffi & Canizares 1983). The fit to the second annulus inward is used to determine the parameters for the second spherical shell, and so forth, working inwards. Thus, the spectral model for the $`i`$th annulus working inwards is the weighted sum of $`i`$ absorbed, isothermal models. This parallels the usual image deprojection procedure (e.g. Fabian et al. 1981).

We have used the XSPEC code and Chandra data in the $`0.57.0`$ keV band. The data for all eight annular spectra were fitted simultaneously in order to correctly determine the parameter values and confidence limits. The spectral model used therefore has $`2n+1`$ free parameters (where $`n`$ is the total number of annuli), corresponding to the temperature and emission measure in each spherical shell and the overall emission-weighted metallicity (the metallicity is linked to the same value at all radii). Note that we have have not attempted to correct for residual emission from gas at radii beyond the outermost annulus since the steeply rising surface brightness profile of the cluster causes this emission to have a negligible affect on the results.

The temperature profile determined with the spectral deprojection method is shown in Fig. 7.

### 4.6 Comparison with previous work

The mean ambient temperature for Abell 2390 of $`kT=11.5_{1.3}^{+1.6}`$ keV, determined from the combined analysis of the data in the $`0.21`$ Mpc range, is in good agreement with the previous results of $`kT=14.5_{5.2}^{+15.5}`$keV from Allen (1998) based on ASCA observations, and $`kT=11.1_{1.6}^{+1.5}`$ keV from Böhringer et al. (1998), based on a joint analysis of ASCA and ROSAT Position Sensitive Proportional Counter (PSPC) data. (Both Allen 1998 and Böhringer et al. 1998 accounted for the effects of the central cooling flow in their modelling of the integrated cluster spectra. Böhringer et al. (1998) also examined a simpler, single-temperature emission model with which they measured a lower mean emission-weighted temperature of $`kT9`$ keV.) The ambient temperature for Abell 2390 measured with Chandra is also in good agreement with the predicted value of $`12.0`$ keV using the cooling-flow corrected $`kT_\mathrm{X}/L_{\mathrm{Bol}}`$ relation of Allen & Fabian (1998; we assume a bolometric luminosity of $`1.0\times 10^{46}`$ $`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ as measured by ASCA since the Chandra observations do not cover the whole of the cluster).

The best-fit mass deposition rate from the cooling flow of $`\dot{M}200300`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, determined from the Chandra spectrum for the central 100 kpc region, is lower than previous measurements based on the analysis of integrated spectra for the whole cluster from ASCA ($`\dot{M}=1500_{1100}^{+600}`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$; Allen 2000), joint ASCA/ROSAT ($`\dot{M}=700_{300}^{+150}`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$; Böhringer et al. 1998) and Beppo-SAX ($`\dot{M}=700_{300}^{+400}`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$; Ettori, Allen & Fabian 2000) observations (although the results are marginally consistent at the $`95`$ per cent confidence level). In part, this difference is likely to be due to the fact that the ambient gas temperature in the centre of the cluster, corrected for the effects of the cooling flow, is lower than the mean value measured at larger radii (Fig. 5b). If this drop in the central ambient temperature is not accounted for (as was the case in the previous ASCA and BeppoSAX studies, which could not spatially resolve the cooling flow from the hotter, outer cluster gas) then the cooler, ambient gas in the cluster core will also tend to be modelled as part of the cooling flow, and the total mass deposition rate will be overestimated. This effect is illustrated by the fact that a fit with spectral model C2(iii) to a single Chandra spectrum covering the entire central 500 kpc (radius) of the cluster, gives $`\dot{M}=621_{113}^{+121}`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }N_\mathrm{H}=1.6_{0.6}^{+0.8}\times 10^{21}`$atom cm-2 and $`kT=11.9_{1.9}^{+4.2}`$ keV, in good agreement with the previous ASCA, ROSAT and BeppoSAX results. 111Note that although the fit with spectral model C2(iii) to the Chandra spectrum for the central 500 kpc (radius) region overestimates the mass deposition rate from the cooling flow, the measured temperature is in good agreement with the true value at large radii in the cluster (Fig. 5b). Thus, previous ASCA and Beppo-SAX studies which attempted to account for the effects of cooling flows on integrated cluster spectra (e.g. Allen 1998; Böhringer et al. 1998) may have overestimated the mass deposition rates from the cooling flows but are likely to have provided reasonable estimates of the mean cluster temperatures. However, a fit to the central 200 kpc radius region (the maximum possible size of any cooling flow; Section 6) gives $`\dot{M}=280\pm 110`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$ ($`kT=8.6_{0.9}^{+1.3}`$ keV), in good agreement with the value listed in Table 3. These results, and the consistent findings from the spectral, image deprojection and X-ray colour profile analyses of the innermost 100kpc presented in Section 6, highlight the need for detailed spatially-resolved spectroscopy when attempting to study the properties of cooling flows in distant clusters.

Finally, we note that the excess column density acting on the cooling flow component measured with spectral model C1(iii) of $`\mathrm{\Delta }N_\mathrm{H}=2.4_{0.9}^{+1.2}\times 10^{21}`$atom cm-2 is consistent with the previous measurement of $`2.9_{1.5}^{+7.6}\times 10^{21}`$atom cm-2 from ASCA, using the same model (Allen 2000).

## 5 Measurement of the cluster mass profile

### 5.1 The mass model

The observed X-ray surface brightness profile (Fig. 3a) and deprojected temperature profile (Fig. 7) may together be used to determine the X-ray gas mass and total mass profiles in the cluster. For this analysis, we have used an updated version of the image deprojection code developed in Cambridge (see e.g. White, Jones & Forman 1997 for details). A variety of simple parameterizations for the cluster mass distribution were examined, to establish which could provide an adequate description of the Chandra data. For those mass models providing reasonable fits, the best-fit parameter values were determined using a simple iterative technique.222Given the observed surface brightness profile and a particular parameterized mass model, the deprojection code is used to predict the temperature profile of the X-ray gas. (We use the median model temperature profile determined from 100 Monte-Carlo simulations.) The predicted temperature profile is rebinned, using an appropriate flux weighting, and compared with the results from the spectral deprojection analysis (Fig. 7). The $`\chi ^2`$ difference between the observed and predicted temperature profiles is then calculated. The parameters for the mass model are stepped through a regular grid of values in $`r_\mathrm{s}`$ and $`\sigma `$ (or alternatively $`r_\mathrm{s}`$ and $`c`$) to determine the best-fit values (which give the minimum $`\chi ^2`$) and confidence limits. For Abell 2390 the final grid used ranges from $`0.12.5`$ Mpc in $`r_\mathrm{s}`$ and $`5002500`$$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ in $`\sigma `$. Spherical symmetry and hydrostatic equilibrium are assumed throughout.

We find than a good fit ($`\chi _{\mathrm{min}}^2=6.1`$ for 6 degrees of freedom; hereafter DOF) to the Chandra data can be obtained using an NFW mass model

$$\rho (r)=\frac{\rho _{\mathrm{crit}}\delta _\mathrm{c}}{(r/r_\mathrm{s})\left(1+r/r_\mathrm{s}\right)^2},$$
(1)
where $`\rho (r)`$ is the mass density, $`\rho _{\mathrm{crit}}=3H^2/8\pi G`$ is the critical density for closure and

$$\delta _\mathrm{c}=\frac{200}{3}\frac{c^3}{\left[\mathrm{ln}(1+c)c/(1+c)\right]},$$
(2)
with a scale radius, $`r_\mathrm{s}=0.88_{0.48}^{+1.29}`$ Mpc and a concentration parameter, $`c=4.1_{1.7}^{+2.5}`$ (68 per cent confidence limits). The normalization of the mass profile may also be expressed in terms of an equivalent velocity dispersion, $`\sigma =\sqrt{50}H_0r_\mathrm{s}c`$ (with $`r_\mathrm{s}`$ in units of Mpc). The equivalent velocity dispersion associated with the best-fit X-ray mass model of $`\sigma =1275_{340}^{+575}`$$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (68 per cent confidence limit), is in good agreement with the robust, optically-determined value of $`1262_{68}^{+89}`$$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (Borgani et al. 1999; from a re-analysis of the data of Carlberg et al. 1996 data).

We note that the best-fit values of $`c`$, $`\sigma `$ and $`r_\mathrm{s}`$ are correlated. Fixing $`r_\mathrm{s}=0.88`$ Mpc in the NFW model, we determine a concentration parameter $`c=4.10\pm 0.18`$ and an equivalent velocity dispersion $`\sigma =1275\pm 55`$$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$(68 per cent confidence limit keeping $`r_\mathrm{s}`$ fixed.) For $`r_\mathrm{s}=0.4`$ Mpc, we obtain $`c=6.61\pm 0.28`$ and $`\sigma =935\pm 40`$$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Fixing $`r_\mathrm{s}=2.0`$ Mpc, we obtain $`c=2.53\pm 0.11`$ and $`\sigma =1790\pm 80`$$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Note, however, that the mass distributions within the central 1Mpc radius are similar in all three cases.

The best-fit NFW mass model, with $`r_\mathrm{s}=0.88_{0.48}^{+1.29}`$ Mpc and $`c=4.1_{1.7}^{+2.5}`$, has a virial radius $`r_{200}=cr_\mathrm{s}=3.6_{1.0}^{+1.6}`$ Mpc and an integrated mass within this radius, $`M_{200}=2.7_{1.6}^{+5.6}\times 10^{15}`$$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$. The relationship between $`M_{200}`$, $`r_\mathrm{s}`$ and $`c`$ for Abell 2390 is consistent with that expected for such a massive cluster formed at a redshift $`z0.51.0`$ (e.g. Eke, Navarro & Frenk 1998)

The deprojected X-ray gas temperature profile implied by the best-fitting NFW mass model (given the observed surface brightness profile) is shown overlaid on the deprojected spectral results in Fig. 7. The model results have been rebinned to the same resolution as the spectral data.

Finally, we note that the NFW mass model provides a significantly better-fit to the Chandra data for Abell 2390 than a singular isothermal sphere ($`\rho (r)r^2`$: $`\chi _{\mathrm{min}}^2=33.1`$ for 7 DOF). However, a variety of other, two-parameter models including a softened isothermal sphere ($`\rho (r)(1+(r/r_\mathrm{c})^2)`$: $`\chi _{\mathrm{min}}^2=5.8`$ for 6 DOF with $`r_\mathrm{c}75`$ kpc), a King approximation to an isothermal sphere ($`\rho (r)(1+(r/r_\mathrm{c})^2)^{3/2}`$: $`\chi _{\mathrm{min}}^2=6.2`$ for 6 DOF with $`r_\mathrm{c}150`$ kpc), and a full isothermal sphere (Equation 4-125 of Binney & Tremaine 1987: $`\chi _{\mathrm{min}}^2=5.9`$ for 6 DOF with $`r_\mathrm{c}150`$ kpc ) also provide good descriptions of the Abell 2390 mass profile.

### 5.2 Comparison of X-ray and lensing mass measurements

Abell 2390 is one of the best studied lensing clusters (e.g. Pelló et al. 1991; Kassiola, Kovner & Blandford 1992; Narasimha & Chitre 1993; Pierre et al. 1996; Squires et al. 1996; Bezecourt & Soucail 1997; Frye & Broadhurst 1998; Pello et al. 1999). The cluster exhibits an unusual, strongly lensed ‘straight arc’ approximately 38 arcsec (174 kpc) away from the nucleus of the central galaxy (Pelló et al. 1991) in addition to many other arcs and arclets (e.g. Bezecourt & Soucail 1997; Pelló et al. 1999). Pierre et al. (1996) present a two-component mass model for the central regions of the cluster and measure a projected mass within the radius defined by the brightest arc of $`1.6\pm 0.2\times 10^{14}`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$. Squires et al. (1996) present a weak lensing analysis of the cluster and determine an azimuthally averaged mass profile covering the central $`4.3`$ arcmin (1.2 Mpc).

Fig. 8 shows the projected mass profile determined from the Chandra X-ray data, with the Squires et al. (1996) weak lensing results and Piere et al. (1996) strong lensing results overlaid. For the X-ray analysis, we assume that the NFW mass models extend out to $`r_{200}`$ in each case. (The limits on the X-ray results are the maximum and minimum masses at each radius for the range of NFW models with $`\chi ^2<\chi _{\mathrm{min}}^2+2.30`$; the 68 per cent confidence contour in the $`r_\mathrm{s}\sigma `$ plane). The agreement between the X-ray and lensing mass results in Fig. 8 is reasonable at all radii studied. The mean scatter of the lensing results about the best-fit X-ray mass profile within the central 1 Mpc region is $`<20`$ per cent. The agreement between the independent lensing and X-ray mass measurements, together with the consistent results on the equivalent X-ray and observed optical galaxy velocity dispersions, confirms the validity of the hydrostatic assumption used in the X-ray analysis and suggests that the mass profile in Abell 2390 has been robustly determined.

We note that at small radii, the strong lensing mass of Pierre et al. (1996) slightly exceeds (at $`1\sigma `$ significance) the best-fit value determined from the Chandra data ($`1.19_{0.28}^{+0.35}\times 10^{14}`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ within $`r=174`$ kpc). This difference, albeit marginal, may be related to the residual substructure on these scales seen in the X-ray (Section 3.1) and optical images and strong lensing mass map (Pierre et al. 1996), and could indicate a slight enhancement of the central lensing mass due to an alignment of the dominant mass clumps in the cluster and/or the presence of additional, non-thermal pressure support of the X-ray gas in the cluster core.

### 5.3 The X-ray gas mass fraction

The X-ray gas-to-total-mass ratio as a function of radius, $`f_{\mathrm{gas}}(r)`$, determined from the Chandra data is shown in Fig. 9. We find that the best-fit $`f_{\mathrm{gas}}`$ value rises with increasing radius with $`f_{\mathrm{gas}}=0.21_{0.10}^{+0.09}h_{50}^{1.5}`$ at $`r=0.9`$ Mpc (conservative limits determined by combining the $`1\sigma `$ errors on the integrated gas mass at each radius with the uncertainties in the total mass distribution shown in Fig. 8 in quadrature). This value is consistent with the previous measurement of $`17.5\pm 2.4`$ per cent ($`1\sigma `$ limits) at $`r=1`$Mpc from Ettori & Fabian (1999) using ROSAT PSPC and ASCA data and assuming strict isothermality in the X-ray gas.

Following the usual arguments, which assume that the properties of clusters provide a fair sample of those of the Universe as a whole (e.g. White et al. 1993; White & Fabian 1995; Evrard 1997; Ettori & Fabian 1999; Bahcall et al. 1999), we may use our result on the X-ray gas mass fraction in Abell 2390 to estimate the total matter density in the Universe, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}`$. Assuming that the luminous baryonic mass in galaxies in Abell 2390 is approximately one fifth of the X-ray gas mass (e.g. White et al. 1993; Fukugita, Hogan & Peebles 1998) and neglecting other possible sources of baryonic dark matter in the cluster, we obtain $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=(\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}/1.2f_{\mathrm{gas}})`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}`$ is mean baryon density in the Universe and $`h_{50}`$ is the Hubble constant in units of 50$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$. For $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}h_{50}^2=0.0820\pm 0.0072`$ (O’Meara et al. 2000), $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.33\pm 0.16h_{50}^{0.5}`$.333Accounting for any additional, dark baryonic matter in the cluster would lower the measured value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}`$. Likewise, if the value of $`f_{\mathrm{gas}}`$ increases towards larger radii in Abell 2390, the true value for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}`$ will be lower than our quoted result.

## 6 The properties of the cooling flow

### 6.1 Radial properties of the cluster gas

The results on the electron density and cooling time as a function of radius, determined from the image deprojection analysis using the best-fit NFW mass model, are shown in Fig. 10. Within the central 500 kpc radius, the electron density profile can be parameterized ($`\chi ^2=29.1`$ for 52 degrees of freedom) by a $`\beta `$-profile with a core radius, $`r_c=21\pm 3`$ kpc, $`\beta =0.378\pm 0.014`$ and a central density, $`n_\mathrm{e}(0)=8.5\pm 0.8\times 10^2`$ cm-3 ($`1\sigma `$ errors). The core radius for the electron density distribution is slightly smaller than the value measured directly from the projected surface brightness profile under the assumption of strict isothermality in the X-ray gas (Section 3.2). Indeed, the evidence for any flat central core in the electron density distribution is marginal and a simple broken power-law model, with $`r_{\mathrm{break}}=46_{11}^{+6}`$ kpc and slopes interior and exterior to the break radius of $`0.48\pm 0.05`$ and $`1.13\pm 0.04`$, provides as good a fit to the electron density profile in the central 500 kpc region ($`\chi ^2=30.4`$ for 51 degrees of freedom).

For an assumed Galactic column density of $`6.8\times 10^{20}`$atom cm-2, we measure a central cooling time (i.e. the mean cooling time within the central 1.97 arcsec or ($`9`$ kpc) bin of $`t_{\mathrm{cool}}=3.9_{0.9}^{+1.4}\times 10^8`$ yr, and a cooling radius, at which the cooling time first exceeds a Hubble time, of $`r_{\mathrm{cool}}=175_6^{+40}`$ kpc. (Errors on the central cooling time are the 10 and 90 percentile values from 100 Monte Carlo simulations. The upper and lower confidence limits on the cooling radii are the points where the 10 and 90 percentile values exceed and become less than the Hubble time, respectively.)

### 6.2 X-ray colour profile analysis

We have constructed an X-ray ‘colour’ profile for the cluster in order to determine the size of the central region in which significant cooling occurs. Two separate images were created in the energy bands $`0.51.3`$ and $`1.37.0`$ keV ($`0.621.60`$ and $`1.68.6`$ keV in the rest frame of the source) with a 1.97 arcsec (4 raw detector pixels) pixel scale. These soft and hard X-ray images were background subtracted and flat fielded (taking full account of the spectral energy distributions of the detected photons). All significant point sources were masked out and excluded from the analysis. Azimuthally-averaged surface-brightness profiles for the cluster were then constructed in each energy band, centered on the overall peak of the X-ray emission (Section 3). The X-ray ‘colour’ profile formed from the ratio of the surface brightness profiles in the soft and hard bands is shown in Fig. 11.

From examination of Fig. 11 we see that at large radii the observed X-ray colour ratio is approximately constant, with a mean value of $`1.01\pm 0.03`$ ($`1\sigma `$ error determined from a fit to the data between radii of $`150300`$ kpc). By comparison with simulated spectra we find that this result is consistent with an isothermal plasma with a temperature $`kT=11.0\pm 1.5`$ keV. (We assume a metallicity $`Z0.4Z_{\mathrm{}}`$ and Galactic absorption.) Within a ‘break’ radius of $`70_{12}^{+20}`$ kpc ($`1\sigma `$ errors determined from a $`\chi ^2`$ fit with a broken power-law model), however, the colour ratio rises sharply, indicating the presence of significantly cooler gas.

### 6.3 Analysis of the mass deposition profile

The outermost radius at which cooling occurs may also be expected to be associated with a ‘break’ in the X-ray surface brightness profile and, more evidently, the mass deposition profile determined from the deprojection code. The mass deposition profile from the cooling flow, which is a parameterization of the X-ray luminosity distribution in the cluster core (see e.g. White et al. 1997), is shown in Fig. 12. Fitting this profile with simple a broken power-law model, we determine a break radius of $`51\pm 12`$ kpc ($`1\sigma `$ errors), in reasonable agreement with the break radius determined from the fit to the X-ray colour profile (Section 6.2) and the electron density distribution (Section 6.1) . The best-fit broken power-law model is shown overlaid on the mass deposition profile in Fig. 12.

The slopes of the mass deposition profile, internal and external to the break radius are $`1.72\pm 0.16`$ and $`0.76\pm 0.16`$, respectively. Accounting only for absorption due to cold gas with the nominal Galactic column density, we determine an integrated mass deposition rate within the break radius of $`212_{78}^{+37}`$$`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$. If we also account for the presence of intrinsic absorption, with the properties determined using spectral model C2(iii), the mass deposition rate within the break radius rises to $`247_{91}^{+43}`$$`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, in good agreement with the spectral result for the central 100 kpc of $`242_{56}^{+61}`$$`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$.

### 6.4 The age of the cooling flow

Allen et al. (2000a) discuss a number of methods which may be used to estimate the ages of cooling flows from X-ray data. (Such ages are likely to relate to the time intervals since the central regions of clusters were last disrupted by major subcluster merger events.) Essentially, these methods identify the age of a cooling flow with the cooling time of the X-ray gas at the break radius in either the X-ray colour or deprojected mass deposition profile.

Using Fig. 10(b), we see that cooling time of the X-ray gas at the break radius in the X-ray colour profile ($`70_{12}^{+20}`$ kpc) lies in the range $`3.2_{0.6}^{+0.9}`$ Gyr. (The cooling time at the break radius is measured from a least-squares fit to the data in Fig. 10(b) over the $`10100`$ kpc range using a power-law model.) If we instead identify the age of the cooling flow with the cooling time at the break radius in the mass deposition profile in Fig. 12 ($`51\pm 12`$ kpc), we infer an age for the cooling flow of $`2.3_{0.5}^{+0.6}`$ Gyr. (In both cases we assume that no intrinsic absorption acts beyond the outer edge of the cooling flow, which is reasonable if the absorbing matter is accumulated by the flow.)

In summary, we see the X-ray colour profile, image deprojection analysis and spectral data provide consistent results on the properties of the cooling flow in Abell 2390, indicating a mass deposition rate in the range $`200300`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$ and an age of $`23`$ Gyr.

### 6.5 On the rising ambient temperature profile within the cluster core

In principle, the results on the X-ray gas temperature and surface brightness within the cluster core may be used to distinguish between an NFW model for the dark matter distribution and alternative models with a steeper central cusp (e.g. Moore et al. 1999). The results for Abell 2390 presented here are certainly consistent with an NFW profile (see Fig. 7). However, given the complexity of the gas within the central 100 kpc and the relatively short exposure time of the present observation (which limits the number of independent spectra which can be extracted from the region of the cluster core), we do not attempt to explore such models here. This issue will be better addressed with Chandra data for nearer, brighter systems.

The fact that the ambient temperature profile, corrected for the effects of the cooling flow, rises with increasing radius throughout the central $`200`$ kpc, is interesting. In detail, the density and temperature structure in a cluster core will depend on the thermal history of the gas, as well as the underlying dark matter distribution and, subject to pressure equilibrium and convective stability, may be flat, increase or decrease with radius. As discussed in Section 4.6, the presence of relatively cool, ambient gas in the central regions of Abell 2390 may have lead to overestimates of the mass deposition rate in previous studies with ASCA and Beppo-SAX in which this region was not spatially resolved.

There are several reasons why relatively cool, dense gas might exist beyond the outer edge of the present-day cooling flow in Abell 2390. The first is that a pre-existing cooling flow may have been disturbed several Gyr ago. Cooler, denser gas could then have been spread out over several 100 kpc, with the cooling flow having so far only re-established itself within the inner $`5070`$ kpc. A second possibility is that the densest gas from the cores of infalling subclusters may have been stripped and deposited over time in the core of the main cluster without strong shocking (Fabian & Daines 1991). The situation seen in the Chandra data for Abell 2142 (Markevitch et al. 2000) is reminiscent of this, with a sharp drop in temperature from $`kT14`$ keV to $`kT7`$ keV (and a corresponding rise in density) observed at $`r370`$ kpc, moving inwards from northwest of the cluster centre. Such a sharp drop in temperature at these radii cannot be due to any current cooling flow in the cluster.

## 7 Conclusions

The main conclusions from this work may be summarized as follows:

(i) We have measured the distribution of mass in Abell 2390 using Chandra X-ray observations. The mass profile can be well-modelled by an NFW profile with a scale radius $`r_\mathrm{s}=0.88_{0.48}^{+1.29}`$ Mpc and a concentration parameter, $`c=4.1_{1.7}^{+2.5}`$ (68 per cent confidence limits). The normalization of the mass profile may also be expressed in terms of an equivalent velocity dispersion, $`\sigma =\sqrt{50}H_0r_\mathrm{s}c=1275_{340}^{+575}`$$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, in good agreement with the optically-determined value of $`1262_{68}^{+89}`$$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (Borgani et al. 1999).

(ii) The best-fit Chandra mass model is in good agreement with independent measurements from strong and weak lensing studies. The mean scatter between the X-ray and lensing values within the central $`r=1`$ Mpc radius is $`<20`$ per cent.

(iii) The X-ray gas to total mass ratio rises with increasing radius within the central 0.9 Mpc, with $`f_{\mathrm{gas}}=0.21_{0.10}^{+0.09}`$ at $`r=0.9`$ Mpc. Following the usual arguments, this result on the X-ray gas mass fraction may be converted into a constraint on the mean mass density in the Universe, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.33\pm 0.16h_{50}^{0.5}`$.

(iv) The X-ray gas temperature rises with increasing radius within the central $`r200`$ kpc, and then remains approximately isothermal with $`kT=11.5_{1.3}^{+1.6}`$ keV out to $`r1.0`$ Mpc.

(v) The azimuthally-averaged $`0.37.0`$ keV surface brightness profile exhibits a small core radius and a clear break at $`r0.5`$ Mpc, where the slope changes abruptly from $`S_\mathrm{X}r^{1.5}`$ to $`S_\mathrm{X}r^{3.6}`$.

(vi) The best-fit mass deposition rate from the cooling flow, determined in a consistent manner from the spectral and imaging Chandra data, lies in the range $`200300`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$. This value is lower than previous estimates based on integrated ASCA and Beppo-SAX spectra for the entire cluster, which could not resolve the drop in the central, ambient gas temperature. We estimate an age for the cooling flow of $`23`$ Gyr.

## Acknowledgements

We thank G. Squires for communicating his weak lensing results, R. Mushotzky for helpful comments, and P. Thomas for helpful comments and discussions. We also thank R. Johnstone and R. Schmidt for coding and discussions regarding the analysis of Chandra data. We acknowledge the support of the Royal Society.