format: text

text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The present discussions of a possible experimental verification from heavy ion collisions for a new phase of matter, the Quark- Gluon Plasma (QGP), bring an added interest in physics at ultrahigh temperatures. This possibility relates very closely the ideas of phase transitions with the condensation of gluons and quarks at finite temperature.
In this work we discuss the consequences of the gluon condensate at finite temperature for several different special cases. First we indicate the results of a simple calculation for a gluon gas with no interactions having a specified gluon vacuum expectation value as an ideal gluon condensate where all the interactions are in the ground state. Then we use the recent high precision lattice results  for the equation of state in pure $`SU(N_c)`$ lattice gauge theory. The essential relationship for the computation of the gluon condensate at finite temperature  from the lattice data is the conformal or trace anomaly which here is due to the scale variance of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). It relates the trace of the energy momentum tensor to the square of the gluon field strengths $`G^2`$ through the renormalization group beta function. Here we shall discuss the approach investigated in , for which the consequences of the finite temperature lattice data for pure $`SU(N_c)`$ gauge theory for the gluon condensate  have been presented. Now, however, we are able to make a comparison of these previous results with some newer finite temperature simulations for light dynamical quarks , which could provide some new insights into the thermodynamical structure of the QGP.
We now briefly discuss the condensation of an ideal gas of gluons, which we simply write as $`G^2(T)`$ for a finite temperature T. The vacuum expectation value of the pure gluonic system we denote by $`G_0^2`$, which has a known value at zero temperature . From dimensional considerations of the structure of the gluon condensate we can write down the ideal gluon condensate

$$G^2(T)=G_0^2\left[1\left(\frac{T}{T_0}\right)^4\right],$$
(1.1)
where $`T_0`$ is the temperature at which the condensation ceases. This equation gives a simple relation between the condensate at a finite temperature T and that at zero temperature. We shall soon relate $`G_0^2`$ and $`T_0`$ to the corresponding quantities in QCD. Although this form for $`G^2(T)`$ as an ideal gluon gas seems presently greatly oversimplified, earlier analyses in finite temperature QCD had assumed  this behavior as an approximation to the decondensation of gluons. The extent to which this assumption is valid we are now able to state. Furthermore, we will make no attempts at the inclusion of the thermal properties of the hadrons in the thermodynamics of the gluon condensate.
We start with a brief discussion of the conformal anomaly at finite temperature as it relates to the gluon condensate. Thereafter we look at the lattice data for the cases of pure lattice gauge theory and that with dynamical quarks. Finally we conclude with a discussion of some newer work related to these considerations, which further accent the fundamental differences between these three cases.

## 2 The Conformal Anomaly at finite Temperature

The relationship between the trace of the energy momentum tensor and the gluon condensate has been studied for finite temperature by Leutwyler  for the investigation of problems in deconfinement and chiral symmetry. He starts with a detailed discussion of the trace anomaly based on the interaction between Goldstone bosons in chiral perturbation theory. Central to his discussion is the role of the energy momentum tensor, whose trace is directly related to the square of the gluon field strength. It is important for us to note that the temperature dependence of the energy momentum tensor $`T^{\mu \nu }(T)`$ can be separated into the zero temperature or confined part, $`T_0^{\mu \nu }`$, and the finite temperature contribution $`\theta ^{\mu \nu }(T)`$ as follows:

$$T^{\mu \nu }(T)=T_0^{\mu \nu }+\theta ^{\mu \nu }(T).$$
(2.1)
The zero temperature part, $`T_0^{\mu \nu }`$, has the standard problems with infinities of any ground state. In what follows we shall not concern ourselves with the confined part since we are only interested here in the thermal properties. The finite temperature part, which is zero at $`T=0`$, is free of such problems. We shall see in the next section how the diagonal elements of $`\theta ^{\mu \nu }(T)`$ are calculated in a straightforward way on the lattice. The trace $`\theta _\mu ^\mu (T)`$ is connected to the thermodynamical contribution to the energy density $`ϵ(T)`$ and pressure $`p(T)`$ for relativistic fields and relativistic hydrodynamics

$$\theta _\mu ^\mu (T)=ϵ(T)3p(T).$$
(2.2)
The gluon field strength tensor is denoted by $`G_a^{\mu \nu }`$, where $`a`$ is the color index for $`SU(N)`$. The basic equation for the relationship between the gluon condensate and the trace of the energy momentum tensor at finite temperature was written down by Leutwyler  using the trace or conformal anomaly in the following form:

$$G^2_T=G^2_0\theta _\mu ^\mu _T,$$
(2.3)
where the gluon field strength squared summed over the colors is

$$G^2=\frac{\beta (g)}{2g^3}G_a^{\mu \nu }G_{\mu \nu }^a,$$
(2.4)
for which the brackets with the subscript $`T`$ represent thermal expectation value and the zero stands for the value at zero temperature. The renormalization group beta function $`\beta (g)`$ in terms of the coupling may be written as

$$\beta (g)=\mu \frac{dg}{d\mu }=\frac{1}{48\pi ^2}(11N_c2N_f)g^3+O(g^5).$$
(2.5)
Thus because of the renormalization group beta function $`\beta (g)`$ the quantization of the gluon fields leads to a finite value for the average of the field strength squared at finite temperature which is related through the conformal anomaly to the trace of the energy momentum tensor. The above thermal expectation values for the field strength squared and the trace of the energy momentum tensor we shall write as $`G^2(T)`$ and $`\theta _\mu ^\mu (T)`$ as well as $`G_0^2`$ for the vacuum expectation value.

## 3 Gluon Condensation in pure $`SU(N_c)`$ Lattice Gauge Theory

The numerical computation of the gluon condensate at finite temperature can be carried out in terms of quantities which are evaluated using lattice gauge theory . Following the usual approach in in statistical physics we start with a partitition function $`𝒵(T,V)`$ for a given temperature T and spatial volume V. From this basic quantity we may define the free energy density as follows:

$$f=\frac{T}{V}ln𝒵(T,V).$$
(3.1)
The volume V is determined by the lattice size $`N_\sigma a`$, where $`a`$ is the lattice spacing and $`N_\sigma `$ is the number of lattice steps in a given spatial direction. The inverse of the temperature T is similarly determined by $`N_\tau a`$ where $`N_\tau `$ is the number of steps in the (imaginary) temporal direction. Thus the numerical simulation is done in a four dimensional Euclidean space with given lattice sizes $`N_\sigma ^3\times N_\tau `$, which gives the spatial volume V as $`(N_\sigma a)^3`$ and the inverse temperature $`T^1`$ as $`N_\tau a`$. In an $`SU(N_c)`$ invariant theory the lattice spacing $`a`$ is a function of the bare coupling $`\beta `$ defined by $`2N_c/g^2`$, where $`g`$ is the bare $`SU(N_c)`$ gauge coupling. Thereby this function fixes both the temperature and the volume at a given $`\beta `$. Now we define the expectation value at zero temperature, $`P_0`$, as well as the spatial and temporal action expectation values at finite temperature, $`P_\sigma `$ and $`P_\tau `$, respectively, as the space-space and space-time plaquettes in the following form:

$$P_{\sigma ,\tau }=1\frac{1}{N_c}ReTr(U_1U_2U_3^{}U_4^{})$$
(3.2)
for the usual Wilson action . For the symmetric Wilson action we define the parts $`S_)`$ as $`6P_0`$ on the four dimensional Euclidean symmetrical lattice of size $`N_\sigma ^4`$ and $`S_T`$ as $`3(P_\sigma +P_\tau )`$ on the asymmetrical lattice $`N_\sigma ^3\times N_\tau `$. Now we may proceed to compute the free energy density by integrating these expectation values as follows:

$$\frac{f(\beta )}{T^4}=N_\tau ^4\underset{\beta _0}{\overset{\beta }{}}𝑑\beta ^{}[S_0S_T],$$
(3.3)
where the lower bound $`\beta _0`$ relates to the constant of normalization. It is important to note that the free energy density if a fundamental thermodynamical quantity from which all the other thermodynamical variables can be gotten.
In order to compute the temperature dependence of the gluon condensate from the lattice data, we need the dimensionless interaction measure $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T)`$ . For this reason w define the lattice beta function in terms of the lattice spacing $`a`$ and the coupling $`g`$ as

$$\stackrel{~}{\beta }(g)=2N_ca\frac{dg^2}{da}.$$
(3.4)
Now we are able to define the interaction measure $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T)`$ as

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(T)=N_\tau ^4\stackrel{~}{\beta }(g)\left[S_0S_T\right].$$
(3.5)
The crucial part of the recent calculations  is the use of the full lattice beta function, $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }(g)`$ in obtaining the lattice spacing $`a`$, or scale of the simulation, from the coupling $`g^2`$. Without this accurate information on the temperature scale in lattice units it would not be possible to make any claims about the behavior of the gluon condensate. The dimensionless interaction measure is equal to the thermal ensemble expectation value of $`(ϵ3p)/T^4`$. Thus by the equation (2.2) above the trace of the temperature dependent part of the energy momentum tensor , here denoted by $`\theta _\mu ^\mu (T)`$, is equal to the expectation value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T)`$ multiplied by the thermodynamical factor of $`T^4`$, which may be written (after suppressing the brakets)as follows:

$$\theta _\mu ^\mu (T)=\mathrm{\Delta }(T)\times T^4.$$
(3.6)
There are no other contributions to the trace for pure gauge theories on the lattice. At zero temperature it has been well understood  how in the QCD vacuum the trace of the energy momentum tensor relates to the gluon field strength squared, $`G_0^2`$. Since the scale breaking in QCD occurs explicitly at all orders in a loop expansion, the thermal average of the trace of the energy momentum tensor should not go to zero above the deconfinement transition. Thus a finite temperature gluon condensate $`G^2(T)`$ related to the degree of scale breaking at all temperatures, can be defined from the trace. We have used  the lattice simulations  in order to get the temperature dependent part of the trace and, thereby, the value of the condensate at finite temperature.

Accordingly, when we take the gluon condensate $`G_0^2`$ of the confined system as the assumed value  of $`0.012GeV^4`$ for both the ideal gluon gas condensate and the pure gauge theory to provide a stable ground state. For the ideal gluon gas condensate $`G^2(T)`$ we use (1.1) with the condensation temperature $`T_0`$ equal to $`T_\text{c}`$, above which the condensate has completely disappeared. For the pure $`SU(N_c)`$ around and above $`T_\text{c}`$ we take the published data  for $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T)`$, and use the equations (2.3) and (3.6) in order to obtain the gluon condensate $`G^2(T)`$ as shown in Figure 1. Here we can clearly contrast the difference between the ideal gluon gas where the condensate has no effect at temperatures above $`T_\text{c}`$ and the pure SU(3) gauge theory in both the confined and the deconfined phases. Below $`T_\text{c}`$ there is a quantitative difference between these two cases. Above $`T_\text{c}`$ the ideal gas condensate is completely gone. However, the strongly interacting gluons for $`T>T_c`$ arising from the creation of gluons at these high temperatures continue the decondensation process into the deconfined phase. Thus we see clearly in Figure 1 that the pure gluon condensate never approaches an ideal gas for all temperatures above $`T_\text{c}`$ reached by simulation .

## 4 Gluon Condensation with Light Dynamical Quarks

Now we want to compute the changes in the gluon condensate due to the presence of dynamical quarks with relatively small masses. There have been several extensive simulations in recent years of the thermodynamical quantities in full QCD with two flavors of staggered quarks  as well as with four flavors . Although these computations are still not yet as accurate as those in pure gauge theory, there has been considerable progress in the actual precision even on not so very large lattices like $`12^3\times 6`$. In the case of the more recent two flavor simulations  the smaller quark mass shown in Figure 2 with the open circles is expressed in lattice units $`am_q`$ with the value $`0.0125`$, which is actually quite small (about $`0.01GeV`$). The heavier quark mass of $`0.025`$ is shown in Figure 2 as the filled squares. The smaller mass value in terms of the lattice size $`a`$ has the effect of raising the temperature in the simulations so that the lighter quarks are at higher temperature for the same coupling. In both these cases we can see that the general tendency of the temperature dependence of the gluon condensation just above the onset of the decondensation shows a sharp drop which becomes slower at higher temperatures. Because of the scarcity of data points above $`0.2GeV`$ we cannot extrapolate any clear properties above this temperature.

The presence of massive quarks changes the thermal properties of the gluon condensate due to the renormalization of the masses as expressed by the lattice beta function . Thus the trace of the energy-momentum tensor has a direct mass dependence in the trace anomaly  for the quark condensate with the renormalized (physical) quark mass $`m_q`$. Thereby the expectation value for the trace of the energy momentum tensor $`\mathrm{\Theta }_\mu ^\mu `$ is calculated from the sum of the expectation values of quark and gluon condensates as $`m_q\overline{\psi }_q\psi _q+G^2`$, where $`\psi _q`$ and $`\overline{\psi }_q`$ represent the quark and antiquark fields respectively. Here for the sake of simplicity we choose two light quarks of the same mass. We are now able to write down an equation for the temperature dependence of the gluon condensate  including the effects of the light quarks in the trace anomaly in the following form:

$$G^2_T=G^2_0+m_q\overline{\psi }_q\psi _q_0m_q\overline{\psi }_q\psi _q_T\mathrm{\Theta }_\mu ^\mu _T.$$
(4.1)
As we have discussed previously, we identify the expectation value at finite temperatures for the gluon condensate with $`G^2(T)`$ in Figure 2. The simulation procedure is, in general, similar to the pure gauge theory with the additional effects of the quark contributions. The computation  of the interaction measure $`\mathrm{\Delta }_m(T)`$ where the subscript m denotes its dependence upon the quark mass $`m_q`$. As before, we can calculate the temperature dependence of the trace of the energy momentum tensor (omitting the brackets)

$$\mathrm{\Theta }_\mu ^\mu (T)=\mathrm{\Delta }_m(T)\times T^4.$$
(4.2)
This high precision data for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_m(T)`$ is used for the compuatation of the two sets of data points in Figure 2 mentioned above . It is possible to see that in equation (4.1) at very low temperatures the additional contribution to the temperature dependence from the quark condensate with small quark masses is rather insignificant as would be expected from chiral perturbation theory . However, in the temperature range where the chiral symmetry is being restored there is an additional effect from the term $`\overline{\psi }_q\psi _q_T`$. Well above $`T_\text{c}`$ after the chiral symmetry has been completely restored the only remaining effect of the quark condensate is that of the vacuum. This term would contribute negatively to the gluon condensate. Thus we expect  that for the light quarks the temperature dependence can only contribute at all around $`T_\text{c}`$. Nevertheless, because of the small quark mass the total effect of the light quark condensate is very small for the above mentioned simulated  values (maximally less than one procent). For the case of pure $`SU(N)`$ we know that the values just below $`T_\text{c}`$ of $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T)\times T^4`$ are very small – that is, about the same size as $`m_q\overline{\psi }_q\psi _q_0`$. Thus, to the extent that the chiral symmetry has not been completely restored, its effect on $`G^2(T)`$ will be present but small just below $`T_\text{c}`$.
Finally as a conclusion to this discussion of the gluon condensate with two light dynamical quarks we shall mention a few related points. While for the simulations of the pure $`SU(N_c)`$ gauge theory we could depend on considerable precision in the determination of $`T_\text{c}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T)`$ as well as the numerous other thermodynamical functions, this is still not the case for the theory with the massive dynamical quarks. The statistics for the measurements are generally smaller. The determination of the temperature scale is thereby hindered so that it is harder to clearly specify a given quantity in terms of $`T`$. Thus, in general, we may state that the accuracy as well as the number of data points for the case of the dynamical quarks are much less as compared with the computations of the pure lattice gauge theories. However, there is a point that arises from the effect that the transition temperatures with massive quarks are generally considerably lower, so that $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T)\times T^4`$ is much smaller . Nevertheless, there could be an indication of how the stability of the simulations with light dynamical quarks keeps $`G^2(T)`$ in positive values for $`T>T_\text{c}`$ so that amount of decondensation is less than the value $`0.012GeV^4`$  in the temperature range of the numerical data . A model of the thermodynamics of the chiral restoration transition  has previously considered separately the condensates for the electric and magnetic field strengths squared. A general qualitative agreement of the local subtraction of the magnetic and electric condensates can be seen with our results in Figure 2 even though the lattice measurements which they used were not computed using a non-perturbative method , nor was the temperature scale obtained from the full non-perturbative beta-function .

## 5 Discussions and Conclusions

In this work we have compared the effects of gluon condensation at finite temperature for three different cases– that of noninteracting gluons, the pure $`SU(3)`$ thermodynamics and QCD with two light quarks. We have seen that the ideal gluon gas has the typical structure of nonrelativistic Bose-Einstein condensation, whereby the condensate completely vanishes at a given temperature $`T_0`$ and is exactly zero at all higher temperatures. For the condensate at zero temperature $`G_0^2`$ we use the known vacuum expectation value . This behavior we have contrasted with that for the decondensating of gluons found from the pure $`SU(3)`$ lattice data, for which the decondensation does not stop at the critical temperature but continues as the temperature increases since there is no bound on the number of thermal gluons . The presence of two light dynamical quarks further changes the process of decondensation by providing other thermal mechanisms through which the gluon condensate begins to disappear at a much lower temperature. Although we have seen that this effect is slightly dependent on the value of the mass, it is strongly dependent on the fermionic structure relating to the chiral symmetry restoration at temperatures lower than the critical temperature $`T_\text{c}`$ of the pure $`SU(N_c)`$. Thus we are seeing the thermal effects of two different anomalies  at work on the same system.
We now mention some other work which is relevant to our discussion. The very recent calculations performed for heavier quarks  provide some new aspects to the above analysis. At the present the pressure has been computed as a function of the temperature up to about $`4T_c`$ for flavor numbers 2, $`2+1`$ and 3, where $`2+1`$ means two lighter and one heavier quark flavors. The simulations present for other quantities considerable difficulty with the $`m_q\overline{\psi }_q\psi _q_T`$ term when $`m_q`$ is larger as is the case for the s-quark. Furthermore, there has been some recent work on the temperature dependence of the gluon condensate derived from the QCD sum rules . One can see from their results pronounced differences in the thermal behavior between this method and our calculation using the lattice simulations . In fact in some cases they find that the ratio $`G^2(T)/G_0^2`$ is larger than unity and growing for increasing temperatures. As a last discussion we would like to comment on some results based on the postulation of a simple form for the entropy . With the assumption of the proper parameters relating to a bag type of model they calculate a form of $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T)`$ which can lead to a similar shape of the $`G^2(T)`$ for the pure gauge theory shown in Figure 1. However, all of the parameters need to be determined from the lattice simulation or the phenomenological models independently.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Rudolf Baier, Frithjof Karsch, Reinhart Kögerler, Edwin Laermann and Helmut Satz for many very helpful discussions. A special thanks is given to Graham Boyd with whom much of the earlier work was carried out. He is very grateful to Jürgen Engels for the use of his programs and many valuable explanations of the lattice results and thanks Carleton DeTar for sending the MILC two light flavor data.


text:
# 1 Background and Motivation

## 1 Background and Motivation

We start with an example of affine Kac-Moody algebras and the Virasoro algebra. In this talk, $`𝔽`$ will be a field with characteristic 0, and all the vector spaces are assumed over $`𝔽`$. Denote by $``$ the ring of integers and by $``$ the set of nonnegative integers.

Let $`2n`$. Set

$$sl(n,𝔽)=\{AM_{n\times n}(𝔽)\text{tr}A=0\},$$
$`(1.1)`$
$$A,B=\text{tr}AB\text{for}A,Bsl(n,𝔽),$$
$`(1.2)`$
where $`M_{n\times n}(𝔽)`$ is the algebra of $`n\times n`$ matrices. Then $`sl(n,𝔽)`$ forms a simple Lie algebra with the Lie bracket

$$[A,B]=ABBA\text{for}A,Bsl(n,𝔽),$$
$`(1.3)`$
and $`,`$ forms a symmetric invariant bilinear form, that is,

$$[A,B],C=A,[B,C]\text{for}A,Bsl(n,𝔽).$$
$`(1.4)`$
Let $`t`$ be an indeterminant and set

$$\widehat{sl}(n,𝔽)=sl(n,𝔽)_𝔽𝔽[t,t^1]𝔽\kappa 𝔽d,$$
$`(1.5)`$
where $`\kappa `$ and $`d`$ are symbols serving as base elements. We define a Lie bracket on $`\widehat{sl}(n,𝔽)`$ by

$$[ut^l,vt^j]=[u,v]t^{l+j}+lu,v\delta _{l+j,0}\kappa ,[d,ut^l]=lut^l$$
$`(1.6)`$
for $`u,vsl(n,𝔽),l,j`$ and

$$[\widehat{sl}(n,𝔽),\kappa ]=0.$$
$`(1.7)`$
The Lie algebra $`(\widehat{sl}(n,𝔽),[,])`$ is an affine Kac-Moody algebra.

Define the generating function

$$u(z)=\underset{j}{}(ut^j)z^{n1}\text{for}usl(n,𝔽),$$
$`(1.8)`$
where $`z`$ is a formal variable. Then

$$[u(z_1),v(z_2)]=z_2^1\delta \left(\frac{z_1}{z_2}\right)[u,v](z_2)z_2^1_{z_1}\delta \left(\frac{z_1}{z_2}\right)u,v\kappa $$
$`(1.9)`$
for $`u,vsl(n,𝔽)`$, where

$$\delta \left(\frac{z_1}{z_2}\right)=\underset{j}{}\left(\frac{z_1}{z_2}\right)^j.$$
$`(1.10)`$
The above formula (1.9) was mathematically first used by Lepowsky and Wilson \[LW\] in order to study explicit integral irreducible representations of affine Kac-Moody algebras. Acting on “highest weight” modules, $`u(z)`$ for $`usl(n,𝔽)`$ are “current fields” in two-dimensional quantum field theory.

The Virasoro algebra $`𝒱`$ is a Lie algebra with a basis $`\{L(j),\kappa j\}`$ and the Lie bracket

$$[L(j),L(l)]=(jl)L(j+l)+\frac{j^3j}{12}\delta _{m+n,0}\kappa ,[\kappa ,𝒱]=0$$
$`(1.11)`$
for $`j,l`$. Set

$$L(z)=\underset{j}{}L(j)z^{j2}.$$
$`(1.12)`$
Then

$$[L(z_1),L(z_2)]=z_2^1\delta \left(\frac{z_1}{z_2}\right)_{z_2}L(z_2)2z_2^1_{z_1}\delta \left(\frac{z_1}{z_2}\right)L(z_2)\frac{\kappa }{12}z_2^1_{z_1}^3\delta \left(\frac{z_1}{z_2}\right)\kappa .$$
$`(1.13)`$
Acting on “highest weight” modules, $`L(z)`$ is the “energy-momentum tensor” in two-dimensional quantum field theory.

Let us focus only on the parts without central element $`\kappa `$ in (1.9) and (1.13), and introduce a notion of “Lie algebra with one-variable structure.” Let $`V`$ be a vector space and let $`t`$ again be an indeterminant. Form a tensor

$$\widehat{V}=V_𝔽𝔽[t,t^1].$$
$`(1.14)`$
Define the generating function

$$u(z)=\underset{n}{}(ut^n)z^{n1}\text{for}uV,$$
$`(1.15)`$
where $`z`$ is again a formal variable. A Lie algebra with one-variable structure is a vector space $`\widehat{V}`$ with the Lie bracket of the form

$$[u(z_1),v(z_2)]=\underset{i=0}{\overset{m}{}}\underset{j=0}{\overset{n}{}}z_2^1_{z_1}^i\delta \left(\frac{z_1}{z_2}\right)_{z_2}^jw_{ij}(z_2)$$
$`(1.16)`$
for $`u,vV`$, where $`m,n`$ are nonnegative integers depending on $`u,v`$, and $`w_{ij}V`$. Moreover, each $`w_{ij}`$ depends on $`u`$ and $`v`$ bilinearly by (1.15) and (1.16).

According to Wightman’s axioms of quantum field theory, the algebraic content of two-dimensional quantum field theory is a certain new representation theory (not the same as the traditional theory!) of Lie algebras with one-variable structure in more general sense (e.g., cf. \[K1\]), where intertwining operators among irreducible modules, “partition functions” (characters in algebraic terms), “correlation functions” related to (1.16) etc. play important roles. A “conformal algebra” is the local structure of the Lie algebras with one-variable structure. The above formula (1.16) can be represented by the following operator

$$Y^+(u,z)v=\underset{i=0}{\overset{m}{}}\underset{j=0}{\overset{n}{}}(1)^ii!^jw_{ij}z^{i1},$$
$`(1.17)`$
where “$``$” is just a symbol standing for $`_{z_2}`$.

## 2 Basic Things about Conformal Algebras

Before presenting the definition of conformal algebras, we shall introduce some notations. The following operator of taking residue will be used

$$\text{Res}_z(\underset{j}{}\xi _jz^j)=\xi _1,$$
$`(2.1)`$
where $`\xi _j`$ are in some vector space $`V`$. Moreover, all the binomials are assumed to be expanded in the second variable. For example,

$$\frac{1}{zx}=\frac{1}{z(1x/z)}=\underset{j=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}z^1\left(\frac{x}{z}\right)^j=\underset{j=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}z^{j1}x^j.$$
$`(2.2)`$
In particular, the above equation implies

$$\text{Res}_x\frac{1}{zx}(\underset{j}{}\xi _jz^j)=\underset{j=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\xi _jz^j.$$
$`(2.3)`$
So the operator $`\text{Res}_x(1/(zx)`$(—) is taking the part of negative powers in a formal series and changing the variable $`x`$ to $`z`$. For two vector spaces $`V_1`$ and $`V_2`$, we denote by $`LM(V_1,V_2)`$ the space of linear maps from $`V_1`$ to $`V_2`$.

A conformal algebra $`R`$ is an $`𝔽[]`$-module equipped with a linear map $`Y^+(,z):RLM(R,R[z^1]z^1)`$ satisfying:

$$Y^+(u,z)=\frac{d}{dz}Y^+(u,z),$$
$`(2.4)`$
$$Y^+(u,z)v=\text{Res}_x\frac{1}{zx}e^xY^+(v,x)u,$$
$`(2.5)`$
$$Y^+(u,z_1)Y^+(v,z_2)Y^+(v,z_2)Y^+(u,z_1)=\text{Res}_x\frac{1}{z_2x}Y^+(Y^+(u,z_1x)v,x)$$
$`(2.6)`$
for $`u,vR`$. We denote by $`(R,,Y^+(,z))`$ a conformal algebra.

The above definition is the equivalent generating-function form to that given in \[K1\], where the author used the component formula with $`Y^+(u,z)=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}u_{(n)}z^{n1}/n!`$.

Remark 2.1. (1) For $`uR`$,

$$Y(u,z)=\underset{j=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}u_jz^{j1}\text{with}u_j\text{End}R,$$
$`(2.7)`$
the algebra of linear transformations on $`R`$. Such an operator valued function has also been used in analysis. For any $`u,vR`$,

$$u_j(v)=0\text{for}j>>0.$$
$`(2.8)`$
(2) As an algebraic structure, conformal algebra had been essentially used by vertex operator algebraists for quite a few years before the name of conformal algebras was introduced by Kac \[K1\]. The notation $`Y^+(,z)`$ is used because a conformal algebra is essentially “positive part” of a vertex algebra. We refer to \[X2\] for the details of this point. However, it is important to single out this structure. In terms of simple algebras, the category of conformal algebras is much smaller than that of vertex algebras.

(3) A conformal algebra is equivalent to a linear Hamiltonian operator, a notion that introduced by Gel’fand and Dikii in mid seventies (see \[X5\] for the detailed proof).

(4) A notion of “associative conformal algebra” was introduced in \[K2\]. This notion seems the same as that of “Gel’fand-Dorfman operator algebra” in \[X1\], where I have proved that such an algebra with a certain unit element is equivalent to an associative algebra with a derivation.

(5) We refer to \[X2\] for twisted Lie algebras generated by conformal algebras and the detailed connections of conformal algebras with vertex operator algebras.

Note that a Lie algebra $`𝒢`$ can be viewed as a vector space with a linear map

$$\text{ad}:𝒢LM(𝒢,𝒢)=\text{End}𝒢$$
$`(2.9)`$
such that

$$\text{ad}_u(v)=\text{ad}_v(u)(\text{Skew-Symmetry}),$$
$`(2.10)`$
$$\text{ad}_u\text{ad}_v\text{ad}_v\text{ad}_u=\text{ad}_{\text{ad}_u(v)}(\text{Jacobi Identity})$$
$`(2.11)`$
for $`u,v𝒢`$. So the Expression (2.5) is an analogue of the skew-symmetry (2.10) and (2.6) is an analogue of the Jacobi identity (2.11).

We have the following obvious fact

$$\text{Res}_z\frac{d}{dz}(\underset{j}{}\xi _jz^j)=0.$$
$`(2.12)`$
So

$$\text{Res}_z\frac{df(z)}{dz}g(z)=\text{Res}_z\frac{d(f(z)g(z))}{dz}\text{Res}_zf(z)\frac{dg(z)}{dz}=\text{Res}_zf(z)\frac{dg(z)}{dz}.$$
$`(2.13)`$
Using the above equation, I have given a direct elementary proof of the following theorem originally due to Kac (cf. \[X5\]).

Theorem 2.1 (Kac, \[K1\]). Let $`R`$ be an $`𝔽[]`$-module and let $`V`$ be a subspace of $`R`$ such that

$$R=𝔽[]V.$$
$`(2.14)`$
Suppose that we have a linear map $`Y^+(,z):RLM(R,R[z^1]z^1)`$ satisfying

$$[,Y^+(u,z)]=Y^+(u,z)=\frac{d}{dz}Y^+(u,z)$$
$`(2.15)`$
for $`uR`$. Then the triple $`(R,,Y^+(,z))`$ forms a conformal algebras if and only if Axiom (2.5), and Axiom (2.6) acting on $`V`$ hold for $`u,vV`$.

In fact, we have also used (2.13) to prove the converse theorem.

Theorem 2.2 (Xu, \[X5\]). For a conformal algebra $`(R,,Y^+(,z))`$, we always have

$$[,Y^+(u,z)]=Y^+(u,z)\text{for}uR.$$
$`(2.16)`$
Theorem 2.1 is very important in constructing conformal algebras.

Example 2.1. Let $`𝒢`$ be a Lie algebra. Set

$$R(𝒢)=𝔽[]_𝔽𝒢,$$
$`(2.17)`$
which is a free $`𝔽[]`$-module. We identify $`1𝒢`$ with $`𝒢`$. Define

$$Y^+(u,z)v=[u,v]z^1\text{for}u,v𝒢.$$
$`(2.18)`$
Expression (2.15) force us to extend $`Y^+(,z)`$ on $`R`$ uniquely by

$$Y^+(^mu,z)^nv=\underset{j=0}{\overset{n}{}}(1)^j(\begin{array}{c}n\\ j\end{array})\left(\frac{d}{dz}\right)^{m+j}^{nj}Y^+(u,z)v$$
$`(2.19)`$
for $`m,n`$ and $`u,vV`$. So (2.4) naturally holds. Axiom (2.5) is equivalent to the Lie algebra skew-symmetry and Axiom (2.6) is equivalent to the Jacobi identity. Thus $`R(𝒢)`$ forms a conformal algebra, which generates the loop Lie algebra $`𝒢𝔽[t,t^1]`$ (cf. (1.16), (1.17)) with the Lie bracket

$$[ut^j,vt^l]=[u,v]t^{j+l}\text{for}u,v𝒢,j,l.$$
$`(2.20)`$
Example 2.2. Let

$$R_W=𝔽[]e.$$
$`(2.21)`$
Then we have the structure map determined by

$$Y^+(e,z)e=ez^1+2ez^2.$$
$`(2.22)`$
Conformal algebra $`R_W`$ generates the rank-one Witt algebra $`𝒲_1=𝔽e_𝔽𝔽[t,t^1]`$ (cf. (1.16), (1.17)) with the Lie bracket

$$[et^j,et^l]=(jl)et^{j+l}\text{for}j,l.$$
$`(2.23)`$
An ideal $``$ of a conformal algebra $`R`$ is a subspace such that

$$(),Y^+(u,z)()[z^1]z^1.$$
$`(2.24)`$
A conformal algebra $`R`$ is called of finite type if $`R`$ has a finite-dimensional subspace $`V`$ such that $`R=𝔽[]V`$.

Theorem 2.3 (D’Andrea and Kac, \[DK\]). A simple conformal algebra of finite type is either isomorphic to $`R_W`$ or isomorphic to $`R(𝒢)`$ for some finite-dimensional simple Lie algebra $`𝒢`$.

The above theorem shows that there are no new algebras in simple conformal algebras of finite type. Zel’manov has an approach to simple conformal algebras of infinite type by introducing certain filtrations and Gel’fand-Kirillov dimensions. I have adopted the following two approaches to simple conformal algebras of infinite type:

1. Let $`R`$ be a conformal algebra that is a free $`𝔽[]`$-modules over a subspace $`V`$, namely,

$$R=𝔽[]V𝔽[]_𝔽V.$$
$`(2.25)`$
To my best knowledge, all the known simple conformal algebras have this property. Let $`m`$ be a positive integer. The algebra $`R`$ is said of degree $`m`$ if for any $`u,vV`$,

$$Y^+(u,z)v=\underset{0<j;i+jm}{}^iw_{i,j}z^j\text{with}w_{i,j}V,$$
$`(2.26)`$
and $`w_{mj,j}0`$ for some $`u,vV`$ and $`j\{1,2,\mathrm{},m\}`$.

A linear conformal algebra is isomorphic to $`R(𝒢)`$ in Example 2.1. A quadratic conformal algebra is equivalent to a bialgebraic structure on $`V`$, which I called a Gel’fand-Dorfman bialgebra in \[X3\]. One of the structures is a Lie algebra, the other is a Novikov algebra and they satisfy a compatibility equation of five nonzero terms (cf. \[X3\]). We refer to \[X6\] for a survey on Gel’fand-Dorfman bialgebras, and special families of simple cubic conformal algebras and simple quartic conformal algebras.

This approach is to study simple conformal algebras of finite degree. The development of this approach is at initial stage.

2. A conformal algebra $`R`$ is called $``$-weighted if

$$R=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}R^{(n)}$$
$`(2.27)`$
is a graded space such that for $`uR^{(l)}`$, we have

$$Y^+(u,z)=\underset{j=1l}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}u(j)z^{jl},u(j)(R^{(n)})R^{(nj)}$$
$`(2.28)`$
(cf. \[X4\]). Let $`R`$ be an $``$-weighted conformal algebra that is a free $`𝔽[]`$-module over an $``$-graded subspace $`V`$. The algebra $`R`$ is called a conformal algebra of finite growth if

$$dimVR^{(n)}N_0\text{for}n,$$
$`(2.29)`$
where $`N_0`$ is a fixed positive integer.

This second approach is to study simple conformal algebras of finite growth. Up to this point, we only know several families of such algebras (cf. \[X4\]). In next two sections, we shall introduce three families of simple conformal algebras of finite growth related to Jordan algebras, where the first family is directly taken from \[X4\], and the second and third are extended versions of those in \[X4\],

## 3 Free Quadratic Fermionic Fields with Derivatives

In this section, we shall present the conformal subalgebras related to quadratic free fermionic fields with derivatives.

Let $`H`$ be a vector space with a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form $`,`$ such that there exist two subspaces $`H_+,H_{}`$ satisfying $`H=H_++H_{}`$ and

$$H_+,H_+=H_{},H_{}=\{0\}.$$
$`(3.1)`$
Thus $`H_+`$ is isomorphic to the dual space $`(H_{})^{}`$ through the nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form $`,`$.

Let $`t`$ be an indeterminate and set

$$\widehat{H}=H_𝔽𝔽[t,t^1]t^{1/2}𝔽\kappa ,$$
$`(3.2)`$
where $`\kappa `$ is a symbol to denote a base vector of one-dimensional vector space. We define algebraic operation $`[,]`$ on $`\widehat{H}`$ by

$$[h_1t^m+\lambda _1\kappa ,h_2t^n+\lambda _2\kappa ]=h_1,h_2\delta _{m+n,0}\kappa $$
$`(3.3)`$
for $`h_1,h_2H,m,n+1/2,\lambda _1,\lambda _2𝔽`$. Then $`(\widehat{H},[,])`$ forms a Lie superalgebra with the $`_2`$-grading

$$\widehat{H}_1=H_𝔽𝔽[t,t^1]t^{1/2},\widehat{H}_0=𝔽\kappa .$$
$`(3.4)`$
For convenience, we denote

$$h(m)=ht^m\text{for}hH,m+1/2.$$
$`(3.5)`$
Set

$$\widehat{H}_{}=\text{span}\{h(m)hH,m+1/2\},$$
$`(3.6)`$
$$\widehat{B}_H=\text{span}\{\kappa ,h(m)hH,m+1/2\}.$$
$`(3.7)`$
Then $`\widehat{H}_{}`$ and $`\widehat{B}_H`$ are trivial Lie sub-superalgebras of $`\widehat{H}`$ and

$$\widehat{H}=\widehat{H}_{}\widehat{B}_H.$$
$`(3.8)`$
Let $`𝔽\mathrm{𝟏}`$ be a one-dimensional vector space with the base element $`\mathrm{𝟏}`$. We define an action of $`\widehat{B}_H`$ on $`𝔽\mathrm{𝟏}`$ by

$$h(m)(\mathrm{𝟏})=0,\kappa (\mathrm{𝟏})=\mathrm{𝟏}\text{for}hH,m+1/2.$$
$`(3.9)`$
Then $`𝔽\mathrm{𝟏}`$ forms a $`\widehat{B}_H`$-module. We denote by $`U()`$ the universal envelopping algebra of a Lie algebra and by $`()`$ the exterior algebra generated by a vector space. Form an induced $`\widehat{H}`$-module

$$=U(\widehat{H})_{U(\widehat{B}_H)}𝔽\mathrm{𝟏}((\widehat{H}_{})_𝔽𝔽\mathrm{𝟏}\text{as vector spaces}).$$
$`(3.10)`$
Moreover, we set

$$h^+(z)=\underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}h(m+1/2)z^{m1},h^{}(z)=\underset{m=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}h(m+1/2)z^{m1},$$
$`(3.11)`$
$$h(z)=h^+(z)+h^{}(z)$$
$`(3.12)`$
for $`hH`$. As operators on $``$, $`\{h(z)hH\}`$ are called free fermionic fields.

For convenience, we denote

$$u\mathrm{𝟏}=u\text{for}u(\widehat{H}_{}).$$
$`(3.13)`$
Set

$$\widehat{R}_2=\text{span}\{h_1(m)h_2(n),\mathrm{𝟏}h_1H_+,h_2H_{},m,n+1/2\}.$$
$`(3.14)`$
We define a linear map $`Y(,z):\widehat{R}_2LM(,[z^1,z]])`$ by

$$Y(h_1(m1/2)h_2(n1/2),z)=\frac{1}{m!n!}\left(\frac{d^mh_1^{}(z)}{dz^m}\frac{d^nh_2(z)}{dz^n}\frac{d^nh_2(z)}{dz^n}\frac{d^mh_1^+(z)}{dz^m}\right)$$
$`(3.15)`$
for $`h_1H_+,h_2H_{}`$ and $`m,n`$ and

$$Y(\mathrm{𝟏},z)=\text{Id}_{}.$$
$`(3.16)`$
The operator $`Y(h_1(m1/2)h_2(n1/2),z)`$ is a quadratic fermionic field with derivatives. Moreover, we write

$$Y(u,z)=\underset{n}{}u_nz^{n1},Y^+(u,z)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}u_nz^{n1}\text{for}u\widehat{R}_2.$$
$`(3.17)`$
In particular,

$`(h_1(m1/2)h_2(n1/2))_k`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{j=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}[(\begin{array}{c}j1\\ n\end{array})(\begin{array}{c}j+m+nk\\ m\end{array})h_1(kmnj1/2)h_2(j+1/2)`$
$`(\begin{array}{c}j1\\ m\end{array})(\begin{array}{c}j+m+nk\\ n\end{array})h_2(kmnj1/2)h_1(j+1/2)](3.18)`$
for $`h_1H_+,h_2H_{}`$ and $`m,n,k`$.

Note that

$$h_1(m)h_2(n)(h_3(j)h_4(k))=\delta _{m,k}\delta _{n,j}h_1,h_4h_2,h_3\mathrm{𝟏},$$
$`(3.19)`$
$$h_1(m)h_2(n)(h_3(j)h_4(k))=\delta _{n,j}h_2,h_3h_1(m)h_4(k),$$
$`(3.20)`$
$$h_2(m)h_1(n)(h_3(j)h_4(k))=\delta _{n,k}h_1,h_4h_3(j)h_2(m)$$
$`(3.22)`$
for $`h_1,h_3H_+,h_2,h_4H_{}`$ and $`j,k,m,n+1/2`$. Expressions (3.18)-(3.22) show that

$$Y^+(u,z)v\widehat{R}_2[z^1]z^1\text{for}u,v\widehat{R}_2.$$
$`(3.23)`$
Moreover, we define $`\text{End}\widehat{R}_2`$ by $`(\mathrm{𝟏})=0`$ and

$`(h_1(m1/2)h_2(n1/2))`$ $`=`$ $`(m+1)h_1(m3/2)h_2(n1/2)`$
$`+(n+1)h_1(m1/2)h_2(n3/2)(3.24)`$
for $`h_1,h_2H`$ and $`m,n`$. Then the family $`(\widehat{R}_2,,Y^+(|_{\widehat{R}_2},z))`$ forms a conformal algebra.

According to linear algebra, there exist basis $`\{\varsigma _j^\pm |jI\}`$ of $`H_\pm `$ (cf. (3.1)) such that

$$\varsigma _i^+,\varsigma _j^{}=\delta _{i,j}\text{for}i,jI$$
$`(3.25)`$
by (3.1) and nondegeneracy of $`,`$, where $`I`$ is an index set. Note that

$$\varsigma _{j_1}^+(m)\varsigma _{j_2}^{}(m)(\varsigma _{j_3}^+(m)\varsigma _{j_4}^{}(m))=\delta _{j_2,j_3}\varsigma _{j_1}^+(m)\varsigma _{j_4}^{}(m)$$
$`(3.26)`$
for $`j_1,j_1,j_3,j_4I`$ and $`m+1/2`$. Expression (3.26) is essentially equivalent to matrix multiplications! This gives us a motivation of constructing simple conformal algebras in next section.

## 4 Conformal Algebras Generated by Jordan Algebras

Let $`k`$ be a positive integer and set

$$𝒜=M_{k\times k}(𝔽),$$
$`(4.1)`$
the algebra of $`k\times k`$ matrices. Form a tensor

$$R_{k\times k}=𝒜_𝔽𝔽[t_1,t_2],$$
$`(4.2)`$
where $`t_1,t_2`$ are indeterminants. For convenience, we denote

$$u(m,n)=ut_1^mt_2^n\text{for}u𝒜,m,n.$$
$`(4.3)`$
We define the $`𝔽[]`$-action on $`R_{k\times k}`$ by

$$(u(m,n))=(m+1)u(m+1,n)+(n+1)u(m,n+1)$$
$`(4.4)`$
and the structure map $`Y^+(,z)`$ on $`R_{k\times k}`$ by

$`Y^+(u(m_1,m_2),z)v(n_1,n_2)`$
$`=`$ $`(\begin{array}{c}n_11\\ m_2\end{array}){\displaystyle \underset{p=0}{\overset{m_1+m_2+n_1}{}}}(\begin{array}{c}p\\ m_1\end{array})(uv)(p,n_2)z^{pm_1m_2n_11}`$
$`(\begin{array}{c}n_21\\ m_1\end{array}){\displaystyle \underset{q=0}{\overset{m_1+m_2+n_2}{}}}(\begin{array}{c}q\\ m_2\end{array})(vu)(n_1,q)z^{qm_1m_2n_21}(4.5)`$
for $`u,v𝒜`$ and $`m,m_1,m_2,n,n_1,n_2`$. The above formula was motivated by the following formula of the nonnegative operators of a quadratic field acting on a quadratic element:

$$Y^+(\varsigma _{j_1}^+(m_11/2)\varsigma _{j_2}^{}(m_21/2),z)\varsigma _{j_3}^+(n_11/2)\varsigma _{j_4}^{}(n_21/2)$$
$`(4.6)`$
for $`j_1,j_2,j_3,j_4I`$ and $`m_1,n_1,m_2,n_2`$, which is defined by (3.1), (3.15), (3.17) and (3.25). The reader may calculate (4.6) by (3.18) and compare it with (4.5) in order to better understand (4.5).

We define weights by

$$R_{k\times k}^{(n)}=\text{span}\{u(m_1,m_2)u𝒜,m_1,m_2,m_1+m_2+1=n\}$$
$`(4.7)`$
for $`n+1`$. Then $`(R_{k\times k},,Y^+(,z))`$ forms a simple conformal algebra of finite growth (cf. \[X4\]) with

$$V=𝒜_𝔽𝔽[t_2]=\text{Span}\{u(0,n)u𝒜,n\}$$
$`(4.8)`$
(that is, $`R_{k\times k}`$ is an $`𝔽[]`$-module over $`V`$). Next we want to pick out simple subalgebras.

For $`\mathrm{}`$, we set

$$R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}+1}=\text{Span}\{u(m,n+\mathrm{})u𝒜,m,n\},$$
$`(4.9)`$
$`R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}+1}^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\text{Span}\{(\begin{array}{c}n+\mathrm{}\\ \mathrm{}\end{array})u(m,n+\mathrm{})(1)^{\mathrm{}}(\begin{array}{c}m+\mathrm{}\\ \mathrm{}\end{array})u^T(n,m+\mathrm{})`$
$`u𝒜,m,n\},(4.10)`$
where the up index “T” stands for the transpose of matrices. When $`k=2k_1`$ is an even integer, we have another involutive anti-automorphism “$``$” of $`𝒜`$:

$$u^{}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}& \hfill I_{k_1}\\ \hfill I_{k_1}& \end{array}\right)u^T\left(\begin{array}{cc}& \hfill I_{k_1}\\ \hfill I_{k_1}& \end{array}\right)\text{for}u𝒜,$$
$`(4.11)`$
where $`I_{k_1}`$ is the $`k_1\times k_1`$ identity matrix. Furthermore, we set

$`R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}+1}^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\text{Span}\{(\begin{array}{c}n+\mathrm{}\\ \mathrm{}\end{array})u(m,n+\mathrm{})(1)^{\mathrm{}}(\begin{array}{c}m+\mathrm{}\\ \mathrm{}\end{array})u^{}(n,m+\mathrm{})`$
$`u𝒜,m,n\}.(4.12)`$
Theorem 4.1 (Xu, \[X4\]). For any $`1\mathrm{}`$, all the subspaces $`R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}},R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}}^{}`$ and $`R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}}^{}`$ form simple conformal subalgebras of finite growth with the minimal weight $`\mathrm{}`$.

A subset $`S`$ of a conformal algebra $`R`$ is called a generator subset of $`R`$ if

$$R=\text{Span}\{u_{n_1}^1u_{n_2}^2\mathrm{}u_{n_s}^s(v)u^i,vS,s,n_j\},$$
$`(4.13)`$
where we have used the notation

$$Y^+(u,z)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}u_nz^{n1}\text{for}uR.$$
$`(4.14)`$
Theorem 4.2 (Xu, \[X4\]). For any $`2\mathrm{}`$, all the conformal algebras $`R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}}(k2),R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}}^{}(k2)`$ and $`R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}}^{}(k4)`$ are generated by their subspace of minimal weight.

Let

$$X_{\mathrm{}}=R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}},R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}}^{}\text{or}R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}}^{}.$$
$`(4.15)`$
For any

$$uX_{\mathrm{}}^{(\mathrm{})}=X_{\mathrm{}}R_{k\times k}^{(\mathrm{})},$$
$`(4.16)`$
we write

$$Y^+(u,z)=\underset{n=1\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}u(n)z^n\mathrm{}.$$
$`(4.17)`$
Then $`u(n)\text{End}X_{\mathrm{}}`$ is an operator of degree $`n`$. In particular, we can define an algebraic operation $``$ on its subspace $`X_{\mathrm{}}^{(\mathrm{})}`$ of minimal weight by

$$uv=u(0)v\text{for}u,vX_{\mathrm{}}^{(\mathrm{})}.$$
$`(4.18)`$
Theorem 4.3 (Xu, \[X4\]). When $`\mathrm{}`$ is even, the algebra $`(X_{\mathrm{}}^{(\mathrm{})},)`$ forms a simple Jordan algebra of type A, B or C, which is independent of $`\mathrm{}`$.

Remark 4.4. (1) When $`\mathrm{}`$ is odd, the algebra $`(X_{\mathrm{}}^{(\mathrm{})},)`$ forms a Lie algebra isomorphic to $`gl(k),o(k)`$ or $`sp(k)`$, which is independent of $`\mathrm{}`$.

(2) The algebras $`R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}}^{}`$ and $`R_{k\times k,\mathrm{}}^{}`$ with $`\mathrm{}>2`$ have not been defined in \[X4\]. However, the proofs of Theorems 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 in \[X4\] show that the same conclusions hold for them.

(3) The other cases such as $`\mathrm{}=1`$ in Theorem 4.2 have been handled in \[X4\].

References

A. D’Andrea and V. G. Kac, Structure theory of finite conformal algebras, Selecta Math. (N.S.) 4 (1998), 377-418.

V. G. Kac, Vertex algebras for beginners, University lectures series, Vol 10, AMS. Providence RI, 1996.

—, Formal distribution algebras and conformal algebras, XIIth International Congress of Mathematical Physics (ICMP ’97) (Brisbane), 80-97, Internat. Press, Cambridge, MA, 1999.

J. Lepowsky and R. L. Wilson, Construction of affine Lie algebra $`A^{(1)}`$, Commun. Math. Phys. 62 (1978), 43-53.

X. Xu, Hamiltonian operators and associative algebras with a derivation, Lett. Math. Phys. 33 (1995), 1-6.

—, Introduction to vertex operator superalgebras and their modules, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, 1998.

—, Quadratic conformal superalgebras, J. Algebra 231 (2000), 1-38.

—, Simple conformal superalgebras of finite growth, Algebra Collquium 7 (2000), 205-240.

—, Equivalence of conformal superalgebras to Hamiltonian superoperators, to appear in Algebra Colloquium 8 (2001), 63-92.

—, Gel’fand-Dorfman Bialgebras, arXiv:math.QA/0008223.

Department of Mathematics, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong


text:
# References

Nonlinear superposition formulas based on Lie group $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$

Č. Burdík

Department of Mathematics and Doppler Institute, FNSPE, Czech Technical

University, Trojanova 13, CZ-120 00 Prague 2, Czech Republic

O. Navrátil

Department of Mathematics, FTS, Czech Technical University,

Na Florenci 25, CZ-110 00 Prague 1, Czech Republic

Systems of nonlinear ordinary differential equations are constructed, for which the general solution is algebraically expressed in terms of a finite number of particular solutions. Expressions of that type are called the nonlinear superposition formulas. These systems are connected with local Lie groups transformations on their homogeneous spaces. In the presented work the nonlinear superposition formulas are constructed for the case of the $`\mathrm{SO}(3,2)`$ group and some aspects in the general case of $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$ are studied.

1. Introduction

Let us consider a system of $`n`$ first–order differential equations

$$\dot{x}^\mu (t)=\chi ^\mu (x^1,x^2,\mathrm{},x^n,t),\mu =1,\mathrm{},n,$$
(1)
where the dot denotes differentiation $`x^\mu (t)`$ with respect to time $`t`$. It is known for a very long time that, in some cases which we will specify later, it is possible to express the general solution as a nonlinear function of a finite number of particular solutions; it is of the form

$$𝐱=𝐅(𝐱_1,𝐱_2,\mathrm{},𝐱_m,c_1,\mathrm{},c_s),𝐱𝐑^n,$$
(2)
where $`𝐱_1`$, …, $`𝐱_m`$ are particular solutions (1), $`c_1`$, $`c_2`$, …, $`c_s`$ are arbitrary constants, and $`𝐱(t)`$ is the general solution. These relations are called nonlinear superposition formulas. Here $`𝐱`$ means a vector with elements $`x^1`$, $`x^2`$, …, $`x^n`$.

An example of such systems is a homogeneous system of the first order linear differential equations, in which the general solution is expressed as a linear combination of $`n`$ linearly independent particular solutions. The other known example is the Riccati equation

$$\dot{x}=a(t)+b(t)x+c(t)x^2,$$
(3)
where $`a(t)`$, $`b(t)`$, $`c(t)`$ are continuous differentiable functions with respect to $`t`$. In this case, for any four solutions $`x_i(t)`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},4`$, the relation

$$\frac{x_1(t)x_3(t)}{x_1(t)x_4(t)}\frac{x_2(t)x_4(t)}{x_2(t)x_3(t)}=\frac{u_1u_3}{u_1u_4}\frac{u_2u_4}{u_2u_3},$$
(4)
where $`x_i(0)=u_i`$ are initial conditions, is valid.

In the general case, such systems of differential equations are connected with the local Lie group $`G`$ of transformations on a factor space $`M=G/G_0`$, where $`G_0`$ is a Lie subalgebra of $`G`$ . We recall this connection briefly.

By the local Lie group $`G`$ of transformations on the $`M`$, we understand a smooth mapping $`\phi :G\times MM`$, (we use the abbreviation $`\phi (g,u)=gu`$), for which: a) $`eu=u`$, for any $`uM`$, where $`e`$ is the unit element of the group $`G`$, b) for any two elements $`g_1`$, $`g_2G`$ and any $`uM`$ is $`g_2\left(g_1u\right)=\left(g_2g_1\right)u`$ and c) $`gu=u`$ for any $`uM`$ imply $`g=e`$ .

In the local coordinate system, we write $`x=gu`$ as

$$x^\mu =f^\mu (a^1,\mathrm{},a^N,u^1,\mathrm{},u^n),\mu =1,\mathrm{},n,$$
(5)
where $`N`$ is a dimension of the group $`G`$ and $`a^r`$, $`r=1,\mathrm{},N`$, are their local coordinates. For $`x^\mu (𝐚,𝐮)`$, we can write

$$\frac{x^\mu }{a^r}=\underset{s=1}{\overset{N}{}}\xi _s^\mu (𝐱)v_r^s(𝐚),$$
(6)
where the vector fields $`X_s(𝐱)={\displaystyle \underset{\mu =1}{\overset{n}{}}}\xi _s^\mu (𝐱){\displaystyle \frac{}{x^\mu }}`$ obey the equations

$$[X_r,X_s]=\underset{t=1}{\overset{N}{}}c_{rs}^tX_t,$$

in which $`c_{rs}^t`$ are structure constants of the Lie algebra of the group $`G`$.

Conversely, the vector fields $`X_k(𝐱)`$ determine the infinitesimal action of the local Lie group on the space $`M`$ uniquely .

Let $`g(t)=(a^1(t),\mathrm{},a^N(t))`$, $`t𝐑`$, be a curve in the Lie group $`G`$ such that $`g(0)=e`$. This gives a curve in the space $`M`$. Derivation of equation (5) with respect to the parameter $`t`$ gives, by using (6), the system of differential equations

$$\dot{x}^\mu =\underset{r=1}{\overset{N}{}}\xi _r^\mu (𝐱)Z^r(t),\mu =1,\mathrm{},n.$$
(7)
In our paper we will deal with such systems connected with the Lie group $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$.

If the system of equations (1) has form (7), then there is a curve in some local coordinates on the Lie group $`G`$, which acts on the factor space $`M`$. In this case, it is possible to find the superposition formula . Any particular solution of the system (7) can be written in the form

$$𝐱_k(t)=g(t)𝐮_k,$$
(8)
where $`𝐮_k=𝐱_k(0)`$ is the initial condition.

We express the action of the local group $`G`$ by using action of this group to few points of the space $`M`$, which is supposed known. In principle, it means to find from the system of the equations

$$\begin{array}{c}𝐱_1=𝐟(a^1,\mathrm{},a^N,𝐮_1)\hfill \\ 𝐱_2=𝐟(a^1,\mathrm{},a^N,𝐮_2)\hfill \\ \mathrm{}\hfill \\ 𝐱_r=𝐟(a^1,\mathrm{},a^N,𝐮_r)\hfill \end{array}$$
(9)
the coordinates of the group $`a^i`$. To be able to find the group coordinates $`a^i`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},N`$, we should use the action of $`r`$ points. It is evident that the number $`r`$ must fulfil the inequality $`nrN`$, where $`n`$ is the dimension of $`M`$, and $`N`$ is the dimension of the group $`G`$.

If we solve this, then we are able to express the elements of Lie group $`G`$ by means of the known transformations of $`r`$ points in the form

$$g=g(𝐱_1,𝐱_2,\mathrm{},𝐱_r,𝐮_1,𝐮_2,\mathrm{},𝐮_r),$$
(10)
therefore

$$𝐱=g(𝐱_1,\mathrm{},𝐱_r,𝐮_1,\mathrm{},𝐮_r)𝐮$$
(11)
holds. Now we see that formula (11) is invariant with respect to the action of the local group $`G`$.

If $`𝐱_i(t)`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},r`$, are known solutions of the system (7) for given functions $`Z^r(t)`$, then any other solution $`𝐱(t)`$ of that system is given by (11). Therefore the relation (11) is the superposition formula .

For example, the Riccati equation (3) is connected with the Lie group $`G=SL(2)`$ that acts on the space $`M`$ as

$$g(t)u=x(t)=\frac{a_{21}(t)+ua_{22}(t)}{a_{11}(t)+ua_{12}(t)},$$

where we represented the elements of the group $`G`$ by matrix $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}a_{11}& a_{12}\\ a_{21}& a_{22}\end{array}\right)`$, with the determinant equals to $`1`$.

In the eighties, there where a lot of papers  which were devoted to the systems of differential equations of this type and especially to finding the superposition formulas for these systems. For the most part, the authors study the systems, which are connected with Lie groups $`\mathrm{SL}(n,𝐑)`$ or $`\mathrm{SL}(n,𝐂)`$. In the general paper  the methods are described that are used for constructing the superposition formulas. They are demonstrated with examples, in which the Lie groups $`\mathrm{SL}(n,𝐑)`$ and $`\mathrm{O}(p+1,np+1)`$ act on simple projective spaces.

In  the more general case of the projective matrix Riccati equation are studied for $`\mathrm{SL}(2n,𝐑)`$ and $`\mathrm{SP}(2n,𝐑)`$. In paper , the systems that arise from the action of $`\mathrm{SL}(n,𝐂)`$ on the factor spaces $`\mathrm{SL}(n,𝐂)/\mathrm{O}(n,𝐂)`$ and $`\mathrm{SL}(2n,𝐂)/\mathrm{SP}(2n,𝐂)`$ are studied. Paper , is devoted to the superposition formulas for rectangular–matrix Riccati equations on the space $`\mathrm{SL}(n+k,𝐂)/P(k)`$, where $`P(k)`$ are special maximal parabolic subgroups of the $`\mathrm{SL}(n+k,𝐂)`$. In , the authors deal with systems connected with the Lie group $`\mathrm{SU}(n,n)`$, and in , th same method for $`\mathrm{SO}(n,n)`$ is used. Finally, in paper , the authors study the systems of equations that are connected with the action of Lie group $`\mathrm{SL}(n,𝐂)`$ on the space $`M=\mathrm{SL}(n,𝐂)/G_0`$, where $`G_0`$ is a special non–maximal parabolic subgroup.

The authors mostly used a set of special solutions for reconstructing the group action on the space $`M`$. This approach simplifies the solution of (9). But on the other hand, we are not able to use the resulting superposition formulas directly for constructing the solution of the system on the basis any set of particular solutions. By means of the action of groups elements, we must first transform our particular solutions to a special set of particular solutions used in superposition formulas.

In the next, we study the systems of equations (7) which are connected with the action of Lie group $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$ on the space $`M=\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)/P`$, where $`P`$ is one of the maximal parabolic subgroups. To our knowledge systems of this type were not studied so far. In distinction to the papers cited above, we do not choose a special set of particular solutions for reconstructing the group action on $`M`$, or, in the terminology of paper , we will construct group invariants which give nonlinear superposition formulas in implicit form.

2. Lie group $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$ and its Lie algebra

In this section, we fix the notation. The Lie group $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$ is a group of real matrices $`𝐆`$ with dimension $`(2n+1)\times (2n+1)`$ that fulfil the equations

$$𝐆^T\sigma 𝐆=\sigma ,\text{where }\sigma =\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 𝐈\\ 0& 𝐈& 0\end{array}\right),$$
(12)
$`𝐆^T`$ denotes a transposed matrix and $`𝐈`$ is a unit matrix with dimension $`n\times n`$.

Matrix $`𝐆`$ is written in the form

$$𝐆=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}g_{11}& 𝐠_{12}^T& 𝐠_{13}^T\\ 𝐠_{21}& 𝐆_{22}& 𝐆_{23}\\ 𝐠_{31}& 𝐆_{32}& 𝐆_{33}\end{array}\right),$$
(13)
where $`𝐠`$ denotes a column vector, and $`𝐠^T`$ is its transposed vector represented as row. Therefore $`\mathrm{𝐠𝐠}^T`$ is an $`n\times n`$ matrix, and $`𝐠^T𝐠`$ is an inner product.

If we insert (13) into (12) we obtain the following formulas for elements of the matrix $`𝐆`$

$$\begin{array}{c}g_{11}^2+𝐠_{21}^T𝐠_{31}+𝐠_{31}^T𝐠_{21}=1\hfill \\ \\ g_{11}𝐠_{12}+𝐆_{22}^T𝐠_{31}+𝐆_{32}^T𝐠_{21}=0\hfill \\ \\ g_{11}𝐠_{13}+𝐆_{23}^T𝐠_{31}+𝐆_{33}^T𝐠_{21}=0\hfill \\ \\ 𝐠_{12}𝐠_{12}^T+𝐆_{22}^T𝐆_{32}+𝐆_{32}^T𝐆_{22}=0\hfill \\ \\ 𝐠_{13}𝐠_{13}^T+𝐆_{23}^T𝐆_{33}+𝐆_{33}^T𝐆_{23}=0\hfill \\ \\ 𝐠_{12}𝐠_{13}^T+𝐆_{22}^T𝐆_{33}+𝐆_{32}^T𝐆_{23}=𝐈\hfill \end{array}$$
(14)
In this realization the Lie algebra $`\mathrm{so}(n+1,n)`$ is given by real matrices

$$𝐀=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 𝐱^T& 𝐳^T\\ 𝐳& 𝐇& 𝐖\\ 𝐱& 𝐘& 𝐇^T\end{array}\right),$$

where $`𝐖^T=𝐖`$ a $`𝐘^T=𝐘`$.

In the group $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$, we take a subgroup $`G_0`$ that is generated by the matrices

$$𝐆_0=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 𝐃& 0\\ 0& 0& \left(𝐃^T\right)^1\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 𝐳^T\\ 𝐳& 𝐈& 𝐙\\ 0& 0& 𝐈\end{array}\right),$$

where the equality $`𝐙+𝐙^T+\mathrm{𝐳𝐳}^T=0`$ holds. The factor space $`M=G/G_0`$ can be represented by the matrices

$$\mathrm{\Xi }=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 𝐱^T& 0\\ 0& 𝐈& 0\\ 𝐱& 𝐗& 𝐈\end{array}\right),$$

where $`𝐗+𝐗^T+\mathrm{𝐱𝐱}^T=0`$. As coordinates on $`M`$, we choose $`𝐱`$ and the antisymmetric part of the matrix $`𝐗`$; this means that

$$𝐘=𝐗+\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{𝐱𝐱}^T.$$
(15)
The action of the group $`G`$ on the factor space $`M`$ in these coordinates can be obtained from the equation

$$\begin{array}{c}\left(\begin{array}{ccc}g_{11}& 𝐠_{12}^T& 𝐠_{13}^T\\ 𝐠_{21}& 𝐆_{22}& 𝐆_{23}\\ 𝐠_{31}& 𝐆_{32}& 𝐆_{33}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 𝐮^T& 0\\ 0& 𝐈& 0\\ 𝐮& 𝐔& 𝐈\end{array}\right)=\hfill \\ \\ =\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 𝐱^T& 0\\ 0& 𝐈& 0\\ 𝐱& 𝐗& 𝐈\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 𝐃& 0\\ 0& 0& \left(𝐃^T\right)^1\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 𝐳^T\\ 𝐳& 𝐈& 𝐙\\ 0& 0& 𝐈\end{array}\right).\hfill \end{array}$$

If we compare the coefficients on both sides of this equation, we obtain the following formulas

$$\begin{array}{c}𝐃=𝐆_{22}+𝐠_{21}𝐮^T+𝐆_{23}𝐔\hfill \\ \\ 𝐱=\left(𝐃^T\right)^1\left(𝐠_{12}+g_{11}𝐮+𝐔^T𝐠_{13}\right)\hfill \\ \\ 𝐗=\left(𝐆_{32}+𝐠_{31}𝐮^T+𝐆_{33}𝐔\right)𝐃^1\hfill \end{array}$$
(16)
for the group elements. Because we restrict ourselves to the local Lie group, we can suppose that matrix $`𝐃`$ is invertible.

Starting with the action of this group on the space $`M`$ and by using the expansion to the first order, we derive an explicit expression for vector fields, in the basis of the algebra $`\mathrm{so}(n+1,n)`$ in the representation $`\left(T_gf\right)(m)=f(g^1m)`$. Specifically we get

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill Y_{ij}& & \frac{}{Y_{ij}}\hfill \\ \multicolumn{3}{c}{}\\ \hfill x_i& & \frac{}{x_i}\frac{1}{2}\underset{r=1}{\overset{n}{}}x_r\frac{}{Y_{ri}}\hfill \\ \multicolumn{3}{c}{}\\ \hfill D_{ij}& & x_j\frac{}{x_i}\underset{r=1}{\overset{n}{}}Y_{ir}\frac{}{Y_{rj}}\hfill \\ \multicolumn{3}{c}{}\\ \hfill z_i& & \underset{r=1}{\overset{n}{}}\left(Y_{ir}+\frac{x_ix_r}{2}\right)\frac{}{x_r}\frac{1}{2}\underset{r,s=1}{\overset{n}{}}Y_{ri}x_s\frac{}{Y_{rs}}\hfill \\ \multicolumn{3}{c}{}\\ \hfill W_{ij}& & \underset{r=1}{\overset{n}{}}\left(x_jY_{ri}x_iY_{rj}\right)\frac{}{x_r}\underset{r,s=1}{\overset{n}{}}Y_{ir}Y_{js}\frac{}{Y_{rs}},\hfill \end{array}$$

where we define $`Y_{rs}=Y_{sr}`$.

The system of differential equations (7) is in this case of the form

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \dot{𝐱}(t)& =& 𝐚(t)𝐁(t)𝐱\mathrm{𝐘𝐜}(t)+\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{𝐱𝐜}^T(t)𝐱\mathrm{𝐘𝐂}(t)𝐱\hfill \\ \multicolumn{3}{c}{}\\ \hfill \dot{𝐘}(t)& =& 𝐀(t)+\frac{1}{2}\left(\mathrm{𝐱𝐚}^T(t)𝐚(t)𝐱^T\right)\left(\mathrm{𝐘𝐁}(t)+𝐁^T(t)𝐘\right)+\hfill \\ \multicolumn{3}{c}{}\\ & & +\frac{1}{2}\left(\mathrm{𝐘𝐜}(t)𝐱^T+\mathrm{𝐱𝐜}^T(t)𝐘\right)\mathrm{𝐘𝐂}(t)𝐘\hfill \end{array}$$
(17)
where $`𝐚(t)`$ and $`𝐜(t)`$ are vector functions differentiable with respect to $`t`$; $`𝐀(t)`$, $`𝐁(t)`$ and $`𝐂(t)`$ are differentiable matrix functions, for which $`𝐀^T=𝐀`$, $`𝐂^T=𝐂`$ and $`𝐘^T=𝐘`$.

This system of differential equation is the same as in the paper , where is given classification of all systems of nonlinear ordinary differential equations of this type.

3. Representations of the action of the group by means of particular solutions

The system of equations (17) arises from the action of the Lie group $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$ on the factor space $`M=\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)/G_0`$. Therefore, one can find the superposition formula. The action of the group $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$ on the space $`M`$ is given by the relations (16). We try to express this action by means of any known solutions $`𝐱_k=g𝐮_k`$. If $`𝐱_k(t)`$ are solutions of the differential equations (17) with the initial conditions $`𝐱_k(0)=𝐮_k`$, we obtain the general solution $`𝐱(t)`$ with the initial condition $`𝐱(0)=𝐮`$ in the form

$$𝐱(t)=G(𝐱_1(t),\mathrm{},𝐱_r(t),𝐮_1,\mathrm{},𝐮_r)𝐮,$$

where $`g(𝐱_1(t),\mathrm{},𝐱_r(t),𝐮_1,\mathrm{},𝐮_r)=g(t)`$ is the expression of an element of the group $`G`$ in terms of the known transformation.

Dimension of the group $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$ is equal to $`n(2n+1)`$ and the dimension of the space $`M=SO(n+1,n)/G_0`$ is $`{\displaystyle \frac{n(n+1)}{2}}`$. So, to express $`N`$ coordinates of the group elements by using the known solutions, we must know at least $`r`$ solutions, where $`r`$ fulfils the inequality $`n(2n+1){\displaystyle \frac{n(n+1)}{2}}r`$. Consequently, for $`n=1`$, it is sufficient to known three particular solutions, and for $`n>1`$, we must know at least, four particular solutions of the system (17).

By $`𝐱_i`$ we denote a vector, and by $`𝐗_i=𝐘_i{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}𝐱_i𝐱_i^T`$, a matrix for and $`i^{th}`$ solution of the system of differential equations (17) with initial conditions $`𝐮_i`$ and $`𝐔_i`$; $`𝐃_i`$ is an invertible matrix defined for an appropriate solution by the first equation in (16). Further, we denote $`𝐮_{ik}=𝐮_i𝐮_k`$, $`𝐱_{ik}=𝐱_i𝐱_k`$. Similarly, we define $`𝐗_{ik}`$ and $`𝐔_{ik}`$. Temporarily we suppose that all matrices which we will use in our calculations are invertible.

From equation (16) we obtain some coordinates of elements of the group $`G`$. Readily we discover that for indices $`i`$ and $`k`$, the relations

$$\begin{array}{c}𝐠_{13}=\left(𝐔_{ik}^T\right)^1\left(𝐃_i^T𝐱_i𝐃_k^T𝐱_kg_{11}𝐮_{ik}\right)\hfill \\ \\ 𝐆_{23}=(𝐃_i𝐃_k𝐠_{21}𝐮_{ik}^T)𝐔_{ik}^1\hfill \\ \\ 𝐆_{33}=\left(𝐗_i𝐃_i𝐗_k𝐃_k𝐠_{31}𝐮_{ik}^T\right)𝐔_{ik}^1\hfill \\ \\ 𝐠_{12}=𝐃_i^T𝐱_ig_{11}𝐮_i𝐔_i^T𝐠_{13}\hfill \\ \\ 𝐆_{22}=𝐃_i𝐠_{21}𝐮_i^T𝐆_{23}𝐔_i\hfill \\ \\ 𝐆_{32}=𝐗_i𝐃_i𝐠_{31}𝐮_i^T𝐆_{33}𝐔_i\hfill \end{array}$$

are valid. If we now apply these equations to (14), after a simple algebra we obtain the following formulas

$$\begin{array}{c}g_{11}^2+𝐠_{21}^T𝐠_{31}+𝐠_{31}^T𝐠_{21}=1\hfill \\ \\ 𝐃_i^T\left(g_{11}𝐱_i+𝐠_{31}+𝐗_i^T𝐠_{21}\right)=𝐮_i\hfill \\ \\ 𝐃_i^T\left(𝐱_i𝐱_k^T+𝐗_i^T+𝐗_k\right)𝐃_k=𝐮_i𝐮_k^T+𝐔_i^T+𝐔_k\hfill \end{array}$$
(18)
From the second equation in (18) we can express

$$\begin{array}{c}𝐠_{21}=\left(𝐗_{ik}^T\right)^1\left[g_{11}𝐱_i\left(𝐃_i^T\right)^1𝐮_i\right]\left(𝐗_{ki}^T\right)^1\left[g_{11}𝐱_k\left(𝐃_k^T\right)^1𝐮_k\right]\hfill \\ \\ 𝐠_{31}=𝐗_k^T\left(𝐗_{ik}^T\right)^1\left[g_{11}𝐱_i\left(𝐃_i^T\right)^1𝐮_i\right]+𝐗_i^T\left(𝐗_{ki}^T\right)^1\left[g_{11}𝐱_k\left(𝐃_k^T\right)^1𝐮_k\right]\hfill \end{array}$$
(19)
Next we use the notation

$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}=𝐱_i𝐱_k^T+𝐗_i^T+𝐗_k\hfill \\ \\ \omega _{ik}=𝐮_i𝐮_k^T+𝐔_i^T+𝐔_k\hfill \\ \\ 𝐡_i=g_{11}𝐱_i\left(𝐃_i^T\right)^1𝐮_i\hfill \end{array}$$
(20)
It is easy to see that the relations

$$\begin{array}{ccc}𝐱_i𝐱_k^T+\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}+\mathrm{\Omega }_{ki}=0\hfill & \text{and}& \mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}^T=\mathrm{\Omega }_{ki}\hfill \\ \multicolumn{3}{c}{}\\ 𝐮_i𝐮_k^T+\omega _{ik}+\omega _{ki}=0\hfill & \text{and}& \omega _{ik}^T=\omega _{ki}\hfill \end{array}$$

are valid. By simple algebraic calculations from equations (18) and (19) for any $`i`$, $`j`$, and $`k`$, we derive the following formulas

$`𝐃_i^T\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}𝐃_k=\omega _{ik}`$ (21)
$`𝐡_k+𝐗_{jk}^T\left(𝐗_{ij}^T\right)^1𝐡_i+𝐗_{ik}^T\left(𝐗_{ji}^T\right)^1𝐡_j=0`$ (22)
$`\begin{array}{c}g_{11}^2+\left[𝐡_k^T𝐗_{ik}^1𝐱_k+𝐡_k^T𝐗{}_{k}{}^{}i_{}^{1}𝐱_i\right]\left[𝐱_k^T\left(𝐗_{ik}^T\right)^1𝐡_i+𝐱_i^T\left(𝐗_{ki}^T\right)^1𝐡_k\right]\hfill \\ \\ 𝐡_i^T𝐗_{ik}^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}\left(𝐗_{ki}^T\right)^1𝐡_k𝐡_k^T𝐗_{ki}^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{ki}\left(𝐗_{ik}^T\right)^1𝐡_i=1.\hfill \end{array}`$ (25)
We found the system of equations from which it is possible to determine the matrix (13). Since we restricted ourselves to the neighbourhood of the point $`t=0`$, we can suppose that matrices $`𝐃_i(t)`$ are invertible. From the relation (21) it follows that in this neighbourhood matrices $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}(k)`$ and $`\omega _{ki}`$ are simultaneously invertible or non–invertible. So, it is easy to see that, if matrix $`\omega _{ik}`$ is invertible, it is enough to know only one solution of this system $`𝐃_i`$ for one value of $`i`$. We can find other $`𝐃_k`$ from equation (21). If we know $`𝐃_i`$ explicitly, the equation (25) is a quadratic equation with respect to $`g_{11}`$. The odd equations can then give the matrices $`𝐃_i`$.

We enunciate the previous account in terms of the following theorem.

Theorem: Let $`𝐱_i(t)`$ and $`𝐘_i(t)`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}`$, be three solutions of the equation (17), $`𝐗_i(t)=𝐘_i(t){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}𝐱_i𝐱_i^T`$, $`𝐮_i=𝐱_i(0)`$, $`𝐔_i=𝐗_i(0)`$ and let the matrices $`𝐔_{ik}`$ be invertible. Then, there is a neighbourhood of the point $`t=0`$, matrices $`𝐃_i(t)`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}`$, $`𝐃_i(0)=𝐈`$, and function $`g_{11}(t)`$, $`g_{11}(0)=1`$ such, that, for them formulas (21), (22), and (25) are true.

4. The superposition formulas

In the previous sections, we formulated conditions (21)–(25) that are valid for any three solutions of the system (17). Although we are not able to solve the system (21)–(25) explicitly, it is possible to derive, from them, certain relations for solutions of the system of differential equations.

We suppose that we have five solutions of this system, and there exists the inverse matrix to $`\omega _{ik}`$ for any $`ik`$, $`i,k=1,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}5}`$. Then from the equation (21), we obtain

$$𝐃_k^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{rk}^1\left(𝐃_r^T\right)^1=\omega _{rk}^1.$$

If we now multiply the equation (21) by this equation from the left, and then, by (21) from the left for the couple $`(ri)`$, we obtain equation

$$𝐃_i^T\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}\mathrm{\Omega }_{rk}^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{ri}𝐃_i=\omega _{ik}\omega _{rk}^1\omega _{ri},$$
(26)
that is true for any $`i`$, $`k`$, and $`r`$. We multiply this equation further from the right by the inverse equation (26) for the ternary $`(sti)`$. Then, we obtain

$$𝐃_i^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{ti}^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{ts}\mathrm{\Omega }_{is}^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}\mathrm{\Omega }_{rk}^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{ri}𝐃_i=\omega _{ti}^1\omega _{ts}\omega _{is}^1\omega _{ik}\omega _{rk}^1\omega _{ri},$$

which is true for any $`(ikrst)`$. If now we put $`s=k`$ in this equation, we obtain, for any four solutions of (17), the relation

$$𝐃_i^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{si}^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{sk}\mathrm{\Omega }_{rk}^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{ri}𝐃_i=\omega _{si}^1\omega _{sk}\omega _{rk}^1\omega _{ri}.$$
(27)
It means that matrices $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{si}^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{sk}\mathrm{\Omega }_{rk}^1\mathrm{\Omega }_{ri}`$ and $`\omega _{si}^1\omega _{sk}\omega _{rk}^1\omega _{ri}`$ are similar. Therefore, all their invariants are identical.

Now, we will use this interesting property of the solution of differential equations (17) to obtain superposition formulas of the system (17) for small $`n`$.

For $`n=1`$ we get the Lie group $`\mathrm{SO}(2,1)`$. In this case, the vector $`𝐱`$ is reduced to the number $`x`$, and $`𝐘=0`$. From this we have $`𝐗_i={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}x_i^2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(x_ix_k)^2`$. In this case, equation (27) has after the extraction form

$$\frac{x_sx_k}{x_sx_i}\frac{x_rx_i}{x_rx_k}=\frac{u_su_k}{x_uu_i}\frac{u_ru_i}{u_ru_k}.$$

That represents the well–known superposition formula (4) for the Riccati equation (3). This is a consequence of the isomorphism between $`\mathrm{so}(2,1)`$ and $`\mathrm{sl}(2)`$.

Now, we will study the case $`n=2`$, that is the Lie group $`\mathrm{SO}(3,2)`$. In this case, we have

$$𝐘=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& x_3\\ x_3& 0\end{array}\right)\text{and}𝐗=\frac{1}{2}\left(\begin{array}{cc}x_1^2& x_1x_2+2x_3\\ x_1x_22x_3& x_2^2\end{array}\right).$$

If we denote the components of the $`i^{th}`$ solution by $`x_1^{(i)}`$, $`x_2^{(i)}`$ a $`x_3^{(i)}`$, we obtain

$$det\left(𝐔_{ik}\right)=\frac{1}{4}\left(4\left(u_3^{(i)}u_3^{(k)}\right)^2\left(u_2^{(i)}u_1^{(k)}u_1^{(i)}u_2^{(k)}\right)^2\right)$$

and the determinants of the matrices $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}`$ and $`\omega _{ik}`$ are

$$det\left(\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}\right)=\frac{1}{4}\mathrm{\Delta }_{ik}^2\text{and}det\left(\omega _{ik}\right)=\frac{1}{4}\delta _{ik}^2,$$
(28)
where

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{ik}=2x_3^{(i)}2x_3^{(k)}+x_2^{(i)}x_1^{(k)}x_1^{(i)}x_2^{(k)}\text{and}\delta _{ik}=2u_3^{(i)}2u_3^{(k)}+u_2^{(i)}u_1^{(k)}u_1^{(i)}u_2^{(k)}.$$
(29)
We see that the conditions for the matrices $`𝐔_{ik}`$ to be invertible imply the invertibility for matrices $`\omega _{ik}`$.

If we now take the determinant in equation (27) we obtain for any four different solutions the equality

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{sk}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{si}}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{ri}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{rk}}=\frac{\delta _{sk}}{\delta _{si}}\frac{\delta _{ri}}{\delta _{rk}}.$$
(30)
As it was mentioned above, in this case, we can construct the general solution of the system (17) by using four particular solutions. Take now five solutions, for which from (30) we obtain independent equations

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{24}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{14}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{23}}}={\displaystyle \frac{\delta _{24}}{\delta _{14}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\delta _{13}}{\delta _{23}}},{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{34}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{14}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{23}}}={\displaystyle \frac{\delta _{34}}{\delta _{14}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\delta _{12}}{\delta _{23}}}`$ (31)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{25}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{15}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{23}}}={\displaystyle \frac{\delta _{25}}{\delta _{15}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\delta _{13}}{\delta _{23}}},{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{35}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{15}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{23}}}={\displaystyle \frac{\delta _{35}}{\delta _{15}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\delta _{12}}{\delta _{23}}},{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{45}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{15}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_{24}}}={\displaystyle \frac{\delta _{45}}{\delta _{15}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\delta _{12}}{\delta _{24}}}.`$ (32)
Equations (32) are understood as a system of linear equations for $`x_1^{(5)}`$, $`x_2^{(5)}`$, and $`x_3^{(5)}`$. This system has a solution when its determinant $`D(t)`$ is different from zero. By direct calculation for $`t=0`$, we obtain

$$D(0)=\left(\delta _{15}\delta _{25}\right)\left(\delta _{13}\delta _{14}+\delta _{34}\right)\left(\delta _{15}\delta _{35}\right)\left(\delta _{12}\delta _{14}+\delta _{24}\right)+\left(\delta _{15}\delta _{45}\right)\left(\delta _{12}\delta _{13}+\delta _{23}\right).$$
(33)
The terms in the second parentheses do not depend on $`u_3^{(i)}`$ and are not identical zero. Because the terms in first parentheses depend on $`u_3^{(i)}u_3^{(k)}`$, this determinant is not identical zero for any possible initial conditions $`𝐮_i`$ and $`𝐔_i`$. As the determinant $`D(t)`$ is given by the solutions of system (17) which are continuous and $`D(0)0`$, there is any neighbourhood of $`t=0`$, in which the determinant $`D(t)0`$. We see that, in this neighbourhood we can determine, from the system of the equations (32), the solutions $`x_1^{(5)}`$, $`x_2^{(5)}`$ and $`x_3^{(5)}`$ of the system of differential equations (17) by using the particular solution $`𝐱_i`$, $`𝐘_i`$ for $`i=1,\mathrm{},4`$. In other words, formulas (30) give the implicit form of nonlinear superposition formulas for the system of differential equations (17) which is connected with the action of the Lie group $`\mathrm{SO}(3,2)`$ on space $`M`$.

Comments: Equations (31) imply that four solutions are not fully independent. For example, if we know three solutions $`𝐱_i`$, $`𝐘_i`$, $`i=1,2,3`$, and from the fourth we know $`x_3^{(4)}`$, we can obtain $`x_1^{(4)}`$ and $`x_2^{(4)}`$ from (31). This is a consequence of the fact that the reconstruction of action of the group requires only $`10`$ independent functions.

5. Conclusions

The main results of this paper are the following:

1. We constructed systems of first–order ordinary differential equations that arise from the infinitesimal action of the local Lie group $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$ on the factor–space $`M=\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)/P`$, where $`P`$ is one of the maximal parabolic subgroups of $`\mathrm{SO}(n+1,n)`$. These systems allow a superposition formula.

2. We found any set of invariants for these systems which are expressed in terms the solutions. These are invariants of matrices $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}`$. The matrices $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{ik}`$ play, in our case, a similar role as the matrix anharmonic ratio for projective matrix Riccati equations in .

3. In the case of $`\mathrm{SO}(3,2)`$, we proved that, from these invariant it is possible to find the general solution of our system on the basis of four particular solutions. Therefore, in this case, these set of invariants gives implicit nonlinear superposition formula. It is necessary to note, that, even though the local groups $`\mathrm{SO}(3,2)`$ and $`\mathrm{SP}(4,𝐑)`$ are isomorphic, our system of differential equations differs from the one studied in  for the Lie group $`\mathrm{SP}(4,𝐑)`$, because we use another maximal parabolic subgroup for constructing the space $`M`$.


text:
# Quantum skyrmions and the destruction of long-range antiferromagnetic order in the high-Tc superconductors La2-xSrxCuO4 and YBa2Cu3O6+x

## Abstract

We study the destruction of long range antiferromagnetic order in the high-Tc superconductors La2-xSrxCuO4 and YBa2Cu3O6+x. The CP1-nonlinear sigma model formulation of the two-dimensional quantum Heisenberg antiferromagnet is used for describing the pure system. Dopants are introduced as independent fermions with an appropriate dispersion relation determined by the shape of the Fermi surface. Skyrmion topological defects are shown to be introduced by doping and their energy is used as an order parameter for the antiferromagnetic order. We obtain analytic expressions for the skyrmion energy as a function of doping which allow us to plot, without adjustable parameters, the curves $`T_N(x_c)\times x_c`$ and $`M(x)\times x`$, for the two compounds, in good quantitative agreement with the experimental data.

High-temperature superconductivity is by now well established to arise from doping quasi two-dimensional (quasi-2D) Mott-Hubbard antiferromagnetic insulators. The doping process initially produces the destruction of the antiferromagnetic ordering, giving place to a quantum spin-liquid disordered phase . The two best studied examples are La2-xSrxCuO4 (LSCO) and YBa2Cu3O6+x (YBCO) for which the Néel ordered ground state at $`x=0`$ is replaced by a quantum disordered state for $`x_c0.02`$  and $`x_c0.41`$ , respectively, at $`T=0`$.

It has long been recognized that the pure compounds are well described in terms of an $`S=1/2`$ quantum Heisenberg antiferromagnet (QHAF) on a square lattice. The long wavelength spin fluctuations of the latter, on the other hand, are described by the $`O(3)`$ quantum nonlinear sigma model (QNL$`\sigma `$M) in two space plus one time dimensions  whose Lagrangian density is

$$=\frac{\rho _s}{2}\left[\frac{1}{c^2}(_\tau 𝐧)^2+(𝐧)^2\right],$$
(1)
where $`𝐧`$ is the order parameter field, subject to the constraint $`𝐧^2=1`$, and $`\rho _s`$ and $`c`$ are respectively the spin-stiffness and spin-wave velocity.

The nonlinear sigma model possesses classical topologically nontrivial solutions called skyrmions whose energy is $`E_s^{cl}=4\pi \rho _s`$. For fully quantized skyrmions, on the other hand, there is a reduction of the skyrmion energy to half of the above classical value

$$E_s=2\pi \rho _s.$$
(2)
Having in mind that the skyrmion energy is reduced by quantum fluctuations, it is natural to expect it to be further reduced by the extra fluctuations introduced through doping. Furthermore, since in the framework of the NL$`\sigma `$M the skyrmion energy is proportional to the ground state magnetization we can use it as an order parameter for the quantum phase transition associated to the destruction of the antiferromagnetic state.

In this paper we revisit the continuum model proposed in , to describe the doping process in YBCO at $`T=0`$, and extend it for including also the case of LSCO. The model predicts the creation of skyrmion topological defects precisely at the dopant’s positions, as has been proposed earlier  (see also ). The formation of such magnetic textures causes a reduction of the ground state magnetization. As a consequence, the skyrmion energy itself is lowered and eventually vanishes at the Néel quantum critical point. By computing quantum defect correlation functions at $`T=0`$, we obtain analytical expressions for the skyrmion energy as a function of doping, $`E_s(x)`$, which allow us to plot the curves $`M(x)\times x`$, for both LSCO and YBCO, in good quantitative agreement with experiment. Subsequently, introducing finite temperature and interlayer coupling, we obtain the antiferromagnetic part of the phase diagram, namely the curve $`T_N(x_c)\times x_c`$. As we shall discuss below, our analysis is compatible with a picture in which the formation of stripes would occur in LSCO but not in YBCO.

The doping process: The chemical modification of parent compounds of the high-Tc materials here considered produces the introduction of holes in the Oxygen orbitals in the layered CuO2 planes. In what follows, we shall determine how the skyrmion energy is modified from (2) due to the presence of such holes. We propose that the doped system can be described in terms of a bulk ($`T=0`$) $`O(3)`$ QNL$`\sigma `$M coupled to four-component fermion fields with dispersion relation determined by the shape of the Fermi surface. These represent the holes doped into the in-plane O $`p`$-orbitals, whereas the nonlinear sigma field represents the spin density of the active electrons of the Cu++ ions. For describing the coupling of the dopants to the Cu++ spins, it will be convenient to make use of the CP1 language, where $`𝐧=z_i^{}\stackrel{}{\sigma }_{ij}z_j`$, with $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }_{ij}`$ being the Pauli matrices and $`z_i,i=1,2`$, complex scalar fields. Then, following  (see also ), we minimally couple the fermions to the CP1 fields. This is also consistent with previous results where a minimal coupling of fermions to CP1 fields was obtained in the long wavelength regime of the spin-fermion model . Let us consider the cases of YBCO and LSCO separately.

a) For YBCO we have an almost circular shape for the Fermi surface, which is centered at $`𝐤=0`$ , see Fig. 1a. We can then use the dispersion relation $`ϵ(k)=\sqrt{k^2v_F^2+(m^{}v_F^2)^2}`$, with $`m^{}`$ and $`v_F`$ being respectively the effective mass and Fermi velocity of the dopants. Observe that close to the Fermi level of the doped system ($`ϵ_F>m^{}v_F^2`$) the above dispersion relation behaves as $`ϵ(k)ϵ_Fv_F(kk_F)`$ as expected. This dispersion relation corresponds to a Dirac kinetic term for the fermions and the doped system can then be described by the partition function

$`𝒵`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle 𝒟[\overline{z},z,𝒜_\mu ,\overline{\psi },\psi ]\delta [\overline{z}z1]\delta [j^\mu \mathrm{\Delta }^\mu ]}`$ (3)
$`\times `$ $`\mathrm{exp}\{{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{d}\tau {\displaystyle }\mathrm{d}^2𝐱[2\rho _s(D_\mu z_i)^{}(D^\mu z_i)`$ (4)
$`+`$ $`\overline{\psi }(\mathrm{i}/{\displaystyle \frac{m^{}v_F}{\mathrm{}}}\gamma ^\mu 𝒜_\mu )\psi +_H]\}`$ (5)
where we allow for a residual Hopf term $`_H=(\theta /2)\epsilon ^{\mu \alpha \beta }𝒜_\mu _\alpha 𝒜_\beta ,`$ which has been shown to exist in the presence of topological defects on the ground state . As usual, $`D_\mu =_\mu +\mathrm{i}𝒜_\mu `$, with $`_\mu =(_\tau /c,)`$, and $`𝒜_\mu =\mathrm{i}z_i^{}_\mu z_i`$ is the Hubbard-Stratonovich CP1 vector field.

The second delta functional constraint in (5) is used in order to introduce the in-plane hole concentration parameter $`\delta `$. In its argument, $`j^\mu =\overline{\psi }\gamma ^\mu \psi `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }^\mu =4\delta _{X,L}^{\mathrm{}}d\xi ^\mu \delta ^3(z\xi )`$ for a dopant introduced at the position $`X`$ and moving along the line $`L`$. The factor of four in the definition of $`\mathrm{\Delta }^\mu `$ accounts for the degeneracy of the adopted representation ($`4`$-component) for the Fermi fields. The zeroth component of the associated Lagrange multiplier will be the chemical potential.

It has been shown in , that upon integration over the fields $`\overline{z},z,\overline{\psi },\psi `$, the resulting equation of motion for $`𝒜_0`$ is such that a skyrmion topological defect configuration concides with the dopant position at any time and $`\pi \theta =2\delta `$. In other words, holes dress with skyrmions and we see that indeed a Hopf term is required in (5) for nonzero doping. We stress that, because of the CP1 constraint, a mass term is generated for the $`𝒜_\mu `$ field. Therefore, as a consequence of screening, there will be neither statistical transmutation nor the generation of spurious in-plane magnetic fields which would be inconsistent with muon spin relaxation experiments .

The parameter $`\delta `$ counts the number of holes in the CuO2 planes. This must be connected to the oxygen stoichiometry parameter $`x`$. For YBCO, it is known that the out of plane O-Cu-O chains play an important role in the process of doping. At low doping, $`x0.18`$, most of the holes go to the out of plane chains and the system can be considered as pure. In view of this we propose that the density of in-plane charge carriers is related to the oxygen stoichiometry by $`\delta =x0.18`$.

For evaluating the skyrmion energy $`E_s`$, we use the fact that skyrmions are topological defects whose quantum properties can be fully described by disorder field opertors $`\mu `$ . Using these, we are able to calculate the large distance behavior of the skyrmion correlation function, $`\mu ^{}(X)\mu (Y)e^{(E_s/\mathrm{}c)|XY|}/|XY|^\nu `$, from which we can extract the skyrmion energy $`E_s`$ . For the pure system we have that $`E_s`$ is given by (2). For the partition function (5), we obtain, after integration over $`\overline{z},z,`$ and $`\overline{\psi },\psi `$ fields,

$$E_s(\delta )=2\pi \rho _s\left(1\frac{\gamma \mathrm{}c}{\pi a_D\rho _s}\delta ^2\right),$$
(6)
where $`\gamma =\frac{32\pi (9\pi ^216)}{(\pi ^2+16)^2}=10.9398`$ is a numerical factor that comes from the integration over the fermions, and $`a_Da/\sqrt{2}=2.68`$ Å, the minimal distance between two oxygen atoms, is the lattice spacing for dopants. The above skyrmion energy can be put in the form $`E_s=2\pi \rho _s(\delta )`$ if we define an effective $`\delta `$ dependent spin-stiffness

$$\rho _s(\delta )=\rho _s\left(1\frac{\gamma \mathrm{}c}{\pi a_D\rho _s}\delta ^2\right).$$
(7)
We then conclude, after comparing (6) with (2), that the doped system can be described by a QNL$`\sigma `$M with a generalized $`\delta `$ dependent spin-siffness given by (7).

We can immediately obtain the reduced sublattice magnetization as a function of doping as: $`M(x)/M(0)=\sqrt{\rho _s(x)/\rho _s}`$. This is plotted in Fig. 2 for $`\mathrm{}c=1.00\pm 0.05`$ eV Å and $`\rho _s=0.069`$ eV . We see that our theoretical prediction is in good agreement with experiment and $`\rho _s(\delta )`$ vanishes for

$$\delta _c=\sqrt{\frac{\pi \rho _sa_D}{\gamma \mathrm{}c}}.$$
(8)
Using the above experimental input, we obtain $`\delta _c=0.23\pm 0.03`$ or $`x_c=0.41\pm 0.03`$ for the quantum critical point.

b) For the case of LSCO, the Fermi surface is given approximately by the one of Fig. 1b, which has also been observed in ARPES . We shall use the fact that the Fermi surface of LSCO can be obtained by shifting the one of YBCO towards $`Q=(\pi /a,\pi /a)`$ and symmetry related points in the Brillouin zone. This leads to the new dispersion relation $`ϵ(k)=\sqrt{[(k_x\pm \pi /a)^2+(k_y\pm \pi /a)^2]v_F^2+(m^{}v_F^2)^2}`$, which corresponds to a kinetic term for the fermions in (5) modified by a shifted derivative term. Even though the partition function remains unchanged, this shift will have a nontrivial effect on the skyrmion correlation function and energy because of the constraint on the fermionic density of states. The computation of the skyrmion correlation function proceeds as before  and we now obtain the following expression for the skyrmion energy

$$E_s(\delta )=2\pi \rho _s\left(1\frac{\gamma \mathrm{}c}{\pi a_D\rho _s}(4\delta )^2\frac{2\sqrt{2}\mathrm{}c}{a\rho _s}(4\delta )\right).$$
(9)
There are two important differences between (9) and (6). The first one is a linear $`\delta `$ dependence in (9) which is absent in (6). This was generated by the shift in the dispersion relation and is a consequence of the fact that the Fermi surface of LSCO is not centered at $`𝐤=0`$ in the Brillouin zone. The second one is an extra factor of four multiplying $`\delta `$ in (9), which is needed to account for the four branches of the Fermi surface of this compound.

The above skyrmion energy suggests, in accordance to what has been done for the case of YBCO, that the doped system could presumably be described by a QNL$`\sigma `$M with stiffness

$$\rho _s(\delta )=\rho _s\left(1\frac{\gamma \mathrm{}c}{\pi a_D\rho _s}(4\delta )^2\frac{2\sqrt{2}\mathrm{}c}{a\rho _s}(4\delta )\right).$$
(10)
However, the magnetization that would follow from this, according to the same procedure adopted for the case of YBCO, has a faster decrease with doping than the one observed experimentally, as we can infer from the solid line in from Fig. 3. This can be interpreted as a sign of stripes formation in LSCO . Following , we observe that the presence of stripes produces an anisotropy which allows us to write $`\rho _s^{}(\delta )=\sqrt{\rho _s^x(\delta )\rho _s^y(\delta )}`$, where $`\rho _s^x(\delta )\rho _s^y(\delta )`$. Assuming that in LSCO stripes are parallel to the $`y`$-axis, as the experimental results in  suggest, we propose that only the $`x`$-component of the spin-stiffness would be affected by doping, implying that $`\rho _s^y=\rho _s`$ and that $`\rho _s^x(\delta )`$ is given by (10). The resulting NL$`\sigma `$M has an effective spin-stiffness

$$\rho _s^{}(\delta )=\rho _s\sqrt{1\frac{\gamma \mathrm{}c}{\pi a_D\rho _s}(4\delta )^2\frac{2\sqrt{2}\mathrm{}c}{a\rho _s}(4\delta )}.$$
(11)
Now the corresponding sublattice magnetization does agree with the experimental data as can be seen from the dashed line in Fig. 3. Both plots in this figure are obtained by using the experimental input $`\mathrm{}c=0.75\pm 0.03`$ eV Å and $`\rho _s=0.051`$ eV . We have also used the well known fact that for LSCO, $`x=\delta `$. Interestingly, the location of the quantum critical point is not affected by the formation of stripes. In fact, both $`\rho _s(\delta )`$ and $`\rho _s^{}(\delta )`$ vanish at

$$\delta _c=\frac{1}{4}\frac{\sqrt{(2\sqrt{2}\mathrm{}c/a)^2+4\gamma \mathrm{}c\rho _s/\pi a_D}(2\sqrt{2}\mathrm{}c/a)}{2(\gamma \mathrm{}c/\pi a_D)}.$$
(12)
which, for the above experimental input, yields the value $`x_c=\delta _c=0.020\pm 0.003`$ for the quantum critical point. We also remark that using the effective spin-stiffness (11), implied by the stripes picture, the reduced sublattice magnetization $`M(x)/M(0)=\sqrt{\rho _s^{}(x)/\rho _s}`$ can be written in the form $`M(x)/M(0)=(1x/x_c)^{1/4}`$, thereby producing a critical exponent of $`0.25`$, which is very close to the value of $`0.236`$, empirically obtained by Borsa et al. .

The phase diagram: In order to obtain the critical line for the destruction of AF order in the $`T\times x`$ phase diagram we must consider a nonzero interlayer coupling $`J_{}`$. For this purpose, we shall use the partition function

$`𝒵`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle }𝒟𝐧_i\mathrm{exp}\{{\displaystyle \frac{\rho _s}{2\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle _0^\mathrm{}\beta }\mathrm{d}\tau {\displaystyle }\mathrm{d}^2𝐱{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c^2}}(_\tau 𝐧_i)^2`$ (13)
$`+`$ $`(𝐧_i)^2+\alpha (𝐧_{i+1}𝐧_i)^2]\}\delta [𝐧_i^21],`$ (14)
where $`\alpha =(1/a^2)J_{}/J_{||}`$, with $`J_{}`$ and $`J_{||}`$ being respectively the interlayer and intralayer couplings of the underlying microscopic quasi-2D QHAF and $`\beta =1/T`$ ($`k_B=1`$). Contrary to the strictly 2D case now a finite value for the Néel temperature is obtained to order $`1/N`$ in a large $`N`$ expansion :

$$T_N=4\pi \rho _s\left[\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{2T_N^2}{\alpha (\mathrm{}c)^2}\right)+3\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{4\pi \rho _s}{T_N}\right)0.0660\right]^1.$$
(15)
Now, if we replace in (15) the spin-stiffness $`\rho _s`$ by our $`\delta `$ dependent expressions (7) and (11), respectively for YBCO and LSCO, and using $`J_{}/J_{||}5\times 10^5`$, we obtain the phase diagrams plotted in Figs. 4 and 5.

In summary, our results indicate that the antiferromagnetic phase of the high-Tc cuprates can be correctly described in terms of a generalized NL$`\sigma `$M with an effective, doping dependent, spin-stiffness which carries all the information about the quantum fluctuations introduced by the dopants. This can be inferred from the quantum skyrmion energy which is evaluated after integration over the dopants in a model without adjustable parameters. Also, the results point towards a picture in which charged stripes presumably occur in LSCO, leading to a slower decrease of the sublattice magnetization as a function of doping in comparison to the case where they are absent, see Fig. 3. Apparently, the only effect of such phenomenon is to divide by two the quantum critical exponent of the sublattice magnetization (or the spin-stiffness) without affecting the location of the quantum critical point. Conversely, our results indicate that such phenomenon is absent in YBCO as our model (5) was able to correctly reproduce the zero temperature data for $`M(x)/M(0)`$, see Fig. 2. This is consistent with density matrix renormalization group calculations in the framework of the $`n`$-leg ladder $`tt^{}J`$ model .

As a final comment we would like to remark that for the case of Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x we expect that our result (10) shall correctly reproduce the experimental data without the scaling modifications done for LSCO. Indeed this material, while having a Fermi surface similar to LSCO , does not seem to present the formation of stripes.

We are indebted to A. H. Castro Neto, A. A. Katanin, B. Koiller, C. Kübert, E. Miranda and J. Schmalian for many useful comments. We also acknowledge P. Carretta for pointing out Ref. . E.C.M. was partially supported by CNPq and FAPERJ. M.B.S.N was supported by FAPERJ.