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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The idea that non-abelian gauge theories can be described in terms of a string theory  was originally motivated by the duality symmetry of scattering amplitudes and by the appearance of a great number of hadronic resonances in strongly coupled QCD, which persisted even for high values of the spin. The mass squared of the lightest particle of a given spin $`J`$ was observed to be proportional to $`J`$, i.e. $`M^2=const.J`$. This simple law successfully predicted the masses of a few resonances, and it soon became clear that such spectrum of particles follows from the simple assumption that mass and angular momentum come from a spinning relativistic string.

It took many years to find a precise implementation of this idea. In 1997 Maldacena conjectured a duality between gauge theories and superstring theories propagating on certain backgrounds , which was later formulated in more detail in .222 An extensive review on the AdS/CFT correspondence, which includes a more complete reference list, can be found in . Other recent reviews include . The simplest example of this duality involves supersymmetric $`SU(N)`$ Yang-Mills theory in 3+1 dimensions with four supercharges ($`𝒩=4`$) and superstring theory compactified in a space $`AdS_5\times S^5`$, where $`AdS_5`$ is five dimensional anti de Sitter spacetime, and $`S^5`$ represents a five sphere. Other examples involve superstring theory compactified in singular ten dimensional spacetimes and Yang Mills theories in $`p+1`$ dimensions . It is now widely expected that a similar correspondence should hold for any quantum gravity theory in a spacetime that is asymptotic to anti-de Sitter space.

Such correspondence also represents a concrete implementation  of another remarkable conjecture by ’t Hooft . Based on the entropy formula of black holes, ’t Hooft conjectured that a consistent quantum theory of gravity must be holographic, in the sense that the fundamental degrees of freedom describing physics in a given volume can be ascribed to the surface enclosing that volume. Moreover, there must be one degree of freedom for each Planck unit area. The holographic idea was subsequently discussed by Susskind in  and the basic motivation comes from the Bekenstein bound , which asserts that the black hole entropy proportional to the area in Planck units is the maximum physically possible entropy for any system that can be placed in the same region.

Here we give a review on the subject and point out some attempts to exploit these ideas to understand ordinary QCD. Instead of presenting a systematic and detailed description of the many topics which are involved in this subject –which is clearly impossible in two lectures– we will try to provide just the basic ingredients of each field that are needed in order to understand the way the AdS/CFT correspondence works, and how to use it to make predictions for strongly coupled gauge theories.

These lectures are organized as follows. We will first briefly discuss the $`1/N`$ expansion in gauge theories , which is one of the most compelling arguments that support a connection with string theory (section 2). We then introduce the different string theories and string dualities (section 3), and discuss brane solutions in string theories and the role of anti-de Sitter spaces (section 4). Particular emphasis is made on the properties of D branes in string theory. Some elements of conformal field theories and $`𝒩=4`$ supersymmetric Yang-Mills theory are given in section 5. In section 6 and 7 we describe the AdS/CFT correspondence and holography. In section 8 we describe some attempts to use the correspondence to compute glueball spectrum and other properties of strongly interacting non-supersymmetric QCD.

## 2 $`1/N`$ expansion in gauge theories

Despite numerous progresses in the description of QCD since it was proposed as a theory of strong interactions, we do not yet have an analytic control or a detailed understanding of basic phenomena, such as quark confinement.

The basic idea of the $`1/N`$ expansion, introduced by ’t Hooft , is to consider the non-abelian gauge theory with gauge group $`SU(N)`$, and express physical quantities as a systematic expansion in powers of $`1/N`$. The interactions between hadrons is expected to be a $`O(1/N)`$ effect. This means that in the $`N=\mathrm{}`$ limit one can consider the problem of confinement and hadron mass spectrum without the complication of residual hadronic interactions.

At large $`N`$, QCD is expected to be a string theory. This is supported by the following facts:

(1) Feynman diagrams are organized in a topology expansion, just like string worldsheets.

(2) Experiments indicate a string-like behavior (resonances and duality symmetry of scattering amplitudes between different channels).

In addition, QCD contains string-like objects, which are the electric flux tubes between quarks and antiquarks. The energy increases linearly with the quark-antiquark distance, thus causing confinement.

Maldacena conjecture prescribes which is exactly the string theory corresponding to $`SU(N)`$ supersymmetric Yang-Mills theory with four supersymmetry generators: it is type IIB superstring theory on the space $`AdS_5\times S^5`$ with string coupling $`g=const.1/N`$.

The mechanism by which the $`1/N`$ expansion leads to an expansion in topologies of a two-dimensional space applies not only to gauge theories but to more general models. To illustrate this point and see how the $`1/N`$ expansion works, we consider a general field theory, with degrees of freedom $`A_m`$ transforming in the adjoint of $`U(N)`$, $`A_{ma}^b=A_{mb}^a`$, which do not need to be scalar fields (the index $`m`$ could be a Lorentz index). The action is assumed to be of the form

$$S=d^dx(\mathrm{tr}[A_mA_m]+gf_{mnp}\mathrm{tr}\left[A_mA_nA_p\right]$$

$$+g^2h_{mnpr}\mathrm{tr}\left[A_mA_nA_pA_r\right]).$$
(1)
Here $`f_{mnp}`$ and $`h_{mnpr}`$ are arbitrary couplings, which do not depend on $`g`$ and $`N`$. The interaction terms may also involve derivatives of the field, for example, a term $`gf_{mnp}^{}\mathrm{tr}\left[A_mA_nA_p\right]`$. The only thing that will matter for the $`N`$ dependence of Feynman diagrams will be the way the coupling constant $`g`$ appears in (1), and the fact that $`A_{ma}^b`$ are in the adjoint. Let us introduce

$$\lambda =g^2N.$$

We now consider the limit $`N\mathrm{}`$ and $`g^20`$ with fixed $`\lambda `$. It is convenient to rescale $`A_m`$ as $`AA/g`$, so that the action takes the form

$$S=\frac{N}{\lambda }d^dx(\mathrm{tr}[A_mA_m]+f_{mnp}\mathrm{tr}\left[A_mA_nA_p\right]$$

$$+h_{mnpr}\mathrm{tr}\left[A_mA_nA_pA_r\right]).$$
(2)
In this form, we see that a general Feynman diagram will have a factor $`\frac{N}{\lambda }`$ for each vertex and a factor $`\frac{\lambda }{N}`$ for each propagator. In addition, for each loop of group indices, there will be a factor $`N`$, coming from $`_a\delta _a^a=N`$. Thus, if we denote by $`V,E,F`$ the number of vertices, propagators and group index loops, respectively, each Feynman diagram will carry a factor

$$K=N^{VE+F}.$$

This $`N`$ dependence dictates what are the dominant Feynman diagrams. It is convenient to represent the propagator by a double line with opposite arrows  (i.e. viewing the adjoint representation as a direct product of fundamental and antifundamental representations). In this form, each Feynman diagram can be viewed as a simplex, where $`F`$ is the number of faces, $`E`$ is the number of edges, and $`V`$ is the number of vertices. A theorem due to Euler relates the combination $`VE+F`$ to the genus $`H`$ (i.e. the number of handles) of the surface:

$$VE+F=22H.$$

Thus the perturbative expansion will be organized as a sum over topologies of a two-dimensional surface. For example, a vacuum amplitude will be given by a sum of the form

$$A(N,\lambda )=\underset{H=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}N^{22H}A_H(\lambda ).$$

In the limit of large $`N`$, only the leading term survives. This corresponds to surfaces with no handles. These are the planar diagrams.

The fact that in the large $`N`$ limit the perturbative expansion of gauge theories is naturally organized in an expansion in two dimensional topologies indicates that at $`N1`$ gauge theories should admit a string theory description. Presently, only a few concrete examples of this correspondence between string and gauge theories are known, as discussed below.

## 3 String theory

### 3.1 Generalities

Let us recall the basic features of string theory . Superstring theory unifies gravity and gauge forces in a consistent quantum theory. Quantum states are described by excitations of strings. The theory has a single fundamental dimensionfull scale $`\alpha ^{}=l_s^2`$ (with dimension length2) and $`T=1/(2\pi \alpha ^{})`$ is the string tension. The masses of string excitations are proportional to $`1/l_s`$. At low energies, superstring theories reduce to a quantum field theory of spin $`2`$ particles (i.e. Einstein theory coupled to other particles). They have the property of supersymmetry. We remind that this is a symmetry of the theory involving transformations in spacetime, where the supersymmetry generators are spinors, and two supersymmetry transformations amount to a spacetime translation.

One can classify supersymmetric field theories according to the number of supersymmetry generators. The maximum number of supersymmetry generators that a relativistic theory can have is $`32`$. The basic reason for this bound is that theories with a higher number of supersymmetries necessarily involve a massless particle with spin greater than 2 in four dimensions. It is believed that a relativistic theory for such particles does not exist. This also implies that supersymmetric field theories can be defined only in $`d11`$, since for higher dimensions spinors have more than 32 components.

In $`d=11`$, there is only one supersymmetric field theory, where the supersymmetry generator is a Majorana spinor of 32 components. This theory contains a spin 2 particle (the graviton) and it is known as eleven-dimensional supergravity. The theory is not renormalizable as a quantum field theory by perturbative expansion around flat space. It is believed to describe the low-energy regime of a consistent quantum theory called M-theory.

In $`d=10`$, there are two theories with $`32`$ supersymmetries, type IIA and type IIB supergravity. The supersymmetry generators are two Majorana-Weyl spinors of 16 components; in the case of type IIA supergravity they have the opposite chirality, while for type IIB they have the same chirality. They describe the low energy regime of type IIA  and type IIB superstring theories.

In $`d=10`$ one can also have a theory with 16 supersymmetries, i.e. a single Majorana-Weyl supersymmetry generator. There are two types of super multiplets, the gravity multiplet (leading to type I supergravity) and the Yang-Mills multiplet (leading to 10d super Yang-Mills theory). The theory is anomaly free only if both theories are coupled together, and the gauge group is $`E_8\times E_8`$ or $`SO(32)`$. In the first case, the theory describes the low-energy regime of $`E_8\times E_8`$ heterotic string theory. In the second case, the theory describes the low-energy regime of either type I superstring theory or $`SO(32)`$ heterotic string theory. These five superstring theories are related by duality symmetries (see below).

Let us consider the type IIA and type IIB superstring theories. The 32 supercharges transform under the Lorentz group as the direct sum of two Majorana-Weyl spinor representations,

$$\mathrm{𝟑𝟐}=\mathrm{𝟏𝟔}+\mathrm{𝟏𝟔}^{}.$$

The massless bosonic degrees of freedom are separated in two sectors called NSNS and RR sectors. In both type IIA and IIB cases the NSNS sector includes a metric $`g_{\mu \nu }`$, an antisymmetric two-form gauge potential $`B_{\mu \nu }`$, and a scalar (dilaton) field $`\varphi `$. The RR sector of type IIA theory contains a one-form and a three-form gauge potentials $`\{A_\mu ,A_{\mu \nu \rho }\}`$. The RR sector of type IIB theory consists of a pseudo-scalar field $`A`$, a two-form $`A_{\mu \nu }`$ and a four-form field $`A_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }`$ with self-dual field strength.

The low energy dynamics of the massless fields is governed by the effective action

$$S=\frac{1}{16\pi G_{10}}d^{10}x\sqrt{g}e^{2\varphi }[R+4(\varphi )^2$$

$$\frac{1}{12}H_{\mu \nu \rho }H^{\mu \nu \rho }]+(\mathrm{RR}\mathrm{fields})$$
(3)
$$16\pi G_{10}=(2\pi )^7g^2l_s^8,$$
(4)
$$H_{\mu \nu \rho }=_\mu B_{\nu \rho }+_\nu B_{\rho \mu }+_\rho B_{\mu \nu },$$

where $`g`$ is the string coupling constant. Note that the string coupling constant is determined by the expectation value of the dilaton field,

$$g=e^{\varphi _0}.$$

There are also higher derivative terms which can be neglected at low energies.

### 3.2 String dualities

A duality is an equivalence between theories that are seemingly different. In particular, the theories may have different fields, but nevertheless the same spectrum and amplitudes. Typically, duality symmetries appear when a quantum system has two different classical limits.

An important duality symmetry of string theory is T-duality. It has no analogue in field theory. Consider for example that the dimension $`x_{10}`$ is compactified on a circle $`S^1`$,

$$x_{10}=x_{10}+2\pi R.$$

String states will be specified by a set of quantum numbers, but those relevant to T-duality are $`w,p`$, where $`w`$ is the number of times the string winds around $`S^1`$, and $`p`$ represents the quantized (integer) momentum in the $`x_{10}`$ direction. T-duality is the remarkable property that physics is invariant under the simultaneous exchange of $`R\alpha ^{}/R`$ and $`pw`$. Thus this symmetry relates a compactification on a small distance with a compactification on a large distance.

A T-duality transformation changes the chirality of left handed fermions (or right handed fermions, depending on the conventions). As a result, it connects type IIA superstring theory to type IIB superstring theory. Thus type IIA superstring theory compactified on a circle of radius $`R`$ is equivalent to type IIB superstring theory compactified on a circle of radius $`\alpha ^{}/R`$. Winding states in one description correspond to momentum states in the other.

Another important duality symmetry is $`S`$-duality, which relates weak $`g1`$ and strong $`g1`$ coupling regimes. The strong coupling limit of string theory is in general complicated, but one can infer a possible S-duality symmetry from the effective field theory. A crucial check is the spectrum of supersymmetric states, which can be compared to the dual candidate, since it does not receive quantum corrections, i.e. it can be extrapolated to $`g1`$. The basic reason can be understood schematically as follows. Let $`Q`$ be a supersymmetry generator, and $`Z`$ a gauge symmetry generator, so that its eigenvalues represent some charge. Because they are symmetry generators, they must commute with the hamiltonian $`H`$,

$$[H,Z]=0,[Q,H]=0.$$

The supersymmetry algebra is of the form

$$Q^2=HZ.$$

Consider a quantum state $`|\mathrm{\Psi }`$ of energy $`E`$ and charge $`q`$, which is supersymmetric, i.e. which is annihilated by $`Q`$, $`Q|\mathrm{\Psi }=0`$. Thus

$$0=\mathrm{\Psi }|Q^2|\mathrm{\Psi }=\mathrm{\Psi }|H|\mathrm{\Psi }\mathrm{\Psi }|Z|\mathrm{\Psi }=Eq$$

Hence $`E=q`$. This equality (called the BPS condition) holds independently of the value of $`g`$, since the above derivation relied only on symmetries. Therefore it must hold for $`g1`$ as well.

By introducing a new (“Einstein frame”) metric $`g_{\mu \nu }^E=e^{\varphi /2}g_{\mu \nu }`$, the low-energy action of type IIB superstring theory takes the form

$$S_{\mathrm{IIB}}=d^{10}x\sqrt{g_E}[R(g_E)\frac{1}{2}(\varphi )^2$$

$$\frac{1}{12}e^\varphi H_{\mu \nu \rho }H^{\mu \nu \rho }\frac{1}{12}e^\varphi \stackrel{~}{H}_{\mu \nu \rho }\stackrel{~}{H}^{\mu \nu \rho }]+\mathrm{}$$

$$H_3=dB_2,\stackrel{~}{H}_3=dA_2$$

This action is manifiestly symmetric under

$$g_{\mu \nu }^Eg_{\mu \nu }^E,\varphi \varphi ,H_3\stackrel{~}{H}_3.$$

This transformation exchanges $`g=e^{\varphi _0}`$ by $`1/g=e^{\varphi _0}`$, and thus it exchanges weak and strong coupling regimes. This indicates that type IIB superstring theory with coupling $`g`$ is equivalent to type IIB superstring theory with coupling $`1/g`$, a conjecture that passed numerous non-trivial tests. Note that this duality exchanges states with NSNS and RR charges.

The full S-duality symmetry group of ten-dimensional type IIB superstring theory is the $`SL(2,Z)`$ group, which includes, apart from the above transformation, shifts in the RR scalar field $`A`$. More precisely, defining

$$\tau =\frac{A}{2\pi }+ie^\varphi =\tau _1+i\tau _2$$

an $`SL(2,Z)`$ transformation acting on $`\tau `$ is of the form

$$\tau \frac{a\tau +b}{c\tau +d},adbc=1,a,b,c,dZ$$

This is reminiscent of a similar $`SL(2,Z)`$ symmetry of $`𝒩=4`$ super Yang-Mills theory, with parameter $`\tau =\frac{\theta }{2\pi }+i\frac{4\pi }{g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2}`$. As we shall see below, this symmetry of super Yang-Mills theory can be explained from the $`SL(2,Z)`$ symmetry of type IIB theory by the Maldacena conjecture.

The $`SL(2,Z)`$ symmetry has also a simple geometrical interpretation. Type IIB theory arises as dimensional reduction of the eleven dimensional M-theory compactified on a 2-torus in the limit the torus area goes to zero with fixed modular parameter. Then the $`SL(2,Z)`$ duality symmetry of type IIB superstring theory is identified with the modular symmetry of the 2-torus.

## 4 Black holes and black $`p`$ branes

### 4.1 Reissner-Nordstrom black hole solution in $`d=4`$

In four-dimensional Einstein-Maxwell theory, a general stationary solution is fully characterized by mass $`M`$, charge $`q`$ and angular mometum $`J`$. For $`J=0`$, one has the Reissner-Nordstrom black hole with metric ($`G=1`$)

$$ds^2=\lambda (r)dt^2+\frac{1}{\lambda (r)}dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2,$$
(5)
$$d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2=d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2,$$

$$\lambda (r)=1\frac{2M}{r}+\frac{q^2}{r^2}=\frac{1}{r^2}(rr_+)(rr_{})$$

$$r_\pm =M\pm \sqrt{M^2q^2},Mq,$$

$$q=_{S^2}ϵ_{\mu \nu }^{\rho \sigma }F_{\rho \sigma }𝑑x^\mu 𝑑x^\nu $$

If $`M=q`$, then the inner and outer horizon coincide, $`r_+=r_{}`$, and we have an extremal black hole. Let us examine the near-horizon geometry of the extremal black hole. The metric takes the form

$$ds^2e^{2\rho /r_+}dt^2+d\rho ^2+r_+^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2$$
(6)
$$\rho =r_+\mathrm{log}\left(\frac{r}{r_+}1\right)$$

This describes the direct product of a two dimensional anti-de Sitter space-time $`AdS_2`$ and a 2-sphere, i.e. $`AdS_2\times S^2`$.

### 4.2 Anti-de Sitter space

The anti-de Sitter space is a maximally symmetric spacetime with constant negative curvature. The space $`AdS_2`$ that emerged in (6) can be represented in $`𝐑^3`$ by a hyperboloid

$$x_0^2+x_2^2x_1^2=r_+^2$$

More generally, the $`(p+2)`$-dimensional anti-de Sitter space $`AdS_{p+2}`$ is the hyperboloid

$$x_0^2+x_{p+2}^2\underset{i=1}{\overset{p+1}{}}x_i^2=R^2$$
(7)
where $`x_0,x_{p+2},x_i`$ are coordinates of $`𝐑^{p+3}`$ with metric

$$ds^2=dx_0^2dx_{p+2}^2+\underset{i=1}{\overset{p+1}{}}dx_i^2$$
(8)
In this representation, it is clear that the isometry group is $`SO(2,p+1)`$. The space $`AdS`$ is homogeneous and isotropic and it has the maximal number of Killing vectors (equal to $`\frac{1}{2}(p+2)(p+3)`$).

The Poincaré metric of $`AdS`$ can be obtained by writing

$$R^2z^1=x_{p+1}+x_{p+2},v=x_{p+1}+x_{p+2},$$

$$z_n=\frac{zx_n}{R}.$$

Inserting into (8) we get

$$ds^2=\frac{R^2}{z^2}\left[dz^2dz_0^2+dz_1^2+\mathrm{}+dz_p^2\right].$$
(9)
Because the metric is conformal to a flat metric, the Weyl tensor of this space is identically zero. For the Riemann tensor one has

$$R_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }=\frac{1}{R^2}(g_{\mu \rho }g_{\nu \sigma }g_{\mu \sigma }g_{\nu \rho }).$$
(10)
Hence

$$R_{\mu \nu }=\frac{p}{R^2}g_{\mu \nu }.$$

By introducing a coordinate $`u=1/z`$, the $`AdS`$ metric can also be written as

$$ds^2=R^2u^2\left[dz_0^2+dz_1^2+\mathrm{}+dz_p^2\right]+R^2\frac{du^2}{u^2}.$$
(11)
The space $`AdS_{p+1}`$ has closed timelike curves, which can be removed by considering the universal cover (see e.g. ). Then the boundary of $`AdS_{p+1}`$ is topologically $`S^p\times 𝐑`$. This can be seen from the hyperboloid representation (7). In terms of the coordinates of metric (11), the boundary is constituted of two components, a single point at $`u=0`$, and $`u=\mathrm{}`$, which is the Minkowski space $`𝐑^{p+1}`$. Thus the boundary of $`AdS_{p+1}`$ is a conformal compactification of the Minkowski space $`𝐑^{p+1}`$.

### 4.3 Black p-branes and D-branes

p-branes are extended objects which can be classified by their charges. A 0-brane represents a point-like particle, a 1-brane represents a string-like object, a 2-brane represents a membrane, etc. Consider standard electromagnetism in four dimensions. For point-like configurations one can define electric and magnetic charges as follows:

$$Q_{\mathrm{elec}}=_{S^2}F_2=_{S^2}ϵ_{\mu \nu }^{\rho \sigma }F_{\rho \sigma }𝑑x^\mu 𝑑x^\nu ,$$

$$Q_{\mathrm{mag}}=_{S^2}F_2=_{S^2}F_{\mu \nu }𝑑x^\mu 𝑑x^\nu .$$

Just as a point particle or 0-brane couples to a one-form gauge potential $`A_1=A_\mu dx^\mu `$, a p-brane couples to a $`p+1`$ gauge potential $`A_{p+1}`$, with field strength $`F_{p+2}=dA_{p+1}`$, and electric and magnetic charges are defined by ($`d=10`$)

$$Q_{\mathrm{elec}}^{(p)}=_{S^{8p}}F_{p+2},$$

$$Q_{\mathrm{mag}}^{(p)}=_{S^{p+2}}F_{p+2}.$$

In ten dimensions, the electrically charged object describes a $`p`$-brane, and the magnetically charged object describes a $`6p`$ brane.

We have seen that in type IIA and type IIB theory there is an antisymmetric two-form $`B_{\mu \nu }`$ in the NSNS sector (which will give rise to black strings and magnetic dual black five branes) and there are in addition various gauge fields in the RR sector. Objects which carry RR charges are called D-branes. The corresponding geometries are obtained by solving the equations of motion of the low-energy string-theory effective action

$$S=\frac{1}{16\pi G_{10}}d^{10}x\sqrt{g}(e^{2\varphi }[R+4(\varphi )^2]$$

$$\frac{2}{(8p)!}F_{p+2}^2).$$
(12)
The extremal Dp-brane background is given by

$$ds^2=f^{1/2}(r)\left[dt^2+dx_1^2+\mathrm{}+dx_p^2\right]$$

$$+f^{1/2}(r)(dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_{8p}^2),$$
(13)
$$e^{2\varphi }=g^2f^{\frac{3p}{2}},f(r)=1+\frac{R^{7p}}{r^{7p}},$$
(14)
$$_{S^{8p}}F_{p+2}=N,R^{7p}=c_pgNl_s^{7p},$$

$$c_p=2^{5p}\pi ^{\frac{5p}{2}}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{7p}{2}).$$

The extremal Dp brane has mass

$$\frac{\mathrm{mass}}{V_p}=\frac{N}{(2\pi )^pl_s^{p+1}}\frac{1}{g},$$
(15)
where $`V_p`$ represents the volume of the Dp-brane. What makes a D-brane special is the fact that in string units the mass is proportional to $`1/g`$. Since the gravitational field produced by an object is proportional to the mass times the Newton constant $`G_{10}g^2`$, this means that it vanishes as $`g0`$. This indicates that for $`g1`$ D-branes must admit a flat theory description. Such description was found by Polchinski , and it has led to many important results. The observation of  is that, in the limit $`g1`$, a D-brane can be represented by a $`(p+1)`$-dimensional hyperplane defined as a place where open strings can end (Dirichlet branes). If there are several hyperplanes, there can be open strings with ends attached to different D-branes. It can then be shown that $`N`$ Dp-branes carry exactly $`N`$ units of $`(p+1)`$-form RR charge.

The low energy effective theory of open strings on $`N`$ coinciding Dp-branes (obtained by taking the limit $`\alpha ^{}0`$) is $`U(N)`$ gauge theory in $`p+1`$ dimensions with 16 supersymmetry generators . The gauge coupling is related to the string coupling by $`g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2=4\pi g`$. As $`g`$ is increased, the gravitational field of Dirichlet branes grows and they eventually become black $`p`$ branes. The connection between low energy D-branes and gauge theories indicates that, in a suitable low-energy limit, it should be possible to describe black branes by a strongly coupled field theory.

If one D brane is separated from the others the gauge group is broken as $`U(N)U(N1)\times U(1)`$. There are $`2(N1)`$ gauge bosons which get a mass. These are the strings which go from the $`N1`$ D-branes to the D-brane that was separated (the factor 2 arises because there are two possible orientations).

## 5  Conformal field theories and $`𝒩=4`$ SYM

### 5.1 Conformal group

The conformal group is constituted of transformations that preserve the metric up to a scale factor, $`g_{\mu \nu }(x)g_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{\Omega }^2(x)`$. This group incorporates Poincaré transformations and scale transformations. The generators are the usual Lorentz generators $`M_{\mu \nu }`$, the Poincaré translation operators $`P_\mu `$, and in addition generators $`D`$ and $`K_\mu `$. The conformal group is isomorphic to $`SO(d,2)`$, with the identification

$$_{\mu \nu }=M_{\mu \nu },_{d\mu }=\frac{1}{2}(P_\mu K_\mu ),$$

$$_{\mu (d+1)}=\frac{1}{2}(P_\mu +K_\mu ),_{d(d+1)}=D.$$

The scaling dimension $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of an operator $`\phi (x)`$ is dictated by the transformation rule under scaling of coordinates:

$$D:x^\mu \lambda x^\mu ,\phi (x)\phi ^{}(x)=\lambda ^\mathrm{\Delta }\phi (\lambda x)$$

Primary operators are the lowest dimension operators and they are annihilated by $`K_\mu `$ at $`x^\mu =0`$. Representations of the conformal group are labelled by the scaling dimension $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and the Lorentz representation.

Two and three-point correlation functions of primary fields are entirely determined by conformal symmetry. For example

$$\phi (x)\phi (x^{})=const.\frac{1}{|xx^{}|^{2\mathrm{\Delta }}}$$

To combine the conformal algebra with the supersymmetry algebra, additional fermionic generators $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$ must be included, which arise from $`[K,Q]\stackrel{~}{Q}`$. As a result, the number of fermionic generators in the superconformal algebra is doubled with respect to the non-conformal case. For example, for a field theory with particles of spin $`1`$, the maximal number of supercharges of the supersymmetry algebra is 16, and the maximal number of fermionic generators in a superconformal field theory is 32.

### 5.2  $`𝒩=4`$ super Yang-Mills theory

Non-supersymmetric 3+1 dimensional pure Yang-Mills theory is scale invariant, but it has $`\beta 0`$ at quantum level. An example of superconformal field theory is $`𝒩=4`$ $`U(N)`$ super Yang-Mills theory in 3+1 dimensions, which has exact conformal invariance ($`\beta =0`$ to all orders). It contains 16 supercharges, which under the Lorentz group transform as four spinors $`(Q_\alpha ^A,\overline{Q}_{\dot{\beta }}^A)`$$`A=1,2,3,4`$, where $`Q_\alpha `$, $`\overline{Q}_{\dot{\beta }}`$ are Weyl spinors. An $`SU(4)`$ rotation of the four spinors is an automorphism of the supersymmetric algebra. As a result, the Lagrangian is invariant under $`SU(4)SO(6)`$ global transformations (R-symmetry).

The degrees of freedom of the theory are as follows:

i) A vector field $`A_\mu `$ in the adjoint representation of $`SU(N)`$ which is a singlet under $`SO(6)`$.

ii) Six real scalars $`X^a`$ in the $`\mathrm{𝟔}`$ vector representation of $`SO(6)`$, which transform in the adjoint representation of $`SU(N)`$.

iii) Four Weyl fermions $`\lambda _\alpha ^A`$ transforming in the adjoint of $`SU(N)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝟒}`$ spinor representation of $`SO(6)`$ (corresponding to the fundamental representation of $`SU(4)`$).

The lagrangian of the theory can be derived by dimensional reduction of $`d=10`$ $`𝒩=1`$ super Yang-Mills theory:

$$=\frac{1}{4g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2}\mathrm{Tr}\left[F_{MN}F^{MN}\right]\frac{i}{2}\mathrm{Tr}\left[\overline{\lambda }\mathrm{\Gamma }^MD_M\lambda \right]$$
(16)
Here $`\lambda `$ is a Majorana-Weyl $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟔}`$ spinor of $`SO(1,9)`$. Upon reduction, we have the decomposition

$$SO(1,9)SO(1,3)\times SO(6)$$

under which

$$\mathrm{𝟏𝟔}=(2,4)+(\overline{2},\overline{4})$$

The ten-dimensional gauge field gives rise to a 4d gauge field plus six scalar fields:

$$A_M=(A_\mu ,X_a),M=(\mu ,a),$$

$$\mu =0,1,2,3,a=4,\mathrm{},9.$$

The dimensionally reduced Lagrangian is then obtained as usual by assuming that fields depend only on $`x^\mu `$. It takes the form

$$=\frac{1}{4g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2}\mathrm{Tr}(F_{\mu \nu }F^{\mu \nu }+2D_\mu X_aD^\mu X_a$$

$$[X_a,X_b]^2)\frac{i}{2}\mathrm{Tr}(\overline{\lambda }\mathrm{\Gamma }^\mu D_\mu \lambda +i\overline{\lambda }\mathrm{\Gamma }_a[X_a,\lambda ])$$
(17)
## 6 AdS/CFT correspondence

We now have the basic elements to understand the correspondence between string theory on $`AdS`$ spaces and conformal field theories. Let us consider type IIB superstring theory in the presence of $`N`$ D3 branes. String theory on this background contains two types of excitations, closed and open strings. Closed strings propagate on the bulk, whereas open strings are attached to the D3 branes and go from one D3 brane to another.

For energies much less than $`1/l_s`$, only massless excitations appear. The effective action for massless fields is of the form

$$I=d^{10}x_{\mathrm{IIB}}+d^4x_{\mathrm{brane}},$$

where $`_{\mathrm{IIB}}`$ is the effective lagrangian of type IIB string theory, which contains the supergravity action discussed in section 4 plus higher derivative terms, and $`_{\mathrm{brane}}`$ is the lagrangian for the low-energy theory on the brane.

Let us now take the limit $`\alpha ^{}=l_s^20`$ (low energy limit). The gravitational coupling is (see eq. (4) )

$$8\pi G_{10}=\kappa ^2g^2\alpha _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{4}0.$$

Thus in this limit gravitational interactions and higher-derivative terms in the string effective action vanish. As discussed before, in the limit $`\alpha ^{}0`$, $`_{\mathrm{brane}}`$ reduces to the lagrangian of $`U(N)`$ super Yang-Mills theory in $`d=3+1`$ dimensions. Thus the resulting theory is $`𝒩=4`$ $`U(N)`$ SYM and free gravity propagating on the bulk spacetime.

Let us now make use of the supergravity description for the same configuration. We have seen in section 4 that D-branes are extended objects with RR charges which, having a nonzero mass, produce a gravitational field. They are described by the solution (see eq. (13)

$$ds^2=f^{1/2}(r)\left[dt^2+dx_1^2+dx_2^2+dx_3^2\right]$$

$$+f^{1/2}(r)(dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_5^2)$$
(18)
$$F_{0123r}=_rf^1,e^{2\varphi }=g^2=\mathrm{const},$$
(19)
$$f(r)=1+\frac{\alpha _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}R^4}{r^4},R^4=4\pi gN.$$

There are two types of low-energy excitations in this background: massless particles in the bulk, and excitations close to the horizon at $`r=0`$. Indeed, because of the large redshift in the vicinity of the horizon, an excitation near the horizon of energy $`E`$ is measured by an observer at infinity with energy

$$E_{\mathrm{}}=f^{1/4}E\frac{r}{\alpha ^{}}(E\sqrt{\alpha ^{}})$$
(20)
Taking the same $`\alpha ^{}0`$ limit as in the previous description, with $`r/\alpha ^{}u`$ fixed (so $`r0`$), then a given string excitation of “level” $`n=a^{}E^2`$ has a finite energy $`E_{\mathrm{}}`$ at infinity. In this limit the metric (18) becomes

$$ds^2=\alpha ^{}[\frac{u^2}{R^2}(dt^2+dx_1^2+dx_2^2+dx_3^2)$$

$$+R^2\frac{du^2}{u^2}+R^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_5^2]$$
(21)
Comparing with metric (11) we see that this is the space $`AdS_5\times S^5`$. It represents the geometry of the extremal black D3 brane metric near the horizon (this is similar to the result of section 4 where $`AdS_2\times S^2`$ arised as the near-horizon geometry of the extremal Reissner-Nordstrom black hole).

In sum, there are two different descriptions of the same configuration:

a) the weak-coupling description of the D3 branes in terms of open strings with Dirichlet boundary conditions, which in the limit $`\alpha ^{}0`$ led to $`𝒩=4`$ $`U(N)`$ SYM theory;

b) Superstring theory on a background D3 brane geometry, which in the same limit led to superstring theory on $`AdS_5\times S^5`$.

Therefore type IIB superstring theory on $`AdS_5\times S^5`$ must be equivalent to $`𝒩=4`$ $`U(N)`$ SYM theory in 3+1 dimensions. This is the Maldacena conjecture . The parameter $`N`$ appears in the string theory through the radius of $`AdS_5`$ (which has the same radius as $`S^5`$), viz. $`R^2=\sqrt{4\pi gN}`$, and the Yang-Mills coupling is given by $`g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2=4\pi g`$.

When the curvature is $`\frac{1}{\alpha ^{}}`$, the string excitations can be ignored and one simply has supergravity theory on $`AdS_5\times S^5`$. This is the case for $`R^21`$, which requires $`gN1`$. Since $`gN=\frac{g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2N}{4\pi }`$= ’t Hooft coupling, the supergravity approximation is valid at strong ’t Hooft coupling. Because $`g<1`$ (for perturbative string theory to apply), the condition $`gN1`$ implies $`N1`$.

An important test of the conjecture is that symmetries on each side match exactly. The type IIB superstring theory on $`AdS_5\times S^5`$ has the following symmetries:

1) the $`SL(2,Z)`$ duality group described in section 3;

2) 32 supersymmetries, which are left unbroken by the $`AdS_5\times S^5`$ background;

3) The $`SO(2,4)`$ isometry of $`AdS_5`$.

4) The $`SO(6)`$ isometry of $`S^5`$.

This is precisely the symmetry of $`𝒩=4`$ $`U(N)`$ SYM theory. Indeed, it has duality symmetry $`SL(2,Z)`$ under transformations of $`\tau =\frac{\theta }{2\pi }+i\frac{4\pi }{g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2}`$; the $`SO(6)`$ R symmetry described in section 5.2; the $`SO(2,4)`$ conformal symmetry; and 32 supersymmetry generators of the superconformal group.

Let us examine the validity of the various approximations in detail. It is convenient to choose units to set $`\alpha ^{}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{gN}}`$. Then the gravitational coupling is

$$\sqrt{G_{10}}g(\alpha ^{})^2=\frac{1}{N}.$$

Corrections due to massive string excitations (i.e. $`\alpha ^{}`$ corrections) will be of order $`O(\frac{1}{\sqrt{gN}})`$. This is also seen from the fact that the masses of the string states are $`M_{\mathrm{str}}^2\sqrt{gN}`$ and go to infinity as $`\lambda =g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2N\mathrm{}`$. The masses of Kaluza-Klein states of the sphere are of order $`O(1/R_0)`$, with $`R_0^2=R^2\alpha ^{}=\sqrt{gN}\alpha ^{}=1`$. Thus $`M_{KK}^2=O(1)`$. String loops will be of order $`O(1/N^2)`$.

The two descriptions, perturbative YM and supergravity, apply in different regimes: classical gravity applies for $`R^2\alpha ^{}`$, and this requires $`g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2N1`$. Perturbative Yang-Mills requires $`g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2N1`$.

## 7 Field/Operator correspondence
and Correlation functions

### 7.1 CFT correlators from supergravity

Deformations of the super Yang-Mills lagrangian by adding gauge invariant operators correspond to changing the asymptotic values of string fields at infinity. For example, consider the string coupling

$$g=e^{\varphi (\mathrm{})}$$

Changing $`g=\frac{g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2}{4\pi }`$ amounts to add a marginal operator in the Yang-Mills theory of the form $`\mathrm{Tr}F^2`$.

At the boundary $`u=\mathrm{}`$, the string fields are general functions of $`x^\mu `$, which play the role of sources for operators in the Yang-Mills field theory. Correlation functions are obtained by the prescription

$$\mathrm{exp}\left[d^4x\varphi _0(x)𝒪(x)\right]=Z_{\mathrm{string}}\left(\varphi _0(x)\right)$$

$$\mathrm{exp}\left[I_{\mathrm{sugra}}(\varphi _0)\right]$$
(22)
where

$$\varphi _0(x)=\varphi (x,u)|_{u=\mathrm{}}$$

So each field propagating in $`AdS`$ is in correspondence with a CFT operator. For example, consider a massive scalar field in $`AdS_{d+1}`$ of mass $`m`$. It can be shown  that this is associated with a CFT operator of scaling dimension $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{d}{2}+\sqrt{\frac{d^2}{4}+R^2m^2}.$$

The relation (22) suggests a generalization of the AdS/CFT correspondence to general string vacua of the form $`AdS_5\times X_5`$. Equation (22) can indeed be viewed as the definition of conformal field theory correlators in terms of the string theory partition function on a general space of the form $`AdS_5\times X_5`$. Most of these backgrounds do not preserve any supersymmetry, so they define non supersymmetric conformal field theories in four dimensions. More generally, one can use any ten-dimensional string solution that looks near infinity like $`Y\times X`$, where $`Y`$ is an Einstein manifold. Finding the dual field theory in general cases is difficult, except for the cases which have a D-brane interpretation, whose low-energy theory is understood.

### 7.2 Black hole entropy and holography

Black holes obey the fundamental laws of thermodynamics with an entropy $`S=\frac{\mathrm{Area}}{4G}`$. In statistical mechanics, the entropy is derived from the logarithm of the number of states of energy $`M`$ (with given total charge and total angular momentum). Classically, a black hole is completely characterized by mass, charge and angular momentum and therefore it cannot have any entropy. It is an old problem to understand what are the states of quantum gravity –which are unobservable in the classical theory– that provide the precise degrees of freedom to derive the black hole thermodynamical entropy by a statistical-mechanics counting.

The fact that for a black hole $`S=\frac{\mathrm{Area}}{4G}`$ indicates that in quantum gravity the number of states inside a given volume is proportional to the area of the surface enclosing such volume. This led ’t Hooft to formulate its Holographic principle: nature should be “holographic” in the sense that there should exist a description in terms of degrees of freedom living on the boundary of space.

The AdS/CFT duality is holographic, since gauge fields are degrees of freedom which “live” on the boundary of $`AdS_5`$ (which is $`𝐑^4`$), and they describe, just as a hologram, the interior. This was worked out in detail in , where this point of view was first advocated. Holography not only requires that the bulk spacetime can be described by degrees of freedom on the boundary, but it also prescribes that there should be a single degree of freedom for each Planck unit area. This point is also satisfied in the AdS/CFT correspondence by virtue of the so-called UV/IR connection .

## 8 Models for QCD

### 8.1 Non-supersymmetric gauge theories
from D branes

The low-energy theory of a D4 brane is super Yang-Mills theory in $`d=4+1`$ dimensions. Suppose that the dimension $`x_4`$ is compactified on a circle $`S^1`$ of radius $`r_0`$. There are two possible boundary conditions for fermions:

a) Periodic. This choice respects supersymmetry (since fermions and bosons obey the same boundary conditions) and leads to $`𝒩=4`$ SYM theory in 3+1 dimensions.

b) Anti-periodic. This breaks supersymmetry completely. Fermions acquire masses of order $`1/r_0`$ and scalar particles get masses by loop corrections. The resulting theory is non supersymmetric $`U(N)`$ Yang-Mills theory in $`3+1`$ dimensions with no matter fields.

Thus a supergravity background describing 4+1 Yang-Mills theory with antiperiodic fermions can be used as a model of standard (non supersymmetric) large $`N`$ QCD. This idea was exploited by Witten in . In order to construct the relevant supergravity background, we start with the non-extremal D4 brane metric with the euclidean time $`\tau `$ describing the $`x_4`$ dimension. Because this is related to a finite temperature case (with temperature $`T_H=(2\pi r_0)^1`$), fermions obey antiperiodic boundary conditions in the compact euclidean time dimensions, $`\tau =r_0\theta ,\theta =\theta +2\pi `$. The metric and dilaton are given by

$$ds^2=\frac{8\pi \lambda u}{3u_0}[u^2[dx_0^2+dx_1^2+dx_2^2+dx_3^2]$$

$$+\frac{u^2}{9u_0^2}(1\frac{u_0^6}{u^6})d\theta ^2+\frac{du^2}{u^2(1\frac{u_0^6}{u^6})}+\frac{1}{4}d\mathrm{\Omega }_4^2],$$
(23)
$$e^{2\varphi }=\frac{8\pi \lambda ^3u^3}{27u_0^3}\frac{1}{N^2},$$

where

$$u_0=\frac{1}{3r_0},\lambda =g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2N.$$

The coupling is of order $`1/N`$. The glueball spectrum is obtained by solving the equations of motion for the string fields in this background. Note that the metric is independent of $`N`$, which shows that to leading order in $`1/N`$ the glueball spectrum will be independent of $`N`$, as expected in large $`N`$ theories. It can be shown that the model exhibit confinement in the form of an area law for Wilson loops . An explicit Wilson loop calculation –based on the Nambu-Goto action for the string dynamics– shows that the potential between quarks and antiquarks is linearly increasing at large distances (see  and references therein). Some other interesting features of this model were explored e.g. in . Below we will study the glueball spectrum.

We have obtained this model as Kaluza-Klein reduction of $`4+1`$ dimensional super Yang-Mills theory, which as a quantum field theory is non-renormalizable. The 3+1 dimensional description applies in a regime where the masses $`M_{KK}`$ of Kaluza-Klein particles with non-zero momentum components along $`S^1`$ are much larger than the glueball masses. These are typically of order of the string tension $`M_{\mathrm{glue}}^2\sigma `$, which in the present case is $`\sigma =\frac{4}{3}\lambda u_0^2`$. On the other hand, Kaluza-Klein particles have masses

$$M_{KK}=\frac{1}{r_0}u_0.$$

Demanding this to be much smaller than $`M_{\mathrm{glue}}`$ implies that $`\lambda 0`$. However, this is a regime where the supergravity approximation does not apply. To keep $`e^\varphi `$ fixed in this limit requires $`u_00`$, which lead to a metric which is singular at $`u=0`$ (in fact, the extremal D4 brane metric). A generalization of this model based on the rotating D4 brane was proposed in , and investigated in detail in , , . This allows to decouple the Kaluza-Klein states associated with the $`S^1`$ direction, but, as discussed below, there still remain extra unwanted Kaluza-Klein states. Other approaches to QCD using supergravity can be found in .

### 8.2 Glueball spectrum

Glueball states are conventionally represented by $`J^{PC}`$, where $`J`$ is the spin, and $`P,C`$ denote parity and charge conjugation quantum numbers. Consider the scalar glueball $`0^{++}`$. The lowest dimension operator with $`0^{++}`$ quantum numbers is $`𝒪=\mathrm{Tr}F_{\mu \nu }^2`$. The supergravity mode that couples to this operator is the dilaton field fluctuation $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$. This follows from the D-brane action, which is of the form $`Id^4xe^\varphi \mathrm{Tr}F_{\mu \nu }^2+\mathrm{}`$. Glueball masses are obtained e.g. by looking for particle poles in correlators $`𝒪𝒪`$. From the prescription

$$\mathrm{exp}\left[d^4x\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_0(x)𝒪\right]=e^{I_{\mathrm{SG}}(\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_0)}$$
(24)
$$I_{\mathrm{SG}}(\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_0)=d^{10}x\sqrt{g}e^{2\varphi }\stackrel{~}{\varphi }^2\stackrel{~}{\varphi }+\mathrm{}$$

it follows that masses will be determined by the eigenvalues of the equation

$$_\mu \left[\sqrt{g}e^{2\varphi }g^{\mu \nu }_\nu \stackrel{~}{\varphi }\right]=0.$$
(25)
Solutions are of the form

$$\stackrel{~}{\varphi }=\phi (u)e^{ik.x}Y(\mathrm{\Omega }_4),$$
(26)
with $`k_\mu `$ being the momentum in $`𝐑^4`$ and $`Y(\mathrm{\Omega }_4)`$ the spherical harmonic of the four-sphere $`\mathrm{\Omega }_4`$. The boundary conditions are as follows:

i) at the lower endpoint $`u=u_0`$ we must demand $`_u\phi =0`$.

ii) at $`u=\mathrm{}`$ there are two independent solutions, $`\phi \mathrm{const}.`$ and $`\phi u^6`$. To have a normalizable solution one must require $`\phi u^6`$.

As a result, the spectrum is discrete.

Consider for example $`SO(5)`$ singlets, $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }=\phi (u)e^{ik.x}`$. Using the metric and dilaton given in eq. (23) we obtain

$$\frac{1}{u^3}_u\left[u(u^6u_0^6)_u\phi \right]=M^2\phi (u),M^2=k^2$$
(27)
This equation was solved numerically in . In this way one finds supergravity predictions for masses of the $`0^{++}`$ glueball and its resonances.

Non-singlet $`SO(5)`$ states have no analogue in QCD since there is no $`SO(5)`$ global symmetry in pure QCD. Thus those states should decouple in the limit $`\lambda 0`$ . As mentioned above, also Kaluza-Klein states with momentum in the fifth dimension $`\theta `$ should decouple in order for the theory to be $`3+1`$ (rather than $`4+1`$) dimensional. However, the QCD model (23) has a single scale in the geometry $`u_0`$ and, to the leading supergravity approximation, all masses are of the same order. The parameter $`\lambda `$ enters in next-to-leading order supergravity calculations, giving corrections to masses which are suppressed by powers of $`1/\lambda `$. The supergravity approximation does not apply in the limit $`\lambda 0`$, where the decoupling of extra states should occur. Solving the full string theory on this background for small $`\lambda `$ should provide a good description of large $`N`$ pure QCD with no extra unwanted particles, but this is a difficult problem.

It is therefore of interest to look for more general supergravity models of QCD which can be more effective and useful in computing glueball masses. The idea is to look for geometries with the same asymptotics and same D-brane charges. We can think of them as adding “irrelevant” deformations to the Yang-Mills lagrangian, so that the theory is in the same universality class, but Kaluza-Klein states are heavy and decouple. No hair theorems imply that the most general model of this kind (i.e. based on a regular geometry with only D4 brane charge) is obtained from a rotating D4 brane parametrized by charge, mass, and two angular momenta. The corresponding models were investigated in , , , , and the spectra of $`0^{++}`$ and $`0^+`$ glueballs and their resonances were determined in the full two-parameter space . The two extra parameters of these models originate from the angular momenta of the D4 brane. These models include Witten model (23) as a special case. For large values of these parameters Kaluza-Klein states of $`S^1`$ are heavy and decouple. Comparing to the results obtained in lattice QCD, one finds a very interesting agreement . Using as input the lattice value of the $`0^{++}`$ glueball mass, the mass of the first resonance $`0^{++}`$ is 2.55, to be compared with the lattice calculation of $`2.8`$. For the $`0^+`$ state and the resonance $`0^+`$, one finds masses equal to 2.56 and 3.49, respectively, which are very close to the lattice values $`2.59\pm 0.13`$ and $`3.64\pm 0.18`$ (the simplest model (23) gives 2.00 and 2.98). The lattice values are for $`N=3`$, and supergravity results are expected to receive corrections of order $`1/N^2`$.

Another interesting physical quantity that can be computed in this model is the gluon condensate. From the relation $`Z(T)=e^{F/T}`$, where $`F`$ is the free energy of the supergravity background, one has

$$\frac{1}{4g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2}\mathrm{Tr}F_{\mu \nu }^2(0)=\frac{F}{VT}.$$
(28)
The free energy of the background can be computed by the usual formulas of black hole thermodynamics. In this way one finds

$$\frac{1}{4g_{\mathrm{YM}}^2}\mathrm{Tr}F_{\mu \nu }^2(0)=\frac{1}{12\pi }\frac{N^2}{\lambda }\sigma ^2,$$
(29)
where $`\sigma `$ is the string tension. This formula is universal in the sense that it does not depend on the angular momentum parameters.

One can also compute the topological susceptibility $`\chi _t`$, which is a measure of the fluctuations of the topological charge of the vacuum,

$$\chi _t=\frac{1}{(16\pi ^2)^2}d^4x\mathrm{Tr}F\stackrel{~}{F}(x)\mathrm{Tr}F\stackrel{~}{F}(0).$$
(30)
The Witten-Veneziano formula  relates the topological suceptibility of $`SU(N)`$ Yang-Mills theory without matter fields to the mass of the $`\eta ^{}`$ boson in $`SU(N)`$ Yang-Mills theory with $`N_f`$ quarks, $`M_\eta ^{}^2=\frac{4N_f}{f_\pi ^2}\chi _t`$. The supergravity calculation gives an expression of the form $`\chi _t\lambda \sigma ^2`$ .

## 9 Conclusion

Let us summarize the salient features of the specific string models of large $`N`$ gauge theories considered here. These gauge theories can be described by string theories, where strings fluctuate in higher dimensions. In the Yang-Mills field theory description, the existence of such extra dimensions is reflected in infinite towers of operators associated with radial modes and Kaluza-Klein states of the supergravity description.

In general, for $`N1`$, we expect that any gauge theory should have a string theory description, though it may not have a classical supergravity description. The supergravity approximation can be justified provided curvatures and dilaton coupling $`e^\varphi `$ are small everywhere. Whenever the gravity solution contains the $`AdS_{p+2}`$ space on some slices, the dual field theory of the boundary will inherit the $`SO(2,p+1)`$ symmetry group and, consequently, it will be a conformal field theory.

Many interesting quantities can be calculated in the regime $`\lambda 1`$, where the supergravity approximation applies. These include correlation functions, spectrum of operators or states, Wilson loops and thermal properties. The specific QCD model obtained by reduction of $`4+1`$ dimensional SYM theory reproduces many qualitative aspects of QCD, but in the supergravity approximation the model contains extra light states.

Some open questions include a formulation of holography in Minkowski space, using the correspondence to address the information problem of black holes, and calculations with controlled approximations in QCD.


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# ON THE MAGNETISM OF STARS AND PLANETS

## 1 Introduction

The origin of magnetism in various astronomical objects is of great theoretical and practical interest. The existence of magnetic fields in these cases indicates that currents are circulating inside such objects. What is the nature of these currents?

At the present time there is a great deal of information on this subject. In the literature the existence of magnetic fields is associated with:

1) various dynamo processes: a) the classical kinematic dynamo-models (Busse, 1979; Parker, 1979; Moffat, 1978); b) the kink instability mechanism (Alfven et al., 1974; Alfven, 1981); c) the action of gravitational forces (Hide, 1956); d) the specific models (heat convection, precession) (Urey, 1952; Busse, 1976; Bullard et al., 1971; Runcorn, 1975);

2) or with the remanent magnetization (Sharpe et al., 1976).

These theories encounter some problems: (Runcorn, 1975; Malkus, 1963; Stevenson, 1974); the Earth’s core paradox (Higgins et al., 1971; Kennedy et al., 1973); the energetic contradictions (Jacobs et al., 1972); the contradictions of precession mechanism (Rochester et al., 1975; Busse, 1971) etc.

A variety of approaches to the problem of magnetism of astronomical objects may exist. One of them consists in describing the process of magnetic field birth and generation up to observable values. This approach is undoubtedly important and interesting, from principal positions, to elucidate the mechanism of such a generation. As an example we refer to the ”battery theory” for the generation of cosmic magnetic fields (Biermann 1950; Mestel et al., 1962; Dolginov, 1988). Note, that the paper is concerned with the above mentioned theory (in initial cause). However, some differences exist. The basis for the ”battery theory” is the ”Biermann effect”, where the following term provides the magnetic field generation:

$$c\eta \times T=\frac{c}{e}\times \frac{P_e}{N_e}=\frac{1}{2}M_i\times \stackrel{}{g_{eff}},$$

where $`\eta `$ is the thermopower constant, $`P_e`$ is the electron pressure, $`\stackrel{}{g_{eff}}=\stackrel{}{g}+\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\times \stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\times \stackrel{}{r}`$ is the sum of gravitational and centrifugal accelerations (the causes of generation: nonuniform rotation, the inhomogeneous distribution of chemical elements, temperature inhomogeneities). At the same time, however, it has rather essential disadvantages. First, one must proceed from some unknown hypothetic state. Second, for the time during which the magnetic field is increasing, so many various random events take place, that they can not be taken into consideration even in principle. For example, random flows of charged particles (cosmic rays) can violate the $`2^n`$ magnification (as a consequence of long-range Coulomb interactions). Third, even the main factors can be taken into account within the framework of approximate models only (the continuum medium model, for instance). Besides, there exist problems for calculation. At present it is impossible to solve the full system of equations (Dolginov, 1988). The magnitude of the stationary field cannot be determined from the linearized equations (note that the nonlinear terms are the same order of magnitude as the linear ones). But investigation of nonlinear effects are still in their infancy. All these difficulties do not allow quantitative characteristics of the field to be determined. There exists, however, some another approach to this problem. It is as follows. At present, a set of observable characteristics exists for studying astronomical objects. These characteristics (seem to be stable) include such ones, as the frequency of rotation of a system, its composition, electric and magnetic fields, etc. Here, the question arises: is there any connection between these observable quantities, so that, proceeding from some particular observable system’s parameters, one can calculate other parameters.

Many astronomical objects (nebulae, planets, the Sun and other stars) are known to be rotating bodies. The attempt to find the relation between these phenomena is made in this article. Since some astronomical magnetic fields are rather stable, it can be supposed stable or quasistable state exists in the system and the microscopic statistical approach to this problem can be proposed. Developing this approach, an attempt is made in this paper to describe theoretically stable states of the system and the dynamics of fields. In principle, the statistical approach allows the exact solution for the stationary field to be obtained in integral form. Some distinct value of the field (to sufficient accuracy) can be calculated from this solution for all specific values of parameters ( nonlinear effects are implicitly taken into consideration).

The peculiarities of this work are as follows:

\- the mechanism dispenses with the need for initial magnetic fields;

\- the mechanism proposed can explain the existence of magnetic fields in a wide majority of astronomical objects, i.e. it is rather universal;

\- the mechanism has self-consistent characteristics and leans upon the microscopic properties of matter, rather than upon the continuous medium models;

\- the mechanism is simple enough, that is, there is no need to make any additional assumption on properties of the inner region of objects (good conduction, for example) or on processes occurring inside the objects (convection, for example).

Note, that the suggestion of the statistical approach to the problem is the most important part of the article, since there exist a possibility to study magnetic fields without knowledge about the nature of electric double layers: the statistical method can include different mechanisms which can lead to separation of charges (but not only suggested). For example, the reverse problem can be formulated: knowing fields, to find the possible position of electric double layers and theirs magnitudes. After that the discussion of magnetism (concrete mechanism) is more objective. However, it is not our intention to follow this way in the article.

In section 2.1 the separation of charges and the magnetic field appearance are investigated for the rotating plasma model. This model can be applied to some nebulae, for example. In section 2.2 the action of a gravitational force in the compact rotating system is additionally considered. This model can explain the existence of stellar magnetism. In section 2.3 the magnetism of planets (some ”cooled” objects) is discussed. In this case the ”cooled” (magnetic) materials in the surface layer of a planet (the Earth crust, for example) at temperature less than the Curie temperature can influence the magnetic field. In section 2.4 the general remarks on the Kauling theorem and different mechanisms, and some evaluations are presented. Section 3.1 outlines self-sustained rotation of a system and the equilibrium configuration of electric and magnetic fields. Section 3.2 analyses the influence of various internal and external factors and the dynamics of fields.

## 2 Models

### 2.1 The magnetic field in rotating plasma

The mechanism of magnetic field generation in the astronomical objects can be qualitatively explained in terms of this model. The rotating plasma model can be applied for explanation of magnetic fields existence in rotating plasmoids, such as ionized cloud, hot nebulae, etc.

As a consequence of long-range interaction between the charged particles, the plasma essentially differs from gas in some respects. The rotating plasma has some peculiarities as compared to rotating objects involving neutral particles. The existence of the centrifugal force

$$𝐅_𝐜=m\mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho e_\rho ,$$
(1)
(where $`𝛀`$ is the angular frequency of the system, $`m`$ is the particle mass, $`\rho `$ is its distance from the axis of rotation) causes different effects on particles of different masses. As a result of these different effects, the $`\rho `$-dependences of particle concentrations are bound to be different for particles of different masses.

According to the Boltzmann distribution,

$$n_\alpha =n_{0\alpha }\mathrm{exp}(\frac{U_\alpha }{kT}),$$
(2)
where $`T`$ is the system temperature, $`k`$ is the Boltzmann constant, $`n_{0\alpha }`$ is the particles concentration on the axis of rotation, $`U_\alpha `$ is the potential energy of particles of $`\alpha `$-sort; for neutral particles

$$U_\alpha =\frac{m_\alpha \mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho ^2}{2}.$$
(3)
Since the particles of different masses in plasma have different charges, this partial separation of particles produces a partial separation of charges, that is, the negatively charged region must lie near the axis of rotation, whereas the positiveLy charged region must lie near the system boundary (the distance $`R_0`$ from the axis of rotation). The electric field $`𝐄_0(\rho ,z)`$ (in the polar coordinate system) exists as a result of this separation of charges.

This field opposes the considerable separation of charges. Therefore, the effect of partial separation of charges is bound to be often negligible for small systems, whereas the separation of charges can exert considerable influence on some physical characteristics of astronomical objects.

There is some distance from the axis of rotation $`R_1(z)`$, where the local charge equals zero (some transverse section to the axis). For $`0<\rho <R_1(z)`$ the plasma is negatively charged on the average; for $`R_1(z)<\rho R_0`$ the plasma is positively charged. Therefore, the field $`𝐄_0(\rho ,z)`$ at $`R_1(0)`$ is directed towards the axis of rotation.

Of mine interest here is the fact, that the partial separation of charges gives rise to the $`\rho `$-dependence of charge density, that is, the plasma possessing a given charge density moves round a circle of distinct radius. Therefore, the circulating currents are inside the rotating plasma despite the fact, that all particles revolve with $`𝛀`$ on the average ($`𝛀`$ has a distinct direction). For $`R_1<\rho R_0`$ the current flows in the direction of rotation (since the charge is positive), whereas for $`0<\rho <R_1`$ the current is opposite to the direction of plasma rotation (since the charge is negative). In the general case the magnetic actions of these currents are not compensated and the magnetic field exists. This is the magnetic field of a solenoid whose axis coincides with the axis of rotation of the system.

It follows from the Biot-Savart law, that the magnetic field is

$$𝐇=\frac{1}{c}_{(V)}\frac{[𝐣^{}\times 𝐑^{}]}{R^3}𝑑v^{},$$
(4)
where $`V`$ is the volume of the system, $`c`$ is the speed of light, $`dv^{}`$ is the region with currents, $`R^{}`$ is the distance of this region to the point of observation, $`𝐣^{}`$ is the current density. We have

$$𝐑^{}=(R_\rho ;R_\phi ;R_z)=(\rho \rho _1\mathrm{cos}(\phi _1\phi );\rho _1\mathrm{sin}(\phi \phi _1);zz_1);$$

$`dv^{}=\rho _1d\rho _1d\phi _1dz_1,𝐣^{}=(0;j_\phi ;0),j_\phi (\rho _1,\phi _1,z_1)=e\mathrm{\Omega }\rho _1q(\rho _1,\phi _1,z_1).`$
The electric charge density $`q`$ is

$$q(\rho _1,z_1)=n_{0i}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{kT}U_i\right)n_{0e}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{kT}U_e\right),$$
(5)
For rotating, fully ionized plasma, which consists of the elements with atomic number $`N_i`$, it follows in polar coordinates $`\rho ,\phi ,z`$ (axis $`z`$ is in the $`𝛀`$ direction), that

$$U_e=\frac{m\mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho _1^2}{2}+e_0^{\rho _1}E_{0\rho }(\rho ^{},z_1)𝑑\rho ^{}+e_0^{z_1}E_{0z}(\rho _1,z^{})𝑑z^{}+$$

$$_0^{\rho _1}\frac{eH_z}{c}\mathrm{\Omega }\rho ^{}𝑑\rho ^{}_0^{z_1}\frac{eH_\rho }{c}\mathrm{\Omega }\rho _1𝑑z^{},$$
(6)
$$U_i=\frac{M\mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho _1^2}{2}eN_i_0^{\rho _1}E_{0\rho }(\rho ^{},z_1)𝑑\rho ^{}eN_i_0^{z_1}E_{0z}(\rho _1,z^{})𝑑z^{}$$

$$_0^{\rho _1}\frac{eH_z}{c}\mathrm{\Omega }\rho ^{}𝑑\rho ^{}+_0^{z_1}\frac{eH_\rho }{c}\mathrm{\Omega }\rho _1𝑑z^{},$$
(7)
where $`n_e(\rho ,z)`$ is the concentration of electrons, $`n_i(\rho ,z)`$ is the concentration of ions, $`e`$ is the electron charge ($`e>0`$), $`m`$ is the electron mass, $`M`$ is the ion mass, the electron and ion temperatures $`T_e=T_i=T`$; the quantities $`n_{0\alpha }`$ can be found from conditions: $`_{(V)}n_\alpha 𝑑v^{}=N_\alpha K_\alpha ,`$ where $`K_\alpha `$ is the total number of particles of $`\alpha `$-sort, $`N_e=1`$ and $`K_e=N_iK_i+\mathrm{\Delta }`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the electron surplus.

The electric field can be found from the integral equation

$$𝐄_0(\rho ,z)=_{(V)}\frac{e𝐑^{}(\rho ^{},z^{})q(\rho ^{},z^{})dv^{}}{R^3}$$

Heat movements counteract the compensation of the charge density: the statistical (dynamical) equilibrium is established. In the general case for rotating plasma of complex composition, $`j_\phi _lj_\phi ^l,n_{0\alpha }n_{0\alpha }^{(l)}`$. In principle, we can introduce the ”effective” ion mass $`M_i^{eff}`$ (in the general case $`M_i^{eff}M_i^{av}=(M_iK_i)/(K_i)`$) and $`N_i^{eff}`$. Note, that a small quantity of heavy ions plays an important role. As follows from the derived expressions, the effect is proportional to the particle’s concentration (or, the electron surplus $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$). Since for $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ and for $`\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{}`$ the effect vanishes, there exists such a value $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ that $`H_z(\mathrm{\Omega }_m)=max`$. Analogously, there exists $`T_m`$ for which $`H_z(T_m)=max`$. The dependence $`H_z(\mathrm{\Omega },T)`$ can be represented as a ”pit”. This is only the discussion of principles of approaches to the magnetic field generation problem. Strictly speaking, the model uses the externally given fixed ”wall”. To use the described model for real objects, the following factors need to be taken into consideration: the gravitational force, if it is important (maintains the system as a whole, for example), or, the expansion of system boundary (the change of integration limits, if the equilibrium distribution has a chance to be set) and the dependence $`\mathrm{\Omega }(\rho ,\phi ,z)`$ (nonrigid rotation). Some practical remarks will be given in Section 2.4.

### 2.2 The magnetic fields of rotating stars

The consideration of the starry magnetism differs from the case discussed above both quantitatively ($`𝛀`$ and $`n_{0\alpha }`$ may be considerably larger than corresponding quantities for the ionized cloud) and qualitatively. One of such qualitative differences lies in the fact, that the gravitational force must be taken into account (the external boundary doesn’t be fixed, but can be determined in the self-consistent manner):

$$𝐅_𝐠=\gamma \frac{M(r)m𝐫}{r^3},$$
(8)
where $`\gamma `$ is the gravitational constant, $`r`$ is the distance from the center of a star, $`M(r)`$ is the mass of a star part in the $`0r^{}r`$ region of the star (the star is spherically symmetrical).

The gravitational force is directed toward the star center, that is, this force has the $`\rho `$-projection (toward the axis of rotation). Therefore, this force competes with the centrifugal force (the actions of these forces are opposite) in the processes of separation of charges and generation of electric and magnetic fields. It is clear from the general reasoning, that at the given angular frequency and starry composition the magnetic field reverses its direction at some ”critical” mass (or at ”critical” $`R_{0c}`$); or the magnetic field of a certain star reverses its direction at some certain critical angular frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$. In the case of gravitational confinement, the (more light) electron cloud is distributed near the boundary (and just near the axis), but the (more heavy) ion layer is distributed near the center (the value $`kT`$ is the same for all particles and $`U_g`$).

The potential energy of some particle with mass $`m`$ is:

$$U_g=\gamma \frac{M(r)m}{r},$$
(9)
where $`r=\sqrt{\rho ^2+z^2}`$.

In the general case the distribution of charges includes three charged regions. The negatively charged region is placed near the axis of rotation and the system boundary; the positively charged region (torus) is placed near (and far) the radius which can be determined from the condition $`F_g=F_c`$. The bounds between the charged regions can be found from the equation $`n_e(\rho ,z)=_in_i(\rho ,z)`$. For example, it follows that the equation for plasma consisting of particles with one number $`N`$ is:

$$n_{0e}\mathrm{exp}(\frac{1}{kT}[_0^z\frac{eH_\rho }{c}\mathrm{\Omega }\rho _1dz_1_0^\rho \frac{eH_z}{c}\mathrm{\Omega }\rho _1d\rho _1e𝐄_{}^{}{}_{0}{}^{}d𝐫^{}+$$

$$\frac{m_e\mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho ^2}{2}\gamma \frac{M(r)m_e}{r}])=$$

$$n_{0i}\mathrm{exp}(\frac{1}{kT}[\frac{M_i\mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho ^2}{2}+Ne𝐄_{}^{}{}_{0}{}^{}d𝐫^{}+_0^\rho \frac{eH_z}{c}\mathrm{\Omega }\rho _1d\rho _1$$

$$_0^z\frac{eH_\rho }{c}\mathrm{\Omega }\rho _1dz_1\gamma \frac{M(r)M_i}{r}]).$$
(10)
In the general case the components $`𝐄_0(\rho ,z)`$ can be found from the system of integral equations:

$$E_{0\rho }(\rho ,z)=e_{(V)}\frac{q(\rho _1,z_1)}{R^3}\rho _1[\rho \rho _1cos(\phi _1\phi )]𝑑\rho _1𝑑z_1𝑑\phi _1,$$
(11)
$$E_{0z}(\rho ,z)=e_{(V)}\frac{q(\rho _1,z_1)}{R^3}(zz_1)\rho _1𝑑\rho _1𝑑z_1𝑑\phi _1,$$
(12)
$$R^{}=\sqrt{(zz_1)^2+\rho ^2+\rho _1^22\rho \rho _1cos(\phi _1\phi )}$$

with additional term $`\gamma M(r)M_i/r`$ in $`U_i`$ and $`\gamma M(r)m_e/r`$ in $`U_e`$.

The magnetic field can be obtained from the following expressions:

$$H_\rho =\frac{1}{c}_{(V)}\frac{j_\phi (\rho _1,z_1)}{R^3}(zz_1)\rho _1𝑑\rho _1𝑑z_1𝑑\phi _1,$$
(13)
$$H_z=\frac{1}{c}_{(V)}\frac{j_\phi (\rho _1,z_1)}{R^3}\rho _1[\rho _1cos(\phi _1\phi )\rho ]𝑑\rho _1𝑑z_1𝑑\phi _1,$$
(14)
In the case of unsteady rotation $`(\mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho ^2/2)_0^\rho \mathrm{\Omega }(\rho ^{},z)\rho ^{}𝑑\rho ^{}`$.

As a first approximation, the effect is proportional to the particle’s concentration (or, the ion surplus $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$). There exists such a value $`T_m`$, that $`H_z(T_m)=max`$. At first, the value $`H_z`$ increases (to a maximum $`H_z(\mathrm{\Omega }_m^1)>0`$) with increasing the value $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m^1`$; furthermore, the value $`H_z`$ decreases (to a minimum $`H_z(\mathrm{\Omega }_m^2)<0`$) with increasing the value $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and, finally, the value $`H_z`$ tends to zero with further increasing $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. We can write approximately

$$\frac{H_z}{T}=\frac{H_z}{2T}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{2T}\frac{H_z}{\mathrm{\Omega }}.$$

The dependence $`H_z(\mathrm{\Omega },T)`$ can be represented as ”a hill passing to a pit”. Analogously, the dependence $`H_z(M,T)`$ can be described as ”a pit passing to a hill”. However, in the real case the value $`T`$ can increase with increasing the body mass $`M`$, and the value $`H_z`$ can be finite ($`0`$) with increasing the value $`M`$.

There is another qualitative difference between the cases of star and rotating plasma. The star is a nonequilibrium system. At some point of the star the radiatmon from and to the center of the star are not compensated, thus causing the light pressure other than zero to exist. The action of this light pressure for particles depends on the effective section of interaction of these particles. Therefore, tle light pressure force for ions is larger, than that for electrons, and this influence on the charge separation process is opposite to the gravitational force action.

Given the effective sections of interactions $`\sigma _e`$ and $`\sigma _i`$ and the light pressure function $`P(\rho ,z)`$, the field $`𝐇`$ can be obtained in terms of this effect. To do this, the following substitutions need to be done:

$$\frac{m_e\mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho ^2}{2}\frac{m_e\mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho ^2}{2}\sigma _e_{(0,0)}^{(\rho ,z)}P(\rho ^{},z^{})𝑑r^{};$$

$$\frac{M_i\mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho ^2}{2}\frac{M_i\mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho ^2}{2}\sigma _i_{(0.0)}^{(\rho ,z)}P(\rho ^{},z^{})𝑑r^{}.$$

Some important remarks will be made in section 2.4.

### 2.3 The planetary magnetism

In this case the radiation can be ignored. In some instances the gravitational force can be ignored only when the of charge separation region is small, or, more precisely, its action is reduced to the action of pressure on the boundary of this region. $`𝛀`$ and $`N_i`$ quantities for the planets may be larger, than those for the other astronomical objects. The distribution of electron (or ion surplus) is determined by characteristics of planetary system (Boltzmann factor depends on the solar mass, chemical composition etc). For some planets with strong magnetic field the radiation belts (the Earth radiation belt, for example, which is the rotating plasma substantially) have influence on the magnetic field. Note, that radiation belts can be considered as a separate system (with their own boundary conditions), for which all derived formulae are applicable.

The case of planets has some qualitative difference from the other cases. The planets are relatively cold objects. Therefore, two remarks are in order. First, not all particles are involved in the processes of charge separation and of the magnetic field appearance. The neutral particles influence on the electric field $`𝐄_0(\rho ,z)`$. To take into account this influence, the following substitution needs to be done in the denominators of equations (11), (12), (13), (14): $`R^3R^3\epsilon (\rho ,z)`$, where $`\epsilon (\rho ,z)`$ is the permittivity. The polarization of nonmagnetic materials can influence on the magnetic field.

Second, the influence of magnetic materials in the surface layer of a planet on the magnetic field at temperature lower than the Curie temperature must be taken into account:

$$𝐁=\mu 𝐇+4\pi 𝐌_0,$$

where $`𝐇`$ is the magnetic field from (13) or (14), $`\mu `$ is the permeability, $`𝐌_0`$ is the remanent magnetization.

The latter factor can become the only one which maintains the existence of the magnetic field as the axial rotation of a planet is decelerated. The qualitative picture, described above in previous subsection, is valid for the charge distribution and the dependence of magnetic field on different factors. Note, that (an agreement with this paper) there exists the electron surplus near the Earth’s surface (see The Pysical Values, 1991). The most significant remarks with practical viewpoint is made in the next subsection.

### 2.4 Some remarks and estimations

First of all we note that the Kauling theorem does not valid for models described. The electric field possesses the $`E_{0\rho }`$ and $`E_{0z}`$ components only ($`E_{0\phi }=0`$). However, the nature of currents does not determined by the magnetic force $`\frac{1}{c}[𝐯\times 𝐁]`$. The existence of currents is the consequence of the system rotation: portions of charged particles (which form charged regions) are involved in the rotation. In spite of particles movement (rotation) with the same $`𝛀`$ (without friction), currents can have the mutually reverse directions. There is a surface with $`𝐣=0`$; the field $`𝐁`$ can be equal zero on some surface; $`rot𝐁`$ can also be equal zero. Thus, the principal conclusion consists in the fact, that the magnetic field can origin in a system with cylindrical symmetry.

Second remark needs to be made in connection with conditions of application of models. It is easy to make an estimate of the field produced by the effect described for $`T=0`$. The magnetic field (in Gaussian units) is $`HRJ/c`$, here $`R`$ is the system radius, $`J\rho v`$. If the gravitational force is most important, then $`eEM_ig^{},\rho M_ig^{}/(eR)`$ here $`g^{}j\rho _bR`$, where $`j`$ is the gravitational constant, $`\rho _b`$ is the body density. Substituting typical numbers ($`M_i10^{23}`$gram, $`v/c10^4,e10^{10}`$esu, $`\rho _b10^3`$gram/cm<sup>3</sup>), we have $`H10^4`$ Gauss for $`R10^9`$a.u. However, the model is statistical (principally): statistical (dynamical) equilibrium holds by heat movements, and the originated electric force cannot compensate the charge density (for example, the noncompensated force $`F_g`$ exists, but the earth atmosphere doesn’t ”fall” on the Earth). The estimations needs to be corrected for stellar and planetary magnetism. To do this, two ways exist. 1) The above estimations suppose that the magnetic field is produced by a charge surplus. Note, that if for an earthlike body $`H110^4`$Gauss, then the surplus charge density $`\rho `$ needs to be equal $`\rho 10^410^8`$esu/cm<sup>3</sup>, that is the number of charged particles is $`10^210^6`$ per cm<sup>3</sup>. It is possible for the earth phenomena (see The Physical Values, 1991). 2) The ”elucidation” of the gravitational force for system neutral as a whole does not meant that the body will scatter under influence of electric force. These forces do not compensate. Besides, any liquid or rigid body can possess rather great portion of charges without interruption. The ”capacitor” (described above the double layer) discharges. To account the latter effect, one can use some potential (barrier maintaining a ”contact potential difference”) which counteracts the discharge process. Note as a remark, that Earth structure (in chemical and material composition) can be determined by self-consistent manner (using the chemical potential $`\mu `$). The presence of charged particles can be described as a ”dilute solution”, and the equilibrium condition for different phases is: $`\mu +U=const`$.

The following remark concerns the role of electromagnetic forces for Earth phenomena. As a consequence of long-range (rather strong) electric interaction, some small charge surplus is suffice for comparability the electric energy with the motion energy in atmospheric (different winds) and hydrodynamical (sea currents) phenomena. To account this, one must additionally write: 1) the motion equation for charged particles, and, 2) the equation for the interaction of charged particles and neutral gas (or liquid) masses. Cosmic rays influence on the earth activity (earthquake, vulcan activity), since the presence of magnetic materials (hysteresis) leads to heat production in inner earth regions.

## 3 Magnetic fields and some factors

### 3.1 Self-sustained equilibrium rotation

It is shown above, that in a system possessing some fraction of free charges a partial separation of charges occurs under an effect of centrifugal and gravitational forces ($`n_e(\rho ,z)`$ does not coincide with $`n_i(\rho ,z)`$) and, as a result, the electric field $`𝐄(\rho ,z)`$ arises. Due to system’s rotation the magnetic effect of currents of these charged regions is not mutually compensated, and the magnetic field $`𝐇`$ arises. In this case the rotation frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }(\rho ,z)`$ was assumed to be specified.

The statement of the problem may be changed. For this purpose we notice that the field $`𝐇`$ is directed along the axis of rotation (axis $`z`$), and the field $`𝐄`$ has two components $`E_\rho `$ and $`E_z`$ only, i.e. it has a component directed towards the system’s axis of rotation. As a result, the drift of particles will take place in cross fields $`E_{0\rho }𝐞_\rho `$ and $`H𝐞_z`$. This drift motion will occur over circles around the axis of rotation. Hence, it is worthwhile to find such a rotation rate, that resulting electric and magnetic fields lead to a drift rotation with the same rate, i.e. one should find stable rotational states of a charged particles in a self-consistent manner. Note, that the (averaged) movement of charged particles must be close to the rotation of the system as a whole (a consequence of the system stability).

From condition $`v_d=\mathrm{\Omega }\rho `$ and the expression for drift velocity

$$𝐯_d=\frac{𝐞_\phi cE_{0\rho }(\rho ,z)}{H(\rho ,z)}$$

the unknown rate is determined as

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\frac{cE_{0\rho }}{\rho [H_0(\rho ,z)+H_1]},$$
(15)
where $`\rho `$ is the distance to the axis, $`c`$ is the light velocity, $`H_1`$ is an outer or intrinsic magnetic field ($`H_1>H_0`$), and quantities $`E_{0\rho }`$ and $`H_0`$ can be taken from previous section.

### 3.2 Dynamics of magnetic fields

Let us imagine that the external magnetic field $`𝐇_1`$ suddenly increases: $`𝐇_1𝐇_1+𝐇_1^{}`$. As a result, as follows from (15), the equilibrium frequency of rotation of the object (or a fraction of charged particles) decreases in this case. This decrease of $`\mathrm{\Omega }(\rho ,z)`$ results in decreasing the field $`𝐇_0𝐇_0𝐇_0^{}`$ and, hence, the resulting field slightly lowers: $`𝐇=𝐇_0+𝐇_1+𝐇_1^{}𝐇_0^{}`$. This is a consequence of the general Le Shatelier principle. Similarly, the weakening of the external magnetic field $`𝐇_1`$ leads to increasing the drift rotation rate, which, in its turn, causes the increase of the field $`𝐇_0`$, i.e. the processes weakening the external action occur again (the system tends to conserve its equilibrium state).

Note that at equilibrium either $`\mathrm{\Omega }=const`$, or $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{\Omega }(\rho ,z)`$:

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }^2\rho _1^2}{2}_0^\rho \mathrm{\Omega }(\rho ^{},z)\rho ^{}𝑑\rho ^{},$$
(16)
for charged particles and the source of energy and the mechanism of compensation of heat losses (for friction) must exist. If the state of a system differs from equilibrium one by any reason (for example, the external forces are acting, or some processes occur inside the object, which lead to redistribution of charges), then, in principle, one can find the forces, tending to bring the system into equilibrium, and describe the dynamics (of fields, of rotation rate).

It follows from (15), that as the rotation frequency of an astronomical object changes adiabatically, the electric and magnetic fields also change:

$$\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}=\frac{c}{\rho }[\frac{\dot{E}_{0\rho }}{H}\frac{E_{0\rho }\dot{H}}{H^2}].$$

As the first approximation, using

$$\dot{E}_{0\rho }=\frac{E_{0\rho }}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}+\frac{E_{0\rho }}{\mathrm{\Delta }}\dot{\mathrm{\Delta }}+\frac{E_{0\rho }}{T}\dot{T},\frac{E_{0\rho }}{\mathrm{\Omega }}=\frac{2T}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\frac{E_{0\rho }}{T},$$

we have

$$\dot{H}=H\left(\frac{\dot{\mathrm{\Delta }}}{\mathrm{\Delta }}\frac{\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\right)+\frac{H}{E_{0\rho }}\frac{E_{0\rho }}{T}\left(\dot{T}2T\frac{\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\right).$$
(17)
The value $`\frac{E_{0\rho }}{T}`$ must be evaluated from the self-consistent system of equations (from Sec.2). Since $`H=H_0+H_1`$, the hysteresis influences on the field dynamics. The change of the magnetic field polarity may occur (without changing the direction of astronomical object’s rotation), when the direction of the electric field $`E_{0\rho }`$ inside the system changes. The change of polarity for a system with magnetic materials (there exists some threshold due to hysteresis) requires long-lasting influence (cosmic rays can change the total charge of the system, for example).

In principle, one can obtain the solution to the problem of fields dynamics, in the case of ”sufficiently slow” variation of various external and internal factors. It is apparent that the dynamics of $`T,\rho ,(V)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ determines the dynamics of electric and magnetic fields by formulae (15) - (17). Therefore, to finally determine the fields dynamics and the rotation rate, one should also add the following equations:
1. the moment of external forces acting on a system determines the additional change of rotation frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ (if the object does not possess central symmetry); this factor may cause the magnetic field precession;
2. the law of variation of object’s form $`(V)`$ (this factor is insignificant for stars and planets);
3. the law of variation of density $`\rho (𝐑,t)`$;
4. the law determining the temperature variation $`T(𝐑,t)`$;
5. the law of (external) change of the total charge (this factor is the most important one).

Now it is clear that the characteristic times of variation of all these quantities must be higher than characteristic times of diffusion for a fraction of charged particles participating in the fields generation. In the opposite case one must take into account diffusion terms in equations for $`\rho ,T,\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`(V)`$ (i.e. the equation of diffusion should be written separately for a fraction of charged particles). In this case the hysteresis phenomena are characteristic of the fields variation.

How the object driven from the state of equilibrium will behave? From general considerations, the transition into a new equilibrium state (or into in old one, if the factor acts for a limited time) may occur either asymptotically, or in an oscillational manner (with polarity change, in particular), depending on the fact, whether the characteristic time of system oscillation ($`\mathrm{\Omega }^1`$) is higher (or, respectively, considerably lower) than that of system’s energy dissipation.

In the case, if the rotation frequency inside an astronomical object is lower than the equilibrium frequency possible for the given system, then the new equilibrium state will correspond to the absence of rotation. Because of the dependence $`\mathrm{\Omega }(\rho ,z)const`$ (caused by the fields) the friction will arise between different sections of the object and, as a result of energy dissipation, the rotation of an astronomical object will be slowed down. This is just an internal mechanism of slowing down the rotation of astronomical objects (and warming-up of inner regions).

## 4 Conclusions

The general statistical approach to the magnetism problem is introduced. It can help to obtain the value of the magnetic field to sufficient accuracy (from the exact integral solution). The mechanism of the magnetic field generation in astronomical objects (nebulae, stars, planets) can be explained in the following way: in the general case the centrifugal force, the gravitational force and the light pressure act on dissimilar particles in a different manner, causing different $`\rho `$-distributions of these particles and giving rise to the partial separation of charges; the electric field can be found from formulae (11), (12) (see the substitutions in the text); the rotation of these objects produces (from these charges) circulating currents, the magnetic action of which is not compensated, and the magnetic field can be found from formulae (13), (14) (see the substitutions in the text). Generally speaking, the existence of the magnetic field dispenses with the need for conductive regions; the availability of some portion of free charges would be sufficient for this mechanism.

The equilibrium frequency of rotation of an astronomical object (see (15)) may be found in a self-consistent manner. Knowing the factors, which influence the density, temperature, rotation of an object and external fields, one can determine in this case the dynamics of system’s magnetic field.

The further applications of formulae obtained might be associated with numerical methods or with some simplifications which take into account some specific data.