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# High resolution images at 11 and 20 𝜇m of the Active Galactic Nucleus in NGC 1068 Based on observations collected at the ESO/La Silla 3.6m telescope, Proposal 62.P-0445, and at the CFHT/Hawaii 3.6m telescope.

## 1 Introduction

The current unification scheme for Active Galactic Nuclei (herefater AGN) postulates the existence of a thick molecular/dusty torus surrounding a black-hole/accretion-disc system (see, e.g. Krolik 1999). Attempts to unveil this torus in a nearby AGN like NGC 1068 have drawn considerable effort on the side of high spatial resolution imaging, in particular in the near-IR (Chelli et al. 1987, Gallais, 1991, Young et al. 1996, Marco et al. 1997, Thatte et al. 1998, Rouan et al. 1998, Alloin et al. 1998, Wittkowski et al. 1998, Weinberger, Neugebauer & Matthews 1999, Marco & Alloin, 2000) and mid-IR (Braatz et al. 1993, Cameron et al. 1993, Bock et al. 1998, Lumsden et al 1999). With respect to the presence of such a torus, the most compelling results are: (a) VLBA 8 GHz data (Gallimore et al. 1997) revealing a 1 pc elongated distribution of ionized gas at PA $``$ 110° (the inner ”hot zone” of the torus?), (b) adaptive optics (AO) observations at 2.2 $`\mu `$m (Rouan et al, 1998) showing extended emission along PA $`=`$ 102° and up to a 15 pc radius (in addition to a prominent unresolved core with size less that 9 pc and in addition to another 20 pc radius extended emission along PA $`=`$ 15° which follows the Narrow Line Region) and at 3.5 and 4.8 $`\mu `$m (Marco & Alloin, 2000) revealing structures similar in shape/orientation and on comparable scales, (c) near- and mid-IR imaging polarimetry (Lumsden et al. 1999) calling for the presence of hot and warm dust components fully consistent with those detected with AO. The structure elongated at PA $``$ 102° could trace the equatorial plane of an inclined dusty/molecular torus, from its inner walls of ionized material seen in radio, to its outer parts of thermally emitting dust with a temperature range from T $``$ 1500 K (dust sublimation temperature) to a few 100 K.

Models by Krolik & Begelman (1986), Pier & Krolik (1993), Efstathiou & Rowan-Robinson (1994), Granato & Danese (1994), and Granato, Danese & Franceschini (1997) have explored torus sizes from 1 to 100 pc. They predict emission in the near-IR and mid-IR and provide high resolution model-maps at various wavelengths. Therefore, it is particularly timely to obtain high resolution mid-IR images to compare with model-maps.

Here, we present and discuss new results from diffraction-limited images obtained with the CFHT/Hawaii and ESO/La Silla 3.6m telescopes, at 11.2 and 20.5 $`\mu `$m respectively. Hereafter, the distance used for NGC1068 is 14.4 Mpc, leading to the equivalence 1″$``$ 70 pc in the object.

## 2  Data collection and Reduction

The observations were performed using the CEA/SAp mid-IR camera CAMIRAS (Lagage et al 1993), equipped with a Boeing 128x128 pixels BIB detector which is sensitive up to 28 $`\mu `$m. The AGN in NGC1068 was observed with CAMIRAS attached to the ESO/La Silla 3.6m telescope on 1998 November 8-10 and to the CFHT/Hawaii 3.6m telescope on 1999 August 1. During these two runs seeing and weather conditions – humidity and amount of atmospheric precipitable water – were particularly favorable to observing in the mid-IR and extremely stable.

The orientation of the array on the sky was carefully determined at the start of each observing run. The pixel size was $`0.315^{\prime \prime }`$ (20 $`\mu `$m window, ESO/La Silla) and $`0.29^{\prime \prime }`$ (11 $`\mu `$m window, CFHT/Hawaii).

In the 20 $`\mu `$m window, we used a filter centered at 20.5 $`\mu `$m and with a bandpass (FWHM) $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda `$ = 1.11 $`\mu `$m. This filter is free of any important line contribution. In the 11 $`\mu `$m window, we used a filter centered at 11.2 $`\mu `$m and with a bandpass $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda `$ = 0.44 $`\mu `$m: although the 11.3 $`\mu `$m PaH line emission falls within this filter, one should notice that the spectroscopic results from the ISO satellite do not show its presence in the AGN of NGC 1068 (aperture of $`3^{\prime \prime }`$). Therefore we are confident that these two filters reflect mostly the mid-IR continuum emission of the AGN. To avoid saturation of the detector by the high ambient photon background, the image elementary integration times were chosen to be 9.1 msec and 19.1 msec, respectively at 20.5 and 11.2 $`\mu `$m. Standard chopping and nodding techniques were applied with a chopping throw of $`20^{\prime \prime }`$. Elementary images were coadded in real time during 3 sec chopping cycles. At 20.5 $`\mu `$m a total integration time of 22.5 min was spent on the source observed at an airmass less than 1.3. At 11.2 $`\mu `$m, the total integration on source was of 65 min and the mean airmass of 1.04. A shift-and-add procedure was applied to the final images through each filter. The final signal-to-noise ratio at the peak emission on the images is 265 at 20.5 $`\mu `$m and 980 at 11.2 $`\mu `$m.

The nearby reference star $`\tau `$ 4 Eri was frequently monitored to serve as a PSF and flux standard at 20.5 $`\mu `$m, while $`\alpha `$ Ceti was used at 11.2 $`\mu `$m (van der Bliek et al 1996). The precision achieved in flux measurements is +/– 5% and +/– 10%, respectively at 11.2 $`\mu `$m and 20.5 $`\mu `$m.

Because final images are limited by the seeing and above all by the 3.6m telescope diffraction-pattern (FWHM of $`1.4^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`0.8^{\prime \prime }`$ at 20.5 $`\mu `$m and 11.2 $`\mu `$m respectively), applying a deconvolution procedure is mandatory. We use the Entropy Method developed by Pantin & Starck (1996), based upon wavelet decomposition. The Shannon theorem (1948) prescription allows to persue the deconvolution down to twice the pixel size, in this case down to $`0.6^{\prime \prime }`$, and iterations are stopped according to the residual map, whose properties should be consistent with data noise characteristics.

## 3 Results and Discussion

### 3.1 Structure and flux contributions

We provide in Figure 1 a set of the images at 20.5 $`\mu `$m: the NGC1068 image before deconvolution, the PSF stellar image, and the NGC1068 image after deconvolution. A similar set of images at 11.2 $`\mu `$m is displayed in Figure 2. The general orientation of the extended emission runs through the North-East to South-West quadrants, with a noticeable North-South elongation of the inner isophotes. The deconvolved image and contours at 11.2 $`\mu `$m are fully consistent with the map at 12.4 $`\mu `$m obtained at a comparable spatial resolution by Braatz et al (1993). In the 10 $`\mu `$m window, the speckle data (over a $`5^{\prime \prime }\times 5^{\prime \prime }`$ region, with a resolution down to $`0.2^{\prime \prime }`$, but with a smaller dynamical range) analyzed by Bock et al (1998) indicate however a different orientation with the extended emission in the inner $`5^{\prime \prime }\times 5^{\prime \prime }`$ region running through the North-West to South-East quadrants: this does not appear to be consistent with either Braatz et al (1993) or the new data set presented in this paper. This discrepancy remains to be elucidated.

The deconvolved images, both at 11.2 and 20.5 $`\mu `$m show the presence of a prominent central core. Cuts through the core along the North-South and East-West directions provide FWHM values of $`0.9^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`0.6^{\prime \prime }`$ respectively. Therefore, the core remains unresolved in the East-West direction, while it appears to be extended North-South with intrinsic FWHM size of around 50 pc. Again this result is in very good agreement with Braatz et al (1993).

Regarding the extended emission, one notices that conspicuous features can be seen further away from the core at 20.5 $`\mu `$m than at 11.2 $`\mu `$m. In the North-East quadrant we have identified two clouds, (a) and (b), along PA $`=`$ 35°, at mean distances from the core of $`3.7^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`1.8^{\prime \prime }`$, respectively. Cloud (a), which is bright both at 11.2 and 20.5 $`\mu `$m, appears to widen perpendicularly to the main direction of the extended emission and runs from PA $`=`$ 15° to PA $`=`$ 55°. In the South-West quadrant, the emission closest to the core extends along PA $`=`$ 210° and then aligns North-South: two clouds, (c) and (d), can be singled out at mean distances from the core of $`2^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`3.5^{\prime \prime }`$. The results are summarized in Table 1.

Flux measurements at 11.2 and 20.5 $`\mu `$m have been performed using a mask built from the 20.5 $`\mu `$m image and delineating the extent of the four clouds and of the core, so that the 11.2 $`\mu `$m to 20.5 $`\mu `$m flux ratio can be derived in a consistent fashion. The mask at the position of the core takes into account the full extent ($`2^{\prime \prime }\times 1.2^{\prime \prime }`$) of the core (rather than its FWHMs values given in Table 1). The resultant fluxes are given in Table 1: one notices that the core contributes a very large fraction of the mid-IR emission, 95.6% at 11.2 $`\mu `$m and 94% at 20.5 $`\mu `$m.

### 3.2 Comparison with maps at other wavelengths

We have just seen that the mid-IR emission extends away from the core up to a radius of about 300 pc, both in the North-East and South-West quadrants. In order to compare this extension/structure to those observed at other wavelengths, in the radio range with the VLA or in the UV/optical with HST, it is mandatory to register precisely the mid-IR map with respect to the near-IR, visible and radio ones.

As we did not have the possibility to perform astrometric measurements through simultaneous observations in the mid-IR and near-IR or visible (as performed in Marco et al 1997), we are assuming firstly that the cores at 11.2 and 20.5 $`\mu `$m are coincident and secondly that their location also coincides with that of the cores observed at 4.8, 3.5 and 2.2 $`\mu `$m. Regarding the first assumption, one can check from the model of NGC 1068 developed by Granato et al (1997) which predicts the offsets between emission peaks at various wavelengths in the near-IR to mid-IR, that these offsets remain in the range of a few hundredths of an arc second and can be ignored. Regarding the second assumption, the cores observed at 4.8, 3.5 and 2.2 $`\mu `$m have been shown to be positionally coincident indeed (Rouan et al, 1998, Marco & Alloin 2000). And finally, Marco et al (1997) have obtained the astrometric positioning of the core at 2.2 $`\mu `$m, with respect to the HST map in the visible of the central area in NGC 1068: it was found to be located $`0.28^{\prime \prime }`$ South and $`0.08^{\prime \prime }`$ West of the so-called optical continuum peak seen with HST (Lynds et al 1991). The study by Marco et al (1997) also allowed a precise registration of the 2.2 $`\mu `$m map with respect to the 12.4 $`\mu `$m map from Braatz et al (1993) and to available radio, optical and UV maps. The conclusion is that the core at 4.8, 3.5 and 2.2 $`\mu `$m appears to be coincident with the 12.4 $`\mu `$m peak position found by Braatz et al, the radio source S1, the symmetry center of polarization both in the UV/optical (Capetti et al 1995) and in the mid-IR (Lumsden et al 1999). We consider this core to feature the central engine (hidden in UV/optical maps) and from all the above quoted studies we can ascertain the consistency of the assumptions made earlier.

We have compared the mid-IR maps at 11.2 and 20.5 $`\mu `$m to the radio maps and to the HST \[OIII\]–emitting cloud map, provided on a suitable scale in Bland-Hawthorn et al (1997) and with a registration as above. We have reached the following conclusions:
– compared to the radio maps from Gallimore et al (1996a,b) and Muxlow et al (1996), the observed North-South elongation of the mid-IR core is reminiscent of the North-South alignment of the radio sources S2, S1 and C (see Figure 2 in Bland–Hawthorn et al 1997 for a synthesis of the radio source nomenclature after Wilson & Ulvestad 1987). At the location of radio source C, the orientation of the radio jet-like structure changes abruptly and becomes close to PA $`=`$ 35°, matching then the general direction of the mid-IR extended emission in the North-East quadrant. The mid-IR cloud (a) coincides perfectly with the wide base of the so-called Northeast radio lobe. In the South-West quadrant, the radio jet-like structure is along PA $`=`$ 210° again very well aligned with the mid-IR extended emission. The so-called Southwest radio hotspot is situated about $`4^{\prime \prime }`$ away from the central engine, S1, and can be put in correspondence with the mid-IR cloud (d).
– compared with the HST \[OIII\]–emitting cloud map, the North-South elongation of the mid-IR core is found to overlap to the North with HST cloud-A and cloud-B, two NLR clouds distributed along the North-South direction. The extended mid-IR emission in the North-East quadrant is along PA $`=`$ 35° and arises to the eastern edge of the ionizing cone (which, on a large scale extends between PA $`=`$ –15° and PA $`=`$ 35°) defined by the \[OIII\]–emitting complexes, beyond cloud-F and to the East of cloud-G which is itself located about $`2^{\prime \prime }`$ away from the central engine. It should be noted as well that the mid-IR cloud (a) is located very close to an optical emission knot early identified in the literature as the ”Northeast knot” in the direction PA $`=`$ 35° and at a distance about $`4^{\prime \prime }`$ from the central engine (Elvius 1978 for the first identification). The extended mid-IR emission in the South-West quadrant has no counterpart in the HST \[OIII\]–emitting cloud map, as expected from the heavy obscuration on that side of the AGN. Therefore, it is conspicuous that the extended mid-IR emission in the North-East quadrant arises aside the NLR (as featured by the \[OIII\]–emitting clouds) and from material which is not directly exposed to the central ionizing source. However, the tight correlation existing between the mid-IR extended emission and the 4.9 GHz emission is a result which signals the importance of the radio jet-like emission impacting on interstellar material located above and below the equatorial plane of the dusty/molecular torus.

### 3.3 Nature of the mid-IR core

The emission core observed at 11.2 and 20.5 $`\mu `$m shows a noticeable North-South extension, about 100 pc, while it remains unresolved ($`<`$ 50 pc) along the East-West direction. In the model devised by Granato et al (1997) of the AGN in NGC 1068, a 100 pc torus and a viewing angle of 65° were the torus parameters finally selected to match the SED of the AGN. This model predicts indeed that maps of the torus emission in the mid-IR should be elongated perpendicularly to the torus plane, in this case roughly along the North-South direction, and on a scale of +/– $`0.5^{\prime \prime }`$. One should notice however that the model maps have been obtained after convolution with a PSF FWHM $`=0.09^{\prime \prime }`$, too narrow compared with the effective PSF of the data presented in this paper. Yet, the predicted direction of the elongation is consistent with the observed one at 11.2 and 20.5 $`\mu `$m and its predicted size has the right order of magnitude, if compared to the measured one.
Comparing the core at 11.2 and 20.5 $`\mu `$m to high resolution maps at 4.8, 3.5 and 2.2 $`\mu `$m (Marco & Alloin 2000, Rouan et al 1998) is more difficult because of the difference in spatial resolution. Indeed, the extensions (both polar and equatorial) seen at 4.8, 3.5 and 2.2 $`\mu `$m are entirely enclosed within the 11.2 and 20.5 $`\mu `$m core size. Yet, if the PA $`=`$ 102 ° equatorial extension detected at 4.8, 3.5 and 2.2 $`\mu `$m features the torus itself, one might expect to see emission in the mid-IR from cool dust located further away than the warm dust emitting at 4.8 $`\mu `$m, still along (PA $`=`$ 102°). Such emission is not detected. One possible interpretation is that the equatorial extension at 4.8, 3.5 and 2.2 $`\mu `$m does not directly feature the torus. This indeed would be surprising, because the covering factor of the equatorial extension to the central source is smaller than expected on the basis of several arguments (opening angle of the ionizing cone, ratio between IR and primary UV radiation…). The extended equatorial emission at 4.8, 3.5 and 2.2 $`\mu `$m could instead trace only the equatorial plane of the torus rather than the torus itself (possibly smaller) and outline the merging of the torus with the host–galaxy disc, in regions of high density where star formation is occurring and provides an additional and local source of heating. This would explain the presence of dust at a temperature much higher than that predicted by torus models which take only into account the heating from the central engine. The dust emission in these regions located in the torus equatorial plane but ”around-the-torus” could then be more prominent at 4.8 than at 11.2 and 20.5 $`\mu `$m. In fact there is a whole new area to be explored at the transition between the molecular/dusty torus and its environment.

### 3.4 Origin of the extended structure

The comparison of maps in the radio, mid-IR, near-IR and optical/UV can potentially bring clues about the origin of the mid-IR extended emission beyond the torus itself: extra dust components, location, source of heating, etc. Unfortunately, one cannot yet confront in detail the observed maps with predicted model-maps for the following reason: existing AGN models are targeted at representing the molecular/dusty torus itself rather than the full molecular/dusty environment of an AGN and therefore do not take into account the presence of the NLR region or more generally the distribution of matter away from the torus itself. For example, thermal emission from warm dust possibly surviving on the back and UV–protected side of NLR clouds is not considered, the impact of the radio jets on intervening material such as the NLR clouds or massive molecular clouds away from the equatorial plane of the torus are not taken into account either.

On the contrary, current results on the extended mid-IR emission in NGC 1068 are telling us that material is present and heated around and away from the torus itself, up to a distance of $``$ 300 pc. Assuming silicate grains with a power–law (-3.5 exponent) size distribution over the size range 0.01 to 0.1 $`\mu `$m, the 11.2 to 20.5 $`\mu `$m flux ratio observed in cloud (a) and cloud (c) implies temperatures of around 150 K. Cloud (a) is already more than 200 pc away from the central engine and on the edge of the ionizing cone: how are the grains heated up to this temperature? What is the role played by single photon transient heating of small grains? by the radio jet-like structure which appears to coincide so closely with the mid-IR extended emission? These questions deserve a more complete analysis and a quantitative modeling which is deferred to a specific and later work.

### 3.5 Concluding remarks

Mid-IR imaging at high angular resolution offers potential advantages in the study of AGN environment because this wavelength range is specific of warm/cool dust emission (and possibly synchrotron emission from electrons) and because extinction is reduced. The diffraction-limited images (resolution ($`0.6^{\prime \prime }`$)) presented in this work highlight the presence of a prominent core emitting about 95% of the total flux in the mid-IR, as well as of extended emission, up to $`4^{\prime \prime }`$ to the South-West (PA = 210°) and $`4^{\prime \prime }`$ to the North-East (PA = 35°), broken into patchy components which are particularly conspicuous at 20.5 $`\mu `$m and can be singled-out as individual clouds. The central core shows an unresolved East-West FWHM of $`0.6^{\prime \prime }`$ and a North-South FWHM of $`0.9^{\prime \prime }`$ corresponding to a resolved full size extension of $``$ 100 pc. The North-South elongation of the emission core agrees with predicted maps of the mid-IR emission from a 100 pc dusty/molecular torus surrounding the central engine in NGC 1068 and observed under an inclination angle of around 65°. As a result of smaller optical depth, the extended emission in the North-East and South-West quadrants is more prominent at 20.5 than at 11.2 $`\mu `$m. The extended emission follows roughly the direction of the radio-jet and radio-lobe structures. In the North-East quadrant, the mid-IR emission is located at the eastern edge of the ionizing cone outlined by the HST \[OIII\]–emitting clouds. Interpreting the complete molecular/dusty environment of the AGN, both in the torus and away from it, pleas for the development of three-dimensional complex modeling. High resolution imaging is the first step in disentangling the various components: the new generation of 8m–10m class telescopes provides a resolution of $`0.3^{\prime \prime }`$ in the mid-IR. Subsequent integral-field spectroscopy with such a spatial resolution and interferometry will also constitute invaluable tools to resolve this type of problem.

###### Acknowledgements.

We are gratefully indebted to R.Jouan and M.Lortholary for their efficient assistance with the CAMIRAS instrument, as well as to the staff at both ESO/La Silla and CFHT/Hawaii for their support during the observing runs. We acknowledge careful comments from the referee R.Antonucci.


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# Some recent results from the complete theory of SUSY without R-parity

## 1 The Generic Supersymmetric Standard Model

Supersymmetry without R-parity is nothing but the generic supersymmetric Standard Model, i.e. a theory built with the minimal superfield spectrum incorporating the Standard Model (SM) particles and interactions dictated by the SM (gauge) symmetries and the idea that SUSY is softly broken. The theory is hence generally better motivated than ad hoc versions of R-parity violating (RPV) theories. Here, however, RPV parameters come in various forms. The latter includes the more popular trilinear ($`\lambda _{ijk}`$, $`\lambda _{ijk}^{}`$, and $`\lambda _{ijk}^{\prime \prime }`$) and bilinear ($`\mu _i`$) couplings in the superpotential, as well as soft SUSY breaking parameters of the trilinear, bilinear, and soft mass (mixing) types. From a phenomenological point of view, there is the related notion of (RPV) “sneutrino VEV’s”. In order not to miss any plausible RPV phenomenological features, it is important that all of the RPV parameters be taken into consideration with a priori bias. To emphasize the point, we call the model the complete theory of SUSY without R-parity.

The most general renormalizable superpotential for the supersymmetric SM (without R-parity) can be written as

$`W`$ $`=`$ $`\epsilon _{ab}[\mu _\alpha \widehat{H}_u^a\widehat{L}_\alpha ^b+h_{ik}^u\widehat{Q}_i^a\widehat{H}_u^b\widehat{U}_k^C+\lambda _{\alpha jk}^{}\widehat{L}_\alpha ^a\widehat{Q}_j^b\widehat{D}_k^C`$ (1)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\lambda _{\alpha \beta k}\widehat{L}_\alpha ^a\widehat{L}_\beta ^b\widehat{E}_k^C]+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\lambda _{ijk}^{\prime \prime }\widehat{U}_i^C\widehat{D}_j^C\widehat{D}_k^C,`$
where $`(a,b)`$ are $`SU(2)`$ indices, $`(i,j,k)`$ are the usual family (flavor) indices, and $`(\alpha ,\beta )`$ are extended flavor index going from $`0`$ to $`3`$. In the limit where $`\lambda _{ijk},\lambda _{ijk}^{},\lambda _{ijk}^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`\mu _i`$ all vanish, one recovers the expression for the R-parity preserving case, with $`\widehat{L}_0`$ identified as $`\widehat{H}_d`$. Without R-parity imposed, the latter is not a priori distinguishable from the $`\widehat{L}_i`$’s. Note that $`\lambda `$ is antisymmetric in the first two indices, as required by the $`SU(2)`$ product rules, as shown explicitly here with $`\epsilon _{12}=\epsilon _{21}=1`$. Similarly, $`\lambda ^{\prime \prime }`$ is antisymmetric in the last two indices, from $`SU(3)_C`$.

R-parity is exactly an ad hoc symmetry put in to make $`\widehat{L}_0`$, stand out from the other $`\widehat{L}_i`$’s as the candidate for $`\widehat{H}_d`$. It is defined in terms of baryon number, lepton number, and spin as, explicitly, $`=(1)^{3B+L+2S}`$. The consequence is that the accidental symmetries of baryon number and lepton number in the SM are preserved, at the expense of making particles and superparticles having a categorically different quantum number, R-parity. The latter is actually not the most effective discrete symmetry to control superparticle mediated proton decay, but is most restrictive in terms of what is admitted in the Lagrangian, or the superpotential alone. On the other hand, R-parity also forbides neutrino masses in the supersymmetric SM. The strong experimental hints for the existence of (Majorana) neutrino masses is an indication of lepton number violation, hence suggestive of R-parity violation.

The soft SUSY breaking part of the Lagrangian is more interesting, if only for the fact that many of its interesting details have been overlooked in the literature. However, we will postpone the discussion till after we address the parametrization issue.

## 2 Parametrization

Doing phenomenological studies without specifying a choice of flavor bases is ambiguous. It is like doing SM quark physics with 18 complex Yukawa couplings, instead of the 10 real physical parameters. As far as the SM itself is concerned, the extra 26 real parameters are simply redundant, and attempts to related the full 36 parameters to experimental data will be futile. In SUSY without R-parity, the choice of an optimal parametrization mainly concerns the 4 $`\widehat{L}_\alpha `$ flavors. We use here the single-VEV parametrization (SVP), in which flavor bases are chosen such that : 1/ among the $`\widehat{L}_\alpha `$’s, only $`\widehat{L}_0`$, bears a VEV, i.e. $`\widehat{L}_i0`$; 2/ $`h_{jk}^e\left(\lambda _{0jk}\right)=\frac{\sqrt{2}}{v_0}\mathrm{diag}\{m_1,m_2,m_3\}`$; 3/ $`h_{jk}^d(\lambda _{0jk}^{}=\lambda _{j0k})=\frac{\sqrt{2}}{}v_0\mathrm{diag}\{m_d,m_s,m_b\}`$; 4/ $`h_{ik}^u=\frac{v_u}{\sqrt{2}}V_{CKM}^{}\mathrm{diag}\{m_u,m_c,m_t\}`$, where $`v_0\sqrt{2}\widehat{L}_0`$ and $`v_u\sqrt{2}\widehat{H}_u`$. Thus, the parametrization singles out the $`\widehat{L}_0`$ superfield as the one containing the Higgs. As a result, it gives the complete RPV effects on the tree-level mass matrices of all the states (scalars and fermions) the simplest structure. The latter is a strong technical advantage.

There are, in fact, many subtle issues involved in a consistent formulation of the complete theory. One has to be particularly careful when the perspective of adding the various RPV terms to the MSSM is taken. Such issues will be addressed in a forthcoming review, to which the readers are referred.

## 3 Fermion Sector Phenomenology

The SVP gives quark mass matrices exactly in the SM form. For the masses of the color-singlet fermions, all the RPV effects are paramatrized by the $`\mu _i`$’s only. For example, the five charged fermions ( 3 charged leptons \+ Higgsino + gaugino ), we have

$$_C=\left(\begin{array}{ccccc}M_2& \frac{g_2v_0}{\sqrt{2}}& 0& 0& 0\\ \frac{g_2v_u}{\sqrt{2}}& \mu _0& \mu _1& \mu _2& \mu _3\\ 0& 0& m_1& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& m_2& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& m_3\end{array}\right).$$
(2)
Moreover each $`\mu _i`$ parameter here characterizes directly the RPV effect on the corresponding charged lepton ($`\mathrm{}_i=e`$, $`\mu `$, and $`\tau `$). This, and the corresponding neutrino-neutralino masses and mixings, has been exploited to implement a detailed study of the tree-level RPV phenomenology from the gauge interactions, with interesting results.

Neutrino masses and oscillations is no doubt a central aspect of any RPV model. In our opinion, it is particularly important to study the various RPV contributions in a framework that takes no assumption on the other parameters. Our formulation provides such a framework. Interested readers are referred to Refs..

## 4 Interesting Phenomenology from SUSY Breaking Terms

The soft SUSY breaking part of the Lagrangian can be written as

$`V_{\mathrm{soft}}=\stackrel{~}{Q}^{}\stackrel{~}{m}_Q^2\stackrel{~}{Q}+\stackrel{~}{U}^{}\stackrel{~}{m}_U^2\stackrel{~}{U}+\stackrel{~}{D}^{}\stackrel{~}{m}_D^2\stackrel{~}{D}+\stackrel{~}{L}^{}\stackrel{~}{m}_L^2\stackrel{~}{L}`$ (3)
$`+`$ $`\stackrel{~}{E}^{}\stackrel{~}{m}_E^2\stackrel{~}{E}+\stackrel{~}{m}_{H_u}^2|H_u|^2+[{\displaystyle \frac{M_1}{2}}\stackrel{~}{B}\stackrel{~}{B}+{\displaystyle \frac{M_2}{2}}\stackrel{~}{W}\stackrel{~}{W}`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{M_3}{2}}\stackrel{~}{g}\stackrel{~}{g}+ϵ_{ab}(B_\alpha H_u^a\stackrel{~}{L}_\alpha ^b+A_{ij}^U\stackrel{~}{Q}_i^aH_u^b\stackrel{~}{U}_j^C`$
$`+`$ $`A_{ij}^DH_d^a\stackrel{~}{Q}_i^b\stackrel{~}{D}_j^C+A_{ij}^EH_d^a\stackrel{~}{L}_i^b\stackrel{~}{E}_j^C+A_{ijk}^\lambda ^{}\stackrel{~}{L}_i^a\stackrel{~}{Q}_j^b\stackrel{~}{D}_k^C`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}A_{ijk}^\lambda \stackrel{~}{L}_i^a\stackrel{~}{L}_j^b\stackrel{~}{E}_k^C)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}A_{ijk}^{\lambda ^{\prime \prime }}\stackrel{~}{U}_i^C\stackrel{~}{D}_j^C\stackrel{~}{D}_k^C+\text{h.c.}]`$
where we have separated the R-parity conserving $`A`$-terms from the RPV ones (recall $`\widehat{H}_d\widehat{L}_0`$). Note that $`\stackrel{~}{L}^{}\stackrel{~}{m}_{\stackrel{~}{L}}^2\stackrel{~}{L}`$, unlike the other soft mass terms, is given by a $`4\times 4`$ matrix. Explicitly, $`\stackrel{~}{m}_{L_{00}}^2`$ corresponds to $`\stackrel{~}{m}_{H_d}^2`$ of the MSSM case while $`\stackrel{~}{m}_{L_{0k}}^2`$’s give RPV mass mixings.

Obtaining the squark and slepton masses is straight forward. The only RPV contribution to the squark masses is given by a $`(\mu _i^{}\lambda _{ijk}^{})\frac{v_u}{\sqrt{2}}`$ term in the $`LR`$ mixing part. Note that the term contains flavor-changing ($`jk`$) parts which, unlike the $`A`$-terms ones, cannot be suppressed through a flavor-blind SUSY breaking spectrum. Hence, it has very interesting implications to quark electric dipole moments (EDM’s) and related processses such as $`bs\gamma `$. For instance, it contributes to neutron EDM at 1-loop order, through a simple gluino diagram of the $`d`$ squark. If one naively imposes the constraint for this RPV contribution itself not to exceed the experimental bound on neutron EDM, one gets roughly $`\text{Im}(\mu _i^{}\lambda _{i11}^{})<10^6\text{GeV}`$, a constraint that is interesting even in comparison to the bounds on the corresponding parameters obtainable from asking no neutrino masses to exceed the super-Kamiokande atmospheric oscillation scale.

Things in the slepton sector are more complicated. The $`1+4+3`$ charged scalar masses are given in terms of blocks

$`\stackrel{~}{}_{Hu}^2=\stackrel{~}{m}_{H_u}^2+\mu _\alpha ^{}\mu _\alpha +M_Z^2\mathrm{cos}2\beta \left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W\right]`$ (7)
$`+`$ $`M_Z^2\mathrm{sin}^2\beta \left[1\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W\right],`$
$`\stackrel{~}{}_{LL}^2=\stackrel{~}{m}_L^2+m_L^{}m_L+M_Z^2\mathrm{cos}2\beta \left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W\right]`$
$`+`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}M_Z^2\mathrm{cos}^2\beta \left[1\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W\right]& 0_{1\times 3}\\ 0_{3\times 1}& 0_{3\times 3}\end{array}\right)+\left(\mu _\alpha ^{}\mu _\beta \right),`$
$`\stackrel{~}{}_{RR}^2=\stackrel{~}{m}_E^2+m_Em_E^{}+M_Z^2\mathrm{cos}2\beta \left[\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W\right];`$
and

$`\stackrel{~}{}_{LH}^2`$ $`=`$ $`\left(B_\alpha ^{}\right)+\left(\begin{array}{c}\frac{1}{2}M_Z^2\mathrm{sin}2\beta \left[1\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W\right]\\ 0_{3\times 1}\end{array}\right),`$ (10)
$`\stackrel{~}{}_{RH}^2`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\mu _i^{}\lambda _{i0k}\right){\displaystyle \frac{v_0}{\sqrt{2}}},`$ (11)
$`\left(\stackrel{~}{}_{RL}^2\right)^T`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ A^E\end{array}\right){\displaystyle \frac{v_0}{\sqrt{2}}}\left(\mu _\alpha ^{}\lambda _{\alpha \beta k}\right){\displaystyle \frac{v_u}{\sqrt{2}}}.`$ (14)
We have to skip the neutral scalar part here. The RPV contributions to the charged, as well as neutral, scalar masses and mixings give rise to new terms in quarks and electron EDM’s, $`bs\gamma `$, $`\mu e\gamma `$, and neutrino masses diagrams that have been largely overlooked. The last includes diagrams corresponding to a SUSY version of the popular Zee neutrino mass model. Details are to be found in the cited references.

## Acknowledgments

The author thanks M. Bisset, K. Cheung, S.K. Kang, Y.-Y. Keum, C. Macesanu, and L.H. Orr, for collaborations on the subject, and colleagues at Academia Sinica for support. He is grateful to the generous hospitality of YITP, Kyoto Univ. and KEK, which helps to make his trip to Osaka possible.


text:
# Search for young stars among ROSAT All-Sky Survey X-ray sources in and around the R CrA dark cloud Partly based on observations collected at the 1.52m and 3.5m telescopes of the European Southern Observatory, Chile, in programs 55.E-0549, 57.E-0646, and 63.L-0023, and on observations collected at the 0.9m, 1.5m, and 4.0m CTIO telescope.

## 1 Introduction

The Corona Australis (CrA) molecular cloud complex (Dame et al. 1987) is one of the nearest regions of ongoing and/or recent intermediate- and low-mass star formation. The dark cloud near the emission line star R CrA (Knacke et al. 1973) is the densest cloud core with extinction up to $`A_V45`$ mag (Wilking et al. 1992). This cloud is also called FS 445-47 (Feitzinger & Stüwe 1984) and condensation A (Rossano 1978); Harju et al. (1993) resolved cloud A into five condensations, the star R CrA being located in A2. Cambrésy (1999) mapped the cloud using optical star counts. Between the stars R and T CrA, there is the reflection nebula NGC 6729; TY CrA and HD 176386 illuminate the nebula NGC 6726/6727. Several infrared (IR) surveys revealed a large population of embedded IR sources (Taylor & Storey 1984, Wilking et al. 1984, 1986, 1992, 1997), some of which are IR Class I objects, extremely young stars still deeply embedded in their dense circumstellar envelopes (Adams et al. 1987, André & Montmerle 1994). From the main-sequence contraction time of the early-type stars R, T, and TY CrA, the age of the cloud is estimated to be between $`1`$ (Knacke et al. 1973) and $`6`$ Myrs (Wilking et al. 1992).

The distance towards the CrA star forming region was estimated by Gaposchkin & Greenstein (1936) to be $`150\pm 50`$ pc and later by Marraco & Rydgren (1981) to be $`129`$ pc (assuming R=4.5). The Hipparcos satellite tried to measure the parallax of the star R CrA and found $`122\pm 68`$ mas, i.e. no reliable solution. Casey et al. (1998) estimated the distance towards the eclipsing double-lined spectroscopic binary TY CrA to be $`129\pm 11`$ pc from their orbit solution.

Only a few low-mass pre-main sequence (PMS) stars, so-called T Tauri stars (TTS), associated with the CrA dark cloud had been found by H$`\alpha `$ and IR surveys (Knacke et al. 1973, Glass & Penston 1975, Marraco & Rydgren 1981, Wilking et al. 1984, 1986, 1992, 1997), all being classical TTS (cTTS) with IR excess and strong H$`\alpha `$ emission (see Table 1). Patten (1998) obtained optical photometry and spectroscopy of some more sources of, by then, unknown nature around R CrA, previously found by Knacke et al. (1973), Glass & Penston (1975), and Marraco & Rydgren (1981), and of some X-ray sources found in a pointed ROSAT observation. He classified some of them as new association members due to H$`\alpha `$ emission.

Table 1 gives a list of all previously known optically visible young stars in CrA, with their names, PMS types (Herbig Ae/Be or T Tauri stars), spectral types, H$`\alpha `$ and lithium equivalent widths, and some remarks, e.g. on radial velocity and binarity.

With optical follow-up observations of previously unidentified X-ray sources detected with the Einstein Observatory (EO), Walter (1986) and Walter et al. (1997) found eleven new TTS members, namely CrAPMS 1 to 9, two of them (CrAPMS 4 and 6) being visual pairs consisting of two PMS stars (see Table 1). With only one exception (the cTTS CrAPMS 7), all of them are weak-emission line TTS111 Because most wTTS lack the IR excess typical for cTTS and, hence, are probably not surrounded by circumstellar disks, Walter (1986) called them naked TTS. However, because wTTS and nTTS populate both the convective and radiative PMS tracks, the wTTS and nTTS population is different from the so-called post-TTS population. Post-TTS are older than cTTS and do not show signatures of circumstellar disks and accretion (H$`\alpha `$, UV, IR); post-TTS are expected to exist in large numbers, if star formation has been going on for longer than the typical life-time of circumstellar disks (Herbig 1978). (wTTS).

In Table 1 we list all the previously known and suspected young stars in CrA, which are optically visible. Walter et al. (1997) could also establish the typical radial velocity of kinematic members of the CrA association: All the seven TTS, for which radial velocities are known, show velocities in the range of $`2`$ to $`0kms^1`$ (heliocentric). Chen et al. (1997) also compiled a list of young stars in CrA and estimated their bolometric luminosities. We omit IR Class I sources and brown dwarf candidates in this paper, because they are too faint in X-rays to be detected in the ROSAT All-Sky Survey (RASS).

The early-type stars TY CrA, HR 7169, and HR 7170, all being spectroscopic binaries, were also detected by EO (Walter et al. 1997), but their X-ray emission may originate from late-type companions. While many of the optically visible TTS are known to be rather strong and variable X-ray emitters (eg. Montmerle et al. 1983, Walter et al. 1988, Neuhäuser et al. 1995), it was surprising that a few IR Class I objects were also detected by ASCA and ROSAT X-ray observations (Koyama et al. 1996, Neuhäuser & Preibisch 1997). Wilking et al. (1997) also found five brown dwarf candidates, but they are not detected in deep ROSAT pointings (Neuhäuser et al. 1999).

Because there are several early-type stars in the CrA association, there should be much more than the $`3`$ dozen TTS listed in Table 1, if its initial mass function (IMF) is consistent with the Miller-Scalo IMF (Miller & Scalo 1979). From the spatial incompleteness of the EO observations and the X-ray variability of TTS, Walter et al. (1997) concluded that there should be $`70`$ TTS in CrA. From their IR survey, Wilking et al. (1997) estimated the number of the low-mass members to be 22 to 40 for an association age of $`3`$ Myrs. If star formation has been ongoing in CrA for more than $`3`$ Myrs, there should be even more PMS stars. Such older PMS stars, i.e. the post-TTS, should partly be found around the CrA dark cloud, because they had enough time to disperse out.

Optical follow-up observations of RASS sources in and around other star forming regions (Tau-Aur, Orion, Cha, $`\rho `$ Oph, Lup-Sco-Cen, etc.) revealed large populations of previously unknown PMS stars most of them being wTTS (see Neuhäuser 1997 for a review), identified as such with low- to intermediate resolution spectroscopy showing late spectral types, H$`\alpha `$ emission (or emission filling-in the absorption), and lithium 6708Å absorption, a youth indicator. Because some of them were found even outside the star forming clouds, it was argued (Briceño et al. 1997) that many of these young stars are not PMS, but zero-age main-sequence (ZAMS) stars similar to the Pleiades, which also show strong X-ray emission, H$`\alpha `$ absorption, and lithium 6708Å absorption. However, in the meantime, Covino et al. (1997), Neuhäuser et al. (1997), Wichmann et al. (1999), and Alcalá et al. (2000) have shown with high-resolution spectra that most of the previously claimed wTTS really are PMS stars, because they show more lithium than ZAMS stars of the same spectral type. Also, Neuhäuser & Brandner (1997) found that all 15 Li-rich stars found by ROSAT, which could be placed accurately into the H-R diagram using Hipparcos data, clearly are PMS stars. The young stars newly found outside of the clouds could either be ejected out of their parent cloud (Sterzik & Durisen 1995), or they could have formed locally in small cloud-lets which dispersed since then (Feigelson 1996, Mizuno et al. 1998). Many of the new ROSAT TTS in Taurus, Orion, and Lup-Sco-Cen are probably members of the Gould Belt (Guillout et al. 1998a,b), young stars still at least slightly above the ZAMS.

The CrA dark cloud is located $`18^{}`$ below the galactic plane. According to Olano (1982, see also Fig. 1.10 in Pöppel 1997), the CrA and Chamaeleon clouds are not part of the Gould Belt nor of the Lindblad ring, because both CrA and Cha are far below the galactic plane, while the belt and the ring are both above the plane. In the cross-correlation of Tycho and RASS, the CrA association is seen as a small cluster of X-ray active stars around $`l0^{}`$ and $`b20^{}`$, see Fig. 3 in Guillout et al. (1998a) and Fig. 3 in Guillout et al. (1998b). The Gould Belt is above the galactic plane in this quadrant. Hence, neither CrA nor Cha are part of the belt, so that we should not expect to detect Gould Belt members in CrA. Many new TTS were discovered around the Cha clouds (Alcalá et al. 1995, Covino et al. 1997), so that we may expect to find many such TTS also here around the CrA dark cloud. Hence, we carried out an optical identification program to find more PMS in and around the CrA dark cloud among unidentified RASS sources.222Four new PMS stars were already identified among ROSAT sources: GSC 07916-00050 as the optical counterpart to RXJ1855.1-3754 (Neuhäuser et al. 1997), an X-ray source found with the ROSAT High Resolution Imager (HRI) in a deep pointed observation centered on RXJ1856.5-3754, an isolated radio-quiet neutron star (Walter et al. 1996, Walter & Matthews 1997). Neuhäuser et al. (1997) identified GSC 07916-00050 in order to confirm that it is the true (i.e. possibly X-ray emitting) counterpart to RXJ1855.1-3754, to be able to perform a correct boresight correction of the position of the central HRI source. In addition, Patten (1998) identified three new PMS stars among X-ray sources found in a pointed observation with the ROSAT Positional Sensitive Proportional Counter (PSPC), also listed in Table 1. In Sect. 2, we describe the X-ray data reduction and list all X-ray sources found with RASS (Table 2). Our spectra are presented in Sect. 3 together with lists of potential optical counterparts (Table 3). Then, in Sect. 4, we discuss the results of the spectroscopy including Table 4 with our new TTS. In Sect. 5 we list the available optical and IR photometry for the new TTS; the H-R diagram is shown and discussed in Sect. 6. Then, in Sect. 7, we present proper motions of some of our new PMS stars and discuss the 3D space motion of young stars in CrA. Finally, in Sect. 8, we estimate the completeness of our survey. We summarize our results in the last section.

## 2 X-ray data reduction

The previously known young stars associated with the CrA dark cloud are located in a small, $`126deg^2`$ area around R CrA near $`\alpha _{2000}=19^h`$ and $`\delta _{2000}=37^{}`$. Because we also expect to find previously unknown young stars around the dark cloud, we investigated the area $`\alpha _{2000}=18^h35^m`$ to $`19^h38^m`$ and $`\delta _{2000}=41^{}`$ to $`33^{}`$.

We reduced all RASS II data333Prior to the optical follow-up observations, we reduced the earlier version of the ROSAT data (RASS I) with an earlier version of EXSAS; although the source lists and X-ray properties are sightly different, all newly identified young stars are detected in both RASS I and RASS II. pertaining to that area with the Extended Scientific Analysis Software (EXSAS, Zimmermann et al. 1994) version 98APR running under ESO-MIDAS version 97NOV. We performed standard local and map source detection in the bands soft ($`0.1`$ to $`0.4keV`$), hard 1 ($`0.5`$ to $`0.9keV`$), hard 2 ($`0.9`$ to $`2.0keV`$), hard ($`0.5`$ to $`2.0keV`$), and broad ($`0.1`$ to $`2.4keV`$), as described in detail in Neuhäuser et al. (1995). After merging the source lists, each source was again tested in the above mentioned five bands by a maximum likelihood source detection algorithm. Following Neuhäuser et al. (1995) we accept only sources with $`ML7.4`$ corresponding to $`3.5\sigma `$ as real.

The moderate energy resolution of the PSPC allows to extract some spectral information from the RASS data, namely so-called hardness ratios, i.e., X-ray colors, which are defined as follows: If $`Z_{s,h1,h2}`$ are the count rates in the bands soft, hard 1, and hard 2, respectively, then

$$HR1=\frac{Z_{h1}+Z_{h2}Z_s}{Z_{h1}+Z_{h2}+Z_s}\text{\&}HR2=\frac{Z_{h2}Z_{h1}}{Z_{h2}+Z_{h1}}$$
(1)
I.e., hardness ratios range from $`1`$ to $`+1`$, hardness ratio errors can be larger than $`2`$. If no counts are detected, e.g, in the soft band, then HR $`1=1`$, but one can estimate a lower limit to HR $`1`$ by using the upper limit to the soft band count rate $`Z_s`$ in Eq. (1), similar for upper limits to HR $`1`$ as well as for upper and lower limits to HR $`2`$.

In Table 2, we list all RASS X-ray sources detected in our study area with X-ray position, likelihood for existence, hardness ratio, number of counts, exposure time, and individual energy conversion factor

$$ECF=\left(5.30HR1+8.31\right)10^{12}ergcm^2cts^1$$
(2)
according to Schmitt et al. (1995).

In Table 3, we list the optical counterparts to the X-ray sources, most of which are the closest counterparts, but in four cases, the most likely counterpart turned out to be not the closest potential optical counterpart. Table 3 gives optical positions, offsets between X-ray and optical positions, V magnitudes, X-ray to optical flux ratios, identification information, e.g. whether it is a new young star, and remarks, e.g. on previously known stars found among our X-ray sources. The typical positional error of RASS sources is 40 arc sec (Neuhäuser et al. 1995), which we allow as offset between optical and X-ray position for source identification. We searched for stellar counterparts in Simbad, the Hubble Space Telescope Guide Star Catalog (GSC), and the NASA Extragalactic Database (NED). We list in Table 3 the optical positions, V magnitude, X-ray to optical flux ratio, as well as some more information on the identified counterparts. See Sect. 3 for details on the identification. For calculating the X-ray to optical flux ratio, we use

$$f_V=10^{0.4(V+13.42)}ergcm^2s^1$$
(3)
(with $`V`$ in $`mag`$) and the X-ray flux, which we get from the data in Table 2 via

$$f_X=ECFcounts/exposure$$
(4)
For sources where we can list only an upper or lower limit to HR 1 (in Table 2), we use HR $`1=1`$ or HR$`1=1`$, respectively, for calculating the flux according to Eq. (2). The X-ray to optical flux ratio already gives some hints on the nature of an unidentified X-ray source: Extragalactic X-ray sources are optically faint but X-ray bright with $`\mathrm{log}(f_X/f_V)0.5`$, while normal stars usually have $`\mathrm{log}(f_X/f_V)1`$ (Stocke et al. 1983, Motch et al. 1998).

## 3 Optical follow-up spectroscopy

Out of the 206 X-ray sources, 89 have one or several nearby ($`40`$ arc sec) potential optical counterparts (brighter than $`V=16`$ mag) in Simbad and/or GSC, including four previously known PMS stars (namely CrAPMS 1, 2, 3, and TY CrA) and four previously known older stars. In addition, there is one optically faint neutron star ($`V=25.7`$ mag, see footnote 2) and three extra-galactic sources (see Table 3). To identify a large fraction of the remaining 81 unidentified X-ray sources, we performed low-resolution spectroscopy of 148 stars, which are potential optical counterparts to 56 of those 81 X-ray sources.

Low-dispersion spectra were taken with the Boller & Chivens spectrograph of the ESO 1.5m telescope on La Silla in twelve nights, namely 1995 July 16/17 to 21/22 and 1996 July 20/21 to 25/26. The wavelength range is 4500 to 6850Å and the spectral resolution is $`2.5`$Å. For technical details and data reduction, we refer to the relevant part of Sect. 2.2 in Walter et al. (1997).

In addition to those potential RASS source counterparts, we also observed a number of previously known or suspected young stars in CrA, because their lithium line strength was not known, see Table 1 for those data; most of these spectra were taken with the Boller & Chivens spectrograph. However, the stars HBC 673, 675, 677, and CrAPMS 3/c were observed with the ESO-3.5m-NTT444taken during ESO program 63.L-0023 at the end of the night 18/19 April 1999, when the main targets of that run were not visible anymore. Here, we observed in the red medium-dispersion mode (EMMI red arm, CCD $`\mathrm{\#}36`$, grating 6) at a resolution of 5500 in the wavelength range from 6160 to 7740 Å. While we could not detect lithium in HBC 673 and 675, we confirmed HBC 677 to be a cTTS and CrAPMS 3/c to be a wTTS (see Table 1).

For most of the RASS counterparts with detected lithium (in low-resolution spectra), we then took high-resolution spectra to confirm their youth. The high dispersion spectra were obtained with the CTIO 4m telescope and echelle spectrograph on 14 to 17 July 1998. We used the 226-3 cross disperser and the 31.6 l/mm echelle with the red optics. We used the SITe 2K #6 CCD detector, at a gain of 5, corresponding to about 1 e- per ADU and a read noise of about 3 e-. We used the GG385 filter for order sorting. We used a 150 $`\mu `$m (1 arcsec) slit and decker #9 (3.3 arcsec) for the stellar observations. The seeing was generally 1 to 1.5 arcsec, and there were some clouds on 3 of the 4 nights. The spectra cover the range from roughly 4400Å through 7500Å at a resolution of 25000. We obtained projector flat images to flatten the spectra. A Th-Ar comparison source was observed before and after each telescope slew. Each stellar observation was made in three parts to facilitate cosmic ray removal. Initial reductions were undertaken at CTIO, using the IRAF DOECSLIT package. We corrected for bias, extracted the orders, divided by the flats, and solved for the dispersion. The data were rebinned to a linear wavelength scale in each order. We removed the global background (the scattered light correction) but did not attempt to subtract the local background. The data were further reduced using IDL. We flattened the spectra in each order to remove any residual curvature left from the original flat division. We trimmed the ends of the orders. We then filtered the three individual spectra of each object to remove cosmic rays, and coadded the spectra. We determine radial velocities by cross-correlating the spectra against the sky spectra. We expect an internal precision of about 1 km/s, except for the targets with poorer S/N.

## 4 Results of the spectroscopy

Stars which fullfill all the following conditions (according to their high-resolution spectra, if available, otherwise we use the low-resolution spectra) are classified as new PMS stars, i.e. appear as such in Table 4:

* Spectral type later than mid F, and
* lithium 6708Å line with $`W_\lambda `$(Li)$`0.1`$Å, and
* more Li than ZAMS stars of the same spectral type, and
* $`W_\lambda `$(Li)$`W_\lambda `$(Ca) (for spectral types F, G, and K)555X-ray emitting M-type stars with lithium are always pre-MS stars, as they burn all Lithium before reaching the MS (see e.g. Covino et al. 1997)..

All these stars are classified as young stars (letter y in column ID in Table 3).

Table 4 lists for all newly discovered TTS their official designation, PMS type (i.e. whether wTTS or cTTS), the spectral type, thje H$`\alpha `$ and lithium equivalent widths, the projected rotational velocity, the radial velocity, the X-ray luminosity, and some remarks, e.g. on binarity.

All stars with a detected lithium line, which is weaker than $`0.1`$Å, and all F-, G-, and K-type stars with a detected lithium line, which is weaker than the Ca 6718Å line, are classified as ZAMS stars (letter z in column ID in Table 3). Stars without detectable lithium, but H$`\alpha `$ emission are classified as dKe or dMe stars (letter d in column ID in Table 3).

In Table 3, we list the nature of the newly identified X-ray sources. Among the 56 X-ray sources for which we performed low-resolution spectroscopy of potential optical counterparts, we identified 19 new pre-main sequence stars, nine new zero-age main-sequence stars, and seven new dKe/dMe stars. Two of the new PMS stars have $`W_\lambda (H\alpha )10`$Å, i.e. are classical TTS, and 17 are weak-line TTS, four of which form two visual pairs, which are spatially unresolved with ROSAT, i.e. one pair corresponds to one X-ray source each.

The spatial distribution of the CrA RASS sources and TTS is shown in Fig. 1. While all the previously known TTS in CrA including those found by EO cluster on the main dark cloud, the new ROSAT TTS are more widely distributed. In particular, they are almost all located west of the cloud. The two new cTTS appear to be situated in two small cloud-lets, where they most certainly have formed. The new wTTS may have also formed in such small cloud-lets outside the current borders of the CrA cloud, and those small cloud-lets may well have dispersed since they formed stars, similar to some seemingly off-cloud wTTS near Cha I (Alcalá et al. 1995, Mizuno et al. 1998), see below.

Finding charts for the new PMS stars can be found in Fig. 2, the optical spectra for our new TTS are shown in Fig. 3 (high-resolution spectra from CTIO, if available) and Fig. 4 (low-resolution spectra from ESO-1.52m for the other new TTS). In Fig. 5, we also show the four spectra of previously suspected young stars obtained at the ESO-3.5m-NTT.

As seen in Fig. 6, all new TTS show more lithium than ZAMS stars of the same spectral type, i.e. are younger than ZAMS; hence, they are pre-MS stars. There are some new M-type TTS in CrA, which have depleted more than half of their primordial lithium (lower right of Fig. 6). As for similar M-type TTS in Taurus, these objects could be classified as post-TTS.

## 5 Optical and infrared photometry

Broad band photometric observations in the VRI filters were carried out in 1997 from June 22 to 30 using the 0.9m telescope of Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory (CTIO). The detector was a CCD Tektronix 2048 (CTIO # 3) with pixel size 24 $`\mu `$m and a readout noise of 3 to 5 electrons. The whole CCD was read out. Dome flat-field exposure sequences in each filter were taken typically before the beginning and upon the end of every night for flat field correction. Two or three different standard star fields from Landolt (1992) were also observed every night at different airmasses for the determination of atmospheric extinction, zero points and color transformation to the Johnson-Kron-Cousins standard system.

Raw CCD frames were bias subtracted and flat fielded using the IRAF package CCDRED. Sky flats were used, and the flat field variation across the final images was spot-checked and found to be negligible. The photometric solution for each night was determined using the IRAF tasks APPHOT and PHOTCAL. First, an aperture for each night was chosen by inspecting the reduced images from each night. The average FWHM over the run was about 1.3′′. To insure that all the light from a given star was in the aperture, a typical aperture for source extraction was taken as four times the FWHM or about 6′′. Annuli for background subtraction varied but were usually about 2′′ from inner diameter to outer diameter with an inner diameter of about 8′′. The background was taken as the median value within the annuli. An average of 30 calibration standards were observed each night at various airmasses. Photometric solutions for each night were determined by fitting the data to a color dependent airmass equation. The photometric errors dominate the Poisson errors in most cases.

Once the photometric solution for each night was determined, the target fields were examined. Aperture photometry was performed on all stars using the same aperture as was used for the standard stars on that night. The only exception to this was RXJ1857.5-3732. In this case, the two stars were separated by less than 4′′. Therefore we used the IRAF tool SUBSTAR to subtract one star from the image so we could accurately measure the instrumental magnitude of the other. The observed magnitude and colors were obtained by applying the instrumental magnitudes derived from the aperture to the photometric equation for the given night. Results are listed in Table 5.

The near-IR data were obtained using the CTIO Infra-Red Imager, CIRIM666see Elston 1999 at http://www.ctio.noao.edu/ instruments/ir-instruments/cirim/cirim.html, on the 1.5m telescope at CTIO. CIRIM is a 256 $`\times `$ 256 HgCdTe array. We observed at the f/13.5 focus, giving a plate scale of 0.65 arcsec per pixel. The data were obtained on the nights of 1998 July 8 to 14. All nights were photometric. The stellar point-spread function is well-sampled photometrically. Dome flats were taken at the start of each night. Flats were obtained with the dome illumination lamps both on and off, to determine the thermal contribution to the flat image. Standard stars, taken from the lists of Elias (1982) and the UKIRT faint standards (Casali & Hawarden 1992), were observed hourly, at a full range of airmasses. Exposure times varied between 0.4 and 3 seconds, based on source magnitude, with 3 images coadded at each position. We observed the standard stars using a 2 $`\times `$ 2 raster, with 30 arcsec spatial offsets between positions. We observed the targets using exposure times between 0.4 and 20 seconds, based on expected source brightness, with 3 images coadded at each position. We observed using a 2 $`\times `$ 3 raster, with spatial offsets of 15 arcsec between frames.

We linearized the data using the IRAF routine IRLINCOR. All other processing was undertaken using our IDL-based CIRIM reduction package777http://sbast3.ess.sunysb.edu/fwalter/CIRIM/cirim.html. The images are divided by the appropriate normalized flat field image. The images in the raster pattern are median-filtered to determine the local sky image, which is then subtracted from each flattened image. The images in the raster pattern are then aligned by cross-correlating on the brightest sources in the image, and co-added. The image center and plate scale are determined by cross-correlating the images with stars in the USNO catalog (Monet et al. 1998). The photometric solution is determined by fitting the log of the standard star counts within a 12-pixel (7.8 arcsec) radius region as a linear function of the air mass. The solution is edited interactively to remove discrepant stars and/or points. The RMS scatter in the photometric solutions is $`1`$ to $`2\%`$, and we take this to be our photometric precision. Magnitudes are determined by applying the photometric solution to the net counts observed in a 12-pixel (7.8 arcsec) radius region. In the case of close binaries, we determined the total flux using a large extraction radius, and the relative magnitudes using smaller extraction radii. Typical uncertainties are $`\pm 0.02`$ mag, but this degrades for the fainter targets. Results are listed in Table 5.

## 6 H-R diagram, ages, and masses

Because we have a homogeneous and almost complete set of precise VJHK photometric data, we estimate the absorption in the line-of-sight to the stars from the observed $`VJ`$, $`VH`$, and $`VK`$ colors and their intrinsic color indexes, which we know from their spectral types. For those few stars, for which JHK is not available, we estimate the absorption from VRI colors. Visual extinctions $`A_V`$ for all new TTS are listed in Table 5. Then, we can also estimate the bolometric luminosity $`L_{bol}`$ at an assumed distance of 130 pc, also listed in Table 5.

We display the location of the new TTS in the H-R diagram in Fig. 7 together with tracks and isochrones from D’Antona & Mazzitelli (1994). They yield rough estimates for ages and masses of our new TTS, which we also list in Table 5. It can been seen in Fig. 7 that the two visual pairs of TTS, RXJ1846 and RXJ1857, are both roughly co-eval. The ages of the new TTS range from less than one million years to a few tens of million years, not surprising given the wide spatial distribution. From that wide distribution on the sky around the CrA dark cloud, we have to conclude that the distances can show a similar spread, so that the ages and masses are uncertain. For the newly found young star RXJ1901.4-3422, whose parallax was measured by the Hipparcos satellite, we estimated its luminosity using the Hipparcos distance of 65 pc; it then falls on the 30 Myrs isochrone, just above the ZAMS; because its spectral type is late F, it is difficult to classify it as either pre- or zero-age MS given its lithium. One more newly found Li-rich star, RXJ1901.1-3648, is also found near the ZAMS, using 130 pc as distance, which may of course be a wrong distance. The latter one has spectral type K4 and clearly more lithium than Pleiades K4-type stars; it is located right on the cloud and its extinction is large ($`A_V3`$ mag, Table 5), hence it may be deep inside the dark cloud.

Our new Li-rich ROSAT counterparts show a larger age spread than the Li-rich EO counterparts (Walter et al. 1997). This is probably due to the larger spread in distances among the ROSAT stars compared to the EO stars, because we investigated a larger area on the sky using the RASS as compared Walter et al. (1997) who used EO pointed observations centered on the CrA dark cloud.

The two new cTTS, RXJ1842.9-3532 and RXJ1852.3-3700, both appear to be $`10`$ Myrs old, which is relatively old for cTTS. This result only holds if they are indeed at $`130`$ pc as assumed for calculating their $`L_{bol}`$, which may be unrealistic, because they are located on the line-of-sight to two small cloud-lets, both off the main CrA dark cloud. On the other hand, there are also some other cTTS with ages around 10 Myrs, namely TW Hya and HD 98800, for which the Hipparcos parallaxes are known, so that they could be placed correctly into the H-R diagram. Both two new CrA cTTS show only small IR excess emission at JHK, and one of them, RXJ1852.3-3700, is an IRAS source.

The two TTS with the latest spectral types in our sample are RXJ1857.5-3732 E and W with M5 and M6, respectively. They are both certainly young because of the strong lithium absorption. Hence, they are most certainly members of the CrA dark cloud, i.e. at 130 pc. Then, in the H-R diagram, they lie near the borderline between stars and brown dwarfs with masses around $`0.1`$ to $`0.2M_{}`$. At first glance, it appears surprising to find such low-mass objects among RASS sources. Previously, several borderline objects and even brown dwarfs were detected as X-ray sources, but only in very deep pointed observations (Neuhäuser & Comerón 1998, Neuhäuser et al. 1999, Neuhäuser & Comerón 2000). However, our two RASS detected mid- to late-M dwarfs form a close pair, i.e. only one unresolved RASS X-ray source. Given their optical/IR luminosities, spectral types, and typical $`L_X/L_{bol}`$ ratios, they would not have been detected individually in the RASS.

## 7 Kinematics

Because CrA is not part of the Gould Belt, the young stars surrounding the CrA dark cloud most certainly are associated with the CrA association. They could have formed near the present locations, where the gas has dispersed since then. In that case, these young stars should be somewhat older than the on-cloud TTS. Alternatively, if the CrA cloud has not shrunk, the off-cloud young stars could have dispersed out of the cloud, either slowly (then, the outermost stars would again be older than the on-cloud stars) or, at least in some cases, have higher velocities. In the latter case, one would expect at least a few young run-away TTS ejected from the dark cloud. For checking these possibilities, we need to investigate proper motions and radial velocities.

### 7.1 Proper motions

In order to examine the kinematical state of the stars in the R CrA association, we searched for proper motions for all the stars in Tables 1 and 3 in the Hipparcos (ESA 1997), PPM (Röser & Bastian 1991, Bastian et al. 1993, Röser et al. 1994), ACT (Urban et al. 1997), TRC (Høg et al. 1998), Tycho2 (Høg et al. 2000), and STARNET (Röser 1996) proper motion catalogs. Altogether we could identify 24 stars in these catalogs, including nine stars known already before the ROSAT mission, nine TTS newly identified here, as well as four ZAMS and two dKe/dMe stars. Note that R CrA itself is not listed; it is included in the Hipparcos catalog (HIP 93449), but no meaningful solution for its astrometric parameters could be derived. Proper motions are given in Table 6. For stars present in more than one catalog we usually adopted the most precise proper motion determination, unless it was in conflict with values from other catalogs. All proper motions were transformed to the Hipparcos astrometric system (ICRS) before comparison.

Positions and proper motion diagrams for stars in Table 6 are shown in Fig. 8. The mean proper motion of the R CrA member stars seems to be very well defined. All except maybe one (HR 7170) of the member stars known before ROSAT (including the late B-type stars listed at the end of Table 1, whose membership was not clear before) show very similar proper motions, and all except two of the newly identified TTS nicely follow this trend. In contrast to this, the stars classified as ZAMS or dKe/dMe form a kinematically much more inhomogeneous distribution. The mean proper motion for all 15 likely members of the association is ($`\mu _\alpha \mathrm{cos}\delta ,\mu _\delta `$) = ($`5.5,27.0`$) mas yr-1. The largest part of this motion is simply the reflex of the solar motion, which is ($`\mu _\alpha \mathrm{cos}\delta ,\mu _\delta `$) $``$ ($`7.1,23.7`$) mas yr-1 at 19h 00m, -37$`^\text{o}`$ 00 and a distance of 130 pc, and ($`\mu _\alpha \mathrm{cos}\delta ,\mu _\delta `$) $``$ ($`5.6,24.0`$) mas yr-1 for 18h 45mand the same declination and distance values as above. Thus the slight difference between the mean proper motion in right ascension of the eight R CrA member stars known before ROSAT \[ ($`\mu _\alpha \mathrm{cos}\delta ,\mu _\delta `$) = ($`7.0,27.5`$) mas yr-1 \] and the seven newly identified member TTS \[ ($`\mu _\alpha \mathrm{cos}\delta ,\mu _\delta `$) = ($`3.9,26.4`$) mas yr-1 \] is partly a projection effect reflecting the fact that the new TTS are located at slightly lower right ascension.

### 7.2 Space velocities

We calculated space velocities for those stars with measured radial velocities (taken from Table 1 for six stars and from Table 4 for another six stars) and corrected them for the influence of galactic rotation (Fig. 9). The solar motion has also been subtracted, although this does not change the relative space velocities between stars, in contrast to galactic rotation or projection effects.

With the exception of HD 176386, which shows a discordant motion in the U-direction, all calculated space velocities are very similar. The mean (U,V,W) values are ($`4.8,2.1,2.7`$) km s-1 for the stars known before ROSAT (excluding HD 176386 for taking the mean of the U-velocities) and ($`4.4,2.2,0.7`$) km s-1 for the new TTS, i.e. no systematic differences seem to be present. There could still be a small difference in the W-velocities, but the number of stars is so small that this is maybe not significant.

The velocity dispersion is indeed very low, ($`\sigma _U,\sigma _V,\sigma _W`$) = ($`1.4,1.2,1.8`$) km s-1 for the whole sample, which excludes the ejection mechanism (so-called run-away TTS) as major source for off-cloud TTS, because they should have discrepant velocities. The velocity dispersion is highest in the W-direction, and taking also into account that the positions of the stars form a broader distribution in the Z-direction ($`\sigma _Z=4.9`$ pc, or $`\sigma _Z=4.0`$ pc if the far off lying RXJ1917.4-3756 is excluded) than in the Y-direction ($`\sigma _Y=1.9`$ pc)888This can also be seen in Fig. 1, where the Z-direction is more or less perpendicular to the $`b=15`$$`^\text{o}`$ line, whereas the Y-direction is parallel to this line (the new TTS lying north of the central cloud is RXJ1901.4-3422, a young foreground star, see Sect. 7.3). this could be interpreted in terms of stars oscillating around the galactic plane. It simultaneously would explain why no PMS stars were found in the opposite direction of the R CrA cloud: the stars already reached the largest distance from the galactic plane and are currently near their turning point, consistent with their W-velocities being close to zero. One complete oszillation around the galactic plane would last $`10^8`$ yrs, but need not be finished by now for this scenario to be true. The off-cloud stars are currently located on average at $`z=35`$ pc, while the cloud is at $`z=39`$ pc. The stars which now appear to be off-cloud and the cloud itself, given their current locations and velocities and tracing their paths back in time, would have been at the same location $`310^7`$ yrs ago. The stars located outside of the current cloud borders are on average $`10`$ Myrs old, i.e. older than those inside the cloud, which supports the cloud oszillation scenario. However, the details and exact time-scales depend on the unknown total cloud mass. A very similar interpretation could also explain the positions and the motions of the stars found south of the Taurus clouds (Neuhäuser et al. 1997, Frink et al. 1997).

Lépine & Duvert (1994) suggested that high velocity cloud impacts could trigger star formation, and that subsequently to the impact clouds and stars could be separated from each other due to different friction during the passage through the galactic plane. If this is true, the new TTS found outside the dark cloud today could very well have been born inside the molecular cloud. The fact that the observed velocity dispersions are so low supports this scenario. A typical proper motion uncertainty of 3 mas yr-1 and an assumed distance uncertainty of 15 pc translate into a combined uncertainty of $``$ 3 km s-1 for the V and W components of the space velocity. The observed velocity dispersions are found to be even lower, so that this is consistent with a very small intrinsic dispersion of the velocities.

### 7.3 Stars with discordant proper motions

There are three stars among the sample of pre-ROSAT R CrA members and newly identified TTS with discordant proper motions from the mean.

HR 7170 belongs to a possibly quadruple system, and therefore the proper motion determination is highly problematic (see footnote to Table 6). Given the fact that the TRC proper motion of HR 7169 is consistent with kinematical membership to the R CrA association and that HR 7170 presumably belongs to the same system, it is likely that the different TRC proper motion of HR 7170 reflects orbital motions within the system. Although the kinematical membership of HR 7170 could not be proven directly, it still should be considered an R CrA association member. The stars HR 7169 and HR 7170 lie in a cavity in the CO distribution (Loren 1979). This suggests similar distances to the stars and cloud. Additionally, optical images show an extensive reflection nebulosity surrounding the pair.

The two other stars are the newly identified TTS RXJ1844.3-3541 and RXJ1901.4-3422. The case for RXJ1844.3-3541 is not clear. According to its spectral type and lithium line strength, it is clearly a young TTS, and also its radial velocity is consistent with membership. Either the proper motion from STARNET maybe in error or the star could have been ejected from the cloud. Comparing its proper motion with the association mean, it would move towards the south-west relative to the cloud, but it is located north-west of the cloud, so that it probably was not ejected from the R CrA cloud.

For RXJ1901.4-3422 the classification as TTS is doubtful. At a late-F spectral type, even Pleiades ZAMS stars have not yet burned significantly lithium, so that classification as either pre-MS or ZAMS stars is difficult. Because its lithium line is stronger than its nearby calcium line, we classify the star as TTS. The Hipparcos parallax of 65$`\pm `$5 pc clearly places it foreground to the R CrA cloud, which explains its large proper motion, and it is the only star located clearly north of the R CrA cloud. We conclude that RXJ1901.4-3422 is most likely not an association member, but young.

## 8 Completeness of our survey

In Fig. 10, we compare the complete log N–log S curve with those for stellar, extra-galactic, and unidentified sources. At a PSPC count rate threshold of 0.1 cts $`s^1`$, $`90\%`$ of the RASS sources have optical counterparts, most of them being stars. At lower count rates the fraction of unidentified sources increases from $`30\%`$ at 0.07 cts $`s^1`$ to more than $`50\%`$ at 0.02 cts $`s^1`$, a level at which all curves flatten because of the incompletness of the RASS itself. Above a PSPC count rate of 0.03 cts s-1 we have optically identified 75 among 136 RASS X-ray sources (i.e. $`55\%`$), most of them being stars. The small number of extra-galactic object identified at this threshold (only two) is simply due to our follow-up observation strategy. According to the results of Guillout (1996) and Zickgraf et al. (1997), we conclude that the extra-galactic population in the R CrA region is likely to account for about $`25\%`$ of the unidentified X-ray sources detected above 0.03 cts s-1, the rest (i.e. $`20\%`$) probably being optically faint active K- and M-type stars.

We now focus on the identified stellar population and define two sub-regions within our field, namely the on-cloud region (from $`\alpha `$ = 18h 56m to 19h 24m and from $`\delta =38^{}`$ to $`36^{}`$, i.e. 14 deg2) and the off-cloud region (complementary to the on-cloud region, i.e. 112 deg2).

We have plotted in Fig. 11 the observed on-cloud and off-cloud stellar log N–log S curves as well as the predictions of the stellar X-ray population model from Guillout et al. (1996). Computations were run for $`|b|`$ = 15 and $`l`$ = 180 although the galactic longitude is irrelevant at the RASS sensitivity. Results are summarized in Table 7.

First we note that at any PSPC count rate the on-cloud stellar density is significantly higher (by a factor 2) compared to the model predictions, as expected for a region with ongoing star formation. On the other hand, we expect that the off-cloud log N–log S curve lies within $`15\%`$ of the model prediction, which is clearly not the case.

In order to check the relevance of the model prediction, we compare with the so-called RasTyc sample (Guillout et al. 1999), a sample of all objects included in both RASS and Tycho, i.e. the largest sample of stellar X-ray sources with homogeneous and accurate data constructed so far. In order to account for the magnitude and X-ray flux limited biases of of RasTyc, we ran a specific model optically limited at 10.5 mag (plus $`20\%`$ of stars down to 11.5 mag). We then compared the expected number of stars per deg2 with the observed one computed in two regions extending $`10^{}`$ wide all around the sky and centered at $`|b|`$ = 15. At a PSPC count rate threshold of 0.03 cts$`s^1`$, there are 1819 RasTyc stars detected within these two regions amounting to 6946 deg2, i.e. 0.26 stars per deg2. At this level, the model predicts a stellar surface density of 0.23 stars per deg2, in very good agreement with the observations. We are thus confident that the theoretical log N–log S curves plotted in Fig. 11 give a good estimation of the ambient galactic plane stellar population at the R CrA cloud galactic latitude.

We then conclude that in the region surrounding the CrA molecular cloud our observations reveal $`40\%`$ excess of stellar X-ray sources with respect of a ’pure’ galactic plane population (see Table 7). According to the expected contribution of extra-galactic sources to the unidentified population, $`40\%`$ is a lower limit on the excess. Such excesses were also detected around other star forming regions (see Neuhäuser 1997 and references therein). However, contrary to some other star forming regions like Lup-Sco-Cen (Guillout et al. 1998a,b), the Gould Belt can hardly be an explanation because of the position of the CrA molecular cloud projected well below the Gould Belt plane.

Also around the Chamaeleon clouds (Alcála et al. 1995) and south of the Taurus clouds (Neuhäuser et al. 1997), many new pre-MS stars were found, although there is no Gould Belt in that directions. As far as the Chamaeleon off-cloud TTS are concerned, Mizuno et al. (1998) found new, previously unknown, small cloud-lets near one third of the off-cloud TTS, which may be the birth places of those seemingly off-cloud TTS. If one can explain off-cloud TTS around the CrA and Cha clouds by cloud-lets rather than by the Gould Belt, at least some of the Lup-Sco-Cen, and Orion off-cloud TTS may also have originated in such small cloud-lets, as originally proposed for the Chamaeleon off-cloud TTS by Feigelson (1996).

The question now is whether we found all young, i.e. coronally active stars (inside and) around the CrA dark cloud. This can be investigated by optical follow-up observations of additional unidentified X-ray sources found in deep ROSAT PSPC and HRI pointed observations (Walter et al., in preparation).

Whether all young stars were found among all RASS sources can be investigated in the following way: Sterzik et al. (1995) have shown that it is possible to pre-select TTS candidates from the RASS using four criteria, namely the two hardness ratios, the X-ray count rate, and the optical magnitude of the nearest (if any) counterpart (within, say, 40”). Then, TTS candidates are those RASS sources which resemble best previously known RASS-detected bona-fide TTS according to the same properties. The parameter which describes how well a particular RASS source resembles the typical TTS properties is called discrimination probability P, described in detail in Sterzik et al. (1995).

In Fig. 12, we plot the number of CrA RASS sources per discrimination probability P, namely for PMS stars, otherwise active stars, other objects, and unidentified RASS sources. If we would have pre-selected TTS candidates using the Sterzik et al. (1995) method, i.e. if we would have done optical follow-up observations only for RASS sources with a discrimination probability of, say, $`P0.45`$, we would have obtained a high success rate by loosing only one TTS.

Now, for a discrimination probability of, say, $`P=0.5`$, the reliability (rel) of the TTS candidate selection is 0.45, based on the classified sub-sample. The reliability number gives the fraction of real TTS (real according to our spectroscopy) among those X-ray sources with discrimination probability above some threshold, e.g. $`P0.5`$. The fraction of lost unidentified TTS is 0.17, which is the number of real TTS to be expected (according to their discrimination probability values) among those X-ray sources not observed by optical spectroscopy. Because there is a total of $`N=46`$ sources with $`P0.5`$ and 160 below this threshold, the expected number of TTS hidden in the RASS sample is

$$N(P0.5)rel+N(P<0.5)loss=48$$

Hence, there should be a total of $`48`$ X-ray sources with TTS as true counterparts (with an X-ray flux above the RASS flux limit). The lower limit can be found when considering only those RASS sources which are unclassified, but do have an optical counterpart; there are $`\stackrel{~}{N}=46`$ such sources with $`P0.5`$ and 46 with $`P<0.5`$. Hence, there should be

$$\stackrel{~}{N}(P0.5)rel+\stackrel{~}{N}(P<0.5)loss=29$$

RASS sources with TTS as true counterparts. Of those 29 to 48 sources, 21 are identified as such, namely as previously known or newly found TTS. The remaining eight to 27 still unknown TTS should be found among as yet unidentified RASS sources. According to Fig. 10, most of those missing TTS identifications are due to the magnitude limit in the catalogs used here (e.g. the GSC).

## 9 Summary

In this data paper, we presented ground-based optical and infrared follow-up observations of previously unidentified ROSAT All-Sky Survey X-ray sources in and around the R CrA star forming cloud. We identified two new cTTS and 17 new wTTS having stronger lithium absorption than ZAMS stars of the same spectral type. Radial velocities and proper motions of most of these new TTS are consistent with the previously known CrA TTS, but the new objects are distributed more widely in space. Compared to a galactic model, this sample of ROSAT TTS constitutes an excess of young stars, more than expected at this galactic latitude. We estimated that there should be in total 29 to 48 RASS detectable TTS in CrA, of which 8 to 27 hitherto unknown TTS are still hidden among as yet unobserved ROSAT Survey sources. Similar to the two new cTTS found to be located projected onto two small cloud-lets, the seemingly off-cloud wTTS found here may have formed in small cloud-lets, which have dispersed since they formed those stars. For this scenario as well as for the ejection model (run-away TTS), a larger than observed velocity dispersion would be expected. The space motions of the on-cloud and off-cloud TTS are consistent with a scenario in which cloud and stars oscillate around the galactic plane, with a very small intrinsic velocity dispersion. This could possibly be the result of a high-velocity cloud impact triggering star formation, as advocated by Lépine & Duvert (1994). However, alternative scenarios cannot be ruled out given the accuracy of the kinematical data available at present.

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank the staff at ESO La Silla and CTIO for their help as well as George Leussis for his significant contribution in the reduction of the photometric data. We are gratefull to our referee, Dr. Bruce Wilking, for many helpful comments, which improved the content of this paper. This research has made use of the Simbad database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. The ROSAT project is supported by the German Government (BMBF/DLR) and the Max-Planck-Society. RN wishes to acknowledge financial support from the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung through the Deutsche Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR) under grant number 50 OR 0003.