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# A SPECTROSCOPIC SURVEY FOR STRONG GALAXY–GALAXY LENSES

## 1 Introduction

Despite considerable advances over the past two decades in the study of individual gravitational lens systems, the assembly of large, uniformly–selected samples of systems multiply imaged by individual galaxies has proved extremely hard. Searches for individual examples of strong lensing have relied on the examination of a sample of objects, such as quasars or flat–spectrum radio–sources, where a large fraction of the sample lie at high redshift. Thus, towards each object there is a significant path–length over which an intervening deflector may interpose itself close to the line–of–sight. The lens search proceeds through the identification of sources whose morphology, multiple images or extended arcs for example, is consistent with the effects of lensing. Further imaging, at different wavelengths, and spectroscopy is then necessary to establish the source as a bona–fide lens and to obtain redshifts for the source and the deflecting galaxy. In practice, obtaining the redshifts is very difficult, particularly for radio–selected objects, and in the compilation of Kochanek et al (1999: http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/castles) only 19 of the 45 lensed systems possess both deflector and source redshifts.

An alternative search strategy is to examine optimal lines–of–sight by identifying a population of very effective deflectors, where it is known that any source lying behind the deflector will be significantly lensed, and then to examine the spectra of the deflectors for evidence of lensed background sources. Miralda–Escudé and Lehár $`^\mathrm{?}`$ pointed out that provided the surface density of faint, small, galaxies at high redshift is large, significant numbers of galaxy–galaxy lenses should exist. Subsequent observational developments have shown that the surface density of high–redshift, star–forming objects is indeed large $`^{\mathrm{?},\mathrm{?}}`$. Provided a suitable sample of deflectors can be identified the optimal line–of–sight search strategy offers significant advantages, including i) high efficiency, the probability a lens will be seen along a line–of–sight is significant, ii) the deflector and source redshifts may be readily acquired, allowing the full lensing geometry to be defined, iii) the small, but extended, star–forming objects lead to resolved gravitational lenses, not unlike the radio–rings arising from morphologically extended radio emission, which provide much greater constraints on the deflector masses than the more familiar two– or four–image lenses of unresolved quasars.

Using APM measures of United Kingdom Schmidt Telescope $`B_JRI`$ plates it is possible to identify the ideal population of deflectors – massive, bulge–dominated, galaxies at redshift $`z0.4`$, essentially half-way between ourselves and any high redshift source. Specifically, locating the population of relatively bright, $`m_R20`$, red, $`B_JR2.2`$, galaxies with redshifts $`0.25z0.6`$ is straightforward $`^\mathrm{?}`$. The galaxy population has a surface density of $`50`$deg-2 and associated with each galaxy there is an area of sky, $`1`$arcsec2, in which any distant source will be multiply imaged, with an associated increase in brightness of a factor $`\mathrm{¿}\mathrm{}10`$. These early–type galaxies represent essentially optimal lines–of–sight to search for examples of strong lensing.

The presence of a lens is revealed by the detection of an anomalous emission line in the spectrum of one of the target distant early-type galaxies, so obtaining spectra of a large sample of the deflector galaxies represents the first stage in the lens survey. Examination of intermediate–resolution optical spectra of an initial sample of 160 colour–selected early–type galaxies revealed the presence of an emission line at $`5589`$Å in a galaxy with redshift $`z=0.485`$. Follow–up spectroscopy $`^\mathrm{?}`$ and imaging $`^\mathrm{?}`$ have confirmed the B0047–2808 system as an optical Einstein ring with the source, a star–forming galaxy at $`z=3.595`$, the first confirmed example of a normal galaxy lensing another normal galaxy and a demonstration of the viability of the optimal line–of–sight survey strategy.

## 2 Spectroscopic observations and candidate selection

With an efficient method for acquiring spectra along many optimal lines–of–sight there is the prospect of obtaining a large sample, $`20`$ objects, of spatially resolved gravitationally lensed systems. The low–surface density of the galaxies on the sky means the Anglo–Australian Telescope’s 2dF multifibre instrument, with a $`3\mathrm{deg}^2`$ field, is ideally suited to the initial spectroscopy. In September 1998 we obtained spectra of $`500`$ early–type galaxies over two nights using the 2dF facility. Total exposure times of $`8000`$s produce galaxy spectra for which the completeness of redshift measurement is $`95\%`$ and in which anomalous emission lines of fluxes $`5\times 10^{17}`$erg s-1cm-2 may be reliably detected i.e. fluxes comparable to those seen in high–redshift galaxy samples $`^\mathrm{?}`$ can be reached. The unlensed fluxes are a factor $`10`$ fainter. Example spectra of galaxies from 2dF are shown in Figure 1.

Candidate gravitational lenses are identified by applying an automated emission–line detection algorithm to the early–type galaxy spectra. The identification software matches a template early–type galaxy SED (derived from the mean of the sample) to each early–type galaxy spectrum via a wavelength–dependent transformation. The transformation is derived from the median smoothed ratio of the two spectra. Subtraction of the transformed template from the individual galaxy spectra removes large scale ($`\lambda \mathrm{¿}\mathrm{}100`$Å) continuum variations while retaining small–scale differences such as narrow ($`\lambda <50`$Å) emission lines. Such emission features may then be identified using standard matched filter techniques $`^\mathrm{?}`$. The effectiveness of the emission–line detection routine is demonstrated by the identification of \[OII\]3727 emission in 20% of the early–type galaxy sample (104/485 galaxies). Four anomalous emission lines, consistent with gravitationally–lensed Lyman–$`\alpha `$ emission, have also been identified utilising this technique. Candidate lenses must be confirmed via a second observation of the emission–line prior to follow–up observations to obtain the source redshift, via observation of a second emission feature $`^\mathrm{?}`$, and the morphology of the lensed emission $`^\mathrm{?}`$.

## 3 Constraining the luminosity function of high-redshift Lyman–$`\alpha `$ emitting galaxies using gravitational lensing

A spectroscopic survey for gravitational lenses, employing a quantitative detection algorithm and a well–defined sample of deflectors, permits a unique experiment to probe the luminosity function of high-redshift Lyman–$`\alpha `$ emitting galaxies – to fainter flux limits than currently achievable.

The line–of–sight to each deflector may be considered as magnifying a region of the distant source plane. The total source plane magnification as a function of deflector–source impact parameter is calculated for the deflector sample using a ray–tracing algorithm, incorporating variations in deflector (e.g. central velocity dispersion and redshift) and source (e.g. surface brightness morphology and redshift) properties. To reproduce the effects of atmospheric seeing, lensed images are convolved with a Gaussian kernel of $`\mathrm{FWHM}=1\text{′′}\text{.}5`$, while to reproduce the 2dF observations, the lens model considers the total flux received from a $`1^{\prime \prime }`$ radius optical fibre centred on each deflector.

The sample of deflectors presents a magnified view of the distant source population, characterised by a Lyman–$`\alpha `$ emission–line luminosity function. The probability of detecting a lensed emission line of given observed frame properties (i.e. flux, wavelength and FWHM) drawn from this population is calculated via a ‘monte–carlo’ procedure whereby a grid of simulated emission lines of specified properties are superimposed onto observed early–type spectra, to be processed using the automated line detection algorithm.

Combining the magnification profiles generated by the deflector sample with an assumed Lyman–$`\alpha `$ emission–line luminosity function describing the source population, produces the number distribution of detected lenses as a function of Lyman–$`\alpha `$ luminosity (Figure 2). The number–luminosity diagram of identified lenses generated by a spectroscopic sample of 2000 early–type galaxies, considering two competing luminosity function models, clearly demonstrates the potential of the survey technique to probe the characteristics of the faint Lyman–$`\alpha `$ emitting galaxy population.

## 4 Conclusions

We have presented the strategy and initial observations for a spectroscopic survey for strong galaxy–galaxy lenses. The optimal line–of–sight strategy offers a powerful probe of the faint, Lyman–$`\alpha `$ emitting, galaxy population and of the dark matter profiles of massive early–type galaxies at cosmological distances. Application of the deflector–based survey strategy to other galaxy samples is underway $`^\mathrm{?}`$ and we hope to compile a much larger sample of systems using additional 2dF observations.

## Acknowledgments

J. Willis acknowledges the support of a PPARC research studentship during the completion of this work and the generous financial support of the IoA, Cambridge and the European TMR network in order to attend the conference.

## References


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# Tuning the scattering length on the ground triplet state of Cs2.

## Abstract

We develop two schemes for tuning the scattering length on the ground triplet state of Cs2. First, an absolute value of the triplet scattering length of 133Cs2 is determined using the experimental data (Fioretti et al, Eur.Phys.J. 5, 389 (1999)). We demonstrate that the large scattering length can be made small and positive by coupling of the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{u}^{+}(6S+6S)`$ potential to the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Pi }_{g}^{}`$ state by strong off-resonant radiation. A weaker laser field coupling the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{u}^{+}(6S+6S)`$ continuum to the lowest bound level of the excited $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{g}^{+}(6S+6P)`$ also leads to a small positive scattering length. In addition, the scattering length of the 135Cs isotope is found to be positive. The method used solves the Schrödinger equation for two electronic states coupled by an electromagnetic field with approximations employed. The scattering length is determined from calculated continuum wavefunctions of low energy.

A positive scattering length is a crucial ingredient in obtaining Bose-Einstein condensation from a gas of ultra-cold atoms. This parameter controls the long range repulsion between the atoms and therefore the stability of the process. Manipulating the scattering length will allow to add new candidates to the small list of atomic systems which form a condensate. Schemes to control the scattering length have been suggested based on manipulating the inter-atomic interactions by external fields. They include the use of a magnetic field to induce a Feshbach resonance , a use of radio-frequency  and dc electric fields and off resonant strong electromagnetic field . In the present study we propose two schemes for modifying the scattering length on the ground triplet state of Cs2 using electromagnetic field. First, we calculate the scattering length $`a_{sc}`$ of triplet 133Cs2 and discuss the sensitivity of $`a_{sc}`$ to the $`C_6`$ coefficient and to the uncertainty of the experimental data. Then, we develop two modification schemes to tune the scattering length to small positive value using continuous wave laser field of experimentally feasible characteristics. In addition, we found that the scattering length of 135Cs is positive and thus this isotope is a suitable candidate for Bose-Einstein condensation of cesium.

The best known potential for the ground triplet state of Cs2 $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{u}^{+}(6S+6S)`$, is a combination of quantum chemistry calculations by Foucrault et al  fitted at the distance $`20`$ Bohr to the asymptotic behavior $`C_6/R^6`$. In the present calculation we used two different values of the coefficient $`C_6`$ calculated by Marinescu and Dalgarno  and by Derevianko et al . This potential has $`55\pm 2`$ bound vibrational levels. The uncertainty of the number is due to the uncertainty of the potential curves at small distances. Other potentials used for triplet Cs2  lead to a different number of bound vibrational levels, $`58\pm 2`$. We checked the influence of the higher order dispersion terms of the long range potential on the results of the calculations. Since no significant differences have been found, we kept only the term $`C_6/R^6`$ as a representant of the asymptotic behavior. Using this potential all the bound state wave functions and the threshold scattering wave functions were calculated using the Mapped Fourier Grid Method . This approach enable us to obtain an exact and fully-quantum time-independent solution of the Schrödinger equation without applying any approximation. This represent an original and direct approach to the determination of the scattering length. A grid of 557 points covering 20000 Bohr was used. Due to the exponential uniform convergence of the method we were able to converge the error in phase of the wave functions to an accuracy of $`10^6`$. At the far end of the grid we used either fixed or absorbing boundary conditions. We found that as expected the threshold continuum wave functions are not affected by the choice of boundary conditions. The accuracy of the calculation is determined by the short-range part of the potential where the inaccuracy of the depth of the well is estimated to be about 40 $`cm^1`$ . This inaccuracy leads to an asymptotic accumulated phase of more than $`\pm 2\pi `$ thus the scattering length cannot be determined from ab initio calculations.

A binary scattering event is completely determined by the inter-atomic potential and the boundary conditions. Since the scattering length is determined by the conditions of vanishing asymptotic kinetic energy it is solea determined by the potential. For heavy colliders such as Cs2 the scattering length is an extremely sensitive function of the potential. Its value is related to the accumulated phase $`\varphi `$ of the wave function from the inner turning point at zero energy to the infinity. The phase $`\varphi `$ for the zero energy is estimated semiclassically as $`_{R_i}^{\mathrm{}}\sqrt{2\mu U(R)}𝑑R`$ where $`R_i`$ is the inner turning point of the potential, $`U(R)`$ is the potential and $`\mu `$ is the reduced mass of 133Cs2. For the potential used for Cs2, $`\varphi `$ is 54.6 $`\pi `$. From the Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization condition the number of bound levels should be 54. The number of levels is obtained by a direct solution of the Schrödinger equation is the same. As a consequence, variations of $`\pm \pi /2`$ will change the scattering length from negative to positive. These facts pose a computation challenge for ab-initio determination of the scattering length but they also offer an opportunity for experimental manipulation.

To overcome this problem an independent method of determining the phase of the wave function has to be found. The photoassociation spectrum from the triplet to the $`0_g^{}(6S+6P_{3/2})`$ state obtained by Fioretti et al  is used to obtain the phase and to adjust the ground state potential. The spectrum shows oscillating behavior which reflects the variation of the Franck-Condon factors of the transition between the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{u}^{+}(6S+6S)`$ and rovibrational levels of the $`0_g^{}(6S+6P_{3/2})`$ state. The oscillations in the spectrum reflect the nodal structure of the continuum wave functions in the energy range of (200 $`\mu `$K) . Using the Mapped Fourier Grid Method , the Franck-Condon factors between the vibrational wave functions of the $`0_g^{}(6S+6P_{3/2})`$ state and the continuum wave functions of the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{u}^{+}(6S+6S)`$ state were calculated. These factors give relative intensities of the spectral lines of the $`0_g^{}(6S+6P_{3/2})`$ spectrum. The excited potential curve $`0_g^{}(6S+6P_{3/2})`$ for short distances was obtained by a diagonalization of the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{g}^{+}(6S+6P)`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Pi }_{g}^{+}(6S+6P)`$ curves of the $`0_g^{}(6S+6P)`$ symmetry while accounting of the spin-orbit interaction ($`V_{so}(Cs)=`$554.1 cm-1). In the asymptotic region the potential is fitted to the RKR-potential obtained from the experiment .

The inaccuracy of potential leads to a shift of the position of nodes of the calculated spectrum. Fig. (1) shows the calculated intensities (full line) and positions of nodes observed in the experiment. The calculated spectrum is almost completely out of phase with the experiment. By slightly modifying the inner part of the potential within the estimated range of accuracy, the experimental observations can be reconstructed. The variation in the potential can either add or subtract to the phase of the asymptotic part of the wave function. In both cases, we obtained very good agreement with the experimental nodal structure as illustrated in figure 1. With this adjustment the number of bond levels is either 54 or 55.

In order to see the sensitivity to the inaccuracy of the $`C_6`$ coefficient we used two different values of $`C_6`$ calculated by Marinescu and Dalgarno  ($`C_6=6331`$ a.u.) and by Derevianko et al  ($`C_6=6899`$ a.u.). As a result the inner part of the fitted potential is slightly different. The figure 1 shows the fits for $`C_6=6899`$ a.u.

Using the adjusted potential which fits the experiment the scattering length is recalculated (Fig. 2). We obtained the value $`a_{sc}=350`$ Bohr for $`C_6=6331`$ and $`a_{sc}=950`$ Bohr for $`C_6=6899`$. For $`C_6=6899`$ we made additional calculation in order to see if some inaccuracies could lead to the positive scattering length. First we consider the uncertainty of the position of minima in the experimental spectrum. The fitted potential is changed in such a manner that the calculated minimum prior to the last minimum (the last node is not very pronounced) shifts by 0.2 cm-1 in two directions. At this condition the last nodes shifts by 0.1 cm-1. The scattering length becomes $`a_{sc}=1040`$ Bohr when the nodes shift to the direction of increasing of the binding energy and $`a_{sc}=850`$ Bohr for the opposite direction.

We verified also the sensitivity of determination of $`a_{sc}`$ to the different number of bound levels. With this goal we calculated $`a_{sc}`$ for the potentials giving 54 and 55 bound levels (dotted and dashed lines on the inset of Fig. 1 correspondingly). We found that once the two potentials are fitted to the same nodal positions, the difference in $`a_{sc}`$ for the two potentials is smaller at least by a factor 10 than the difference due to the uncertainty of the positions of minima. This results is easily explained in a spirit of the quantum defect theory: If the long-range behavior of the potential and positions of last nodes of the last bound wave function are fixed, the short range dynamics (in particular - the total number of nodes of the wave function at small distances) does not influence the scattering properties.

The obtained value of $`a_{sc}`$ is in a good agreement with the previous experimental and theoretical results. Arndt et al  and Leo et al  got the absolute value $`>260`$ Bohr and $`>600`$ Bohr respectively. Kokkelmans et al  published the value $`315`$ Bohr to $`380`$ Bohr and Legere et al  $`400`$ Bohr. Recently, Drag et al  analyzed the experimental energy of the last bound vibrational levels and determined the triplet state scattering length of cesium from the extrapolated position of the outermost nodes of the bound vibrational wave function  obtaining the value ranging from $`370`$ Bohr down to $`825`$ Bohr. The value of $`C_6=6510`$ was used in their calculations. In addition, we determined the critical $`C_6`$ coefficient for which the scattering length becomes infinite. We found that for $`C_6=7000`$ it is still negative, but $`C_6=7050`$ is the transition value. For $`C_6=7100`$ the scattering length becomes positive. We emphasize the comparison of the presented results with those of Drag et al , Tab. I, since both approaches analyze the same set of experimental data by different methods.

The determined absolute value of the scattering length is so large that small variations of the potential can lead to the change of the sign of $`a_{sc}`$. For example, a low-intensity laser field coupling the ground molecular state with one of excited states at large distances can modify the scattering length. This possibility was discussed by Kagan et al . This sensitivity of the sign of $`a_{sc}`$ to small perturbations has a crucial importance for the character of behavior at ultra cold temperatures. Below we discuss how $`a_{sc}`$ can be made small and positive.

The sensitivity of the asymptotic phase to the inner part of the potential is the key to modifying the scattering length. The first scheme employs a CW laser field to couple the inner part of the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{u}^{+}(6S+6S)`$ potential to the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Pi }_{g}^{}(6S+6P)`$ electronic state. The bound and continuum levels are recalculated on the coupled two surface potentials. The rotating wave approximation was used to describe the coupling. The $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Pi }_{g}^{}(6S+6P)`$ potential is taken from .

In order to change the scattering length sufficiently, the adiabatic transition probability, $`P(^3\mathrm{\Sigma }_u^+^3\mathrm{\Pi }_g)`$, for levels with energy close to the $`6S+6S`$ threshold, should be non-negligible. For relatively small laser intensity this condition is fulfilled only if the potentials $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{u}^{+}(6S+6S)`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Pi }_{g}^{}(6S+6P)`$ cross at an energy close to the $`6S+6S`$ dissociation limit. The insert in figure 3 shows the total two-channel potential in the adiabatic representation. The $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Pi }_{g}^{}(6S+6P)`$ potential is shifted down by the energy, $`E_f=\mathrm{}\omega `$, determined by the frequency, $`\omega `$, of the field. When the intensity, $`I`$, of the laser field is low, the region of a pseudo-crossing is very narrow. Figure 3 shows two wave functions obtained for the two different intensities for the potentials shown at the inset. We found that with increasing field intensity the value of the scattering length gradually moves from negative to positive. A change of sign is obtained for the intensity of 300 kW/cm2.

The second scheme, is based on a resonant coupling of the continuum wave functions of the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{u}^{+}(6S+6S)`$ state to one of vibrational levels of the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{g}^{+}(6S+6P)`$ electronic excited state published in . Such a Feshbach resonance results in modification of the triplet state scattering length. The sign and value of the scattering length depends on the position of such a level in respect to the $`6S+6S`$ threshold.

Employing the Mapped Fourier Grid method, the low energy continuum wave functions are calculated for two coupled potentials for different intensities of the laser field. The Feshbach resonance is induced by the lowest vibrational level of the excited state negatively detuned from the ground state dissociation threshold by the energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }=90`$ MHz. From the obtained wave functions the scattering length is determined. A gradual increase of the value of the scattering length is observed reaching high positive values. Since the position (and a width) of the Feshbach resonance depends strongly on the coupling, the scattering length can be changed employing a much smaller field intensity compared to the off-resonant laser manipulation (scheme I). The scattering length could be modified from $`350`$ Bohr to $`300`$ Bohr using a field intensity of only 2.5 kW/cm2. The projected population in the excited state is less than $`10^3`$.

We emphasize that the present method of solution of the Schödinger equation on the electronic states coupled by a field does not rely on any approximative treatment like perturbation theory and is therefore exact within a given physical model. That contrasts with the previous approaches by Fedichev et al  and Bohn .

It is also advantageous to tune the light to one of lowest vibrational levels of the whole $`6S+6P`$ manifold which have allowed dipole transition. In this way one can eliminate the coupling with other vibrational levels of other molecular potentials. This choice of a vibrational level for the Feshbach resonance ensures that a two-photon excitation process to the $`(6P+6P)`$ manifold is avoided. The coupling is also chosen to occur in the short-range region where only a very small fraction of the density resides. This will further reduced loss processes.

The proposed scattering length manipulation techniques employs light induced a coupling of the short-range part of molecular electronic potential. Therefore, we have to consider the variation of the dipole moment due to the molecular orientation with respect to the axis of the field vector. We suggest to solve this problem by using three perpendicular laser beams with perpendicular polarizations for irradiation of the cold cesium sample, which prevents any interference effect. In this setup, we can assume the maximal variation of the dipole moment projection on the field by $`15\%`$. We studied the robustness of the positivity of the scattering length by computing its value for both proposed schemes using field intensity varying by several orders of magnitude. We found that both schemes are sufficiently robust to keep the inter-atomic interaction repulsive and, hence, to allow the Bose-Einstein condensation.

Using the adjusted potential the scattering properties of the isotopes 135Cs and 137Cs were calculated (half-life’s are $`2.310^6`$ and $`30.2`$ years respectively). The scattering length of $`a_{sc}=165`$ Bohr for 135Cs was obtained. This result is in good agreement with the value $`138`$ Bohr published by . Therefore, the 135Cs isotope is a good candidate for Bose-Einstein condensation. For the 137Cs, we found almost zero scattering length suggesting that this radioactive isotope can behave like a non-interacting Bose gas. In both cases, we tested the value of the scattering length with respect to the number of bound levels of the original fitted potential used. We found no significant difference; specifically, $`7`$ Bohr for 135Cs (55 and 56 bound levels) and $`15`$ Bohr for the 137Cs isotope (56 and 57 bound levels).

The spontaneous emission broadening of the Feshbach resonance discussed by  is eliminated in the present scheme in two different ways. First, the population transfer at the short range part of the potential where the resonance is induced is very low due to the small amplitude of the ground state continuum wave function. That results in a small value of the transition dipole moment between both electronic states. Since its order of magnitude is $`10^4`$, the resulting leading term in the spontaneous emission rate $`|\psi _g|\mu |\psi _e|^2`$ is approximately $`10^8`$ extending the spontaneous emission time-scale to values beyond the microsecond range. That reduces the spontaneous emission broadening of the resonance width as well as it eliminates the related leakage mechanism competing with the Bose-Einstein condensation. Besides, in agreement with Bohn , the coupling is mediated by the field whose intensity, the Rabi frequency, results in the time-scale much shorter, approximately 150 ps, than the time-scale of the spontaneous emission and, hence, the spontaneous emission broadening of the Feshbach resonance is negligible compared to its field induced width.

The manipulation of the scattering properties can be checked in other applications. For example photoassociation spectroscopy  can be carried out using cold alkali atoms with modified scattering properties. The correspondence between the scattering length and the nodal structure of the Franck-Condon factors suggests a direct experimental test of the proposed schemes employing a CW field with intensities obtainable by a diode laser radiation source. The technique can be used to modify existing experiments done with Rb  or Cs .

The change of the scattering length from negative to positive results in decreasing the population density at short inter-nuclear distance by several orders of magnitude. This will decrease the probability for cold molecule formation mediated by three body collisions . As a result the reduction in the Franck-Condon overlap and transition dipole matrix elements will decrease the spontaneous decay loss in the cold molecule formation via photoassociation .

Recently, Söding et al  measured very high inelastic collision rates of the spin flip of ground state cesium atoms which results from the negative scattering length. The attractive interaction enhances the ground state population in the inner part of the potential ruling out the Bose-Einstein condensation. Our calculations show that the positive scattering length due to the proposed manipulation schemes will reduce the short range population at least by a factor of 30. This decreases the spin flip scattering rate almost by three orders of magnitude removing another obstacle to the the Bose-Einstein condensation in cesium.

In conclusion, the present calculation reproduces the oscillations in the $`0_g^{}(6S+6P_{3/2})`$ photoassociation spectrum of 133Cs by a small adjustment to the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{u}^{+}(6S+6S)`$ potential. On this potential we were able to calculate the scattering length of the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{u}^{+}(6S+6S)`$ state finding a a value $`350`$ Bohr. Three different schemes to change the scattering length from negative to positive were studied. The scattering length can be modified by a laser field either off-resonant with the $`6S6P`$ transition or on resonance with one of lowest vibrational levels of $`6S+6P`$ potentials. The third scheme consists in replacing the 133Cs by the 135Cs isotope. For this case the scattering length is 165 Bohr. We also found that another obstacle to the Bose-Einstein condensation, the large rate of inelastic collisions, can be overcome by tuning the scattering length.

We are grateful to A. Fioretti for many fruitful discussions. The work was supported by the Israel Science Foundation (Moked). The Fritz Haber Research Center is supported by the Minerva Gesellschaft für die Forschung, GmbH München, FRG.


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# Complex Numbers in 6 Dimensions

## 1 Introduction

A regular, two-dimensional complex number $`x+iy`$ can be represented geometrically by the modulus $`\rho =(x^2+y^2)^{1/2}`$ and by the polar angle $`\theta =\mathrm{arctan}(y/x)`$. The modulus $`\rho `$ is multiplicative and the polar angle $`\theta `$ is additive upon the multiplication of ordinary complex numbers.

The quaternions of Hamilton are a system of hypercomplex numbers defined in four dimensions, the multiplication being a noncommutative operation,  and many other hypercomplex systems are possible, - but these hypercomplex systems do not have all the required properties of regular, two-dimensional complex numbers which rendered possible the development of the theory of functions of a complex variable.

Two distinct systems of commutative complex numbers in 6 dimensions having the form $`u=x_0+h_1x_1+h_2x_2+h_3x_3+h_4x_4+h_5x_5`$ are described in this work, for which the multiplication is associative and commutative, where the variables $`x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4,x_5`$ are real numbers. The first type of 6-complex numbers described in this article is characterized by the presence of two polar axes, so that these numbers will be called polar 6-complex numbers. The other type of 6-complex numbers described in this paper will be called planar n-complex numbers.

The polar 6-complex numbers introduced in this paper can be specified by the modulus $`d`$, the amplitude $`\rho `$, and the polar angles $`\theta _+,\theta _{}`$, the planar angle $`\psi _1`$, and the azimuthal angles $`\varphi _1,\varphi _2`$. The planar 6-complex numbers introduced in this paper can be specified by the modulus $`d`$, the amplitude $`\rho `$, the planar angles $`\psi _1,\psi _2`$, and the azimuthal angles $`\varphi _1,\varphi _2,\varphi _3`$. Exponential and trigonometric forms are given for the 6-complex numbers. The 6-complex functions defined by series of powers are analytic, and the partial derivatives of the components of the 6-complex functions are closely related. The integrals of polar 6-complex functions are independent of path in regions where the functions are regular. The fact that the exponential form of ther 6-complex numbers depends on cyclic variables leads to the concept of pole and residue for integrals on closed paths. The polynomials of polar 6-complex variables can be written as products of linear or quadratic factors, the polynomials of planar 6-complex variables can always be written as products of linear factors, although the factorization is not unique.

This paper belongs to a series of studies on commutative complex numbers in $`n`$ dimensions.  The polar 6-complex numbers described in this paper are a particular case for $`n=6`$ of the polar hypercomplex numbers in $`n`$ dimensions, and the planar 6-complex numbers described in this section are a particular case for $`n=6`$ of the planar hypercomplex numbers in $`n`$ dimensions.,

## 2 Polar complex numbers in 6 dimensions

### 2.1 Operations with polar complex numbers in $`6`$ dimensions

The polar hypercomplex number $`u`$ in 6 dimensions is represented as

$$u=x_0+h_1x_1+h_2x_2+h_3x_3+h_4x_4+h_5x_5.$$
(1)
The multiplication rules for the bases $`h_1,h_2,h_3,h_4,h_5`$ are

$`h_1^2=h_2,h_2^2=h_4,h_3^2=1,h_4^2=h_2,h_5^2=h_4,h_1h_2=h_3,h_1h_3=h_4,h_1h_4=h_5,`$ (2)
$`h_1h_5=1,h_2h_3=h_5,h_2h_4=1,h_2h_5=h_1,h_3h_4=h_1,h_3h_5=h_2,h_4h_5=h_3.`$
The significance of the composition laws in Eq. (2) can be understood by representing the bases $`h_j,h_k`$ by points on a circle at the angles $`\alpha _j=\pi j/3,\alpha _k=\pi k/3`$, as shown in Fig. 1, and the product $`h_jh_k`$ by the point of the circle at the angle $`\pi (j+k)/3`$. If $`2\pi \pi (j+k)/3<4\pi `$, the point represents the basis $`h_l`$ of angle $`\alpha _l=\pi (j+k)/32\pi `$.

The sum of the 6-complex numbers $`u`$ and $`u^{}`$ is

$$u+u^{}=x_0+x_0^{}+h_1(x_1+x_1^{})+h_1(x_2+x_2^{})+h_3(x_3+x_3^{})+h_4(x_4+x_4^{})+h_5(x_5+x_5^{}).$$
(3)
The product of the numbers $`u,u^{}`$ is

$$\begin{array}{c}uu^{}=x_0x_0^{}+x_1x_5^{}+x_2x_4^{}+x_3x_3^{}+x_4x_2^{}+x_5x_1^{}\hfill \\ +h_1(x_0x_1^{}+x_1x_0^{}+x_2x_5^{}+x_3x_4^{}+x_4x_3^{}+x_5x_2^{})\hfill \\ +h_2(x_0x_2^{}+x_1x_1^{}+x_2x_0^{}+x_3x_5^{}+x_4x_4^{}+x_5x_3^{})\hfill \\ +h_3(x_0x_3^{}+x_1x_2^{}+x_2x_1^{}+x_3x_0^{}+x_4x_5^{}+x_5x_4^{})\hfill \\ +h_4(x_0x_4^{}+x_1x_3^{}+x_2x_2^{}+x_3x_1^{}+x_4x_0^{}+x_5x_5^{})\hfill \\ +h_5(x_0x_5^{}+x_1x_4^{}+x_2x_3^{}+x_3x_2^{}+x_4x_1^{}+x_5x_0^{}).\hfill \end{array}$$
(4)
The relation between the variables $`v_+,v_{},v_1,\stackrel{~}{v}_1,v_2,\stackrel{~}{v}_2`$ and $`x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4,x_5`$ are

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}v_+\\ v_{}\\ v_1\\ \stackrel{~}{v}_1\\ v_2\\ \stackrel{~}{v}_2\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}1& 1& 1& 1& 1& 1\\ 1& 1& 1& 1& 1& 1\\ 1& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2}& 1& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2}\\ 0& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& 0& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\\ 1& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2}& 1& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2}\\ 0& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& 0& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}x_0\\ x_1\\ x_2\\ x_3\\ x_4\\ x_5\end{array}\right).$$
(5)
The other variables are $`v_4=v_2,\stackrel{~}{v}_4=\stackrel{~}{v}_2,v_5=v_1,\stackrel{~}{v}_5=\stackrel{~}{v}_1`$. The variables $`v_+,v_{},v_1,\stackrel{~}{v}_1,v_2,\stackrel{~}{v}_2`$ will be called canonical polar 6-complex variables.

### 2.2 Geometric representation of polar complex numbers in 6 dimensions

The 6-complex number $`u=x_0+h_1x_1+h_2x_2+h_3x_3+h_4x_4+h_5x_5`$ is represented by the point $`A`$ of coordinates $`(x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4,x_5)`$. The distance from the origin $`O`$ of the 6-dimensional space to the point $`A`$ has the expression

$$d^2=x_0^2+x_1^2+x_2^2+x_3^2+x_4^2+x_5^2.$$
(6)
The distance $`d`$ is called modulus of the 6-complex number $`u`$, and is designated by $`d=|u|`$. The modulus has the property that

$$|u^{}u^{\prime \prime }|\sqrt{6}|u^{}||u^{\prime \prime }|.$$
(7)
The exponential and trigonometric forms of the 6-complex number $`u`$ can be obtained conveniently in a rotated system of axes defined by a transformation which has the form

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}\xi _+\\ \xi _{}\\ \xi _1\\ \stackrel{~}{\xi }_1\\ \xi _2\\ \stackrel{~}{\xi }_2\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\\ \frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}\\ 0& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2}& 0& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2}\\ \frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}\\ 0& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2}& 0& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}x_0\\ x_1\\ x_2\\ x_3\\ x_4\\ x_5\end{array}\right).$$
(8)
The lines of the matrices in Eq. (8) gives the components of the 6 basis vectors of the new system of axes. These vectors have unit length and are orthogonal to each other. The relations between the two sets of variables are

$$v_+=\sqrt{6}\xi _+,v_{}=\sqrt{6}\xi _{},v_k=\sqrt{3}\xi _k,\stackrel{~}{v}_k=\sqrt{3}\eta _k,k=1,2.$$
(9)
The radius $`\rho _k`$ and the azimuthal angle $`\varphi _k`$ in the plane of the axes $`v_k,\stackrel{~}{v}_k`$ are

$$\rho _k^2=v_k^2+\stackrel{~}{v}_k^2,\mathrm{cos}\varphi _k=v_k/\rho _k,\mathrm{sin}\varphi _k=\stackrel{~}{v}_k/\rho _k,0\varphi _k<2\pi ,k=1,2,$$
(10)
so that there are 2 azimuthal angles. The planar angle $`\psi _1`$ is

$$\mathrm{tan}\psi _1=\rho _1/\rho _2,0\psi _1\pi /2.$$
(11)
There is a polar angle $`\theta _+`$,

$$\mathrm{tan}\theta _+=\frac{\sqrt{2}\rho _1}{v_+},0\theta _+\pi ,$$
(12)
and there is also a polar angle $`\theta _{}`$,

$$\mathrm{tan}\theta _{}=\frac{\sqrt{2}\rho _1}{v_{}},0\theta _{}\pi .$$
(13)
The amplitude of a 6-complex number $`u`$ is

$$\rho =\left(v_+v_{}\rho _1^2\rho _2^2\right)^{1/6}.$$
(14)
It can be checked that

$$d^2=\frac{1}{6}v_+^2+\frac{1}{6}v_{}^2+\frac{1}{3}(\rho _1^2+\rho _2^2).$$
(15)
If $`u=u^{}u^{\prime \prime }`$, the parameters of the hypercomplex numbers are related by

$$v_+=v_+^{}v_+^{\prime \prime },$$
(16)
$$\mathrm{tan}\theta _+=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\mathrm{tan}\theta _+^{}\mathrm{tan}\theta _+^{\prime \prime },$$
(17)
$$v_{}=v_{}^{}v_{}^{\prime \prime },$$
(18)
$$\mathrm{tan}\theta _{}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\mathrm{tan}\theta _{}^{}\mathrm{tan}\theta _{}^{\prime \prime },$$
(19)
$$\mathrm{tan}\psi _1=\mathrm{tan}\psi _1^{}\mathrm{tan}\psi _1^{\prime \prime },$$
(20)
$$\rho _k=\rho _k^{}\rho _k^{\prime \prime },$$
(21)
$$\varphi _k=\varphi _k^{}+\varphi _k^{\prime \prime },$$
(22)
$$v_k=v_k^{}v_k^{\prime \prime }\stackrel{~}{v}_k^{}\stackrel{~}{v}_k^{\prime \prime },\stackrel{~}{v}_k=v_k^{}\stackrel{~}{v}_k^{\prime \prime }+\stackrel{~}{v}_k^{}v_k^{\prime \prime },$$
(23)
$$\rho =\rho ^{}\rho ^{\prime \prime },$$
(24)
where $`k=1,2`$.

The 6-complex number $`u=x_0+h_1x_1+h_2x_2+h_3x_3+h_4x_4+h_5x_5`$ can be represented by the matrix

$$U=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}x_0& x_1& x_2& x_3& x_4& x_5\\ x_5& x_0& x_1& x_2& x_3& x_4\\ x_4& x_5& x_0& x_1& x_2& x_3\\ x_3& x_4& x_5& x_0& x_1& x_2\\ x_2& x_3& x_4& x_5& x_0& x_1\\ x_1& x_2& x_3& x_4& x_5& x_0\end{array}\right).$$
(25)
The product $`u=u^{}u^{\prime \prime }`$ is represented by the matrix multiplication $`U=U^{}U^{\prime \prime }`$.

### 2.3 The polar 6-dimensional cosexponential functions

The polar cosexponential functions in 6 dimensions are

$$g_{6k}(y)=\underset{p=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}y^{k+6p}/(k+6p)!,$$
(26)
for $`k=0,\mathrm{},5`$. The polar cosexponential functions $`g_{6k}`$ of even index $`k`$ are even functions, $`g_{6,2p}(y)=g_{6,2p}(y)`$, and the polar cosexponential functions of odd index $`k`$ are odd functions, $`g_{6,2p+1}(y)=g_{6,2p+1}(y)`$, $`p=0,1,2`$.

It can be checked that

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{5}{}}g_{6k}(y)=e^y,$$
(27)
$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{5}{}}(1)^kg_{6k}(y)=e^y.$$
(28)
The exponential function of the quantity $`h_ky`$ is

$$\begin{array}{c}e^{h_1y}=g_{60}(y)+h_1g_{61}(y)+h_2g_{62}(y)+h_3g_{63}(y)+h_4g_{64}(y)+h_5g_{65}(y),\hfill \\ e^{h_2y}=g_{60}(y)+g_{63}(y)+h_2\{g_{61}(y)+g_{64}(y)\}+h_4\{g_{62}(y)+g_{65}(y)\},\hfill \\ e^{h_3y}=g_{60}(y)+g_{62}(y)+g_{64}(y)+h_3\{g_{61}(y)+g_{63}(y)+g_{65}(y)\},\hfill \\ e^{h_4y}=g_{60}(y)+g_{63}(y)+h_2\{g_{62}(y)+g_{65}(y)\}+h_4\{g_{61}(y)+g_{64}(y)\},\hfill \\ e^{h_5y}=g_{60}(y)+h_1g_{65}(y)+h_2g_{64}(y)+h_3g_{63}(y)+h_4g_{62}(y)+h_5g_{61}(y).\hfill \end{array}$$
(29)
The relations for $`h_2`$ and $`h_4`$ can be written equivalently as $`e^{h_2y}=g_{30}+h_2g_{31}+h_4g_{32},e^{h_4y}=g_{30}+h_2g_{32}+h_4g_{31}`$, and the relation for $`h_3`$ can be written as $`e^{h_3y}=g_{20}+h_3g_{21}`$, which is the same as $`e^{h_3y}=\mathrm{cosh}y+h_3\mathrm{sinh}y`$.

The expressions of the polar 6-dimensional cosexponential functions are

$$\begin{array}{c}g_{60}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cosh}y+\frac{2}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{y}{2}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y,\hfill \\ g_{61}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{sinh}y+\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{sinh}\frac{y}{2}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y+\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{y}{2}\mathrm{sin}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y,\hfill \\ g_{62}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cosh}y\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{y}{2}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y+\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}\mathrm{sinh}\frac{y}{2}\mathrm{sin}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y,\hfill \\ g_{63}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{sinh}y\frac{2}{3}\mathrm{sinh}\frac{y}{2}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y,\hfill \\ g_{64}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cosh}y\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{y}{2}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}\mathrm{sinh}\frac{y}{2}\mathrm{sin}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y,\hfill \\ g_{65}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{sinh}y+\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{sinh}\frac{y}{2}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{y}{2}\mathrm{sin}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y.\hfill \end{array}$$
(30)
The cosexponential functions (30) can be written as

$$g_{6k}(y)=\frac{1}{6}\underset{l=0}{\overset{5}{}}\mathrm{exp}\left[y\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{2\pi l}{6}\right)\right]\mathrm{cos}\left[y\mathrm{sin}\left(\frac{2\pi l}{6}\right)\frac{2\pi kl}{6}\right],$$
(31)
for $`k=0,\mathrm{},5`$. The graphs of the polar 6-dimensional cosexponential functions are shown in Fig 2.

It can be checked that

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{5}{}}g_{6k}^2(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cosh}2y+\frac{2}{3}\mathrm{cosh}y.$$
(32)
The addition theorems for the polar 6-dimensional cosexponential functions are

$`\begin{array}{c}g_{60}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{60}(z)+g_{61}(y)g_{65}(z)+g_{62}(y)g_{64}(z)+g_{63}(y)g_{63}(z)+g_{64}(y)g_{62}(z)+g_{65}(y)g_{61}(z),\hfill \\ g_{61}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{61}(z)+g_{61}(y)g_{60}(z)+g_{62}(y)g_{65}(z)+g_{63}(y)g_{64}(z)+g_{64}(y)g_{63}(z)+g_{65}(y)g_{62}(z),\hfill \\ g_{62}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{62}(z)+g_{61}(y)g_{61}(z)+g_{62}(y)g_{60}(z)+g_{63}(y)g_{65}(z)+g_{64}(y)g_{64}(z)+g_{65}(y)g_{63}(z),\hfill \\ g_{63}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{63}(z)+g_{61}(y)g_{62}(z)+g_{62}(y)g_{61}(z)+g_{63}(y)g_{60}(z)+g_{64}(y)g_{65}(z)+g_{65}(y)g_{64}(z),\hfill \\ g_{64}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{64}(z)+g_{61}(y)g_{63}(z)+g_{62}(y)g_{62}(z)+g_{63}(y)g_{61}(z)+g_{64}(y)g_{60}(z)+g_{65}(y)g_{65}(z),\hfill \\ g_{65}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{65}(z)+g_{61}(y)g_{64}(z)+g_{62}(y)g_{63}(z)+g_{63}(y)g_{62}(z)+g_{64}(y)g_{61}(z)+g_{65}(y)g_{60}(z).\hfill \end{array}`$ (39)
(40)
It can be shown that

$`\begin{array}{c}\{g_{60}(y)+h_1g_{61}(y)+h_2g_{62}(y)+h_3g_{63}(y)+h_4g_{64}(y)+h_5g_{65}(y)\}^l\hfill \\ =g_{60}(ly)+h_1g_{61}(ly)+h_2g_{62}(ly)+h_3g_{63}(ly)+h_4g_{64}(ly)+h_5g_{65}(ly),\hfill \\ \{g_{60}(y)+g_{63}(y)+h_2\{g_{61}(y)+g_{64}(y)\}+h_4\{g_{62}(y)+g_{65}(y)\}\}^l\hfill \\ =g_{60}(ly)+g_{63}(ly)+h_2\{g_{61}(ly)+g_{64}(ly)\}+h_4\{g_{62}(ly)+g_{65}(ly)\},\hfill \\ \{g_{60}(y)+g_{62}(y)+g_{64}(y)+h_3\{g_{61}(y)+g_{63}(y)+g_{65}(y)\}\}^l\hfill \\ =g_{60}(ly)+g_{62}(ly)+g_{64}(ly)+h_3\{g_{61}(ly)+g_{63}(ly)+g_{65}(ly)\},\hfill \\ \{g_{60}(y)+g_{63}(y)+h_2\{g_{62}(y)+g_{65}(y)\}+h_4\{g_{61}(y)+g_{64}(y)\}\}^l\hfill \\ =g_{60}(ly)+g_{63}(ly)+h_2\{g_{62}(ly)+g_{65}(ly)\}+h_4\{g_{61}(ly)+g_{64}(ly)\},\hfill \\ \{g_{60}(y)+h_1g_{65}(y)+h_2g_{64}(y)+h_3g_{63}(y)+h_4g_{62}(y)+h_5g_{61}(y)\}^l\hfill \\ =g_{60}(ly)+h_1g_{65}(ly)+h_2g_{64}(ly)+h_3g_{63}(ly)+h_4g_{62}(ly)+h_5g_{61}(ly).\hfill \end{array}`$ (51)
The derivatives of the polar cosexponential functions are related by

$$\frac{dg_{60}}{du}=g_{65},\frac{dg_{61}}{du}=g_{60},\frac{dg_{62}}{du}=g_{61},\frac{dg_{63}}{du}=g_{62},\frac{dg_{64}}{du}=g_{63},\frac{dg_{65}}{du}=g_{64}.$$
(52)
### 2.4 Exponential and trigonometric forms of polar 6-complex numbers

The exponential and trigonometric forms of polar 6-complex numbers can be expressed with the aid of the hypercomplex bases

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}e_+\\ e_{}\\ e_1\\ \stackrel{~}{e}_1\\ e_2\\ \stackrel{~}{e}_2\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}\frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}\\ \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}\\ \frac{1}{3}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{3}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}\\ 0& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& 0& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}\\ \frac{1}{3}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{3}& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{1}{6}\\ 0& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& 0& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ h_1\\ h_2\\ h_3\\ h_4\\ h_5\end{array}\right).$$
(53)
The multiplication relations for these bases are

$`e_+^2=e_+,e_{}^2=e_{},e_+e_{}=0,e_+e_k=0,e_+\stackrel{~}{e}_k=0,e_{}e_k=0,e_{}\stackrel{~}{e}_k=0,`$ (54)
$`e_k^2=e_k,\stackrel{~}{e}_k^2=e_k,e_k\stackrel{~}{e}_k=\stackrel{~}{e}_k,e_ke_l=0,e_k\stackrel{~}{e}_l=0,\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{e}_l=0,k,l=1,2,kl.`$
The bases have the property that

$$e_++e_{}+e_1+e_2=1.$$
(55)
The moduli of the new bases are

$$|e_+|=\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}},|e_{}|=\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}},|e_k|=\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}},|\stackrel{~}{e}_k|=\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}},k=1,2.$$
(56)
It can be shown that

$`x_0+h_1x_1+h_2x_2+h_3x_3+h_4x_4+h_5x_5`$ (57)
$`=e_+v_++e_{}v_{}+e_1v_1+\stackrel{~}{e}_1\stackrel{~}{v}_1+e_2v_2+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\stackrel{~}{v}_2.`$
The ensemble $`e_+,e_{},e_1,\stackrel{~}{e}_1,e_2,\stackrel{~}{e}_2`$ will be called the canonical polar 6-complex base, and Eq. (57) gives the canonical form of the polar 6-complex number.

The exponential form of the 6-complex number $`u`$ is

$`u=\rho \mathrm{exp}\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(h_1+h_2+h_3+h_4+h_5)\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{2}}{\mathrm{tan}\theta _+}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(h_1h_2+h_3h_4+h_5)\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{2}}{\mathrm{tan}\theta _{}}}`$ (58)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(h_1+h_22h_3+h_4+h_5)\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{tan}\psi _1+\stackrel{~}{e}_1\varphi _1+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\varphi _2\},`$
for $`0<\theta _+<\pi /2,0<\theta _{}<\pi /2`$.

The trigonometric form of the 6-complex number $`u`$ is

$`u=d\sqrt{3}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{tan}^2\theta _+}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{tan}^2\theta _{}}}+1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{tan}^2\psi _1}}\right)^{1/2}`$ (59)
$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{e_+\sqrt{2}}{\mathrm{tan}\theta _+}}+{\displaystyle \frac{e_{}\sqrt{2}}{\mathrm{tan}\theta _{}}}+e_1+{\displaystyle \frac{e_2}{\mathrm{tan}\psi _1}}\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(\stackrel{~}{e}_1\varphi _1+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\varphi _2\right).`$
The modulus $`d`$ and the amplitude $`\rho `$ are related by

$`d=\rho {\displaystyle \frac{2^{1/3}}{\sqrt{6}}}\left(\mathrm{tan}\theta _+\mathrm{tan}\theta _{}\mathrm{tan}^2\psi _1\right)^{1/6}`$ (60)
$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{tan}^2\theta _+}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{tan}^2\theta _{}}}+1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{tan}^2\psi _1}}\right)^{1/2}.`$
### 2.5 Elementary functions of a polar 6-complex variable

The logarithm and power functions of the 6-complex number $`u`$ exist for $`v_+>0,v_{}>0`$, which means that $`0<\theta _+<\pi /2,0<\theta _{}<\pi /2`$, and are given by

$`\mathrm{ln}u=\mathrm{ln}\rho +{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(h_1+h_2+h_3+h_4+h_5)\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{2}}{\mathrm{tan}\theta _+}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(h_1h_2+h_3h_4+h_5)\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{2}}{\mathrm{tan}\theta _{}}}`$ (61)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(h_1+h_22h_3+h_4+h_5)\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{tan}\psi _1+\stackrel{~}{e}_1\varphi _1+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\varphi _2,`$
$$u^m=e_+v_+^m+e_{}v_{}^m+\rho _1^m(e_1\mathrm{cos}m\varphi _1+\stackrel{~}{e}_1\mathrm{sin}m\varphi _1)+\rho _2^m(e_2\mathrm{cos}m\varphi _2+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\mathrm{sin}m\varphi _2).$$
(62)
The exponential of the 6-complex variable $`u`$ is

$`e^u=e_+e^{v_+}+e_{}e^v_{}+e^{v_1}\left(e_1\mathrm{cos}\stackrel{~}{v}_1+\stackrel{~}{e}_1\mathrm{sin}\stackrel{~}{v}_1\right)+e^{v_2}\left(e_2\mathrm{cos}\stackrel{~}{v}_2+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\mathrm{sin}\stackrel{~}{v}_2\right).`$ (63)
The trigonometric functions of the 6-complex variable $`u`$ are

$$\mathrm{cos}u=e_+\mathrm{cos}v_++e_{}\mathrm{cos}v_{}+\underset{k=1}{\overset{2}{}}\left(e_k\mathrm{cos}v_k\mathrm{cosh}\stackrel{~}{v}_k\stackrel{~}{e}_k\mathrm{sin}v_k\mathrm{sinh}\stackrel{~}{v}_k\right),$$
(64)
$$\mathrm{sin}u=e_+\mathrm{sin}v_++e_{}\mathrm{sin}v_{}+\underset{k=1}{\overset{2}{}}\left(e_k\mathrm{sin}v_k\mathrm{cosh}\stackrel{~}{v}_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\mathrm{cos}v_k\mathrm{sinh}\stackrel{~}{v}_k\right).$$
(65)
The hyperbolic functions of the 6-complex variable $`u`$ are

$$\mathrm{cosh}u=e_+\mathrm{cosh}v_++e_{}\mathrm{cosh}v_{}+\underset{k=1}{\overset{2}{}}\left(e_k\mathrm{cosh}v_k\mathrm{cos}\stackrel{~}{v}_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\mathrm{sinh}v_k\mathrm{sin}\stackrel{~}{v}_k\right),$$
(66)
$$\mathrm{sinh}u=e_+\mathrm{sinh}v_++e_{}\mathrm{sinh}v_{}+\underset{k=1}{\overset{2}{}}\left(e_k\mathrm{sinh}v_k\mathrm{cos}\stackrel{~}{v}_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\mathrm{cosh}v_k\mathrm{sin}\stackrel{~}{v}_k\right).$$
(67)
### 2.6 Power series of 6-complex numbers

A power series of the 6-complex variable $`u`$ is a series of the form

$$a_0+a_1u+a_2u^2+\mathrm{}+a_lu^l+\mathrm{}.$$
(68)
Since

$$|au^l|6^{l/2}|a||u|^l,$$
(69)
the series is absolutely convergent for

$$|u|<c,$$
(70)
where

$$c=\underset{l\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{|a_l|}{\sqrt{6}|a_{l+1}|}.$$
(71)
If $`a_l=_{p=0}^5h_pa_{lp}`$, where $`h_0=1`$, and

$$A_{l+}=\underset{p=0}{\overset{5}{}}a_{lp},$$
(72)
$$A_l=\underset{p=0}{\overset{5}{}}(1)^pa_{lp},$$
(73)
$$A_{lk}=\underset{p=0}{\overset{5}{}}a_{lp}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\pi kp}{3},$$
(74)
$$\stackrel{~}{A}_{lk}=\underset{p=0}{\overset{5}{}}a_{lp}\mathrm{sin}\frac{\pi kp}{3},$$
(75)
for $`k=1,2`$, the series (68) can be written as

$$\underset{l=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left[e_+A_{l+}v_+^l+e_{}A_lv_{}^l+\underset{k=1}{\overset{2}{}}(e_kA_{lk}+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{A}_{lk})(e_kv_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{v}_k)^l\right].$$
(76)
The series in Eq. (68) is absolutely convergent for

$$|v_+|<c_+,|v_{}|<c_{},\rho _k<c_k,k=1,2,$$
(77)
where

$$c_+=\underset{l\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{|A_{l+}|}{|A_{l+1,+}|},c_{}=\underset{l\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{|A_l|}{|A_{l+1,}|},c_k=\underset{l\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{\left(A_{lk}^2+\stackrel{~}{A}_{lk}^2\right)^{1/2}}{\left(A_{l+1,k}^2+\stackrel{~}{A}_{l+1,k}^2\right)^{1/2}},k=1,2.$$
(78)
### 2.7 Analytic functions of a polar 6-compex variable

The expansion of an analytic function $`f(u)`$ around $`u=u_0`$ is

$$f(u)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{k!}f^{(k)}(u_0)(uu_0)^k.$$
(79)
Since the limit $`f^{}(u_0)=lim_{uu_0}\{f(u)f(u_0)\}/(uu_0)`$ is independent of the direction in space along which $`u`$ is approaching $`u_0`$, the function $`f(u)`$ is said to be analytic, analogously to the case of functions of regular complex variables.  If $`f(u)=_{k=0}^5h_kP_k(x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4,x_5)`$, then

$$\frac{P_0}{x_0}=\frac{P_1}{x_1}=\frac{P_2}{x_2}=\frac{P_3}{x_3}=\frac{P_4}{x_4}=\frac{P_5}{x_5},$$
(80)
$$\frac{P_1}{x_0}=\frac{P_2}{x_1}=\frac{P_3}{x_2}=\frac{P_4}{x_3}=\frac{P_5}{x_4}=\frac{P_0}{x_5},$$
(81)
$$\frac{P_2}{x_0}=\frac{P_3}{x_1}=\frac{P_4}{x_2}=\frac{P_5}{x_3}=\frac{P_0}{x_4}=\frac{P_1}{x_5},$$
(82)
$$\frac{P_3}{x_0}=\frac{P_4}{x_1}=\frac{P_5}{x_2}=\frac{P_0}{x_3}=\frac{P_1}{x_4}=\frac{P_2}{x_5},$$
(83)
$$\frac{P_4}{x_0}=\frac{P_5}{x_1}=\frac{P_0}{x_2}=\frac{P_1}{x_3}=\frac{P_2}{x_4}=\frac{P_3}{x_5},$$
(84)
$$\frac{P_5}{x_0}=\frac{P_0}{x_1}=\frac{P_1}{x_2}=\frac{P_2}{x_3}=\frac{P_3}{x_4}=\frac{P_4}{x_5},$$
(85)
and

$`{\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_0x_l}}={\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_1x_{l1}}}=\mathrm{}={\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_{[l/2]}x_{l[l/2]}}}`$ (86)
$`={\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_{l+1}x_5}}={\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_{l+2}x_4}}=\mathrm{}={\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_{l+1+[(4l)/2]}x_{5[(4l)/2]}}},`$
for $`k,l=0,\mathrm{},5`$. In Eq. (86), $`[a]`$ denotes the integer part of $`a`$, defined as $`[a]a<[a]+1`$. In this work, brackets larger than the regular brackets $`[]`$ do not have the meaning of integer part.

### 2.8 Integrals of polar 6-complex functions

If $`f(u)`$ is an analytic 6-complex function, then

$$_\mathrm{\Gamma }\frac{f(u)du}{uu_0}=2\pi f(u_0)\left[\stackrel{~}{e}_1\mathrm{int}(u_{0\xi _1\eta _1},\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\xi _1\eta _1})+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\mathrm{int}(u_{0\xi _2\eta _2},\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\xi _2\eta _2})\right],$$
(87)
where

$$\mathrm{int}(M,C)=\{\begin{array}{c}1\mathrm{if}M\mathrm{is}\mathrm{an}\mathrm{interior}\mathrm{point}\mathrm{of}C,\hfill \\ 0\mathrm{if}M\mathrm{is}\mathrm{exterior}\mathrm{to}C,\hfill \end{array},$$
(88)
and $`u_{0\xi _k\eta _k}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\xi _k\eta _k}`$ are respectively the projections of the pole $`u_0`$ and of the loop $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ on the plane defined by the axes $`\xi _k`$ and $`\eta _k`$, $`k=1,2`$.

### 2.9 Factorization of 6-complex polynomials

A polynomial of degree $`m`$ of the 6-complex variable $`u`$ has the form

$$P_m(u)=u^m+a_1u^{m1}+\mathrm{}+a_{m1}u+a_m,$$
(89)
where $`a_l`$, for $`l=1,\mathrm{},m`$, are 6-complex constants. If $`a_l=_{p=0}^5h_pa_{lp}`$, and with the notations of Eqs. (72)-(75) applied for $`l=1,\mathrm{},m`$, the polynomial $`P_m(u)`$ can be written as

$`P_m=e_+\left(v_+^m+{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{m}{}}}A_{l+}v_+^{ml}\right)+e_{}\left(v_{}^m+{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{m}{}}}A_lv_{}^{ml}\right)`$ (90)
$`+{\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{2}{}}}\left[(e_kv_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{v}_k)^m+{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{m}{}}}(e_kA_{lk}+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{A}_{lk})(e_kv_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{v}_k)^{ml}\right],`$
where the constants $`A_{l+},A_l,A_{lk},\stackrel{~}{A}_{lk}`$ are real numbers.

The polynomial $`P_m(u)`$ can be written, as

$`P_m(u)={\displaystyle \underset{p=1}{\overset{m}{}}}(uu_p),`$ (91)
where

$`u_p=e_+v_{p+}+e_{}v_p+\left(e_1v_{1p}+\stackrel{~}{e}_1\stackrel{~}{v}_{1p}\right)+\left(e_2v_{2p}+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\stackrel{~}{v}_{2p}\right),p=1,\mathrm{},m.`$ (92)
The quantities $`v_{p+}`$, $`v_p`$, $`e_kv_{kp}+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{v}_{kp}`$, $`p=1,\mathrm{},m,k=1,2`$, are the roots of the corresponding polynomial in Eq. (90). The roots $`v_{p+}`$, $`v_p`$ appear in complex-conjugate pairs, and $`v_{kp},\stackrel{~}{v}_{kp}`$ are real numbers. Since all these roots may be ordered arbitrarily, the polynomial $`P_m(u)`$ can be written in many different ways as a product of linear factors.

If $`P(u)=u^21`$, the degree is $`m=2`$, the coefficients of the polynomial are $`a_1=0,a_2=1`$, the coefficients defined in Eqs. (72)-(75) are $`A_{2+}=1,A_2=1,A_{21}=1,\stackrel{~}{A}_{21}=0,A_{22}=1,\stackrel{~}{A}_{22}=0`$. The expression of $`P(u)`$, Eq. (90), is $`v_+^2e_++v_{}^2e_{}+(e_1v_1+\stackrel{~}{e}_1\stackrel{~}{v}_1)^2e_1+(e_2v_2+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\stackrel{~}{v}_2)^2e_2`$. The factorization of $`P(u)`$, Eq. (91), is $`P(u)=(uu_1)(uu_2)`$, where the roots are $`u_1=\pm e_+\pm e_{}\pm e_1\pm e_2,u_2=u_1`$. If $`e_+,e_{},e_1,e_2`$ are expressed with the aid of Eq. (53) in terms of $`h_1,h_2,h_3,h_4,h_5`$, the factorizations of $`P(u)`$ are obtained as

$`\begin{array}{c}u^21=(u+1)(u1),\hfill \\ u^21=\left[u+\frac{1}{3}(1+h_1+h_22h_3+h_4+h_5)\right]\left[u\frac{1}{3}(1+h_1+h_22h_3+h_4+h_5)\right],\hfill \\ u^21=\left[u+\frac{1}{3}(1h_1+h_2+2h_3+h_4h_5)\right]\left[u\frac{1}{3}(1h_1+h_2+2h_3+h_4h_5)\right],\hfill \\ u^21=\left[u+\frac{1}{3}(2+h_1h_2+h_3h_4+h_5)\right]\left[u\frac{1}{3}(2+h_1h_2+h_3h_4+h_5)\right],\hfill \\ u^21=\left[u+\frac{1}{3}(1+2h_2+2h_4)\right]\left[u\frac{1}{3}(1+2h_2+2h_4)\right],\hfill \\ u^21=\left[u+\frac{1}{3}(2h_1h_3+2h_5)\right]\left[u\frac{1}{3}(2h_1h_3+2h_5)\right],\hfill \\ u^21=(u+h_3)(uh_3),\hfill \\ u^21=\left[u+\frac{1}{3}(2+h_1+h_2+h_3+h_4+h_5)\right]\left[u\frac{1}{3}(2+h_1+h_2+h_3+h_4+h_5)\right].\hfill \end{array}`$ (101)
(102)
It can be checked that $`(\pm e_+\pm e_{}\pm e_1\pm e_2)^2=e_++e_{}+e_1+e_2=1`$.

### 2.10 Representation of polar 6-complex numbers by irreducible matrices

If the unitary matrix which appears in the expression, Eq. (8), of the variables $`\xi _+,\xi _{},\xi _1,\eta _1,\xi _k,\eta _k`$ in terms of $`x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4,x_5`$ is called $`T`$, the irreducible representation of the hypercomplex number $`u`$ is

$$TUT^1=\left(\begin{array}{ccccc}v_+& 0& 0& 0& \\ 0& v_{}& 0& 0& \\ 0& 0& V_1& 0& \\ 0& 0& 0& V_2& \end{array}\right),$$
(103)
where $`U`$ is the matrix in Eq. (25), and $`V_k`$ are the matrices

$$V_k=\left(\begin{array}{cc}v_k& \stackrel{~}{v}_k\\ \stackrel{~}{v}_k& v_k\end{array}\right),k=1,2.$$
(104)
## 3 Planar complex numbers in 6 dimensions

### 3.1 Operations with planar complex numbers in 6 dimensions

The planar hypercomplex number $`u`$ in 6 dimensions is represented as

$$u=x_0+h_1x_1+h_2x_2+h_3x_3+h_4x_4+h_5x_5.$$
(105)
The multiplication rules for the bases $`h_1,h_2,h_3,h_4,h_5`$ are

$`h_1^2=h_2,h_2^2=h_4,h_3^2=1,h_4^2=h_2,h_5^2=h_4,h_1h_2=h_3,h_1h_3=h_4,h_1h_4=h_5,h_1h_5=1,`$ (106)
$`h_2h_3=h_5,h_2h_4=1,h_2h_5=h_1,h_3h_4=h_1,h_3h_5=h_2,h_4h_5=h_3.`$
The significance of the composition laws in Eq. (106) can be understood by representing the bases $`1,h_1,h_2,h_3,h_4,h_5`$ by points on a circle at the angles $`\alpha _k=\pi k/6`$. The product $`h_jh_k`$ will be represented by the point of the circle at the angle $`\pi (j+k)/12`$, $`j,k=0,1,\mathrm{},5`$. If $`\pi \pi (j+k)/122\pi `$, the point is opposite to the basis $`h_l`$ of angle $`\alpha _l=\pi (j+k)/6\pi `$.

The sum of the 6-complex numbers $`u`$ and $`u^{}`$ is

$$u+u^{}=x_0+x_0^{}+h_1(x_1+x_1^{})+h_1(x_2+x_2^{})+h_3(x_3+x_3^{})+h_4(x_4+x_4^{})+h_5(x_5+x_5^{}).$$
(107)
The product of the numbers $`u,u^{}`$ is

$$\begin{array}{c}uu^{}=x_0x_0^{}x_1x_5^{}x_2x_4^{}x_3x_3^{}x_4x_2^{}x_5x_1^{}\hfill \\ +h_1(x_0x_1^{}+x_1x_0^{}x_2x_5^{}x_3x_4^{}x_4x_3^{}x_5x_2^{})\hfill \\ +h_2(x_0x_2^{}+x_1x_1^{}+x_2x_0^{}x_3x_5^{}x_4x_4^{}x_5x_3^{})\hfill \\ +h_3(x_0x_3^{}+x_1x_2^{}+x_2x_1^{}+x_3x_0^{}x_4x_5^{}x_5x_4^{})\hfill \\ +h_4(x_0x_4^{}+x_1x_3^{}+x_2x_2^{}+x_3x_1^{}+x_4x_0^{}x_5x_5^{})\hfill \\ +h_5(x_0x_5^{}+x_1x_4^{}+x_2x_3^{}+x_3x_2^{}+x_4x_1^{}+x_5x_0^{}).\hfill \end{array}$$
(108)
The relation between the variables $`v_1,\stackrel{~}{v}_1,v_2,\stackrel{~}{v}_2,v_3,\stackrel{~}{v}_3`$ and $`x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4,x_5`$ are

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}v_1\\ \stackrel{~}{v}_1\\ v_2\\ \stackrel{~}{v}_2\\ v_3\\ \stackrel{~}{v}_3\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}1& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& \frac{1}{2}& 0& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\\ 0& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& 1& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& \frac{1}{2}\\ 1& 0& 1& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 1& 0& 1\\ 1& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& \frac{1}{2}& 0& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\\ 0& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& 1& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}& \frac{1}{2}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}x_0\\ x_1\\ x_2\\ x_3\\ x_4\\ x_5\end{array}\right).$$
(109)
The other variables are $`v_4=v_3,\stackrel{~}{v}_4=\stackrel{~}{v}_3,v_5=v_2,\stackrel{~}{v}_5=\stackrel{~}{v}_2,v_6=v_1,\stackrel{~}{v}_6=\stackrel{~}{v}_1`$. The variables $`v_1,\stackrel{~}{v}_1,v_2,\stackrel{~}{v}_2,v_3,\stackrel{~}{v}_3`$ will be called canonical planar 6-complex variables.

### 3.2 Geometric representation of planar complex numbers in 6 dimensions

The 6-complex number $`u=x_0+h_1x_1+h_2x_2+h_3x_3+h_4x_4+h_5x_5`$ is represented by the point $`A`$ of coordinates $`(x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4,x_5)`$. The distance from the origin $`O`$ of the 6-dimensional space to the point $`A`$ has the expression

$$d^2=x_0^2+x_1^2+x_2^2+x_3^2+x_4^2+x_5^2,$$
(110)
is called modulus of the 6-complex number $`u`$, and is designated by $`d=|u|`$. The modulus has the property that

$$|u^{}u^{\prime \prime }|\sqrt{3}|u^{}||u^{\prime \prime }|.$$
(111)
The exponential and trigonometric forms of the 6-complex number $`u`$ can be obtained conveniently in a rotated system of axes defined by a transformation which has the form

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}\xi _1\\ \stackrel{~}{\xi }_1\\ \xi _2\\ \stackrel{~}{\xi }_2\\ \xi _3\\ \stackrel{~}{\xi }_3\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2\sqrt{3}}& 0& \frac{1}{2\sqrt{3}}& \frac{1}{2}\\ 0& \frac{1}{2\sqrt{3}}& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2\sqrt{3}}\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& 0& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& 0& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& 0\\ 0& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& 0& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& 0& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2\sqrt{3}}& 0& \frac{1}{2\sqrt{3}}& \frac{1}{2}\\ 0& \frac{1}{2\sqrt{3}}& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2\sqrt{3}}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}x_0\\ x_1\\ x_2\\ x_3\\ x_4\\ x_5\end{array}\right).$$
(112)
The lines of the matrices in Eq. (112) give the components of the 6 vectors of the new basis system of axes. These vectors have unit length and are orthogonal to each other. The relations between the two sets of variables are

$$v_k=\sqrt{3}\xi _k,\stackrel{~}{v}_k=\sqrt{3}\eta _k,$$
(113)
for $`k=1,2,3`$.

The radius $`\rho _k`$ and the azimuthal angle $`\varphi _k`$ in the plane of the axes $`v_k,\stackrel{~}{v}_k`$ are

$$\rho _k^2=v_k^2+\stackrel{~}{v}_k^2,\mathrm{cos}\varphi _k=v_k/\rho _k,\mathrm{sin}\varphi _k=\stackrel{~}{v}_k/\rho _k,$$
(114)
where $`0\varphi _k<2\pi ,k=1,2,3`$, so that there are 3 azimuthal angles. The planar angles $`\psi _{k1}`$ are

$$\mathrm{tan}\psi _1=\rho _1/\rho _2,\mathrm{tan}\psi _2=\rho _1/\rho _3,$$
(115)
where $`0\psi _1\pi /2,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0}\psi _2\pi /2`$, so that there are 2 planar angles. The amplitude of an 6-complex number $`u`$ is

$$\rho =\left(\rho _1\rho _2\rho _3\right)^{1/3}.$$
(116)
It can be checked that

$$d^2=\frac{1}{3}(\rho _1^2+\rho _2^2+\rho _3^2).$$
(117)
If $`u=u^{}u^{\prime \prime }`$, the parameters of the hypercomplex numbers are related by

$$\rho _k=\rho _k^{}\rho _k^{\prime \prime },$$
(118)
$$\mathrm{tan}\psi _k=\mathrm{tan}\psi _k^{}\mathrm{tan}\psi _k^{\prime \prime },$$
(119)
$$\varphi _k=\varphi _k^{}+\varphi _k^{\prime \prime },$$
(120)
$$v_k=v_k^{}v_k^{\prime \prime }\stackrel{~}{v}_k^{}\stackrel{~}{v}_k^{\prime \prime },\stackrel{~}{v}_k=v_k^{}\stackrel{~}{v}_k^{\prime \prime }+\stackrel{~}{v}_k^{}v_k^{\prime \prime },$$
(121)
$$\rho =\rho ^{}\rho ^{\prime \prime },$$
(122)
where $`k=1,2,3`$.

The 6-complex planar number $`u=x_0+h_1x_1+h_2x_2+h_3x_3+h_4x_4+h_5x_5`$ can be represented by the matrix

$$U=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}x_0& x_1& x_2& x_3& x_4& x_5\\ x_5& x_0& x_1& x_2& x_3& x_4\\ x_4& x_5& x_0& x_1& x_2& x_3\\ x_3& x_4& x_5& x_0& x_1& x_2\\ x_2& x_3& x_4& x_5& x_0& x_1\\ x_1& x_2& x_3& x_4& x_5& x_0\end{array}\right).$$
(123)
The product $`u=u^{}u^{\prime \prime }`$ is represented by the matrix multiplication $`U=U^{}U^{\prime \prime }`$.

### 3.3 The planar 6-dimensional cosexponential functions

The planar cosexponential functions in 6 dimensions are

$$f_{6k}(y)=\underset{p=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(1)^p\frac{y^{k+6p}}{(k+6p)!},$$
(124)
for $`k=0,\mathrm{},5`$. The planar cosexponential functions of even index $`k`$ are even functions, $`f_{6,2l}(y)=f_{6,2l}(y)`$, and the planar cosexponential functions of odd index are odd functions, $`f_{6,2l+1}(y)=f_{6,2l+1}(y)`$, $`l=0,1,2`$. The exponential function of the quantity $`h_ky`$ is

$$\begin{array}{c}e^{h_1y}=f_{60}(y)+h_1f_{61}(y)+h_2f_{62}(y)+h_3f_{63}(y)+h_4f_{64}(y)+h_5f_{65}(y),\hfill \\ e^{h_2y}=g_{60}(y)g_{63}(y)+h_2\{g_{61}(y)g_{64}(y)\}+h_4\{g_{62}(y)g_{65}(y)\},\hfill \\ e^{h_3y}=f_{60}(y)f_{62}(y)+f_{64}(y)+h_3\{f_{61}(y)f_{63}(y)+f_{65}(y)\},\hfill \\ e^{h_4y}=g_{60}(y)+g_{63}(y)h_2\{g_{62}(y)+g_{65}(y)\}+h_4\{g_{61}(y)+g_{64}(y)\},\hfill \\ e^{h_5y}=f_{60}(y)+h_1f_{65}(y)h_2f_{64}(y)+h_3f_{63}(y)h_4f_{62}(y)+h_5f_{61}(y).\hfill \end{array}$$
(125)
The relations for $`h_2`$ and $`h_4`$ can be written equivalently as $`e^{h_2y}=f_{30}+h_2f_{31}+h_4f_{32},e^{h_4y}=g_{30}h_2f_{32}+h_4g_{31}`$, and the relation for $`h_3`$ can be written as $`e^{h_3y}=f_{20}+h_3f_{21}`$, which is the same as $`e^{h_3y}=\mathrm{cos}y+h_3\mathrm{sin}y`$.

The planar 6-dimensional cosexponential functions $`f_{6k}(y)`$ are related to the polar 6-dimensional cosexponential function $`g_{6k}(y)`$ by the relations

$$f_{6k}(y)=e^{i\pi k/6}g_{6k}\left(e^{i\pi /6}y\right),$$
(126)
for $`k=0,\mathrm{},5`$. The planar 6-dimensional cosexponential functions $`f_{6k}(y)`$ are related to the polar 6-dimensional cosexponential function $`g_{6k}(y)`$ also by the relations

$$f_{6k}(y)=e^{i\pi k/2}g_{6k}(iy),$$
(127)
for $`k=0,\mathrm{},5`$. The expressions of the planar 6-dimensional cosexponential functions are

$$\begin{array}{c}f_{60}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cos}y+\frac{2}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\mathrm{cos}\frac{y}{2},\hfill \\ f_{61}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{sin}y+\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}\mathrm{sinh}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\mathrm{cos}\frac{y}{2}+\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\mathrm{sin}\frac{y}{2},\hfill \\ f_{62}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cos}y+\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\mathrm{cos}\frac{y}{2}+\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}\mathrm{sinh}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\mathrm{sin}\frac{y}{2},\hfill \\ f_{63}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{sin}y+\frac{2}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\mathrm{sin}\frac{y}{2},\hfill \\ f_{64}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cos}y\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\mathrm{cos}\frac{y}{2}+\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}\mathrm{sinh}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\mathrm{sin}\frac{y}{2},\hfill \\ f_{65}(y)=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{sin}y\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}\mathrm{sinh}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\mathrm{cos}\frac{y}{2}+\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}y\mathrm{sin}\frac{y}{2}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(128)
The planar 6-dimensional cosexponential functions can be written as

$$f_{6k}(y)=\frac{1}{6}\underset{l=1}{\overset{6}{}}\mathrm{exp}\left[y\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{\pi (2l1)}{6}\right)\right]\mathrm{cos}\left[y\mathrm{sin}\left(\frac{\pi (2l1)}{6}\right)\frac{\pi (2l1)k}{6}\right],$$
(129)
for $`k=0,\mathrm{},5`$. The graphs of the planar 6-dimensional cosexponential functions are shown in Fig. 4.

It can be checked that

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{5}{}}f_{6k}^2(y)=\frac{1}{3}+\frac{2}{3}\mathrm{cosh}\sqrt{3}y.$$
(130)
The addition theorems for the planar 6-dimensional cosexponential functions are

$`\begin{array}{c}g_{60}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{60}(z)g_{61}(y)g_{65}(z)g_{62}(y)g_{64}(z)g_{63}(y)g_{63}(z)g_{64}(y)g_{62}(z)g_{65}(y)g_{61}(z),\hfill \\ g_{61}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{61}(z)+g_{61}(y)g_{60}(z)g_{62}(y)g_{65}(z)g_{63}(y)g_{64}(z)g_{64}(y)g_{63}(z)g_{65}(y)g_{62}(z),\hfill \\ g_{62}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{62}(z)+g_{61}(y)g_{61}(z)+g_{62}(y)g_{60}(z)g_{63}(y)g_{65}(z)g_{64}(y)g_{64}(z)g_{65}(y)g_{63}(z),\hfill \\ g_{63}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{63}(z)+g_{61}(y)g_{62}(z)+g_{62}(y)g_{61}(z)+g_{63}(y)g_{60}(z)g_{64}(y)g_{65}(z)g_{65}(y)g_{64}(z),\hfill \\ g_{64}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{64}(z)+g_{61}(y)g_{63}(z)+g_{62}(y)g_{62}(z)+g_{63}(y)g_{61}(z)+g_{64}(y)g_{60}(z)g_{65}(y)g_{65}(z),\hfill \\ g_{65}(y+z)=g_{60}(y)g_{65}(z)+g_{61}(y)g_{64}(z)+g_{62}(y)g_{63}(z)+g_{63}(y)g_{62}(z)+g_{64}(y)g_{61}(z)+g_{65}(y)g_{60}(z).\hfill \end{array}`$ (137)
(138)
It can be shown that

$$\begin{array}{c}\{f_{60}(y)+h_1f_{61}(y)+h_2f_{62}(y)+h_3f_{63}(y)+h_4f_{64}(y)+h_5f_{65}(y)\}^l\hfill \\ =f_{60}(ly)+h_1f_{61}(ly)+h_2f_{62}(ly)+h_3f_{63}(ly)+h_4f_{64}(ly)+h_5f_{65}(ly),\hfill \\ \{g_{60}(y)g_{63}(y)+h_2\{g_{61}(y)g_{64}(y)\}+h_4\{g_{62}(y)g_{65}(y)\}\}^l\hfill \\ =g_{60}(ly)g_{63}(ly)+h_2\{g_{61}(ly)g_{64}(ly)\}+h_4\{g_{62}(ly)g_{65}(ly)\},\hfill \\ \{f_{60}(y)f_{62}(y)+f_{64}(y)+h_3\{f_{61}(y)f_{63}(y)+f_{65}(y)\}\}^l\hfill \\ =f_{60}(ly)f_{62}(ly)+f_{64}(ly)+h_3\{f_{61}(ly)f_{63}(ly)+f_{65}(ly)\},\hfill \\ \{g_{60}(y)+g_{63}(y)h_2\{g_{62}(y)+g_{65}(y)\}+h_4\{g_{61}(y)+g_{64}(y)\}\}^l\hfill \\ =g_{60}(ly)+g_{63}(ly)h_2\{g_{62}(ly)+g_{65}(ly)\}+h_4\{g_{61}(ly)+g_{64}(ly)\},\hfill \\ \{f_{60}(y)+h_1f_{65}(y)h_2f_{64}(y)+h_3f_{63}(y)h_4f_{62}(y)+h_5f_{61}(y)\}^l\hfill \\ =f_{60}(ly)+h_1f_{65}(ly)h_2f_{64}(ly)+h_3f_{63}(ly)h_4f_{62}(ly)+h_5f_{61}(ly).\hfill \end{array}$$
(139)
The derivatives of the planar cosexponential functions are related by

$$\frac{df_{60}}{du}=f_{65},\frac{df_{61}}{du}=f_{60},\frac{df_{62}}{du}=f_{61},\frac{df_{63}}{du}=f_{62},\frac{df_{64}}{du}=f_{63},\frac{df_{65}}{du}=f_{64}.$$
(140)
### 3.4 Exponential and trigonometric forms of planar 6-complex numbers

The exponential and trigonometric forms of planar 6-complex numbers can be expressed with the aid of the hypercomplex bases

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}e_1\\ \stackrel{~}{e}_1\\ e_2\\ \stackrel{~}{e}_2\\ e_3\\ \stackrel{~}{e}_3\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}\frac{1}{3}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& 0& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}\\ 0& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{1}{3}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{1}{6}\\ \frac{1}{3}& 0& \frac{1}{3}& 0& \frac{1}{3}& 0\\ 0& \frac{1}{3}& 0& \frac{1}{3}& 0& \frac{1}{3}\\ \frac{1}{3}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{1}{6}& 0& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}\\ 0& \frac{1}{6}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{1}{3}& \frac{\sqrt{3}}{6}& \frac{1}{6}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ h_1\\ h_2\\ h_3\\ h_4\\ h_5\end{array}\right).$$
(141)
The multiplication relations for the bases $`e_k,\stackrel{~}{e}_k`$ are

$`e_k^2=e_k,\stackrel{~}{e}_k^2=e_k,e_k\stackrel{~}{e}_k=\stackrel{~}{e}_k,e_ke_l=0,e_k\stackrel{~}{e}_l=0,\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{e}_l=0,k,l=1,2,3,kl.`$ (142)
The moduli of the bases $`e_k,\stackrel{~}{e}_k`$ are

$$|e_k|=\sqrt{\frac{1}{3}},|\stackrel{~}{e}_k|=\sqrt{\frac{1}{3}},$$
(143)
for $`k=1,2,3`$. It can be shown that

$`x_0+h_1x_1+h_2x_2+h_3x_3+h_4x_4+h_5x_5={\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{3}{}}}(e_kv_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{v}_k).`$ (144)
The ensemble $`e_1,\stackrel{~}{e}_1,e_2,\stackrel{~}{e}_2,e_3,\stackrel{~}{e}_3`$ will be called the canonical planar 6-complex base, and Eq. (144) gives the canonical form of the planar 6-complex number.

The exponential form of the 6-complex number $`u`$ is

$`u=\rho \mathrm{exp}\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}(h_2h_4)\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{tan}\psi _1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(\sqrt{3}h_1h_2+h_4\sqrt{3}h_5)\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{tan}\psi _2`$ (145)
$`+\stackrel{~}{e}_1\varphi _1+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\varphi _2+\stackrel{~}{e}_3\varphi _3\}.`$
The trigonometric form of the 6-complex number $`u`$ is

$`u=d\sqrt{3}\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{tan}^2\psi _1}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{tan}^2\psi _2}}\right)^{1/2}`$ (146)
$`\left(e_1+{\displaystyle \frac{e_2}{\mathrm{tan}\psi _1}}+{\displaystyle \frac{e_3}{\mathrm{tan}\psi _2}}\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(\stackrel{~}{e}_1\varphi _1+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\varphi _2+\stackrel{~}{e}_3\varphi _3\right).`$
The modulus $`d`$ and the amplitude $`\rho `$ are related by

$`d=\rho {\displaystyle \frac{2^{1/3}}{\sqrt{6}}}\left(\mathrm{tan}\psi _1\mathrm{tan}\psi _2\right)^{1/3}\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{tan}^2\psi _1}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{tan}^2\psi _2}}\right)^{1/2}.`$ (147)
### 3.5 Elementary functions of a planar 6-complex variable

The logarithm and power functions of the 6-complex number $`u`$ exist for all $`x_0,\mathrm{},x_5`$ and are

$`\mathrm{ln}u=\mathrm{ln}\rho +{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}(h_2h_4)\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{tan}\psi _1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(\sqrt{3}h_1h_2+h_4\sqrt{3}h_5)\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{tan}\psi _2`$ (148)
$`+\stackrel{~}{e}_1\varphi _1+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\varphi _2+\stackrel{~}{e}_3\varphi _3,`$
$$u^m=\underset{k=1}{\overset{3}{}}\rho _k^m(e_k\mathrm{cos}m\varphi _k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\mathrm{sin}m\varphi _k).$$
(149)
The exponential of the 6-complex variable $`u`$ is

$`e^u={\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{3}{}}}e^{v_k}\left(e_k\mathrm{cos}\stackrel{~}{v}_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\mathrm{sin}\stackrel{~}{v}_k\right).`$ (150)
The trigonometric functions of the 6-complex variable $`u`$ are

$$\mathrm{cos}u=\underset{k=1}{\overset{3}{}}\left(e_k\mathrm{cos}v_k\mathrm{cosh}\stackrel{~}{v}_k\stackrel{~}{e}_k\mathrm{sin}v_k\mathrm{sinh}\stackrel{~}{v}_k\right),$$
(151)
$$\mathrm{sin}u=\underset{k=1}{\overset{3}{}}\left(e_k\mathrm{sin}v_k\mathrm{cosh}\stackrel{~}{v}_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\mathrm{cos}v_k\mathrm{sinh}\stackrel{~}{v}_k\right).$$
(152)
The hyperbolic functions of the 6-complex variable $`u`$ are

$$\mathrm{cosh}u=\underset{k=1}{\overset{3}{}}\left(e_k\mathrm{cosh}v_k\mathrm{cos}\stackrel{~}{v}_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\mathrm{sinh}v_k\mathrm{sin}\stackrel{~}{v}_k\right),$$
(153)
$$\mathrm{sinh}u=\underset{k=1}{\overset{3}{}}\left(e_k\mathrm{sinh}v_k\mathrm{cos}\stackrel{~}{v}_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\mathrm{cosh}v_k\mathrm{sin}\stackrel{~}{v}_k\right).$$
(154)
### 3.6 Power series of 6-complex numbers

A power series of the 6-complex variable $`u`$ is a series of the form

$$a_0+a_1u+a_2u^2+\mathrm{}+a_lu^l+\mathrm{}.$$
(155)
Since

$$|au^l|3^{l/2}|a||u|^l,$$
(156)
the series is absolutely convergent for

$$|u|<c,$$
(157)
where

$$c=\underset{l\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{|a_l|}{\sqrt{3}|a_{l+1}|}.$$
(158)
If $`a_l=_{p=0}^5h_pa_{lp}`$, and

$$A_{lk}=\underset{p=0}{\overset{5}{}}a_{lp}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\pi (2k1)p}{6},$$
(159)
$$\stackrel{~}{A}_{lk}=\underset{p=0}{\overset{5}{}}a_{lp}\mathrm{sin}\frac{\pi (2k1)p}{6},$$
(160)
where $`k=1,2,3`$, the series (155) can be written as

$$\underset{l=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left[\underset{k=1}{\overset{3}{}}(e_kA_{lk}+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{A}_{lk})(e_kv_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{v}_k)^l\right].$$
(161)
The series is absolutely convergent for

$$\rho _k<c_k,k=1,2,3,$$
(162)
where

$$c_k=\underset{l\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{\left[A_{lk}^2+\stackrel{~}{A}_{lk}^2\right]^{1/2}}{\left[A_{l+1,k}^2+\stackrel{~}{A}_{l+1,k}^2\right]^{1/2}}.$$
(163)
### 3.7 Analytic functions of a planar 6-complex variable

The expansion of an analytic function $`f(u)`$ around $`u=u_0`$ is

$$f(u)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{k!}f^{(k)}(u_0)(uu_0)^k.$$
(164)
If $`f(u)=_{k=0}^5h_kP_k(x_0,\mathrm{},x_5)`$, then

$$\frac{P_0}{x_0}=\frac{P_1}{x_1}=\frac{P_2}{x_2}=\frac{P_3}{x_3}=\frac{P_4}{x_4}=\frac{P_5}{x_5},$$
(165)
$$\frac{P_1}{x_0}=\frac{P_2}{x_1}=\frac{P_3}{x_2}=\frac{P_4}{x_3}=\frac{P_5}{x_4}=\frac{P_0}{x_5},$$
(166)
$$\frac{P_2}{x_0}=\frac{P_3}{x_1}=\frac{P_4}{x_2}=\frac{P_5}{x_3}=\frac{P_0}{x_4}=\frac{P_1}{x_5},$$
(167)
$$\frac{P_3}{x_0}=\frac{P_4}{x_1}=\frac{P_5}{x_2}=\frac{P_0}{x_3}=\frac{P_1}{x_4}=\frac{P_2}{x_5},$$
(168)
$$\frac{P_4}{x_0}=\frac{P_5}{x_1}=\frac{P_0}{x_2}=\frac{P_1}{x_3}=\frac{P_2}{x_4}=\frac{P_3}{x_5},$$
(169)
$$\frac{P_5}{x_0}=\frac{P_0}{x_1}=\frac{P_1}{x_2}=\frac{P_2}{x_3}=\frac{P_3}{x_4}=\frac{P_4}{x_5},$$
(170)
and

$`{\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_0x_l}}={\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_1x_{l1}}}=\mathrm{}={\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_{[l/2]}x_{l[l/2]}}}`$ (171)
$`={\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_{l+1}x_5}}={\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_{l+2}x_4}}=\mathrm{}={\displaystyle \frac{^2P_k}{x_{l+1+[(4l)/2]}x_{5[(4l)/2]}}}.`$
### 3.8 Integrals of planar 6-complex functions

If $`f(u)`$ is an analytic 6-complex function, then

$$_\mathrm{\Gamma }\frac{f(u)du}{uu_0}=2\pi f(u_0)\left\{\stackrel{~}{e}_1\mathrm{int}(u_{0\xi _1\eta _1},\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\xi _1\eta _1})+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\mathrm{int}(u_{0\xi _2\eta _2},\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\xi _2\eta _2})+\stackrel{~}{e}_3\mathrm{int}(u_{0\xi _3\eta _3},\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\xi _3\eta _3})\right\},$$
(172)
where $`u_{0\xi _k\eta _k}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\xi _k\eta _k}`$ are respectively the projections of the point $`u_0`$ and of the loop $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ on the plane defined by the axes $`\xi _k`$ and $`\eta _k`$, $`k=1,2,3`$.

### 3.9 Factorization of 6-complex polynomials

A polynomial of degree $`m`$ of the 6-complex variable $`u`$ has the form

$$P_m(u)=u^m+a_1u^{m1}+\mathrm{}+a_{m1}u+a_m,$$
(173)
where $`a_l`$, for $`l=1,\mathrm{},m`$, are 6-complex constants. If $`a_l=_{p=0}^5h_pa_{lp}`$, and with the notations of Eqs. (159)-(160) applied for $`l=1,\mathrm{},m`$, the polynomial $`P_m(u)`$ can be written as

$`P_m={\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{3}{}}}\left[(e_kv_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{v}_k)^m+{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{m}{}}}(e_kA_{lk}+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{A}_{lk})(e_kv_k+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{v}_k)^{ml}\right],`$ (174)
where the constants $`A_{lk},\stackrel{~}{A}_{lk}`$ are real numbers.

The polynomial $`P_m(u)`$ can be written as a product of factors

$`P_m(u)={\displaystyle \underset{p=1}{\overset{m}{}}}(uu_p),`$ (175)
where

$`u_p={\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{3}{}}}\left(e_kv_{kp}+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{v}_{kp}\right),`$ (176)
for $`p=1,\mathrm{},m`$. The quantities $`e_kv_{kp}+\stackrel{~}{e}_k\stackrel{~}{v}_{kp}`$, $`p=1,\mathrm{},m,k=1,2,3`$, are the roots of the corresponding polynomial in Eq. (174) and are real numbers. Since these roots may be ordered arbitrarily, the polynomial $`P_m(u)`$ can be written in many different ways as a product of linear factors.

If $`P(u)=u^2+1`$, the degree is $`m=2`$, the coefficients of the polynomial are $`a_1=0,a_2=1`$, the coefficients defined in Eqs. (159)-(160) are $`A_{21}=1,\stackrel{~}{A}_{21}=0,A_{22}=1,\stackrel{~}{A}_{22}=0,A_{23}=1,\stackrel{~}{A}_{23}=0`$. The expression, Eq. (174), is P(u)=$`(e_1v_1+\stackrel{~}{e}_1\stackrel{~}{v}_1)^2+e_1+(e_2v_2+\stackrel{~}{e}_2\stackrel{~}{v}_2)^2+e_2+(e_3v_3+\stackrel{~}{e}_3\stackrel{~}{v}_3)^2+e_3`$. The factorization of $`P(u)`$, Eq. (175), is $`P(u)=(uu_1)(uu_2)`$, where the roots are $`u_1=\pm \stackrel{~}{e}_1\pm \stackrel{~}{e}_2\pm \stackrel{~}{e}_3,u_2=u_1`$. If $`\stackrel{~}{e}_1,\stackrel{~}{e}_2,\stackrel{~}{e}_3`$ are expressed with the aid of Eq. (141) in terms of $`h_1,h_2,h_3,h_4,h_5`$, the factorizations of $`P(u)`$ are obtained as

$`\begin{array}{c}u^2+1=\left[u+\frac{1}{3}(2h_1+h_3+2h_5)\right]\left[u\frac{1}{3}(2h_1+h_3+2h_5)\right],\hfill \\ u^2+1=\left[u+\frac{1}{3}(h_1+\sqrt{3}h_2h_3+\sqrt{3}h_4+h_5)\right]\left[u\frac{1}{3}(h_1+\sqrt{3}h_2h_3+\sqrt{3}h_4+h_5)\right],\hfill \\ u^2+1=(u+h_3)(uh_3),\hfill \\ u^2+1=\left[u+\frac{1}{3}(h_1+\sqrt{3}h_2+h_3+\sqrt{3}h_4h_5)\right]\left[u\frac{1}{3}(h_1+\sqrt{3}h_2+h_3+\sqrt{3}h_4h_5)\right].\hfill \end{array}`$ (181)
(182)
It can be checked that $`(\pm \stackrel{~}{e}_1\pm \stackrel{~}{e}_2+\pm \stackrel{~}{e}_3)^2=e_1e_2e_3=1`$.

### 3.10 Representation of planar 6-complex numbers by irreducible matrices

If the unitary matrix written in Eq. (112) is called $`T`$, the matric $`TUT^1`$ provides an irreducible representation  of the planar hypercomplex number $`u`$,

$$TUT^1=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}V_1& 0& 0\\ 0& V_2& 0\\ 0& 0& V_3\end{array}\right),$$
(183)
where $`U`$ is the matrix in Eq. (123) used to represent the 6-complex number $`u`$, and the matrices $`V_k`$ are

$$V_k=\left(\begin{array}{cc}v_k& \stackrel{~}{v}_k\\ \stackrel{~}{v}_k& v_k\end{array}\right),$$
(184)
for $`k=1,2,3`$.

## 4 Conclusions

The operations of addition and multiplication of the polar 6-complex numbers introduced in this work have a geometric interpretation based on the amplitude $`\rho `$, the modulus $`d`$ and the polar, planar and azimuthal angles $`\theta _+,\theta _{},\psi _1,\varphi _1,\varphi _2`$. If $`v_+>0`$ and $`v_{}>0`$, the polar 6-complex numbers can be written in exponential and trigonometric forms with the aid of the modulus, amplitude and the angular variables. The polar 6-complex functions defined by series of powers are analytic, and the partial derivatives of the components of the 6-complex functions are closely related. The integrals of polar 6-complex functions are independent of path in regions where the functions are regular. The fact that the exponential form of the polar 6-complex numbers depends on the cyclic variables $`\varphi _1,\varphi _2`$ leads to the concept of pole and residue for integrals on closed paths. The polynomials of polar 6-complex variables can be written as products of linear or quadratic factors.

The operations of addition and multiplication of the planar 6-complex numbers introduced in this work have a geometric interpretation based on the amplitude $`\rho `$, the modulus $`d`$, the planar angles $`\psi _1,\psi _2`$ and the azimuthal angles $`\varphi _1,\varphi _2,\varphi _3`$. The planar 6-complex numbers can be written in exponential and trigonometric forms with the aid of these variables. The planar 6-complex functions defined by series of powers are analytic, and the partial derivatives of the components of the 6-complex functions are closely related. The integrals of planar 6-complex functions are independent of path in regions where the functions are regular. The fact that the exponential form of the 6-complex numbers depends on the cyclic variables $`\varphi _1,\varphi _2,\varphi _3`$ leads to the concept of pole and residue for integrals on closed paths. The polynomials of planar 6-complex variables can always be written as products of linear factors, although the factorization is not unique.

FIGURE CAPTIONS

Fig. 1. Representation of the polar hypercomplex bases $`1,h_1,h_2,h_3,h_4,h_5`$ by points on a circle at the angles $`\alpha _k=2\pi k/6`$. The product $`h_jh_k`$ will be represented by the point of the circle at the angle $`2\pi (j+k)/6`$, $`i,k=0,1,\mathrm{},5`$, where $`h_0=1`$. If $`2\pi 2\pi (j+k)/64\pi `$, the point represents the basis $`h_l`$ of angle $`\alpha _l=2\pi (j+k)/62\pi `$.

Fig. 2. Polar cosexponential functions $`g_{60},g_{61},g_{62},g_{63},g_{64},g_{65}`$.

Fig. 3. Representation of the planar hypercomplex bases $`1,h_1,h_2,h_3,h_4,h_5`$ by points on a circle at the angles $`\alpha _k=\pi k/6`$. The product $`h_jh_k`$ will be represented by the point of the circle at the angle $`\pi (j+k)/12`$, $`i,k=0,1,\mathrm{},5`$. If $`\pi \pi (j+k)/122\pi `$, the point is opposite to the basis $`h_l`$ of angle $`\alpha _l=\pi (j+k)/6\pi `$.

Fig. 4. Planar cosexponential functions $`f_{60},f_{61},f_{62},f_{63},f_{64},f_{65}`$.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The quantization of relativistic field theory at fixed light-front time $`\tau =(tz/c)/\sqrt{2}`$, was proposed by Dirac  half a century ago. It has found important applications  in gauge theory and string theory. The light-front (LF) quantization of QCD in its Hamiltonian form provides an alternative approach to lattice gauge theory for the computation of nonperturbative quantities. We discuss here  the LF quantization of QCD gauge field theory in l.c. gauge employing the Dyson-Wick S-matrix expansion based on LF-time-ordered products. The case of covariant gauge has been discussed in our earlier work .

## 2  QCD action in light-cone gauge

The LF coordinates are defined as $`x^\mu =(x^+=x_{}=(x^0+x^3)/\sqrt{2},x^{}=x_+=(x^0x^3)/\sqrt{2},x^{})`$, where $`x^{}=(x^1,x^2)=(x_1,x_2)`$ are the transverse coordinates and $`\mu =,+,1,2`$. The coordinate $`x^+\tau `$ will be taken as the LF time, while $`x^{}`$ is the longitudinal spatial coordinate.

The quantum action of QCD in l.c. gauge is described in the standard notation by

$$_{QCD}=\frac{1}{4}F^{a\mu \nu }F_{}^{a}{}_{\mu \nu }{}^{}+B^aA_{}^{a}{}_{}{}^{}+\overline{c}^a𝒟_{}^{ab}c^b+\overline{\psi }^i(i\gamma ^\mu D_{}^{ij}{}_{\mu }{}^{}m\delta ^{ij})\psi ^j.$$

Here $`\overline{c}^a,c^a`$ are anticommuting ghost fields and auxiliary fields $`B^a(x)`$ are introduced in the linear gauge-fixing term. The action is invariant under BRS symmetry transformations. Since $`B^a`$ carries canonical dimension three no quadratic terms in them are permitted.

## 3 Spinor field propagator on the LF

The quark field term in LF coordinates reads

$`\overline{\psi }^i(i\gamma ^\mu D_{}^{ij}{}_{\mu }{}^{}m\delta ^{ij})\psi ^j`$ $`=`$ $`i\sqrt{2}\overline{\psi }_{+}^{}{}_{}{}^{i}\gamma ^0D_{}^{ij}{}_{+}{}^{}\psi _{+}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}+\overline{\psi }_{+}^{}{}_{}{}^{i}(i\gamma ^{}D_{}^{ij}{}_{}{}^{}m\delta ^{ij})\psi _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}`$ (1)
$`+`$ $`\overline{\psi }_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{i}\left[i\sqrt{2}\gamma ^0D_{}^{ij}{}_{}{}^{}\psi _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}+(i\gamma ^{}D_{}^{ij}{}_{}{}^{}m\delta ^{ij})\psi _{+}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}\right]`$
where  $`\psi _\pm =\mathrm{\Lambda }^\pm \psi `$. This shows that the minus components $`\psi _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}`$ are in fact nondynamical fields without kinetic terms. Their equations of motion in l.c. gauge lead to the constraint equations

$$i\sqrt{2}\psi _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}(x)=\frac{1}{_{}}(i\gamma ^0\gamma ^{}D_{}^{kl}{}_{}{}^{}m\gamma ^0\delta ^{kl})\psi _{+}^{}{}_{}{}^{l}(x).$$

The free field propagator of $`\psi _+`$ is determined from the quadratic terms (suppressing the color index) $`i\sqrt{2}\psi _{+}^{}{}_{}{}^{}_+\psi _++\psi _{+}^{}{}_{}{}^{}(i\gamma ^0\gamma ^{}_{}m\gamma ^0)\psi _{}`$ where $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}i_{}\psi _{}`$$`=(i\gamma ^{}_{}+m)\gamma ^+\psi _+`$. The equation of motion for the independent component $`\psi _+`$ is nonlocal in the longitudinal direction. In the quantized theory we find the following nonvanishing local anticommutator $`\{\psi _+(\tau ,x^{},x^{}),\psi _{+}^{}{}_{}{}^{}(\tau ,y^{},y^{})\}`$$`=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\mathrm{\Lambda }^+\delta (x^{}y^{})\delta ^2(x^{}y^{})`$. They may be realized in momentum space through the following Fourier transform

$`\psi (x)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{(2\pi )^3}}}{\displaystyle \underset{r=\pm }{}}{\displaystyle d^2p^{}𝑑p^+}`$ $`\theta (p^+)`$ $`\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{m}{p^+}}}[b^{(r)}(p)u^{(r)}(p)e^{ipx}`$ (2)
$`+`$ $`d^{(r)}(p)v^{(r)}(p)e^{ipx}]`$
where

$$u^{(r)}(p)=\frac{1}{(\sqrt{2}p^+m)^{\frac{1}{2}}}\left[\sqrt{2}p^+\mathrm{\Lambda }^++(m+\gamma ^{}p_{})\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}\right]\stackrel{~}{u}^{(r)}$$

and the nonvanishing anticommutation relations are given by: $`\{b^{(r)}(p),b_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{(s)}(p^{})\}`$ $`=\{d^{(r)}(p),d_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{(s)}(p^{})\}=\delta _{rs}\delta (p^+p^+)\delta ^2(p^{}p^{})`$.

The free propagator then follows to be

$$<0|T(\psi _{}^{i}{}_{+}{}^{}(x)\psi _{}^{j}{}_{+}{}^{}(0))|0>=\frac{i\delta ^{ij}}{(2\pi )^4}d^4q\frac{\sqrt{2}q^+\mathrm{\Lambda }^+}{(q^2m^2+iϵ)}e^{iq.x}.$$

It is causal and contains no instantaneous term.

## 4 Gauge field propagator in l.c. gauge

In the l.c. gauge the ghost fields decouple and it is sufficient to study the free abelian gauge theory with the action

$$d^2x^{}𝑑x^{}\left\{\frac{1}{2}\left[(F_+)^2(F_{12})^2+2F_+F_{}\right]+BA_{}\right\}$$

where $`F_{\mu \nu }=`$ $`(_\mu A_\nu _\nu A_\mu )`$. Following the Dirac procedure we show that the phase space constraints remove all the canonical momenta from the theory. The surviving variables are $`A_{}`$ and $`A_+`$. The latter, however, is a dependent variable satisfying $`_{}(_{}A_+_{}A_{})=0`$. The construction of the Dirac bracket shows that in the l.c. gauge on the LF we simultaneously obtain the Lorentz condition $`A=0`$ as an operator equation as well. The reduced Hamiltonian is found to be $`H_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{LF}=\frac{1}{2}d^2x^{}𝑑x^{}\left[(_{}A_+)^2+\frac{1}{2}F_{^{}}F^{^{}}\right]`$

The equal-$`\tau `$ commutators are $`[A_{}(x),A_{}(y)]`$ $`=i\delta _{^{}}K(x,y)`$ where $`K(x,y)=(1/4)ϵ(x^{}y^{})\delta ^2(x^{}y^{})`$. They are nonlocal in the longitudinal coordinate but there is no violation of the microcausality principle on the LF. They may be realized in momentum space by the following Fourier transform

$`A^\mu (x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{(2\pi )^3}}}{\displaystyle d^2k^{}𝑑k^+\frac{\theta (k^+)}{\sqrt{2k^+}}}`$ (3)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{()}{}}E_{()}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu }(k)\left[b_{()}(k^+,k^{})e^{ikx}+b_{()}^{}(k^+,k^{})e^{ikx}\right].`$
where $`k^{}`$ is shown  to be defined through the dispersion relation, $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}k^{}k^+=k^{}k^{}`$ corresponding to a massless photon. Here the nonvanishing commutators are given by $`[b_{()}(k),b_{}^{}{}_{(^{})}{}^{}(k^{})]`$ $`=\delta _{()(^{})}`$ $`\delta ^3(kk^{})`$. The free gluon propagator is hence found to be

$`<0|T(A_{}^{a}{}_{\mu }{}^{}(x)A_{}^{b}{}_{\nu }{}^{}(0))|0>`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i\delta ^{ab}}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle d^4ke^{ikx}\frac{D_{\mu \nu }(k)}{k^2+iϵ}},`$ (4)
$`D_{\mu \nu }(k)`$ $`=`$ $`D_{\nu \mu }(k)=g_{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{n_\mu k_\nu +n_\nu k_\mu }{(nk)}}{\displaystyle \frac{k^2}{(nk)^2}}n_\mu n_\nu `$
with $`n_\mu =\delta _{\mu }^{}{}_{}{}^{+}`$, $`E_{()}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu }(k)=`$$`E^{()\mu }(k)`$$`=D_{}^\mu (k)`$, $`k^\mu D_{\mu \nu }(k)=0`$, $`n^\mu D_{\mu \nu }(k)=0`$.

## 5 QCD Hamiltonian in l.c. gauge

The interaction Hamiltonian in the l.c. gauge, $`A_{}^a=0`$, may be rewritten  as

$`_{int}`$ $`=`$ $`+{\displaystyle \frac{g}{2}}f^{abc}(_\mu A_{}^{a}{}_{\nu }{}^{}_\nu A_{}^{a}{}_{\mu }{}^{})A^{b\mu }A^{c\nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{4}}f^{abc}f^{ade}A_{b\mu }A^{d\mu }A_{c\nu }A^{e\nu }`$ (5)
$`g\overline{\psi }^i\gamma ^\mu A_{\mu }^{}{}_{}{}^{ij}\psi ^j{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{2}}\overline{\psi }^i\gamma ^+(\gamma ^{^{}}A_{^{}})^{ij}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{i_{}}}(\gamma ^{}A_{})^{jk}\psi ^k`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{2}}j_a^+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(_{})^2}}j_a^+`$
where $`j_a^+=\overline{\psi }^i\gamma ^+(t_a)^{ij}\psi ^j+f_{abc}(_{}A_{b\mu })A^{c\mu }`$ and a sum over distinct flavours, not written explicitly, is to be understood.

The fact that gluons have only physical degrees of freedom in l.c. gauge may provide an analysis of coupling renormalization similar to that of the pinch technique, which is currently being discussed  in order to obtain a shorter expansion and scheme for QCD. In addition, the couplings of gluons in the l.c. gauge provides a simple procedure for the factorization of soft and hard gluonic corrections in high momentum transfer inclusive and exclusive reactions.