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# Charged Brane-World Black Holes

## I Introduction

In many of the brane-world scenarios, the matter fields which we observe are trapped on the brane (see also  for older proposals). If matter trapped on a brane undergoes gravitational collapse then a black hole will form. Such a black hole will have a horizon that extends into the dimensions transverse to the brane: it will be a higher dimensional object.

Within the context of the second Randall-Sundrum (RS) scenario, it is important that the induced metric on the domain wall***In this paper, we use the terms “domain wall” and “brane” interchangeably. is, to a good approximation, the solution predicted by standard General Relativity in four dimensions. Otherwise the usual astrophysical properties of black holes and stars would not be recovered.

In a recent paper , the gravitational collapse of uncharged, non-rotating matter in the second model of RS was investigated. There it was proposed that what would appear to be a four-dimensional black hole from the point of view of an observer in the brane-world, is really a five-dimensional “black cigar”, which extends into the extra fifth dimension. If this cigar extends all the way down to the anti-de Sitter (AdS) horizon, then we recover the metric for a black string in AdS. However, such a black string is unstable near the AdS horizon. This instability, known as the “Gregory-Laflamme” instability , implies that the string will fragment in the region near the AdS horizon. However, the solution is stable far from the AdS horizon. Thus, one may conclude that the late time solution describes an object that looks like the black string far from the AdS horizon (so the metric on the domain wall is close to Schwarzschild) but has a horizon that closes off before reaching the AdS horizon. A similar effect occurs when there is more than one extra dimension transverse to the brane . These conclusions are supported by an exact calculation for a three dimensional RS model .

In this paper, we consider black holes charged under gauge fields which are trapped on the brane. The flux lines of such gauge fields can pierce the horizon only where it actually intersects the brane. The bulk theory is the same as for the uncharged case so one might expect that the black cigar solution would still describe the bulk metric of such a charged brane-world black hole. The effect of the charge might simply be to modify the position of the brane in the bulk spacetime. If this were the case, then we might be able to repeat the analysis of  by starting with the black string metric and solving the Israel equations appropriate for the presence of a gauge field on the brane. However, in the Appendix we prove that this is not possible. It is still conceivable that the bulk metric is the same as that of the black cigar, but unfortunately the form of the cigar metric is not known. We are therefore forced to study charged brane-world black holes numerically.

A recent paper  has claimed to give a solution describing a non-charged black hole in the RS scenario. By using the brane-world Einstein equations derived in , it was shown that a Reissner-Nordstrom (RN) geometry could arise on the domain wall provided that the bulk Weyl tensor take a particular form at the wall. We regard this solution as unsatisfactory for two reasons. First, there is no Maxwell field on the domain wall so the black hole cannot be regarded as charged In the AdS/CFT interpretation  of the RS model, this black hole must be charged with respect to a $`U(1)`$ subgroup of the dual CFT.. Secondly, only the induced metric on the domain wall was given – the bulk metric was not discussed. The solution is simply a solution to the Hamiltonian constraint of general relativity and gives appropriate initial data for evolution into the bulk. Until this evolution is performed and boundary conditions in the bulk are imposed, it is not clear what this solution represents. For example, it might give rise to some pathology such as a naked curvature singularity. We would then not regard it as a brane-world black hole, which should have a regular horizon . One aim of the present paper is to evolve the initial data of  in order to understand what this “solution” really describes.

The second aim of this paper is to study brane-world black holes that are charged with respect to a Maxwell field on the brane. We start by solving the Hamiltonian constraint on the brane to give an induced metric that is close to, but not exactly, Reissner-Nordstrom. The “charge” of  arises as an integration constant in the metric. We then evolve this “initial” data away from the domain wall in order to study the resulting bulk spacetime. Our solution to the Hamiltonian constraint is based on a metric ansatz that is almost certainly not obeyed by the true solution describing a charged brane-world black hole. However, we expect our ansatz to be sufficiently close to the true solution that useful results can be obtained without a knowledge of the exact metric, just as in .

Our results suggest that it is more natural to take the “charge squared” parameter of  to be negative than positive since the latter gives an apparent horizon that grows relative to the black string as one moves away from the brane. For black holes charged with respect to a Maxwell field, we find that the horizon shrinks in the fifth dimension. In both cases (and for black holes carrying both charges), we obtain a numerical upper bound on the length of the horizon in the fifth dimension. We find that increasing either type of charge tends to decrease this length, even if the horizon radius on the brane is held fixed.

It is worth emphasizing that this paper is quite distinct from recent papers which have appeared on the subject of charged black holes in brane-world scenarios . This is because these papers all study the effects of bulk charges on the brane-world geometry, whereas our analysis deals with gauge degrees of freedom that are truly localized on the brane. One consistent interpretation of the RN solution of  would be as the induced metric on the brane in the (bulk) charged black string solution of . However, in this paper we will study whether sense can be made of this solution without introducing bulk gauge fields.

Related numerical work on uncharged brane-world black holes has recently appeared in . The difference between that paper and the present work is that we will prescribe “initial” data on the brane and evolve it in the spacelike direction transverse to the brane, whereas in , initial data was prescribed on a spacelike hypersurface and evolved in a timelike direction.

The outline of this paper is as follows. First, we set up the basic notation and formalism for a covariant treatment of the second brane-world scenario of Randall and Sundrum. Next we solve the Hamiltonian constraint for “initial” data on the brane and obtain a RN solution with small corrections. We then numerically evolve the solution into the bulk subject to the constraint that the metric solve the vacuum Einstein equations with a negative cosmological constant. Finally we discuss the properties of the resulting bulk spacetime.

## II Formulation and strategy

### A Covariant formulation of brane-world gravity

We shall be discussing a thin domain wall in a five dimensional bulk spacetime. We shall assume that the spacetime is symmetric under reflections in the wall. The 5-dimensional Einstein equation is

$`{}_{}{}^{(5)}R_{\mu \nu }^{}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{}_{}{}^{(5)}g_{\mu \nu }^{}{}_{}{}^{(5)}R=\kappa _5^2{}_{}{}^{(5)}T_{\mu \nu }^{},`$ (1)
where $`\kappa _5^2=8\pi G_5`$ and $`G_5`$ is the five dimensional Newton constant. The energy-momentum tensor has the form

$`{}_{}{}^{(5)}T_{}^{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{\Lambda }_5{}_{}{}^{(5)}g_{\mu \nu }^{}+\delta (\chi )[\lambda h_{\mu \nu }+T_{\mu \nu }].`$ (2)
In the above, the brane is assumed to be located at $`\chi =0`$ where $`\chi `$ is a Gaussian normal coordinate to the domain wall. $`\chi =0`$ is the fixed point of the $`Z_2`$ reflection symmetry. $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\lambda `$ denote the bulk cosmological constant and the domain wall tension respectively. $`h_{\mu \nu }`$ is the induced metric on the wall, given by $`h_{\mu \nu }={}_{}{}^{(5)}g_{\mu \nu }^{}n_\mu n_\nu `$ where $`n_\mu `$ is the unit normal to the wall. The effect of the singular source at $`\chi =0`$ is described by Israel’s junction condition

$`K_{\mu \nu }|_{\chi =0}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\kappa _5^2\lambda h_{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\kappa _5^2\left(T_{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}h_{\mu \nu }T\right).`$ (3)
Here, $`K_{\mu \nu }`$ denotes the extrinsic curvature of the domain wall, defined by $`K_{\mu \nu }=h_\mu ^\rho h_\nu ^\sigma _\rho n_\sigma `$. In equation (3), we are calculating the extrinsic curvature on the side of the domain wall that the normal point into. This is because we want to evolve initial date prescribed on the wall in the direction of this normal. Using the Gauss equation and the junction condition, we recover the Einstein equation on the brane:

$`{}_{}{}^{(4)}G_{\mu \nu }^{}=\mathrm{\Lambda }_4h_{\mu \nu }+8\pi G_4T_{\mu \nu }+\kappa _5^4\pi _{\mu \nu }E_{\mu \nu },`$ (4)
where

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\kappa _5^2\left(\mathrm{\Lambda }_5+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\kappa _5^2\lambda ^2\right)`$ (5)
$`G_4`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _5^4\lambda }{48\pi }}`$ (6)
$`\pi _{\mu \nu }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{12}}TT_{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}T_{\mu \alpha }T_\nu ^\alpha +{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8}}h_{\mu \nu }T_{\alpha \beta }T^{\alpha \beta }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}h_{\mu \nu }T^2`$ (7)
and $`E_{\mu \nu }`$ is the ‘electric’ part of the 5-dimensional Weyl tensor:

$$E_{\mu \nu }={}_{}{}^{(5)}C_{\mu \alpha \nu \beta }^{}n^\alpha n^\beta $$
(8)
We shall now specialize to the RS model. This has

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_5=\frac{6}{\kappa _5^2\mathrm{}^2},\lambda =\frac{6}{\kappa _5^2\mathrm{}},$$
(9)
which implies

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_4=0,G_4=\frac{G_5}{\mathrm{}}.$$
(10)
The matter on the domain wall will be assumed to be a Maxwell field. This implies $`T=0`$, so we can rewrite the Einstein equation as

$`{}_{}{}^{(4)}R_{\mu \nu }^{}=8\pi G_4T_{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _5^4}{4}}T_{\mu \rho }T_\nu ^\rho E_{\mu \nu }.`$ (11)
The Israel equation gives the extrinsic curvature of the wall:

$`K_{\mu \nu }|_{\chi =0}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{}}}h_{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _5^2}{2}}T_{\mu \nu }.`$ (12)
### B Strategy

We adopt the following procedure: We take a certain charged black hole geometry for the brane. When we solve for the bulk, we Wick rotate twice. This gives a Kaluza-Klein bubble spacetime  from which we obtain boundary conditions at the condition on the bubble surface. Wick rotating back gives boundary conditions at the bulk horizon for our problem. The Kaluza-Klein bubble spacetime is reviewed in Appendix B.

### C Metric and field equations

We assume that the induced metric on the brane takes the form

$`ds^2=U(r)dt^2+{\displaystyle \frac{dr^2}{U(r)}}+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2,`$ (13)
where $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2=d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2`$. Note that this is a guess. It is unlikely that the exact metric describing a brane-world black hole would have precisely this form \- in general one would expect the coefficients of $`dt^2`$ and $`dr^2`$ to be independent (when the coefficient of $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2`$ is fixed as $`r^2`$). However, we know that the induced metric describing a charged black hole should be close to Reissner-Nordstrom, which can be written in this form, so our ansatz is probably quite a good guess. We expect that deviations from the exact metric will give rise to pathologies when this initial data is evolved into the bulk. Even so, the analysis of  shows that it is possible to extract quite a lot of information from a pathological solution. The function $`U(r)`$ will be determined from the Hamiltonian constraint equation below. The bulk metric is assumed to take the form

$`ds^2`$ $`=`$ $`N(\chi ,r)^2d\chi ^2e^{2a(\chi ,r)}U(r)dt^2`$ (15)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{e^{2b(\chi ,r)}dr^2}{U(r)}}+e^{2c(\chi ,r)}r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2,`$
$`N`$ is the lapse function which describes the embedding geometry of the hypersurface spanned by $`(t,r,\theta ,\phi )`$ during the evolution in the bulk spacetime.

The extrinsic curvature of a hypersurface of constant $`\chi `$ (with unit normal $`n=Nd\chi `$) is given by

$`K_t^t={\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}}{N}},K_r^r={\displaystyle \frac{\dot{b}}{N}}\mathrm{and}K_\theta ^\theta =K_\phi ^\phi ={\displaystyle \frac{\dot{c}}{N}},`$ (16)
where a dot denotes $`_\chi `$. The spacetime is described by the evolution equation,

$`\dot{K}_\nu ^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`N\left({}_{}{}^{(4)}R_{\nu }^{\mu }KK_\nu ^\mu +{\displaystyle \frac{4}{\mathrm{}^2}}\delta _\nu ^\mu \right)D^\mu D_\nu N,`$ (17)
the Hamiltonian constraint equation,

$`{}_{}{}^{(4)}RK^2+K_{\mu \nu }K^{\mu \nu }={\displaystyle \frac{12}{\mathrm{}^2}},`$ (18)
and the momentum constraint equation,

$`D_\mu K_\nu ^\mu D_\nu K=0.`$ (19)
Here $`{}_{}{}^{(4)}R_{\nu }^{\mu }`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{(4)}R`$ are the Ricci tensor and Ricci scalar on hypersurfaces of constant $`\chi `$.

## III Brane and Bulk Geometry

### A Brane Geometry : Charged black hole “initial data”

The action for the Maxwell field on the brane is taken to be

$$S=\frac{1}{16\pi G_4}d^4x\sqrt{h}F_{\mu \nu }F^{\mu \nu },$$
(20)
giving energy-momentum tensor

$$T_{\mu \nu }=\frac{1}{4\pi G_4}\left(F_{\mu \rho }F_\nu ^\rho \frac{1}{4}h_{\mu \nu }F_{\rho \sigma }F^{\rho \sigma }\right).$$
(21)
The field strength $`F`$ is related to a potential $`A`$ by $`F=dA`$. The equations of motion are satisfied if we take $`A=\mathrm{\Phi }(r)dt`$ with $`\mathrm{\Phi }(r)=Q/r`$. This gives

$$T_{\mu \nu }=\frac{1}{8\pi G_4}\frac{Q^2}{r^4}\mathrm{diag}(U,U^1,r^2,r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta ).$$
(22)
This can be substituted into the right hand side of the Israel equation (12) to give an expression for the extrinsic curvature. This can then be substituted into the Hamiltonian equation (18), along with our metric ansatz to give an equation for $`U(r)`$. Solving this equation gives It is interesting to compare this form for $`U(r)`$ with the behaviour expected from the linear perturbation analysis of the second RS model. In linearized theory, $`U(r)=1\varphi (r)`$ where $`\varphi (r)`$ is the Newtonian potential. For $`r\mathrm{}`$, the leading order corrections to $`\varphi (r)`$ are expected to be proportional to $`G_4M\mathrm{}^2/r^3`$ and $`\mathrm{}^2Q^2/r^4`$. Such terms are not present in our expression for $`U(r)`$. However, we shall be interested in black holes for which $`G_4M\mathrm{}`$, so these correction terms will be small compared with terms like $`(G_4M/r)^3`$ and $`(G_4MQ/r^2)^2`$, which would be neglected in linearized theory. In other words, the RS correction are dominated by post-Newtonian corrections  so it is not appropriate to compare $`U(r)`$ with the linearized results beyond leading order.

$$U(r)=1\frac{2G_4M}{r}+\frac{\beta +Q^2}{r^2}+\frac{l^2Q^4}{20r^6},$$
(23)
where $`M`$ and $`\beta `$ are arbitrary constants of integration. Substituting into the Einstein equation on the domain wall gives

$$E_{\mu \nu }=\left(\frac{\beta }{r^4}+\frac{l^2Q^4}{2r^8}\right)\mathrm{diag}(U,U^1,r^2,r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta ).$$
(24)
It is interesting to compare $`E_{\mu \nu }`$ with $`8\pi G_4T_{\mu \nu }`$ since these quantities appear on an equal footing in the effective Einstein equation (4). It is clear that the constant of integration $`\beta `$ is in some sense analogous to $`Q^2`$, which is why the authors of  obtained a RN solution. However, since their solution did not have a Maxwell field, it cannot really be regarded as a charged black hole in the usual sense. Rather it carries “tidal” charge associated with the bulk Weyl tensor. $`\beta `$ might be regarded as a five dimensional mass parameter.

We shall only consider initial data that corresponds to an object with an event horizon (in the four dimensional sense) on the domain wall. In some cases there may be more than one horizon. We shall use $`r_+`$ to denote the position of the outermost horizon, i.e., the largest solution of $`U(r)=0`$. This has to be found numerically except when $`Q=0`$.

Our “initial data” is given by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}}{N}}|_{\chi =0}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{b}}{N}}|_{\chi =0}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{Q^2}{r^4}},`$ (25)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{c}}{N}}|_{\chi =0}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{Q^2}{r^4}},`$ (26)
$`a(\chi =0,r)`$ $`=`$ $`b(0,r)=c(0,r)=0.`$ (27)
We shall study the following cases:

(i) No electromagnetic charge, i.e., $`Q=0`$. In this case, the induced metric on the domain wall is exactly RN. The horizon radius is

$$r_+=M+\sqrt{M^2\beta }.$$
(28)
The induced metric has a regular horizon if $`\beta M^2`$. Note that there is nothing to stop us choosing $`\beta `$ to be negative, which emphasizes the difference between the solution of  and a charged black hole. If we take $`\beta `$ to be negative then the induced metric has only one horizon, instead of the two horizons of a non-extreme RN black hole.

(ii) No tidal charge, i.e., $`\beta =0`$. In this case, the induced metric on the domain wall is Reissner-Nordstrom with a correction term. Note that $`E_{\mu \nu }`$ is non-zero but is of order $`1/r^8`$, which suggests that the total “tidal energy” on the wall is zero.

We shall also consider the general case (iii) Both charges non-zero, i.e., $`\beta 0`$, $`Q0`$.

### B Bulk Geometry

The bulk geometry is obtained by integrating (16) and (17) in the $`\chi `$-direction numerically. We use the standard ‘free-evolution’ method, that is we do not solve the constraint equations (18) and (19) during the evolution, but instead use them to monitor the accuracy of the simulation.

We obtain the solution numerically in the region $`r_+<r<r_e`$ with $`r_e5r_+`$. Boundary conditions at $`r=r_+`$ are specified by first Wick rotating $`\chi =iT`$, $`t=i\tau `$, which takes the metric to a Kaluza-Klein bubble metric (see Appendix B). Therefore we can apply the numerical techniques that are used in the study of Kaluza-Klein bubbles , although the physics of Kaluza-Klein bubbles is unrelated to the physics of black holes. It was shown in the Appendix of  that at the inner boundary $`r=r_+`$, $`a`$ and $`b`$ evolve synchronously, that is, $`a(T,r_+)=b(T,r_+)`$. Analytically continuing back to our original spacetime yields the boundary condition $`a(\chi ,r_+)=b(\chi ,r_+)`$. The evolution equation for the trace of $`K_{\mu \nu }`$ and the momentum constraint are also used at $`r=r_+`$. At the outer boundary $`r=r_e`$, we assume the components of the extrinsic curvature \[equation (16)\] fall off like $`1/\mathrm{}+𝒪\left(r^4\right)`$ \[cf. (26)\]. We apply the geodesic gauge condition (slicing condition), $`N=1`$.

We use the Crank-Nicholson integrating scheme with two iterations . The numerical code passed convergence tests, and the results shown in this paper are all obtained to acceptable accuracy.

We were only able to solve numerically in a region near the domain wall with a maximum value for $`\chi `$ of $`𝒪(1)`$. This is because the volume element of surfaces of constant $`\chi `$ decreases exponentially as one moves away from the wall, just as in pure AdS. The evolution was stopped when $`\sqrt{g}`$ became too small to monitor accurately.

We are interested in how charge affects the shape of the horizon, in particular how far it extends into the fifth dimension. This will be measured by the ratio of the physical size of the apparent horizon $`r_+e^{c(\chi ,r_+)}`$, to that of a black string  with the same horizon radius $`r_+`$ on the wall§§§ The reason for measuring the size of the horizon relative to that of the black string is because we want to distinguish the closing-off of the horizon from the exponential collapse of hypersurfaces of constant $`\chi `$ arising from the AdS nature of the geometry.. The size of the black string apparent horizon in the bulk is $`r_+e^{\chi /\mathrm{}}`$, so the ratio is

$`R(\chi )=e^{c(\chi ,r_+)+\chi /\mathrm{}}.`$ (29)
We remark that the only apparent horizon that appears during the $`\chi `$-evolution is at $`r=r_+`$. Here we define apparent horizon as the outermost region of negative expansion of the outgoing null geodesic congruences, where we define the expansion rate, $`\theta _+`$, as

$`\theta _+`$ $`=`$ $`{}_{}{}^{(3)}_{a}^{}s^a+{}_{}{}^{(3)}Ks^as_{}^{b}{}_{}{}^{(3)}K_{ab},`$ (30)
where $`s^a=(1/\sqrt{g_{rr}})_r`$ is an outwards pointing unit vector in the $`3`$-dimensional metric. We checked (30) during the evolution and confirmed its positivity for $`r>r_+`$.

Our initial conditions give the behaviour of the ratio $`R(\chi )`$ near the brane:

$`\dot{R}(\chi )|_{\chi =0}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{Q^2}{r_+^4}}0,`$ (31)
and

$`\ddot{R}(\chi )|_{\chi =0}={\displaystyle \frac{3Q^2+\beta }{r_+^4}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2Q^4}{2r_+^8}}.`$ (32)
For model (i) ($`Q=0`$), $`\dot{R}(\chi )|_{\chi =0}=0`$, but $`\ddot{R}(\chi )|_{\chi =0}=\beta /r_+^4`$. This gives $`\ddot{R}(\chi )|_{\chi =0}<0`$ for the case with $`\beta <0`$, which indicates that the ratio decreases, while $`\ddot{R}(\chi )|_{\chi =0}>0`$ for the case with $`\beta >0`$, which indicates that the ratio increases. We have plotted the numerical results for this ratio in Fig.1 (a) and (b) (henceforth we shall set $`\mathrm{}=G_4=1`$ and assume $`M1`$, as appropriate for an astrophysical black hole.). Fig.1 (a) and (b) suggests that a negative value for $`\beta `$ is the natural choice since the apparent horizon grows (relative to the black string) in the fifth dimension when $`\beta `$ is positive.

For model (ii) ($`\beta =0`$), $`\dot{R}(\chi )|_{\chi =0}<0`$ and the ratio always decreases \[see Fig.1 (c)\]. Model (iii) ($`Q0`$ and $`\beta 0`$) is non-trivial. We present numerical results in Fig.2. The plot is for $`M=5`$, $`Q=3`$ and $`\beta =0,\pm 5,\pm 10,\pm 15`$, where $`\beta =15`$ is close to the extreme By extreme, we mean that $`U(r)`$ has a double root at $`r=r_+`$. case for this choice of $`Q`$. The qualitative features are combinations of the plots in Fig.1. Note that $`\beta `$ seems to have the greatest effect on the bulk evolution. Again, the case with negative $`\beta `$ appears to be the natural choice since positive $`\beta `$ gives a growing horizon.

### C Bulk Geometry: extent of the horizon

In this section, we shall estimate how far the horizon extends into the fifth dimension by combining analytical and numerical work. Following the conjugate points theorem, we shall show that for a charged black hole, the trace of the extrinsic curvature diverges at a finite distance from the brane. The trace of the evolutional equation is given by

$`\dot{K}={}_{}{}^{(4)}RK^2+{\displaystyle \frac{16}{\mathrm{}^2}}=K_{\mu \nu }K^{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{4}{\mathrm{}^2}},`$ (33)
where we used the Hamiltonian constraint in the second line. Now define $`k_{\mu \nu }`$ as

$`K_\nu ^\mu =:{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{}}}h_\nu ^\mu +k_\nu ^\mu .`$ (34)
The trace part of $`k_{\mu \nu }`$, $`k=k_\mu ^\mu `$, is expected to measure the volume expansion relative to the AdS “background” geometry. In term of $`k_{\mu \nu }`$, (33) can be written as

$`\dot{k}{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\mathrm{}}}k+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}k^2=\stackrel{~}{k}_{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{k}^{\mu \nu }0,`$ (35)
where $`\stackrel{~}{k}_{\mu \nu }`$ is the traceless part of $`k_{\mu \nu }`$. On the brane the “initial” condition is

$`k_{\mu \nu }|_{\mathrm{brane}}=\stackrel{~}{k}_{\mu \nu }|_{\mathrm{brane}}=4\pi G_5T_{\mu \nu },`$ (36)
which implies

$`k|_{\mathrm{brane}}=0`$ (37)
For the case with $`Q0`$,

$`\stackrel{~}{k}_{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{k}^{\mu \nu }>0,`$ (38)
so

$`\dot{k}|_{\mathrm{brane}}<0`$ (39)
This implies that there is a $`\chi =\chi _0`$ such that

$`k=k_0<0`$ (40)
From (35), one obtains

$$1+\frac{8}{\mathrm{}|k|}\left(1+\frac{8}{\mathrm{}|k_0|}\right)e^{2(\chi _0\chi )/\mathrm{}},$$
(41)
from which it follows that $`k`$ diverges before $`\chi =\chi _{crit}`$, where

$`\chi _{crit}=\chi _0+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}}{2}}\mathrm{log}\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{8}{\mathrm{}|k_0|}}\right).`$ (42)
The divergence in $`k`$ implies that $`K`$ also diverges. Near $`\chi =\chi _{crit}`$, $`|k|`$ behaves like

$$k\frac{4}{\chi _{crit}\chi }.$$
(43)
The case with $`Q=0`$ is more difficult to analyze because $`\dot{k}|_{\mathrm{brane}}=0`$. We can use equation (16) (with $`N=1`$) to give

$$k|_{r=r_+}=2_\chi \left(a+c+\frac{2\chi }{\mathrm{}}\right),$$
(44)
where we have used the synchronous evolution boundary condition $`a=b`$ at $`r=r_+`$. In Fig.3, we have plotted $`a+c+2\chi /\mathrm{}`$ at $`r=r_+`$. It is clear from this plot that $`k`$ becomes negative in the bulk when $`\beta <0`$. In fact $`k`$ also becomes negative when $`\beta >0`$. Thus, even in the $`Q=0`$ case, there exists a $`\chi =\chi _0`$ such that $`k=k_0<0`$. The above argument can then be used to show that when $`Q=0`$ and $`\beta 0`$, $`K`$ must diverge before $`\chi =\chi _{crit}`$, where $`\chi _{crit}`$ is given by equation (42). We have therefore proved that if $`Q0`$ or $`\beta 0`$ then $`K`$ diverges before $`\chi =\chi _{crit}`$.

It follows from equations (43) and (44) that

$$(a+c)|_{r=r_+}2\mathrm{log}\left(\chi _{crit}\chi \right),$$
(45)
which implies that $`\sqrt{g}`$ tends to zero at least as fast as $`\left(\chi _{crit}\chi \right)^4`$ as $`\chi \chi _{crit}`$.

Conservatively, the divergence of $`K`$ indicates that the geodesic slicing has broken down (when $`N=1`$, $`_\chi `$ is the tangent vector of spacelike geodesics), in other words a caustic has occurred. The numerical study therefore cannot be extended further using this slicing. This has, however, a physical meaning because the apparent horizon is located at constant $`r=r_+`$ in the bulk. The horizon will encounter the caustic before reaching the AdS Cauchy horizon. The caustic can therefore be viewed as the endpoint of the horizon, i.e., the tip of the black cigar. Our analysis has only shown that the geodesic slicing must break down at the caustic so, in principle, this point may be regular, i.e., there may exist a coordinate chart that covers a neighbourhood of this pointIt is not even clear from our analysis whether the caustic occurs at a single point or is spread over a region of spacetime.. However, we do not regard this as very likely. Our guess for the induced metric on the domain wall is unlikely to be exactly correct, so in general we would expect some pathology such as a naked curvature singularity to appear in the bulk. We cannot check whether curvature invariants diverge at $`\chi =\chi _{crit}`$ since our numerical evolution cannot be extended as far as $`\chi =\chi _{crit}`$.

Whether the bulk solution is regular or not, equation (42) gives us an upper bound on the extent of the horizon in the direction transverse to the domain wall, i.e., the length of the black cigar. We have plotted this upper bound in Fig.4 taking the values for $`\chi _0`$ and $`k_0`$ at the endpoint of our numerical evolution. The first graph shows how $`\chi _{crit}`$ depends on $`Q`$ and $`\beta `$ when $`M`$ is fixed. Note that when $`Q=\beta =0`$, the numerical solution is simply the black string\**\**\**The reader may find this surprising since the black string is unstable , and small numerical errors might be expected to act as perturbations. However, the string is unstable to long wavelength perturbations, and the numerical errors will only be relevant at short wavelengths., which has $`\chi _{crit}=\mathrm{}`$. Increasing $`Q`$ clearly has the effect of decreasing $`\chi _{crit}`$, which is not surprising since increasing $`Q`$ also shrinks the horizon radius on the domain wall $`r_+`$. Perhaps more surprising is that making $`\beta `$ more negative also appears to decrease $`\chi _{crit}`$ even though this increases the horizon radius on the wall \[see equation (28)\]. The solid curve on this diagram has both $`M`$ and $`r_+`$ fixed. It is clear that $`\chi _{crit}`$ decreases along this curve as $`Q`$ or $`\beta `$ increases.

The second graph of Fig.4 plots the same curve (fixed $`M`$ and fixed $`r_+`$) for different values of $`M`$. The trend seems to be the same in each case.

The final graph of Fig.4 is for fixed $`r_+`$ (rather than fixed $`M`$). Increasing $`\beta `$ appears to decrease $`\chi _{crit}`$ when $`Q`$ is small but has no significant effect when $`Q`$ is large. When $`\beta `$ is non-zero, increasing $`Q`$ has the effect of initially slightly increasing $`\chi _{crit}`$, but ultimately decreases it substantially. The gross trend appears to be that increasing either type of charge leads to a decrease in the length of the horizon.

In most of these graphs, $`\chi _{crit}<r_+`$, so the extent of the horizon in the fifth dimension is smaller than the horizon radius on the domain wall, just as for the uncharged black cigar.

## IV Summary and Discussion

In this paper we have studied charged black holes in the second RS model. We have seen that two types of charge can arise on the brane, one coming from the bulk Weyl tensor  and one from a Maxwell field trapped on the brane. Starting from an ansatz for the induced metric on the brane, we have solved the constraint equations of 4+1 dimensional gravity to find metrics describing charged brane-world black holes. In the absence of Maxwell charge, one can obtain a Reissner-Nordstrom solution . If Maxwell charge is included then one can obtain a geometry that is Reissner-Nordstrom with small corrections.

Using these induced metrics as “initial” data, we have solved the bulk field equations numerically. We have found that the RN solution of  has an apparent horizon that grows (relative to the black string apparent horizon) in the dimension transverse to the brane unless the “charge squared” parameter $`\beta `$ is taken to be negative†††††† In , the evolution of Kaluza-Klein bubbles was studied numerically and it was found that even though negative mass bubbles start off with accelerating expansion , the acceleration ultimately becomes negative. It is conceivable that something analogous could happen here but we have found no evidence for such behaviour.. It therefore seems unlikely that this solution really corresponds to a charged brane-world black hole. Of course, if a bulk gauge field is included then the work of  (with $`\beta >0`$) has a natural interpretation as the induced metric on the brane arising from the charged black string solution of .

If $`\beta <0`$ and/or $`Q0`$ then the horizon shrinks relative to the black string horizon. For all cases (including $`\beta >0`$), we have found that the trace of the extrinsic curvature diverges at a finite distance from the brane, with the volume element of the spacetime tending to zero. For $`\beta 0`$, we have interpreted this as the end point of the horizon of the black hole. Our results suggest that increasing the charges of a brane-world black hole will decrease the length of its horizon in the fifth dimension, even when the horizon radius on the brane is kept fixed. This implies that, by adjusting $`Q`$, one can change the five dimensional horizon area while keeping the four dimensional horizon area fixed. One might think that this would lead to a difference between the entropies calculated from these horizon areas, which would be bad news for hopes of recovering General Relativity as the effective four dimensional theory of gravity on the brane. However, the exponential decrease in the volume element as one moves away from the brane implies that the dominant contribution to the five dimensional area comes from the region of the horizon that is closest to the brane . Changes near the other end of the horizon give only subleading corrections to the five dimensional area, allowing the four and five dimensional entropies to agree at leading order.

We suspect that our solutions will generically have a curvature singularity at the point where the trace of the extrinsic curvature diverges. This is because it seems rather improbable that our ansatz for the induced metric on the brane should turn out to be exactly right. However, we expect that for each value of $`Q`$ there will be some value of $`\beta `$ for which a small change in our initial data would smooth out this singularity, leading to a regular geometry describing a brane-world black hole carrying Maxwell charge $`Q`$. This smoothing would probably not significantly affect the position of the “tip” of the horizon, for which we have obtained an upper bound on the distance from the brane. This is to be contrasted with the uncharged case in which one takes the induced metric on the brane to be Schwarzschild. Evolving this into the bulk gives the black string metric, for which the singularity occurs at the AdS horizon, which is at infinite proper distance from the brane along spacelike geodesics. A small perturbation of the metric on the brane takes one from the black string to the black cigar, which has a regular AdS horizon and a black hole horizon with a tip at finite distance from the brane.

For the black string, the stability analysis of  shows that the horizon extends a distance of order $`d=\mathrm{}\mathrm{log}(G_4M/\mathrm{})`$ into the fifth dimension, so $`dr_+`$. Our results give only an upper bound for $`d`$ in the charged case. It would be nice if the stability analysis could be extended to the charged case. However, the instability only sets in when the proper radius of the horizon becomes smaller than the anti-de Sitter length scale and we were not able to extend our numerical evolution this far. Our upper bound seems rather on the large side, since it appears to give $`dr_+`$ for small $`Q`$ and $`\beta `$. However, for large $`Q`$ and/or $`\beta `$, figure 4(c) shows that $`dr_+`$, so our upper bound is probably tighter in this case.

The main outstanding problem remains to find the exact bulk metric that describes a brane-world black hole. This was solved for uncharged black holes in the 3 dimensional RS model by using the 4 dimensional AdS C-metric in the bulk . Unfortunately, the higher dimensional generalization of this metric is not known. It would be interesting to see whether charged black holes in the 3 dimensional RS model could be constructed by using the same bulk as in  but simply slicing along a different hypersurface. It would also be interesting to use the methods of  to find linearized solutions describing spherical distributions of matter charged with respect to a brane-world gauge field.

## Acknowledgments

AC thanks Dan Freedman, Andreas Karch, Philip Mannheim, Joe Minahan and Lisa Randall for useful conversations. AC is partially supported by the U.S. Dept. of Energy under cooperative research agreement DE-FC02-94ER40818. HSR thanks Stephen Hawking for useful conversations. AC and HSR thank the organizers of the Santa Fe 2000 Summer Workshop on “Supersymmetry, Branes and Extra Dimensions” for hospitality while this work was being completed. HS appreciates the hospitality of the CGPG group, and was supported in part by NSF grants PHY-9800973, and the Everly research funds of Penn State. HS was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science as a research fellow abroad. TS thanks D. Langlois for discussions. His work is partially supported by the Yamada foundation. Numerical computations were performed using machines at CGPG.

## A Brane bending and the black string

One candidate for a black hole formed by gravitational collapse of charged brane-world matter on a domain wall in AdS is the black string solution in AdS, which has the metric

$$ds^2=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{z^2}(U(r)dt^2+U(r)^1dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2+dz^2)$$
(A1)
where $`U(r)=12G_4M/r`$. As discussed in , surfaces of constant $`z`$ trivially satisfy the Israel matching conditions provided that the tension satisfies $`\lambda =\pm 6/\kappa _{5}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}`$. Thus, we may slice the spacetime along such a surface of constant $`z`$, and match to a mirror image, in order to obtain the Schwarzschild solution on the domain wall.

We now want to consider what happens when we allow the black hole to be electrically charged with respect to some $`U(1)`$ gauge field living on the brane. Thus, we must add in an extra term to the brane-world stress energy tensor of the form

$$T_{\mu \nu }=\frac{1}{4\pi G_4}(F_{\mu \rho }F_\nu ^\rho \frac{1}{4}q_{\mu \nu }F_{\rho \sigma }F^{\rho \sigma })$$
(A2)
where the electric gauge potential has the form

$$A=\mathrm{\Phi }(r)dt$$
(A3)
so that

$$F=\mathrm{\Phi }^{}(r)dtdr$$
(A4)
where  denotes differentiation with respect to $`r`$.

Now, as a first guess we might try to support this stress-energy on the brane by allowing the brane to bend in the black string background in such a way that the extrinsic curvatures would still satisfy the Israel equations.

In other words, we allow the position $`z`$ of the brane to depend on the radial direction $`r`$. Solving the Maxwell equations yields

$$\mathrm{\Phi }^{}(r)=\frac{Q}{r^2}\left(1+z_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}U\right)^{1/2}$$
(A5)
To compute the extrinsic curvature of the timelike hypersurface swept out by $`z=z(r)`$, we introduce an orthonormal basis which consists of a unit normal vector

$$n=\frac{ϵ\mathrm{}}{z\sqrt{1+Uz_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}}\left(dzz^{}dr\right),$$
(A6)
where $`ϵ=\pm 1`$, a unit timelike tangent

$$u=\frac{z}{\mathrm{}}U^{1/2}\frac{}{t},$$
(A7)
and the spacelike tangents

$$t=\frac{z}{\mathrm{}}\sqrt{\frac{U}{1+Uz_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}}\left(z^{}\frac{}{z}+\frac{}{r}\right),$$
(A8)
$$e_\varphi =\frac{z}{\mathrm{}r\mathrm{sin}\theta }\frac{}{\varphi },$$
(A9)
$$e_\theta =\frac{z}{\mathrm{}r}\frac{}{\theta }$$
(A10)
It follows that the non-vanishing components of the extrinsic curvature in this basis are

$$K_{uu}=\frac{ϵ}{\mathrm{}\sqrt{1+Uz_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}}(1+\frac{1}{2}U^{}zz^{}),$$
(A11)
$$K_{\theta \theta }=K_{\varphi \varphi }=\frac{ϵ}{\mathrm{}\sqrt{1+Uz_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}}\left(1+\frac{U}{r}zz^{}\right),$$
(A12)
$$K_{tt}=\frac{ϵU}{\mathrm{}\left(1+Uz_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}\right)^{3/2}}\left(zz^{\prime \prime }+z_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}+U^1+\frac{U^{}zz^{}}{2U}\right).$$
(A13)
Under the assumption of $`Z_2`$ symmetry, the Israel equations reduce to (12). The three independent components of $`K_{\mu \nu }`$ give three independent equations:

$`K_{tt}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{z^4Q^2}{2\mathrm{}^3r^4}}`$ (A14)
$`K_{uu}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{z^4Q^2}{2\mathrm{}^3r^4}}`$ (A15)
$`K_{\theta \theta }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{z^4Q^2}{2\mathrm{}^3r^4}}.`$ (A16)
It is straightforward to show that it is impossible to solve these three equations simultaneously unless one takes $`Q=0`$ and $`z=`$constant, which is the uncharged solution of . It is therefore not possible to support the stress-energy of a point charge by simply allowing the brane to bend in the black string background. It follows that the bulk has to change once the brane-world charge is introduced. In other words, brane-world charge will induce changes in the bulk Weyl tensor, and this is exactly what we have found in our numerical analysis.

## B Kaluza-Klein bubble

The double Wick rotation($`\chi it,ti\tau `$) of the metric of Eq. (13) gives us the Euclidean induced metric:

$`ds^2=U(r)d\tau ^2+{\displaystyle \frac{dr^2}{U(r)}}+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2.`$ (B1)
The largest $`r=r_+`$ such that $`U(r_+)=0`$ is interpreted as the position of the bubble surface. Around $`r=r_+`$, the metric can be expanded

$`ds^2U^{}(r_+)(rr_+)d\tau ^2+{\displaystyle \frac{dr^2}{U^{}(r_+)(rr_+)}}+r_+^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2.`$ (B2)
In term of the new coordinate $`R:=\sqrt{rr_+}`$,

$`ds^2{\displaystyle \frac{4}{U^{}(r_+)}}\left[R^2d\left({\displaystyle \frac{U^{}(r_+)\tau }{2}}\right)^2+dR^2\right]+r_+^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2.`$ (B3)
We can see easily that the metric will be regular if we assume that the $`\tau `$ direction is periodic with period $`4\pi /U^{}(r_+)`$.

In the case of $`U(r)=1r_0^2/r^2`$ with $`\lambda =\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, the exact five dimensional solution for time-symmetric initial data ($`K_{\mu \nu }=0`$) is

$`ds_5^2=r^2dt^2+U(r)d\tau ^2+U^1(r)dr^2+r^2\mathrm{cosh}^2td\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2.`$ (B4)
This is the Witten-bubble spacetime. Another example of initial data for a Kaluza-Klein bubble spacetime was given in Ref.  and its classical time evolution has been investigated in Ref. .


text:
# Applications of Integrated Magnetic Microtraps

## 1 Introduction

Trapped laser cooled atoms are now widely used in atomic physics experiments Ketterle99a . Magnetic traps are particularly versatile, since they can be used for any atomic species possessing a magnetic moment, and provide conservative potentials even for long trapping times. Although the magnetic potential has merely served as a container in most experiments to date, it also provides an excellent means for more complex manipulation of atomic wave packets. In resonator QED experiments Pinkse00 ; Ye99  for example, it can be used to shift a trapped atom into and out of the quantized light field. Quantum computing schemes have been proposed in which a combination of electric and magnetic potentials controls state-dependent collisions in order to entangle atomic qubits Calarco00 . Such complex potentials can be realized when lithographic or other surface-patterning processes are used to produce the field-creating structures on a suitable substrate, now sometimes called an “atom chip”. The use of lithographic, planar conductor patterns for magnetic atom trapping has been proposed as early as 1995 Weinstein95 . However, no successful experiments were carried out at that time due to the difficulty of loading such traps, which have small volumes and are typically located only a few hundred micrometers or less from the substrate surface. This situation changed last year with our demonstration of an efficient loading mechanism for surface traps Reichel99 . It employs a novel mirror-MOT, using a reflecting layer on top of the circuit pattern to realize the laser fields for laser cooling and trapping in close proximity to the surface. With this loading mechanism, integrated traps for cold atoms became experimentally accessible. In the first demonstration of such a trap, the new loading mechanism was employed to fill a miniature quadrupole trap featuring transverse gradients of 1700 G$`/`$cm Reichel99 . The trapping potential was created by a lithographically produced, U-shaped conductor in conjunction with an external bias field. In the meantime, the same loading and trapping techniques have also been applied to construct a Ioffe-Pritchard (IP) trap for 7Li atoms Folman00 . The mirror-MOT technique has also proven its usefulness beyond lithographic traps as it was used to fill surface traps of a different type, which result from the combination of permanent surface fields on magnetic tape with an external bias field Rosenbusch00 .

Indeed, lithographic conductors are now increasingly employed to trap, guide and manipulate cold neutral atoms. Parallel conductors have been used to realize atom guides in which atoms are confined in two dimensions and move freely along the third Mueller99 ; Dekker00 . Very recently, more complex conductor patterns were used to realize an atomic conveyer belt, which adiabatically transports atoms and positions them with a precision of the order of $`1\mu `$m Haensel00a . Moreover, two “beam splitters” have been demonstrated, one which distributes a trapped cloud in a Y-shaped pattern Cassettari00 , and one which splits a guided beam using an X-shaped pattern Mueller00 . Such devices demonstrate the versatility of the new approach. Considering the relative ease of these experiments now that major obstacles have been removed, we foresee a wide variety of applications for lithographic microtraps. In this article, we discuss some key issues of microtrap design and realization. We propose a modular, intuitive approach to the design of complex potentials from a few simple building blocks. In the following sections, we tackle the substrate technology and give a detailed description of the loading procedure. The wide-ranging possibilities offered by simple conductor configurations are illustrated by experimental results of trapping in some fundamental types of potentials which would be very difficult to create by more traditional means. Finally, we demonstrate a linear collider for trapped atoms, which is well suited for the study of one-dimensional collisions.

## 2 Design of integrated microtraps

In this section we present a method to design a variety of microtraps from simple 2D-conductor configurations which serve as modular building blocks. As central part we investigate the magnetic potential at a perpendicular wire intersection, which can then be used to construct more complex magnetic potentials. Throughout the discussion we will denote $`\text{e}_z`$ the vector normal to the substrate surface, all current carrying wires are contained within the $`xy`$ plane at $`z`$=0.

### 2.1 2D-quadrupole fields

Ioffe-Pritchard (IP) traps can be regarded as superposition of a two-dimensional quadrupole field for transverse confinement and a longitudinally varying field for confinement along the quadrupole axis. The 2D-quadrupole field can easily be created in the vicinity of a current carrying wire (here $`I_0`$ along $`\text{e}_x)`$, if its tangential field $`B=\frac{\mu _0}{2\pi }\frac{I_0}{R}`$ is compensated at the point $`\text{r}=(x,0,z_0)`$ by the homogeneous field

$$\text{B}=B_{0,y}\text{e}_y=\frac{2\text{G}}{z_0/\text{mm}}I/\text{A}$$
(1)
(see fig. 1).

Magnetic traps and waveguides employing this scheme have been realized both with discrete Fortagh98 ; Denschlag99  and with lithographic wires Reichel99 ; Dekker00 ; Folman00 . Furthermore, schemes have been studied that permit the creation of quadrupole guides without the use of external fields (see e.g. Thywissen99 ).

### 2.2 Modification of the longitudinal potential

The field strength along the longitudinal trap axis can be varied by adding another field $`\stackrel{~}{\text{B}}(\text{r})`$ to the quadrupole field $`\text{B}^\text{Q}`$. The components $`\stackrel{~}{B}_y,\stackrel{~}{B}_z`$ yield a shift of the trap position along $`\text{e}_z`$ and $`\text{e}_y`$ respectively, whereas the modulus of $`\stackrel{~}{B}_x`$ determines the field strength at the shifted minimum location. Using a linear approximation for the quadrupole field

$`\text{B}^\text{Q}(x,y,z)`$ $`=`$ $`(0,b(zz_0),by)`$ (2)
$`b`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi }{\mu _0}}{\displaystyle \frac{B_{0,y}^2}{I_0}},`$ (3)
the total field $`\text{B}=\text{B}^\text{Q}+\stackrel{~}{\text{B}}`$ and the transverse trap position can be expressed to 0$`^{\text{th}}`$ and 1$`^{\text{st}}`$ order, respectively, as

$`B_{\text{min}}(x)`$ $`=`$ $`\left|\stackrel{~}{B}_x(x,y=0,z_0)\right|+O({\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{B}_y}{b}},{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{B}_z}{b}})`$ (4)
$`\text{r}_{\text{min}}(x)`$ $`=`$ $`(x,{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{B}_z}{b}},z_0+{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{B}_y}{b}})+O(({\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{B}_y}{b}})^2,({\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{B}_z}{b}})^2).`$ (5)
Here $`B_{\text{min}}(x)`$ signifies the lowest value of the magnetic field within the plane perpendicular to the $`x`$ axis, $`r_{\text{min}}`$ denotes the corresponding minimum position. According to eq. 4 the transverse field minimum can be approximated by $`\left|\stackrel{~}{B}_x(x,0,z_0)\right|`$ taken at the position of the unshifted quadrupole guide. This method can be used to develop an intuitive understanding of many magnetic potentials that are based on a 2D-quadrupole trap.

### 2.3 Wire intersection

A high field $`\stackrel{~}{B}_x`$, i.e. a strong longitudinal potential, may be obtained by a wire that intersects the x axis at right angle.

Fig. 2 illustrates the geometry of the wire intersection that will serve as building block for more complicated traps. For demonstration, we choose a current of $`I_0=2`$ A which together with a magnetic bias field of $`B_{0,y}=160`$ G yields a 2D-quadrupole guide $`z_0=25\mu \text{m}`$ above the surface111These parameters are realistic, see Sect. 3.1. At this distance, the current $`I_1`$ creates a field $`\text{B}^\text{w}`$ with components

$`B_x^\text{w}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mu _0}{2\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{Iz_0}{x^2+z_0^2}}`$ (6)
$`B_y^\text{w}`$ $`=`$ $`0`$ (7)
$`B_z^\text{w}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mu _0}{2\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{Ix}{x^2+z_0^2}}`$ (8)
which are shown in fig. 3.

As the lorentzian shape of $`\text{B}_x^\text{w}`$ suggests, the field contribution of the intersecting wire can be used to create a repulsive potential along the quadrupol axis (Fig. 4 a-c). However, the repulsive character of the crossing current can be converted into an attractive one if a homogeneous bias field $`B_{0,x}<B_x^\text{w}(x=0,z_0)`$ is superimposed. In this case, the field along the axis becomes

$$B_{\text{min}}(x)\left|\stackrel{~}{B}_x(x,y=0,z_0)\right|=\left|B_{0,x}\right|\left|B_x^\text{w}(x,z_0)\right|$$
(9)
which exhibits a minimum at $`x=0`$. This field configuration thus provides a trapping potential in all three dimensions (fig. 4 d-f). Wires supporting a current flow perpendicular to a quadrupole guide can therefore be used to create repulsive as well as attractive potentials along the trap axis, depending on the strength of the external field $`B_{0,x}`$.

In order to reflect the physical properties of the trapping potentials, each plot in fig. 4 shows the minimum potential value within the plane (a,d) or line (b,c,e,f) that is perpendicular to the visible line or plane.

A detailed look at the potentials in fig. 4 reveals how the minimum position of the trap is displaced by the field component $`B_y^\text{w}`$ of the crossing current. The approximations in eq. 4 and 5 hold as long as the intersecting current is smaller than the current in the central wire ($`I_1I_0`$). Here we have chosen $`I_1=\frac{1}{4}I_0`$, the approximation therefore predicts $`y_{\text{min}}`$ to vary according to

$$y_{\text{min}}=bB_z^\text{w}=6.4\mu \text{m}B_z^\text{w}/\text{G},$$
(10)
as is indicated on the right hand scale of fig. 3 (b). The deviation from the approximated field strength is indeed so small that it is not visible on the scale of the plots (a) and (d) of fig. 4.

### 2.4 Composing more complex traps

The fields of several intersecting wires can now be added to obtain more complex magnetic potentials. Fig. 5 illustrates the potentials that arise in the vicinity of two parallel wires that intersect the central wire at two points 100 $`\mu `$m apart from each other. For the intuitive understanding the field contributions from the two wire can be summed up in order to give the complete longitudinal potential.

Without external bias field $`B_{0,x}`$, the field configuration exhibits one IP-trap in the center of the two intersecting wires. Contrary to conventional IP-traps, the field direction in the center does not coincide with the slowest trapping axis: the center field is along $`\text{e}_x`$, whereas the slow axis is turned by the influence of the vertical field components of the intersecting wires.

If a bias field $`B_{0,x}`$ is applied, two IP-traps form above the intersection points, each slightly displaced by the influence of the opposite wire (see fig. 5 f). In a similar way, a long chain of magnetic traps can be constructed. The magnetic conveyer belt Reichel99 ; Haensel00a  can be understood in terms of this design principle. As multiple intersections of the modulating wires cannot be realized in a single-layer substrate, the wires are bent off to avoid the crossing.

### 2.5 Choosing configuration parameters

The analytical form of the longitudinal trap potential (eq. 4) can be used to design magnetic traps for specific purposes. Here we present an IP trap that is optimized for high longitudinal oscillation frequency. Applying equation 6 to the H-shaped IP trap (fig. 5 d-e), simple calculations show that, for a given height $`z_0`$, the longitudinal field curvature is maximized if the intersection points are placed at

$$x_{1,2}=z_0$$
(11)
from the center.

Fig. 6 (a) illustrates that the center field of this wire configuration attains comparably high values. A third current crossing the trap axis in the center of the two parallel wires and in opposite direction can thus be used to further increase the field curvature and to thereby decrease the absolute value of the minimum field strength.

The potential of this optimized four-wire trap is shown in fig. 6 (b). Table 1 lists, for all three eigenaxes, the field curvature, the oscillation frequency $`\nu `$ and the Lamb-Dicke parameter defined as $`(\nu _\text{r}/\nu )^2`$, where $`\nu _\text{r}=(\mathrm{}k)^2/(2m)`$ is the recoil frequency for 87Rb. The field curvatures along the eigen-axes all exceed $`10^7`$ G/cm2, so that 87Rb atoms in the $`|F=2,m=2`$-ground state can be trapped within the Lamb-Dicke regime along all axes.

## 3 Key techniques of the microtrap experiment

### 3.1 Substrate technology

A wide variety of micro- and nanofabrication techniques appear suitable for atom chips, including standard microelectronics processes. Microchip materials generally have low outgassing rates, making them suitable for UHV use, although some restrictions arise from the requirement of bakeability. High field gradients and curvatures are among the most attractive features of magnetic microtraps; in order to optimize these features, the atom chip should provide low-resistance conductors suitable for high current densities. Therefore, gold and copper are desirable conductor materials. Finally, the size scale of the structures also enters in determining the most suitable process. Pure lithographic techniques used with sputtered or evaporated metal layers usually limit the maximum layer thickness to a few micrometers. If the scale of the conductor width is rather in the $`10\mu `$m range, as is the case in all current experiments, an additional electroplating step is helpful to increase the height of the conductor cross section, thereby lowering the resistance. Thin-film hybrid technology is a standard process combining lithography and electroplating. It employs gold conductors on aluminum oxide, aluminum nitride or sapphire substrates. The minimum width of conductors and gaps is typically 10 $`\mu `$m. We have chosen this process for our experiments because it fulfills all the cited requirements and because custom-made hybrids are commercially available. A very similar, custom-developed process was used in the atom guiding experiments at Harvard Dekker00 . One interesting alternative is the process used by the Innsbruck group, which uses a uniform gold layer on a gallium arsenide substrate. This custom-made process is more difficult to produce, but has the potential to create smaller structures and leads to a very smooth gold surface.

The mirror-MOT requires a reflective substrate surface. As the conductor pattern forms a relief structure on the surface, directly applying a coating to it would lead to a poor mirror with strong diffusion from the conductor edges. We therefore use a simple “replica optics” procedure as described in figure 7 to obtain a flat mirror. The final substrate has the layer structure shown in figure 8. The size of our substrates is $`22.4\text{mm}\times 18.4\text{mm}`$. This is large enough even for complicated conductor patterns, but limits the size of the mirror and thus the MOT beam diameter, see section 4. Thin-film hybrid substrates are available in larger sizes, e.g. $`2\text{in}\times 2\text{in}`$.

The maximum sustainable current $`I`$ through the lithographic conducters is a key parameter in order to obtain steep traps. The thinnest wires on our hybrid substrates have a cross section of $`h=7\mu `$m height and $`w=10\mu `$m width. With the literature value of $`\rho =2.2\mu \mathrm{\Omega }`$cm for the specific resistance of gold, this leads to a resistance of 3.1 $`\mathrm{\Omega }/`$cm and a dissipated power of $`P=3.1`$ W$`/`$cm at $`I=1`$A. Two effects impose limitations on $`I`$: global heating of the substrate by this considerable total power, and local effects which lead to melting or evaporation of the wire at one specific point. The first limitation can always be alleviated by improving the heat conductivity from the substrate to the reservoir to which it is connected, or, if necessary, by cooling this reservoir (e.g., by using a small liquid nitrogen tank). The second, local effect is characteristic of the microfabrication process and materials and is the one which actually limits $`I`$.

In our setup, active cooling proved to be unnecessary and the cooling system is most simple. Heat removal from the substrate is ensured by fixing it on a copper block with an UHV-compatible, thermally conductive epoxy resin (Epo-Tek H77). The copper block acts as a heat buffer and is itself connected to the stainless steel vacuum system by copper rods. We have determined the maximum sustainable currents in hybrid wires ($`h=7\mu `$m, $`w=10\mu `$, length $`l=20`$mm) in this assembly. The tests were done in air with the copper block posed on a wooden table and initially at room temperature. We obtained the following result: currents of $`I=3`$A could repeatably be applied for one minute; the copper block heated up by about 40 K during that period. At currents above $`I=3.2`$A, some wires blew up, forming $`10\mu `$m long gaps in the wire. Thus, the highest sustainable current density (at $`I=3`$A) was $`j=4.610^6\text{A}/\text{cm}^2`$. The calculated magnetic field of a $`10\mu `$m wide conductor carrying a current of $`I=3`$A is 425 G at a distance $`d=10\mu m`$ from the surface and has a gradient of $`b=4.1210^5`$ G/cm. Superposing a sufficient longitudinal bias field to suppress Majorana losses ($`\omega _{\text{osc}}10\omega _{\text{prec}}`$, see e.g. Gov00 ), a Ioffe-Pritchard trap with a transverse oscillation frequency of 270 kHz could be realized for 87Rb atoms. The resulting confinement leads to a Lamb-Dicke parameter of 0.12 with respect to the D2 line, corresponding to a ground state $`1/e^2`$ diameter of 60 nm. These surprising figures suggest that traps with exciting new properties may be realized with this simple technique.

### 3.2 Vacuum system and outgassing issues

The conductors on the substrate are contacted to connector pins by gold wire bonding. This technique, extensively used in microchip packaging, requires no soldering compounds and is therefore well suited for UHV use. However, a special wire bonder is required. Contacting with a silver-filled epoxy is an alternative if a wire bonder is not available Folman00 . Kapton isolated copper wires with matching UHV connectors are used between the connector pins and the vacuum feedthrough.

Considering the quantity of materials employed in vacuo, the final pressure in the system is of interest. Our small-volume vacuum system is pumped by a 25 l$`/`$s ion pump and a simple titanium sublimator. Both pumps are connected to the glass cell containing the substrate by 35 mm stainless steel tubing, involving several $`90^{}`$ angles between the cell and the pumps. A vacuum meter, which is located about midways between the pumps and the glass cell, indicates a final pressure of $`310^{10}`$ mbar typ. after 3 days of baking at $`140^{}`$C. More importantly, we observe $`1/e`$ lifetimes in the magnetic trap of $`\tau 4\mathrm{}5`$s, depending on the Rb pressure. It seems reasonable to expect an order of magnitude gain if a separate MOT chamber is introduced and the pumping speed is improved. Thus, the atom chip materials are compatible with the vacuum level required for evaporative cooling or certain quantum manipulation experiments.

### 3.3 Detection

The substrate is mounted upside down in the vacuum chamber, so that atoms are “hanging” below its surface. This enables time-of-flight imaging to measure the velocity distribution. A probe beam for absorption imaging is directed parallel to the surface along the $`y`$ axis (figure 9). The shadow of the atom cloud is imaged onto a 12 bit CCD camera by a multi-element zoom lens. Magnification is limited by the requirement to image the full $`7`$ mm length of the atomic conveyer belt. This in turn sets the resolution to 23 $`\mu `$m in object space, limited by the CCD pixel size.

After every absorption image, a reference image is taken without atoms. Dividing the intensities of both images and taking the logarithm yields the optical densities. All images shown in the following section are obtained in this way.

## 4 The trap loading procedure

One of the key issues of an atom chip experiment is to load cold atoms into microtraps which have much smaller volumes than usual magnetic traps and are located in close proximity to a substrate surface. Our loading scheme relies on a mirror-MOT (Reichel99 , see also Pfau97 ) for preparing cold atoms close to a surface, and on a field switching procedure in the MOT phase (from a “macroscopic” quadrupole field to a “microscopic” one) to achieve reproducible trap loading without the need for precision field alignments. A schematic of the mirror-MOT is shown in fig. 10. Two of the six MOT laser beams are generated by reflection on the mirror, the resulting total light field is identical to that of a standard MOT. The loading procedure has been described in Reichel99  and is summarized in figure 11. We obtain up to $`610^6`$ atoms trapped in the MOT, limited by the small trapping beam $`1/e^2`$ diameter of $`8.5`$ mm (which is itself limited by the substrate size, as MOT beams are reflected on it), by the total laser power of $`20`$mW, and by the rubidium pressure. We adjust this pressure to rather low values, i.e. on the same order as the $`310^{10}`$mbar background pressure, in order to achieve long magnetic trapping times. A dispenser mounted above the substrate serves as thermal rubidium source and allows for relatively fast pressure adjustments.

## 5 Demonstration of fundamental microtrap potentials

In Sect. 2 we have described how simple conductor patterns can be used as “modules”, which can be combined to form complex potentials. Some of these modules create potentials which are useful by themselves, and we start our presentation of experimental results with two of these: First, a conductor cross is used to create an IP trap in which the long axis and the atomic polarization can be rotated about the conductor intersection. In the second experiment, a long, “Z” shaped conductor (which approximates the “H” shape of Sect. 2) creates a very elongated IP trap, in which the atoms are strongly confined transversally and move almost freely about $`7`$mm along the long axis.

All experiments are carried out with the conductor pattern of figure 12Reichel99 ; Haensel00a . The variety of basic conductor shapes which it contains makes it versatile enough for a large number of different experiments.

### 5.1 Rotatable IP trap

It was shown in Sect. 2.3 that two crossing conductors carrying different currents create an IP trap when a suitably oriented bias field is superposed. As the conductor pattern is symmetric, different orientations of the long trap axis can be obtained by exchanging the currents and bias field components (upper part of fig. 13). By smoothly varying the currents and bias field components, the long axis may even be turned continuously222When a pure symmetric conductor cross is used, the potential passes through a quadrupole ring shape for the intermediate situation $`I_1=I_2,\left|B_{0,x}\right|=\left|B_{0,y}\right|`$. However, the additional field components introduced by the bent conductors in our experiment lift this degeneracy, so that the trap remains of the IP type during the whole rotation. by 90. We use the intersection of $`I_\text{0}`$ and $`I_{\text{H1}}`$ to create a trap of this type (cf. Fig. 12). The lower part of Fig. 13 shows absorption images of the atoms in such a trap for different orientations of the long axis. The right image shows a trap that was obtained by turning as described above. The trap parameters are $`I_\text{1}=0.2`$ A, $`I_\text{2}=1.2`$ A, $`B_{0,x}=10`$ G, $`B_{0,y}=4`$ G, leading to curvatures $`\kappa =(8.85,8.25,0.59)10^4\text{G}/\text{cm}^2`$ and to oscillation frequencies $`\nu =(378,365,97)`$Hz. The ability to align the magnetic polarization of the trapped cloud can be essential when a well-defined coupling to a polarized external field is required, such as the evanescent light field of a whispering gallery mode in a high-finesse microsphere resonator Treussart94 ; Vernooy98 .

### 5.2 Highly elongated IP trap

Potentials that restrict the atomic motion to one dimension are interesting from both the theoretical and the experimental point of view. The scattering properties of cold atoms Weiner99  change dramatically in reduced dimensionality Olshanii98 ; Mandonnet00 ; when the transverse level spacing exceeds the thermal energy of the atoms, one may construct single-mode de Broglie waveguides Thywissen99 , which are one of the building blocks of future trapped-atom interferometers Adams94 . With lithographic magnetic traps, the construction of such waveguide potentials is straightforward since they derive directly from the fundamental element of a single wire with a perpendicular bias field. As shown in Sect. 3.1, our $`10\mu `$m thin-film conductors permit transverse level spacings of several 100 kHz for Rb atoms. In the pattern of fig. 12, $`I_0`$ may be used to create an IP trap of this kind, with steep transversal confinement and an almost box-like longitudinal potential created by the bent parts of the conductor. The width of this conductor is $`50\mu `$m, but in our experiment the transverse curvature is not yet limited by this wire width. In fact, our modest bias coil systems permits a maximum bias field of only $`24`$G, so that we cannot as yet exploit the full potential of the conductor pattern. At $`B_{0,y}=24`$G, the potential of fig. 14 (center) is obtained. The bias field in this example is uniquely generated by the wire sections which are parallel to the $`y`$ axis, and is correspondingly small (0.01 G in the center). However, an external bias field along the $`x`$ axis is compatible with this potential (see next section). Figure 14 shows an absorption image in the potential described above. In this guide, the atoms experience a transverse field gradient of 3000 G$`/`$cm, which allows for trapping frequencies up to 10 kHz, depending on the bias field along the trap axis. (Cf. Sect. 3.1 for the choice of the bias field).

## 6 Linear cold atom collider

Highly elongated, cigar-shaped potentials like the one of fig. 14 have been considered by theorists in the context of one-dimensional scattering of cold atoms, for which surprising properties have been predicted Olshanii98 ; Mandonnet00 . Cold collisions are also a key ingredient of quantum computing schemes with cold atoms Calarco00 . An ideal situation consists of two atoms or atom clouds strongly confined in two dimensions and freely moving along the third, approaching each other with well-defined initial momentum. Such a situation can be realized in the device we demonstrate in this section. It separates two samples of cold atoms so that they move to the ends of the cigar-shaped potential, and then releases them with opposite linear velocities (while maintaining the transverse confinement), so that they meet in the center of the trap. Although our atomic samples, which have not been evaporatively cooled, are still too hot to enter into the one-dimensional regime, this device is a good illustration of the atom manipulation capabilities offered by lithographic microtraps.

The device is based upon the atomic conveyer belt which we recently demonstrated Haensel00a , and the potential of which is which is described in Reichel99 . It enables us to cut a long Ioffe trap into a chain of small, tightly confined Ioffe traps, which can be moved along the central wire axis by smoothly alternating the current flowing through the additional wires M1 and M2 (see fig. 15). To separate two atom clouds widely, we load the two leftmost magnetic conveyer belt potentials and bring them into the collider starting point by the procedure described in fig. 15. Next, we abruptly turn off all wire currents except the central one. As described in Sect. 5, the atoms are now almost free along the long axis and tightly confined in transverse direction. Due to the steep increase of the longitudinal potential at its ends, the atoms are accelerated towards each other. Fig. 17 shows the center of mass (CM) position of both clouds before and after their encounter. The dashed lines are linear fits on the last ten points before the clouds overlap. As the kinetic energy of the clouds is much larger than the transverse level spacing, collisions will lead to a deviation from the fit line of the CM positions after the encounter due to the redistribution of kinetic energy into the transverse degrees of freedom. In the present demonstration experiment, which was not optimized for high densities, the 10 ms encounter does not lead to a significant effect of collisions. Nevertheless it represents probably the most complex manipulation of atom clouds that has been carried out in magnetic traps, and thus shows the power of the new and flexible manipulation techniques which lithographic microtraps have to offer.

## 7 Outlook

The results we have presented show that lithographic microtraps offer truly intriguing possibilities for the controlled manipulation of cold atoms. Multiple atom samples can be moved independently in close proximity to a surface while remaining tightly confined. Complicated potentials can easily be built from simple elements such as the wire cross. A logical next step will be to evaporatively cool the atoms in such a trap, a task for which microtraps are well suited due to the high compression which they allow one to achieve. If Bose condensation, or indeed preferential population of any single vibrational level can be achieved, a host of novel applications becomes accessible, ranging from trapped-atom interferometry to quantum gate operations employing controlled collisions.