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# Critical branching-annihilating random walk of two species

## I Introduction

Branching and annihilating random walk (BARW) process one of the simplest prototypes of a particle system exhibiting nonequilibrium phase transitions. For small creation/annihilation ratio the system evolves to a completely empty state from which no return is possible. This so called ”absorbing state” lacks any fluctuations. For higher creation/annihilation rates, a steady state with some finite concentration of particles emerges with a phase transition. This phase transition has been investigated first by numerical simulations  and later with field theoretical methods . In general, we define annihilation of $`k`$ particles $`kA\mathrm{}`$ with the rate $`\lambda `$ and generation of $`m`$ offsprings $`A(m+1)A`$ with rate $`\sigma `$.

In $`D>2`$ dimensions the phase transition of these systems can be described by mean-field theory but in low dimensions the effect of fluctuations introduces more complex behavior. The $`k=1,2`$; $`m=1`$ case is the so-called directed percolation process; the continuous phase transition of it defines a robust universality class. According to the hypothesis of Janssen and Grassberger  all continuous phase transitions to a single absorbing state in homogeneous systems with short-ranged interactions belong to this class provided there is no additional symmetry and quenched randomness present. As it was shown by Cardy and Taüber  this is the generic class for all critical models with $`k=1,2`$; $`m=`$ odd and indeed a large number of model systems  have been found to belong to this class.

If $`k=m=2`$ the parity of the number of particles is conserved locally under the reactions and another universality class appears: the so-called parity-conserving (PC) or BARW2 class. Particles following BARW2 dynamics may also appear as kinks between ordered domains in systems exhibiting two absorbing states . For recent reviews see . For $`k>2`$ the field theory does not predict any new universality classes.

Our knowledge of multiparticle systems is quite incomplete yet. A very recent paper of Janssen  shows that this usually leads to asymmetries between pairs of species and unidirectionally coupled systems arise. These systems have been shown to describe certain surface roughening processes , for example.

The bosonic field theoretical work of  predicts a new universality class for BARW2 process of symmetric $`N`$ species (N-BARW2), exhibiting parity conservation ($`m=k=2`$) of particles. They found that offspring creations of the same type like $`AAAA`$ are not relevant processes because new particles are annihilated immediately. In the case of branching processes like $`AABB`$ and $`ABBA`$, all $`N>1`$ component models have the same Feynman diagrams as that of the $`N\mathrm{}`$ model and the critical point for $`D2`$ happens to be at $`\sigma =0`$ zero branching rate with the following critical exponents:

$$\nu _{||}=2/d,\nu _{}=1/d,Z=2,\alpha =d/2,\beta =1.$$
(1)
The critical exponents are defined by the usual way. The singular behavior of the spatial and temporal correlation lengths are characterized by

$$\xi \sigma ^\nu _{},$$
(2)
$$\tau \sigma ^{\nu _{||}}.$$
(3)
The anisotropy or dynamical exponent is $`Z=\nu _{||}/\nu _{}`$, while the particle density near the critical point obeys the scaling law

$$\rho (t,\sigma )t^\alpha \varphi (t\sigma ^{\nu _{||}}),$$
(4)
such that in the $`t\mathrm{}`$ steady state limit the order parameter scales as $`\rho \sigma ^\beta `$; hence

$$\beta =\alpha \nu _{||}=\alpha Z\nu _{}$$
(5)
scaling relation holds. At the critical dimension ($`D_c=2`$), logarithmic corrections to density decay are expected. For $`D>2`$ the critical point is also at $`\sigma =0`$ but governed by mean-field exponents .

In this work I investigated, numerically, the critical behavior of the 2-BARW2 model in one and two dimensions with the motivation that the existing field theories of reaction-diffusion models deal with a coarse grained, bosonic description of the particle system and therefore particle exclusion has not been taken into account. In a recent paper  we have shown that in the case of one-dimensional (1D) annihilating random walk of two species, the blocking between different species can cause marginal perturbations. Therefore it is an open question whether this can also be observed if we add particle creation to this process.

In a more recent paper Kwon et al.  argue based on local mean-field approximation that in this case new universality classes emerge indeed. I confirm the predictions of  for the order parameter exponent by precise numerical simulations and show that this exponent does not depend on initial-conditions or diffusion ratios of species. Furthermore I investigate the very nontrivial time dependence of this model and show numerical evidence for the initial condition dependence of the dynamical exponents and logarithmic corrections.

## II Definition of the model

A random sequential processes have been implemented in $`D=1`$ and $`D=2`$ dimensional lattices possessing periodic boundary conditions with one time step described as follows:

(1) A particle is selected randomly

(2) A nearest neighbor site is selected randomly

(3) With probability $`1\sigma `$ the particle is attempted to

move to the new site if that is empty

(4) If the new site is filled with a same kind of particle,

both of them are removed

(5) With probability $`\sigma `$ two off-springs of different types

from the ancestor are placed at two free nearest

neighbor sites selected randomly.

In this way I investigate the same model as . The field theoretical model of  also deals with the same particle reactions albeit without exclusion.

## III Simulations from random initial state in two dimensions

The initial conditions for systems with linear sizes $`L`$ have been set up in such a way that $`L^2/2`$ randomly selected A or B particles are placed at random sites.

### A Zero branching rate case ($`\sigma =0`$)

First the field theoretical expectations  for the density decay ($`\rho \mathrm{ln}(t)/t`$) were tested. To see the logarithmic corrections, I plotted $`\rho (t)\times t`$ versus $`\mathrm{ln}(t)`$. As Fig. 1 shows the curves corresponding to different sizes show linear behavior for short times. Later the effect of finite system sizes causes this behavior to break down. The crossover happens for larger and larger times as $`L`$ goes to $`\mathrm{}`$.

For the largest system investigated here ($`L=512`$) a logarithmic fitting was applied in the $`10<t<10^4`$ region, resulting in

$$\rho (t)=(0.442(2)+0.296(1)\mathrm{ln}(t))/t$$
(6)
Hence the field theoretical prediction $`\alpha =1`$ with logarithmic corrections has been confirmed by these simulations. The amplitude of the logarithmic term however differs from that of the pure annihilation model: $`A_2=1/8\pi `$ . One may speculate that in the two-component system this value is exactly $`1/\pi `$.

### B Off-critical case ($`\sigma >0`$)

Traditional, direct simulations of off-critical exponents usually produce less precise estimates than cluster simulations for example, but now I could eliminate the two most important drawbacks of this method. The critical point is known to be exactly at $`\sigma =0`$; therefore this does not cause uncertainty in the estimation of the order parameter exponent. Furthermore I use precise analysis of the data by calculating local slopes that enables us to follow corrections to scaling.

The simulations with branching were performed in systems of linear sizes: $`L=512`$ in the neighborhood of the critical point ($`\sigma _c=0`$) at $`\sigma =0.0075,0.01\mathrm{}0.17`$ (Fig. 2). About $`100`$ samples were run from independent random initial states and averaged over for each $`\sigma `$.

From the results at the critical point (Fig. 1) one can see that this system size is large enough for finite size corrections to be negligible for $`t<10^4`$ MCS investigated here. That means we can assume that in my steady state simulations the correlation length does not exceed $`L`$. The particle density curves were averaged following saturation and the effective $`\beta _{eff}(\sigma )`$ exponents were calculated as

$$\beta _{eff}(\sigma )=\frac{\mathrm{ln}\rho _i\mathrm{ln}\rho _{i1}}{\mathrm{ln}\sigma _i\mathrm{ln}\sigma _{i1}},$$
(7)
providing an estimate for the true asymptotic behavior of the order parameter

$$\beta =\underset{\sigma 0}{lim}\beta _{eff}(\sigma ).$$
(8)
By applying a linear extrapolation as in Fig. 3 a very good agreement with the field theoretical prediction for the order parameter exponent $`\beta =1.003(3)`$ can be found.

## IV Simulations in one dimension

### A The zero branching rate case ($`\sigma =0`$)

In  we showed that in the case of special initial conditions

```
....A..A...B.B...B..B.A.....A......B..B...

```

that assures that the time evolution never freezes (i.e. every particle has a neighboring particle of the same type to annihilate with) the density decays non-universally in an initial-condition dependent way. In this case particles can be regarded as boundaries of compact domains of different species that cannot overlap each other. This happens in the genaralized Domany-Kinzel cellular automaton, for example, .

The decay depends on the initial density (and hence on the initial interparticle separation length) of the species. We argued on the basis of symmetry considerations and by using an analogy to the works of Kaiser and Turban  that this decay follows the powerlaw with continuously changing exponents. We also showed that in the case of asymmetric initial conditions, where a small seed of B particles is inserted in the see of A’s, the cluster-survival probability of B’s (characterized by the exponent $`\delta `$) depends continuously on the initial density of A’s similar to the case of the pair contact process . Therefore in this work I investigated whether the static exponents show any initial-condition dependence as well and the form of the scaling law that connects them to the dynamic ones.

In the case of random initial conditions particles segregate into coarsening mosaic of alternating domains containing alternating sequences of A’s and B’s. By mapping this onto diffusion-controlled two-species annihilation ($`A+B\mathrm{}`$)  Krapivsky and Redner argue that the particle density decays as $`t^{1/4}`$ .

I tested this by simulating the process on $`L=10^5`$ lattices up to $`t=4\times 10^6`$ MCS. The local-slopes curves of the density decay defined as

$$\alpha _{eff}(t)=\frac{\mathrm{ln}\left[\rho (t)/\rho (t/m)\right]}{\mathrm{ln}(m)}$$
(9)
(where usually I use $`m=8`$) converge to $`0.25`$ indeed (Fig. 4), but again like in  dependence on the initial conditions can be observed. Now however, the local slopes do not saturate in the $`t\mathrm{}`$ limit as in the case of ”pairwise” initial conditions  but show logarithmically decreasing behavior as $`t\mathrm{}`$. This is not an artifact of the finite system sizes since the same behavior can be seen on much smaller ($`L=10^4`$) lattices too. The origin of the logarithmic correction to scaling is not clear, but it is likely that marginal perturbation of species on each other causes it. Note that logarithmic correction to time dependence of the interparticle distances in case of the $`A+B\mathrm{}`$ model have also been shown by simulations  and explained to be the consequence of density inhomogeneity inside the domains.

This anomalous decay behavior cannot be described by the conventional field theoretical description of a particle system  in $`D=1`$ that omits site restrictions and predicts $`\alpha =1/2`$. Also the paper of Kwon et al.  based on local mean-field approximation does not show any initial-condition dependency but predicts simply the $`\alpha =1/2`$ result.

The dynamical exponent $`Z`$ has been determined through the measurement of the characteristic time $`\tau (L)`$ at the critical point. In this study I define $`\tau (L)`$ as the time it takes for some portion of the sample to enter the absorbing state. In the case of pairwise initial conditions this portion was 50% but in case of random initial conditions, where the evolution is very slow in finite systems, I chose this portion to be 10% in order to get results for $`L>1000`$ sizes. We expect the following finite size scaling at $`\sigma =0`$

$$\tau (L)L^Z.$$
(10)
The data points have been determined within the $`L=164096`$ size region and to make precise extrapolation, local-slopes analysis has been performed. In Fig.5 I have plotted

$$Z_{eff}(L)=\frac{\mathrm{ln}\tau _i\mathrm{ln}\tau _{i1}}{\mathrm{ln}L_i\mathrm{ln}L_{i1}},$$
(11)
as a function of $`1/L`$. As one can see, in the pairwise initial condition case $`Z_{eff}`$ converges to $`Z=1.82(2)`$ as $`1/L0`$ quite smoothly. However in the random initial condition case a huge correction to scaling can be observed and $`Z_{eff}`$ seems to extrapolate to $`Z4.0(2)`$, which is in accordance with the $`t^{1/4}`$ density decay law.

The $`Z=1.82(2)`$ value is in agreement with our previous finding  where we showed that in the case of pairwise initial conditions the density decays as $`t^{0.545(10)}`$. We argued there that the interparticle distance of AA and BB pairs $`l_{AA}=l_{BB}\rho (t)^1`$ increases with the same power-law as the region of confinement that can be characterized with the exponent $`1/Z`$. Now I could not obtain significant initial-condition dependence in $`Z`$ owing to the lack of such high precision simulations that we achieved in . Note that the usual scaling relation between the single cluster spreading exponent $`z`$ (describing the mean distance from the origin $`R(t)t^{z/2}`$) and the dynamical exponent $`Z=2/z`$ is violated. This may be understood if we realize that in the seed growing process there is no symmetric, mutual exclusion between different species therefore the exponent $`z`$ cannot describe the multisurface effect that arises in the case of pairwise initial conditions. Neither of these $`Z`$ values is in agreement with the assumptions of  and the field theoretical results for a 1D system without particle exclusion .

### B The off-critical case ($`\sigma >0`$) with symmetric (static) branching

The effect of the spatial symmetry in simple one-dimensional BARW processes was first investigated in  and it was shown that reflection-symmetric (static) branching causes reentrant phase diagrams unlike the asymmetric (dynamic) branching process. First with the same special, pairwise initial conditions as in our recent paper , I performed steady state simulations such that offsprings are generated symmetrically on the left and the right sides of parents $`ABAB`$, $`BABA`$ (static branching). Kwon et al.  reported different critical behavior than what was expected by applying the results of the bosonic field theory  for this particle system.

Similar to the two-dimensional case, the density decay was followed carefully and averaging was done within a long time period, following the steady state having been built up. Figure 6 shows my simulation results of the order parameter $`\beta `$ in cases of different diffusion rates. As one can see, all the curves show strong (nonmonotonic) correction to scaling in the neighborhood of $`\sigma =0`$ but they all tend to the value $`\beta =0.5`$. The overshooting of the effective exponent signals possible logarithmic correction to scaling. The relaxation times to steady state were $`t<10^5`$ MCS in these simulations.

I found that in the neighborhood of the critical point the steady state concentration is unchanged if I use larger lattice sizes ($`L=4\times 10^5`$ instead of $`10^5`$), therefore the strange shape of the curves cannot be an artifact of the finite system size of the simulations. Note, that had we done a simple fitting onto the data points we could have estimated $`\beta 0.55`$ instead of $`\beta =0.5`$.

The results are plotted as functions of $`\sigma ^{0.5}`$ determined experimentally such that the curves approach $`\sigma =0`$ in an asymptotically straight line manner. This means that the leading correction to the scaling exponent is $`0.5`$. As one can see, the curves converge to $`\beta =0.50(1)`$ in agreement with the predictions of . The simulations with other initial densities and random initial distributions of particles resulted in the same steady state values and hence $`\beta `$ is unchanged.

Comparing the $`Z`$’s of the previous section with the $`\nu _{}=1/2`$ of  determined by static finite size scaling for the symmetric branching model we predict for pairwise initial conditions $`\nu _{||}^p=Z\nu _{}=0.915(2)`$ and $`\nu _{||}^r=2.0(1)`$ for random initial conditions.

The scaling law of density is fulfilled within error limits $`\alpha ^p0.545\beta /\nu _{||}^p=0.5/0.915`$ for the pairwise initial case, $`\alpha ^r0.25\beta /\nu _{||}^r=0.5/2`$ for random initial conditions.

The scaling form (4) can be checked by plotting $`\rho t^\alpha `$ against $`t\sigma ^{\nu _{||}}`$. As Fig. 7 shows, one can obtain a fairly good data collapse with $`\nu _{||}^r=2`$ and $`\alpha ^r=0.25`$ (corresponding to random initial conditions) for large times. For small times the collapse is less good owing to the effect of logarithmic corrections to $`\alpha ^r`$.

For pairwise initial conditions a very good data collapse can be achieved with the standard scaling form (4) using $`\alpha ^p=0.545`$, $`\nu _{||}^p=0.915`$

### C The off-critical case ($`\sigma >0`$) with asymmetric (dynamical) branching

For the same special, pairwise initial conditions as in our recent paper  I performed steady state simulations such that offsprings were generated on the left or right sides of parents $`AABB`$, $`ABBA`$, $`BBAA`$ and $`BAAB`$. The relaxation time in this case was very long, typically $`t>10^6`$ MCS that prohibited getting closer to the critical point than $`\sigma =0.03`$. I performed these simulations in system sizes of $`L=10^5`$ sites and averaged over $`100`$ samples.

As one can see in Fig.8 the $`\beta _{eff}`$ extrapolates to $`2.05(10)`$ linearly in agreement with what was deduced from the local mean-field approximation by Kwon et al. . This value however, differs from the field theoretical predictions ($`\beta =1`$)  obtained for the coarse grained, bosonic description of the particle system, which neglects hard-core interactions.

I investigated the decay by starting from other different initial conditions as well. The steady state concentration and hence the exponent $`\beta `$ was found to be the same, independent of the initial density of particles. In the case of random initial distribution of particles the relaxation was found to be even longer reflecting the fact that initial alternating sequences slow down the evolution to the steady state but the final concentration was the same. Again by comparing the $`Z`$’s of Sec. IV A with $`\nu _{}=2`$ of  determined by static finitesize scaling for the asymmetric branching process, we can predict for pairwise initial conditions $`\nu _{||}^p=Z\nu _{}=3.66(2)`$ and $`\nu _{||}^r=8.0(4)`$ for random initial conditions. As in Sec. IV B the standard scaling relation of the density is fulfilled for both initial cases within error limits: $`\alpha ^p0.545\beta /\nu _{||}^p=2/3.66`$ $`\alpha ^r0.25\beta /\nu _{||}^r=8/2`$ and the scaling law can be confirmed by data collapse (see Fig. 9).

In the case of dynamic branching Kwon et al.  claim a slight dependence (a few percent) of the static exponents on the diffusion rates of different species. The relaxation time in this case is so huge that it hindered achieving such a precision by simulations.

### D The off-critical case ($`\sigma >0`$) without exclusion

Finally I tested the field theoretical results in one dimension in such a way that I allowed particles of different types to exchange sites upon meeting. The steady state density has been determined for different values of $`\sigma `$ around zero in lattices with $`L=2\times 10^4`$ size. As one can see in Fig.10 the middle curve (corresponding to this case) approaches to $`\sigma =0`$ linearly indeed in agreement with the $`\beta =1`$ field theoretical result. This can be verified by considering $`\beta _{eff}`$ as well.

## V Conclusions

In this study I confirmed numerically the field theoretical predictions for the two dimensional branching and annihilating random walk process of two species. The logarithmic corrections to the power-law density decay function have been determined.

In one dimension I gave numerical evidence that the bosonic renormalization group field theoretical predictions cannot be applied in contrast to widespread beliefs for systems with exclusion and the order parameter exponent depends on the spatial symmetry of the offspring production process. As Fig. 10 shows, the steady state density is much lower if offsprings are created on the same side of the parent against the case when they are separated by the parent resulting in different scaling exponents $`\beta =2`$ versus $`\beta =1/2`$.

This particle exclusion effect results in new universality classes in one dimension as summarized in Table I and the static exponents are insensitive to the initial conditions. In the case of static branching the precise numerical analysis of the order parameter data does not show dependence on the diffusion ratios either.

The density decay exponent starting from a random initial state ($`\alpha `$) has been shown to agree with predictions of  but initial density-dependent logarithmic corrections to scaling can be observed. The dynamical exponent $`Z`$ has been found to depend on the initial conditions too. For pairwise initial conditions it is in agreement with our earlier study . All these results for dynamical scaling deviate from those obtained by the continuum field theory and assumed in .

This study gives further evidence to the claims of Kwon et al. that in one dimension a series of new universality classes emerge in nonequilibrium particle systems exhibiting hardcore interactions and continuous phase transitions. The relative simplicity of this model and the precision of the critical exponents obtained may provide a good starting point to more elaborate analytical investigations of systems with hardcore exclusion.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Z. Rácz, S. Redner and U. Täuber for stimulating discussions. Support from Hungarian research fund OTKA (Nos. T-25286 and T-23552) and from Bólyai (No. BO/00142/99) is acknowledged.


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# AST/RO Observations of Atomic Carbon near the Galactic Center

## 1 Introduction

The Galactic Center is a complex region displaying an array of interesting astrophysical phenomena, many of which indicate an environment very different from the Galactic disk (see Morris & Serabyn 1996 for a recent review). One striking feature is that the average density of molecular material is much higher in the Galactic Center than anywhere else in the Galaxy, with the Galactic Center ISM dominated by molecular cloud complexes. Though the inner 500 pc of the Galaxy is less than $`0.2\%`$, by volume, of the galactic disk it contains nearly $`10\%`$ of the Galaxy’s molecular mass. Galactic Center molecular clouds are distinctly different from molecular clouds in the disk. They have large internal velocity dispersions with line widths 4 to 5 times wider than is typical of the galactic disk. They are warm and have a high density, which lets them survive the tidal disruptions of the central mass concentration (Stark et al. 1991).

The fine structure lines of neutral atomic carbon $`\mathrm{C}^0`$ are an important source of information about the physics and chemistry of molecular clouds, and play an important role in their energy balance. These lines are predicted to be the primary coolants throughout the partially opaque ($`A_v`$1-3) regions of molecular clouds (Wolfire et al. 1995). The fine structure \[C I\] $`(^3P_1^3P_0)`$ transition of neutral carbon is excited at densities $`n500`$ cm-3 and temperatures $`T24`$ K. It traces phases of the molecular ISM where CO will either not be excited (the critical density for the CO $`J=10`$ transition is $`n_{cr}1500`$ cm-3), or will have been dissociated (Keene et al. 1996). It has been argued (Stark et al. 1997a) that such “photon dominated regions” or “photodissociation regions” (PDRs) are more extensive in metal-poor environments (as the shortage of dust exposes more CO molecules to the dissociating UV radiation), resulting in a higher $`\mathrm{C}/\mathrm{CO}`$ ratio. Because the Galactic Center has higher metallicity than the galactic disk (e.g., Afflerbach, Churchwell, & Werner 1997), studying the C/CO ratio there helps in deriving a possible relationship between metallicity and $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ (Bolatto et al. 2000). Such a relationship may be a valuable tool for estimating the metallicity of distant galaxies.

Past observations of the Galactic Center in \[C I\] include those of White & Padman (1991), Serabyn et al. (1994), and Jaffe, Plume, & Evans (1996). Serabyn et al. present high resolution observations of a part of the Galactic Center region. Jaffe et al.(1996) find that \[C I\] has very similar distribution (in longitude and velocity) to emission in CS and 13CO. They report that the mean \[C I\] properties of the Galactic Center gas show little change with position.

## 2 Observations

The low humidity, high atmospheric stability and thin troposphere at the South Pole make it an excellent site for submillimeter astronomy (Chamberlin, Lane, & Stark 1997, Lane 1998). AST/RO is a general-purpose telescope built to take advantage of this site. It is a 1.7 m diameter, offset Gregorian telescope currently capable of observing at wavelengths between 350 $`\mu `$m and 1.3 mm (Stark et al. 1997b, Stark et al. 2000).

Using AST/RO’s quasi-optical SIS receiver (Engargiola, Zmuidzinas, & Lo 1994) with a receiver noise temperature of 180 K, we observed the fine structure \[C I\] $`(^3P_1^3P_0)`$ neutral carbon transition at 492.1607 GHz during the austral winter of 1995. The telescope beam has HPBW$`2^{^{}}`$ at this frequency. The absolute pointing error was less than half a beamwidth. The backend was a 1.1 GHz wide acousto-optical spectrometer (Schieder, Tolls, & Winnewisser 1989), with 1.07 MHz wide (0.65 km s-1) channels and a channel spacing of 674 kHz. The observations were made using position switching 90 arcminutes away in Azimuth (or RA, since they are identical at the South Pole). The data were calibrated using the procedure described by Stark et al. (2000). The typical calibration uncertainty in 492 GHz data obtained by AST/RO is $`10\%`$.

A total of 74 sparsely sampled spectra were obtained toward the Galactic Center region $`|l|2^{}`$, $`|b|0.1^{}`$. The spacing between observed spectra was $`\mathrm{\Delta }l=0.1^{}`$ for $`|l|1^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }l=0.2^{}`$ for $`1^{}|l|2^{}`$ at three latitudes: $`b=0^{}`$ and $`b=\pm 0.1^{}`$. A typical spectrum is shown in Figure AST/RO Observations of Atomic Carbon near the Galactic Center, and the $`lv`$ diagram of the data set is shown in Figure AST/RO Observations of Atomic Carbon near the Galactic Center. Typical rms noise was 0.1 K in 1.07 MHz wide channels.

Neutral carbon emission is detected at all positions in all the molecular features of the inner galaxy, including the 300 pc nuclear disk.

## 3 Results

To compare the molecular and atomic phases of the PDR we have extracted 12CO and 13CO $`J=10`$ spectra from the Bally et al. (1987) survey, which have the same positions and angular resolution as the \[C I\] data. These CO data are shown in Figures AST/RO Observations of Atomic Carbon near the Galactic Center and AST/RO Observations of Atomic Carbon near the Galactic Center (contours) together with the \[C I\] data (color scale).

The rectangular regions shown in Figure AST/RO Observations of Atomic Carbon near the Galactic Center were chosen to be unconfused samples of emission either from Galactic Center molecular material or from foreground clouds. The $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratio is shown next to each region, with the corresponding $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratio in parentheses. These ratios are summarized in Table 1.

Although the Galactic Center material has uniformly higher metallicity than the outer Galaxy, it varies widely in density, temperature, and optical depth. For example, the diffuse nuclear disk material is a non-cloudy (i.e. bound to the galaxy as a whole and not to any small region), pervasive medium with moderate density ($`n1000`$ cm-3) and temperature (Stark et al. 1989), whereas Sgr B2 is among the largest, hottest, and densest clouds in the Galaxy. Nevertheless, the $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratio is uniformly $`0.1`$ in our sample of Galactic Center regions (Figure AST/RO Observations of Atomic Carbon near the Galactic Center).

Kaufman et al. (1999) compute this $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratio for PDR models using a wide range of density and incident FUV (far ultraviolet) radiation field. Using Kaufman’s results, our observed ratio (a conversion factor of 78 is needed to convert from our integrated intensity units of K km s-1 to erg s-1 cm-2 sr-1) corresponds to a density $`3\times 10^4`$ to $`2\times 10^5`$ cm-3 and does not constrain the FUV radiation field. This is unsurprising since the column density of \[C I\] is expected to be relatively independent of cloud density and the strength of FUV radiation; the radiation field simply determines the depth at which the C+/CI/CO transition occurs (Hollenbach, Takahashi, & Tielens 1991).

In contrast to the Galactic center material, the foreground regions have $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratio $`0.35`$. Unlike $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$, the $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratio is essentially constant over all features of both the inner and outer galaxy. This is in agreement with the results of Keene et al. (1996). Comparison between the 12CO and 13CO spectra (Figure AST/RO Observations of Atomic Carbon near the Galactic Center) shows that the 12CO $`(J=10)`$ emission is likely absorbed within the foreground clouds, thus explaining their anomalously high $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratios. This can also be appreciated in Figure AST/RO Observations of Atomic Carbon near the Galactic Center. The spectra corresponding to foreground regions (red symbols) show anomalously high $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ and $`\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratios, but standard $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratios. Consequently, \[C I\] appears to be at least as optically thin as 13CO in all Galactic Center and foreground features. The values for the different ratios, averaged only over our sample of unconfused Galactic Center clouds, are $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}0.08\pm 0.01`$, $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}0.75\pm 0.20`$, and $`\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}0.11\pm 0.01`$. These ratios are broadly in agreement with the ratios reported by Jaffe et al.(1996).

How constant are these ratios throughout the Galactic Center region? We have performed the following analysis on the entire 12CO, 13CO, and \[C I\] datasets: each position observed has been decomposed into 4 km s-1 wide channels between $``$200 and 200 km s-1 LSR velocity, and the integrated intensity has been calculated for each bin. We have then examined the $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$, $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}`$, and $`\mathrm{I}_{[^{13}\mathrm{CO}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ intensity ratios as a function of the corresponding $`\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$, $`\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}`$, and $`\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ intensities. These ratios are essentially flat across more than an order of magnitude in integrated intensity. The average ratios for the complete dataset are $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}0.08\pm 0.01`$, $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}0.59\pm 0.02`$, and $`\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}0.10\pm 0.01`$, basically indistinguishable from the average ratios obtained for our sample of unconfused Galactic Center regions (Figure AST/RO Observations of Atomic Carbon near the Galactic Center). While the plot for $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}`$ has some outlying points, this may not be significant as we have a small sample.

## 4 Summary and Conclusions

We have presented a sparsely sampled \[C I\] map of the Galactic Center region. The corresponding $`lv`$ diagram shows that neutral carbon emission is detected in all the molecular features of the inner galaxy. Despite large variations in the environments and physical conditions throughout this region, the integrated intensity ratios $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ and $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}`$ remain remarkably constant. For the material identified as foreground, we find that the $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratio is clearly higher than in the material unambiguously identified with the Galactic Center. This effect we attribute to the absorption of 12CO emission within the colder foreground material because: 1) the $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratio is identical for Galactic Center and foreground clouds, and 2) the individual 12CO spectra show depressions at the relevant velocities.

It is remarkable that the $`\mathrm{I}_{[\mathrm{CI}]}/\mathrm{I}_{{}_{}{}^{13}\mathrm{CO}}`$ ratio is uniform in clouds with such a wide variety of physical conditions and metallicity. This observational fact has as yet no satisfactory theoretical explanation.

This research was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under a cooperative agreement with the Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica (CARA), grant number NSF OPP 89-20223. CARA is a National Science Foundation Science and Technology Center.


text:
# DIRAC SPECTRUM IN ADJOINT QCD

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Both from phenomenological arguments and lattice QCD simulations we know that chiral symmetry in QCD is spontaneously broken by the formation of a chiral condensate (this issue has been discussed in several recent reviews ). However, a complete analytical understanding of the underlying mechanism of chiral symmetry breaking is not yet available. The situation is much better in Supersymmetric Gluodynamics. In this theory it can be shown analytically that the chiral condensate is non-vanishing . One important difference with QCD is that in this case the fermions are in the adjoint representation. In both cases the partition function can be viewed as the average of a fermion determinant. The chiral condensate, which is the mass derivative of the free energy, is thus directly related to the eigenvalues of the Dirac operator.

Generally, the Dirac spectrum cannot be obtained analytically. However, because the low-energy limit of theories with Goldstone bosons and a mass gap is uniquely determined by the pattern of spontaneous symmetry breaking, we expect that we will be able to derive analytical results for the low-lying Dirac spectrum. This program was initiated by Leutwyler and Smilga  whose work resulted in sum-rules for the inverse Dirac eigenvalues. A complete analytical understanding of the low-lying Dirac spectrum came from the realization that it is described by a Random Matrix Theory with the global symmetries of QCD, also known as chiral Random Matrix Theory . This conjecture has been proved analytically starting from the low-energy limit of a generating function for the Dirac spectrum . In addition to the usual fermionic quarks, this QCD-like partition function contains fermionic and bosonic ghost quarks with a mass determined by the magnitude of the Dirac eigenvalues we are interested in. It was understood early on  that the domain of validity of chiral Random Matrix Theory is determined by the mass scale for which the kinetic term of this low-energy effective theory can be neglected, i.e. when the wavelength of the corresponding Goldstone modes is much larger than the size of the box. In this domain, the thermodynamic limit can only be taken if the mass is decreased such that this condition remains satisfied. However, this is exactly what happens for the low-lying Dirac eigenvalues which scale as the inverse Euclidean volume. The recent work on the generating function for the Dirac spectrum  made it possible to include the effect of the kinetic term and to study the Dirac spectrum in the physical domain with box size much larger than the Compton wavelength of the Goldstone modes. This allowed us to extract properties of the average spectral density at a scale that remains fixed in the thermodynamic limit. In particular, an analytical expression for its slope was found .

In this lecture we are interested in the QCD Dirac spectrum for fermions in the adjoint representation. We will calculate the slope of the Dirac spectral density in two different ways. First, via the scalar susceptibility which can be calculated by means of the usual chiral Lagrangian, and second, via the valence quark mass dependence of the chiral condensate. The first method was originally introduced by Smilga and Stern  for the case of QCD with three or more colors and fundamental fermions. The second approach relies on the introduction of a generating function for the resolvent of the QCD Dirac operator as discussed above. We will find that both methods give the same results. One of the advantages of the second method, which proceeds by a direct calculation of the average spectral density of the Dirac operator, is its validity for $`N_f=1`$.

In our convention, with an anti-Hermitian Dirac operator $`D`$, the eigenvalues are given by

$`D\varphi _k=i\lambda _k\varphi _k.`$ (1)
The average spectral density is defined as

$`\rho (\lambda )={\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}\delta (\lambda \lambda _k),`$ (2)
where the average is over the ensemble of spectra. There are two important observables that are directly related to the Dirac spectrum, the chiral condensate and the scalar susceptibility. The chiral condensate is given by,

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ $``$ $`\underset{m0}{lim}\underset{V\mathrm{}}{lim}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}{\displaystyle \frac{\rho (\lambda )d\lambda }{i\lambda +m}},`$ (3)
and the scalar susceptibility can be written as,

$`K`$ $`=`$ $`\underset{V\mathrm{}}{lim}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}{\displaystyle \frac{\rho (\lambda )d\lambda }{(i\lambda +m)^2}}.`$ (4)
Here, and below, the Euclidean space time volume is denoted by $`V`$. If the spectral density near zero can be expanded as

$`\rho (\lambda )=\rho (0)+|\lambda |\rho ^{}(0)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\rho ^{\prime \prime }(0)\lambda ^2\mathrm{},`$ (5)
the chiral condensate is given by by the Banks-Casher formula ,

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }={\displaystyle \frac{\pi \rho (0)}{V}},`$ (6)
and the infrared singular part of the scalar susceptibility is given by

$`K{\displaystyle \frac{\rho ^{}(0)}{V}}\mathrm{log}(\mathrm{\Lambda }/m).`$ (7)
The chiral condensate is obtained from the first term in (5). This term does not contribute to $`K`$; the infrared singular part arises from the linear term in (5). All higher order terms in (5) can be neglected if the chiral limit is taken at fixed value of the cutoff $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ for the integration over $`\lambda `$. The smallest Dirac eigenvalues thus provide us with important information about the vacuum properties of QCD.

## 2 QCD WITH ADJOINT FERMIONS

The Euclidean Dirac operator for quarks in the adjoint representation is given by

$`D=\gamma _\mu (_\mu \delta _{bc}+f_{abc}A_\mu ^a),`$ (8)
where the $`f_{abc}`$ are the anti-symmetric structure constants of $`SU(N_c)`$ and the $`\gamma _\mu `$ are the Euclidean $`\gamma `$-matrices. Because the gauge fields $`A_\mu ^a`$ are real this Dirac operator satisfies the reality relation

$`[iD,CK]=0,`$ (9)
where $`C`$ is the charge conjugation matrix ($`C=\gamma _2\gamma _4`$) and $`K`$ is the complex conjugation operator. Because

$`(CK)^2=1,`$ (10)
all Dirac eigenvalues are doubly degenerate with eigenfunctions given by $`\varphi `$ and $`CK\varphi `$. The linear independence of $`\varphi `$ and $`CK\varphi `$ follows  from properties of the scalar product under anti-unitary transformations,

$`(CK\varphi ,\varphi )=((CK)^2\varphi ,CK\varphi )^{}=(CK\varphi ,\varphi ),`$ (11)
so that $`(CK\varphi ,\varphi )=0`$. Another consequence of (9) is that it is always possible to find a basis for which the matrix elements of the Dirac operator are arranged into self-dual quaternions . In other words, the Dyson index of the Dirac operator in adjoint QCD has the value $`\beta =4`$.

Because $`\gamma _2\gamma _4(D+m)`$ is anti-symmetric under transposition, the square root of the fermion determinant is given by its Pfaffian, and the Euclidean partition function for $`N_f`$ Majorana flavors can be written as

$`Z={\displaystyle DA\stackrel{1/2}{det}(D+M)e^{S_{\mathrm{YM}}}}={\displaystyle DA\underset{f=1}{\overset{N_f}{}}d\lambda ^fe^{{\scriptscriptstyle d^4x\lambda ^fC(D\delta _{fg}+M_{fg})\lambda ^g}}e^{S_{\mathrm{YM}}}}.`$
The mass matrix $`M`$ is symmetric under transposition. In the case of one massless flavor this theory is Supersymmetric Gluodynamics. Its properties have been investigated in great detail (an excellent introductory review of this topic is available ). In particular, it has been shown  that the gluino condensate is non-vanishing. Since the adjoint Dirac operator in the the field of an instanton has $`2N_c`$ zero modes, this result cannot be understood in terms of explicit symmetry breaking by instantons as is the case for QCD with one massless fundamental flavor. A non-vanishing chiral condensate in Supersymmetric Gluodynamics thus suggests the existence of field configurations with winding number equal to $`1/N_c`$. Considerable progress was made in this direction in several recent articles . Some evidence for the existence of such configurations has been found in lattice QCD as well .

## 3 DIRAC SPECTRUM

In this section we review some properties of the QCD Dirac spectrum. Because of the axial $`U_A(1)`$ symmetry, $`\{D,\gamma _5\}=0`$, all nonzero eigenvalues occur in pairs $`\pm \lambda _k`$ with eigenfunctions given by $`\varphi _k`$ and $`\gamma _5\varphi _k`$. If $`\varphi _k\gamma _5\varphi _k`$, the corresponding eigenvalue is necessarily zero. This happens in the field of an instanton.

For eigenvalues much larger than $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}`$, we expect that the gauge fields do not significantly modify the Dirac spectrum so that its spectral density is given by a theory of noninteracting quarks,

$`\rho (\lambda )V\lambda ^3\mathrm{for}\lambda \mathrm{}.`$ (13)
In the case of spontaneous broken chiral symmetry, the chiral condensate is nonzero if the thermodynamic limit is taken before the chiral limit. This can be understood in terms of the existence of a tower of roughly equally spaced eigenvalues (indicated by the wavy curve in Fig. 1) with the smallest nonzero eigenvalue at about one average spacing from zero,

$`\lambda _{\mathrm{min}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\rho (0)}}={\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{\mathrm{\Sigma }V}}.`$ (14)
Such accumulation of eigenvalues near zero does not occur in the free theory. It is only possible if the Dirac spectrum near zero is dominated by the interactions of the theory. Strong interactions give rise to repulsion of the eigenvalues which, viewed as positions of particles, condense into a Wigner crystal. This phenomenon has been studied in great detail in the context of Random Matrix Theory . As will be explained next, the smallest QCD Dirac eigenvalues are correlated according to chiral Random Matrix Theory (chRMT) .

An important energy scale in the Dirac spectrum is the Thouless energy . This is the quark mass scale $`m_c`$, for which the Compton wavelength of the corresponding Goldstone boson is equal to the length of the box, i.e.

$`{\displaystyle \frac{m_c\mathrm{\Sigma }}{F^2}}=L^2.`$ (15)
For $`mm_c`$ the kinetic term of the Goldstone modes can be ignored. In this domain, all theories with the same pattern of chiral symmetry breaking and a mass gap are equivalent (several explicit examples have been constructed ). In particular, the Dirac spectrum below $`m_c`$ is given by a chiral Random Matrix Theory . For adjoint fermions this is a random Dirac operator with quaternion real matrix elements with a probability distribution that includes the fermion determinant . This has been confirmed by numerous lattice QCD simulations ; (a complete list of references can be found in a recent review ). The basis for the predictive power of Random Matrix Theory is universality: the fluctuation properties of the eigenvalues on the scale of the average level spacing are not sensitive to a wide class of large modifications of the probability distribution. In chiral Random Matrix Theory, this was first shown for QCD with three or more colors and fundamental fermions  and only more recently for the case of adjoint fermions .

Should we also expect an accumulation of small Dirac eigenvalues for one massless Majorana flavor? Let us consider the chiral condensate,

$`\overline{\lambda }\lambda ={\displaystyle \frac{1}{Z}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}{\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{i\lambda _k+m}}{\displaystyle (i\lambda _k+m)}.`$ (16)
For $`m0`$ the partition function is dominated by configurations with zero topological charge, whereas the numerator in (16) obtains its main contribution from the $`\nu =1/N_c\overline{\nu }/N_c`$ configurations for which the sum over eigenvalues in (16) can be approximated by the $`\lambda _k=0`$ term. With a cancellation of the $`1/m`$ factor from the chiral condensate and a factor $`m`$ in the fermion determinant, we thus find

$`\overline{\lambda }\lambda ={\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}{\displaystyle \frac{_ki\lambda _k_{\overline{\nu }=1}}{_ki\lambda _k_{\overline{\nu }=0}}}.`$ (17)
The average fermion determinants for $`\overline{\nu }=0`$ and $`\overline{\nu }=1`$ differ by a factor $`1/\overline{\lambda }\lambda V`$. How can we understand this? Our explanation is that the zero eigenvalue repels all nonzero eigenvalues such that their average position (denoted by $`\overline{\lambda }_k`$) is shifted away from zero by exactly one half average eigenvalue spacing $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda `$. We thus have

$`{\displaystyle (\overline{\lambda }_k^{\overline{\nu }=1})^2}{\displaystyle (\overline{\lambda }_k^{\overline{\nu }=0}+\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda )^2}{\displaystyle \overline{\lambda }_k^{\overline{\nu }=0}\overline{\lambda }_{k+1}^{\overline{\nu }=0}}=\lambda _{\mathrm{min}}{\displaystyle (\overline{\lambda }_k^{\overline{\nu }=1})^2}.`$ (18)
Explicit chiral symmetry breaking by instantons also requires the accumulation of small nonzero eigenvalues exactly as happens in the case of spontaneous breaking of chiral symmetry when the chiral condensate is given by the Banks-Casher formula . These results are in agreement with the analysis based on finite volume partition functions for $`N_f=1`$ for which the contributions to the chiral condensate from the different topological sectors can be obtained analytically .

## 4 CHIRAL LAGRANGIAN AND SCALAR SUSCEPTIBILITY

The adjoint QCD partition function is invariant under

$`\lambda \left(\begin{array}{c}w\\ \overline{w}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}U& \\ & U^1\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}w\\ \overline{w}\end{array}\right),`$ (25)
where $`USU(N_f)`$ (a $`U_A(1)`$ axial symmetry is broken by the anomaly). The gluino condensate is a color singlet with flavor structure given by

$`\lambda ^fC\lambda ^g=\delta ^{fg}\mathrm{\Sigma },`$ (26)
so that the $`SU(N_f)`$ flavor symmetry is broken to $`O(N_f)`$. The chiral Lagrangian corresponding to this pattern of chiral symmetry breaking can be constructed in the standard way. To lowest order in the momenta and the quark masses it is given by

$`Z(M)={\displaystyle _{USU(N_f)/O(N_f)}}𝑑Ue^{{\scriptscriptstyle d^4x[{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{F^2}{4}}\mathrm{Tr}_\mu U_\mu U^1{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }}{2}}\mathrm{Tr}(MU+M^{}U^1)]}}.`$ (27)
This partition function is invariant under the flavor transformations

$`UVUV^T,MV^{}MV^{},`$ (28)
as required by the transformation properties of the QCD partition function. Such invariance arguments are very powerful and even allow us to construct the low energy limit of adjoint QCD at nonzero baryon density , but this topic will not be addressed today.

To calculate the scalar susceptibility it is convenient to introduce scalar sources in the mass matrix of the QCD partition function

$`M=m\delta ^{fg}+s_aT^a,`$ (29)
where the $`T_a`$ are the symmetric generators of $`SU(N_f)`$. The scalar susceptibility is then given by the second derivative of the QCD partition function with respect to the scalar sources

$`K_{ab}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}_{s_a}_{s_b}|_{s_a=0,s_b=0}\mathrm{log}Z(M),`$ (30)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}\mathrm{Tr}{\displaystyle \frac{T_a}{D+m}}{\displaystyle \frac{T_b}{D+m}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\delta _{ab}K.`$
Since the scalar sources and the mass matrix have the same transformation properties in the QCD Lagrangian, they also enter in the same way in the chiral Lagrangian. To lowest order in chiral perturbation theory, we expand $`U=\mathrm{exp}[i2\pi _aT^a/F]`$ to second order in the $`\pi `$ fields,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(U+U^1)=1{\displaystyle \frac{2}{F^2}}\pi _k\pi _lT^kT^l,`$ (31)
so that the scalar susceptibility is given by

$`K^{ab}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4\mathrm{\Sigma }^2}{F^4}}\mathrm{Tr}(T^aT^kT^l)\mathrm{Tr}(T^bT^mT^n){\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}{\displaystyle d^4xd^4y\pi _k(x)\pi _l(x)\pi _m(y)\pi _n(y)}_{1\mathrm{loop}}`$ (32)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }^2}{16\pi ^2F^4}}\mathrm{Tr}(T^a\{T^k,T^l\})\mathrm{Tr}(T^b\{T^k,T^l\})\mathrm{log}(\mathrm{\Lambda }/m).`$
Carrying out the traces in flavor space we find

$`K^{ab}=\delta ^{ab}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }^2}{128\pi ^2F^4}}{\displaystyle \frac{(N_f2)(N_f+4)}{N_f}}\mathrm{log}(m/\mathrm{\Lambda }).`$ (33)
The scalar susceptibility can also be calculated for QCD with fundamental fermions and two colors or for QCD with fundamental fermions and three of more colors with Goldstone manifold given by $`SU(2N_f)/Sp(2N_f)`$ and $`SU(N_f)`$, respectively. These three cases can be distinguished by the value of the Dyson index given by $`\beta =4`$, $`\beta =1`$ and $`\beta =2`$, in this order. For Dyson index different from $`\beta =4`$, the only change in (33) is the replacement $`(N_f+4)/4(N_f+\beta )/\beta `$. The case $`\beta =2`$ was first analyzed by Smilga and Stern .

If the average spectral density has a simple linear expansion as given in (5), the slope of the average spectral density follows immediately from the result for the scalar susceptibility. It is given by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\rho ^{}(0)}{V}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^2{\displaystyle \frac{(N_f2)(N_f+\beta )}{16\pi ^2\beta N_fF^4}},`$ (34)
where we have included the dependence on the Dyson index. In the next section we will present a derivation for the slope that does not rely on this assumption (5), and moreover, is also valid for $`N_f=1`$.

## 5 GENERATING FUNCTION FOR THE DIRAC SPECTRUM

In order to obtain a generating function for the Dirac spectrum one has to extend the QCD partition function with additional fermionic and bosonic ghost quarks ,

$`Z^{\mathrm{pq}}(z,J)={\displaystyle DA\frac{det(D+z+J)}{det(D+z)}\stackrel{N_f/2}{det}(D+m)e^{S_{YM}[A]}}.`$ (35)
The resolvent is then given by

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }(z)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}{\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{z+i\lambda _k}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}_J|_{J=0}\mathrm{log}Z^{\mathrm{pq}}(z,J).`$ (36)
The average spectral density follows from the discontinuity of the resolvent across the imaginary axis

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\rho (\lambda )}{V}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi }}(\mathrm{\Sigma }(i\lambda +ϵ)\mathrm{\Sigma }(i\lambda ϵ))`$ (37)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi }}(\mathrm{\Sigma }(i\lambda +ϵ)+\mathrm{\Sigma }(i\lambda +ϵ)),`$
where the second equality follows from the relation $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(z)=\mathrm{\Sigma }(z)`$. Notice that $`det^{1/2}(D+z)`$ cannot be written as a Gaussian integral. The minimal generating function thus requires the introduction of ghost determinants as in eq. (35), corresponding to one complex bosonic ghost quark and a pair of Majorana ghost quarks.

In the sector of fermionic quarks, the symmetry is broken by the formation of a chiral condensate with flavor structure as given in (26). The pattern of symmetry breaking is thus given by

$`SU(N_f+2)O(N_f+2).`$ (38)
In the sector of bosonic quarks, the quadratic form in the action can be written as

$`\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _L^{}\\ \varphi _R^{}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}m& \sigma _\mu d_\mu \\ \sigma _\mu ^{}d_\mu & m\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _R\\ \varphi _L\end{array}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _L^{}\\ \sigma _2\varphi _R\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}\sigma _\mu d_\mu & \\ & \sigma _\mu d_\mu \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _L\\ \sigma _2\varphi _R^{}\end{array}\right)`$ (51)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _L^{}\\ \sigma _2\varphi _R\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}& m\sigma _2\\ m\sigma _2& \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _L^{}\\ \sigma _2\varphi _R\end{array}\right)`$ (58)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _L\\ \sigma _2\varphi _R^{}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}& m\sigma _2\\ m\sigma _2& \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _L\\ \sigma _2\varphi _R^{}\end{array}\right).`$ (65)
Here, $`\sigma _\mu =(1,i\sigma _k)`$ and $`d_\mu =_\mu +f_{abc}A_\mu ^a`$. The kinetic term is invariant under $`U(2)`$ transformations. However, the fields no longer occur in complex conjugated pairs after this transformation. But notice that the kinetic term is also invariant under the symmetry group $`U^{}(2,R)`$, which does not affect the reality properties of the quadratic form. The chiral condensate given by the mass derivative of the partition function as well as the mass term in the partition function are only left invariant by the subgroup $`Sp(2)`$. The Goldstone manifold corresponding to the sector of bosonic quarks is thus given by $`U^{}(2)/Sp(2)`$ and has only one degree of freedom .

In the sector of fermionic quarks we could extended the unitary symmetry to $`Gl(N_f+2)`$, but a noncompact symmetry group would lead to an effective partition function with an incorrect small mass expansion. The symmetry group of the sector of fermionic quarks should thus be $`U(N_f+2)`$. In addition, the generating function is invariant under supersymmetry transformations mixing fermions and bosons. The full symmetry group is thus given by the graded Lie group $`Gl(N_f+2|2)`$ which is broken spontaneously to the ortho-symplectic graded Lie group $`Osp(2|N_f+2)`$. The Goldstone manifold is then given by  the maximum Riemannian submanifold of $`Gl(N_f+2|2)/Osp(2|N_f+2)`$ with fermionic sector given by $`U(N_f+2)/O(N_f+2)`$ and bosonic sector $`U^{}(2)/Sp(2)`$. We denote this manifold by $`\widehat{G/H}`$.

The low-energy effective partition function is given by

$`Z_{\mathrm{eff}}={\displaystyle _{U\widehat{G/H}}}𝑑Ue^{{\scriptscriptstyle d^4x_{\mathrm{eff}}}},`$ (66)
where

$`_{\mathrm{eff}}={\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{4}}\mathrm{Str}(_\mu U_\mu U^1){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }}{2}}\mathrm{Str}((U+U^1))+m_0^2\mathrm{\Phi }_0^2+\alpha _\mu \mathrm{\Phi }_0_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }_0,`$
and $`U=\mathrm{exp}(i2\mathrm{\Phi }/F)`$. The last two terms in (5) represent the mass term and the kinetic term of the super-$`\eta ^{}`$ flavor-singlet field $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0=\mathrm{Str}(\mathrm{\Phi })`$. This partition function has the same transformation properties as the generating function (35) including the explicit breaking of an axial $`Gl(1|1)`$ symmetry. The mass matrix is given by $`=\mathrm{diag}(m,\mathrm{},m,z+J,z+J,z,z)`$, with $`N_f`$ masses equal to $`m`$. This partition function has both bosonic and fermionic Goldstone bosons with mass $`M_{vv}=\sqrt{2z\mathrm{\Sigma }}/F`$, $`M_{vs}=\sqrt{(m+z)\mathrm{\Sigma }}/F`$ and $`M_{ss}=\sqrt{2m\mathrm{\Sigma }}/F`$. The generating function (35) was first introduced to study the quenched approximation in QCD . For symmetry class $`\beta =2`$ a version of the effective partition function based on compact supergroups was first introduced by Bernard and Golterman . It gives the correct perturbative expansion, but the nonperturbative integrations over $`U`$ are not reproduced correctly. Notice that a function is not determined by its asymptotic expansion.

To lowest order in chiral perturbation theory, the resolvent is simply given by tadpoles coming from the differentiation with respect to the source $`J`$. There are three different types of contributions corresponding to three different kinds of mesons that can be excited by the source $`J`$. First, there are tadpoles with bosonic mesons of mass $`M_{vs}`$ that do not mix with the super-$`\eta ^{}`$, second, there are tadpoles with fermionic mesons of mass $`M_{vv}`$, and third there are tadpoles with bosonic mesons of mass $`M_{vv}`$ that mix with the super-$`\eta ^{}`$. We thus find the following result for the resolvent (36)

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }(z)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_0\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{1}{F^2}}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{N_f}{2}}\mathrm{\Delta }(M_{vs}^2){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{\Delta }(M_{vv}^2)+G_{vv}\right\}\right],`$ (68)
where the three terms in-between the braces correspond to the three different types of contributions discussed above, respectively. The trace of the propagator of the first two types of mesons is given by

$`\mathrm{\Delta }(M^2)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}{\displaystyle \underset{p}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{p^2+M^2}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{16\pi ^2}}M^2\mathrm{log}{\displaystyle \frac{M^2}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}},`$ (69)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is a momentum cutoff. The propagator of the third type of mesons is more complicated but it is known analytically . In the limit of $`m_0\mathrm{}`$, the trace of this propagator simplifies to

$`G_{vv}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}{\displaystyle \underset{p}{}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{p^2+M_{vv}^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_f}}{\displaystyle \frac{p^2+M_{ss}^2}{(p^2+M_{vv}^2)^2}}\right].`$ (70)
Using the explicit expressions for the trace of the propagators we find,

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }(z)=\mathrm{\Sigma }\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }}{16\pi ^2N_fF^4}}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{N_f^2}{2}}(z+m)\mathrm{log}{\displaystyle \frac{z+m}{2\mu }}+\left(2m+(N_f4)z\right)\mathrm{log}{\displaystyle \frac{z}{\mu }}\right\}\right],`$
(71)
where $`\mu =\mathrm{\Lambda }^2F^2/2\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. In the limit of $`m0`$ this result simplifies to

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }(z)=\mathrm{\Sigma }\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }(N_f2)(N_f+4)}{32\pi ^2N_fF^4}}z\mathrm{log}{\displaystyle \frac{z}{\mu }}\right].`$ (72)
From the discontinuity of the resolvent along the imaginary axis calculated using the second equation of (37) we find that the spectral density in the limit $`m0`$ is given by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\rho (\lambda )}{V}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }}{\pi }}\left[1+{\displaystyle \frac{(N_f2)(N_f+\beta )\mathrm{\Sigma }}{16\pi \beta N_fF^4}}|\lambda |\right],`$ (73)
where the Dyson index is $`\beta =4`$ in the case of adjoint QCD. We have also included the results for QCD with two colors and fundamental fermions ($`\beta =1`$) and QCD with three or more colors and fundamental fermions ($`\beta =2`$). The latter two cases can be derived along the same lines . This result is in agreement with the slope obtained from the scalar susceptibility. It shows that the spectral density can be expanded in powers of $`|\lambda |`$. Finally, we wish to emphasize that the above derivation is also valid for $`N_f=1`$. Results from instanton liquid simulations  are consistent with eq. (73).

As an alternative to the supersymmetric method, the mass dependence of the resolvent can be calculated by introducing $`n`$ flavors of fermionic ghost quarks with mass $`z`$ and take the limit $`n0`$ at the end of the calculation. This so-called replica method was used to derive the low-energy limit of the quenched scalar susceptibility in lattice QCD with staggered fermions . A critical comparison of the supersymmetric calculation and the replica calculation was given in . However, we stress that, disregarding exceptional cases that the asymptotic series terminates , only perturbative results  have been obtained by the replica method.

## 6 CONCLUSIONS

The QCD Dirac spectrum can be obtained from the discontinuity of the resolvent of the Dirac operator. Its generating function is given by the QCD partition function with additional bosonic and fermionic ghost quarks. Under the assumption of maximum breaking of the axial symmetry, the low-energy limit of this generating function can be written down on the basis of the global symmetries of the theory. The leading infrared singularity of the resolvent, which provides us with the slope of the average spectral density, is obtained from a simple one-loop calculation. This result, and results for two other patterns of chiral symmetry breaking, can be summarized in a single formula that depends in a natural way on the Dyson index of the symmetry class.

Our results for the spectral density are consistent with the infrared singularities of the scalar susceptibility which can be calculated by the usual chiral Lagrangian without relying on ghost quarks. Amazingly, the two calculations also agree for $`N_f=1`$ when the scalar susceptibility cannot be calculated by chiral perturbation theory. Apparently, it is possible to perform an analytical continuation in $`N_f`$. Since, as an alternative to the supersymmetric generating function, the resolvent can also be calculated from an analytical calculation in the number of additional fermionic flavors, the agreement for $`N_f=1`$ should not come as a surprise.

Lattice QCD with two colors and staggered (fundamental) fermions is in the same symmetry class as QCD with adjoint fermions. Our results have been extended to quenched lattice QCD and an impressive agreement between analytical and numerical results for the connected and disconnected scalar susceptibilities has been found . We are looking forward to a direct lattice calculation of the slope of the average spectral density as well.

Acknowledgements This work was partially supported by the US DOE grant DE-FG-88ER40388. One of us (D.T.) was supported in part by “Holderbank”-Stiftung and by Janggen-Pöhn-Stiftung. Andrei Smilga is acknowledged for useful discussions. The Minneapolis ITP is thanked for its hospitality.

## References


text:
# Constraints on Cosmological Anisotropy out to 𝑧=1 from Supernovae Ia

## 1 Introduction

The validity of the Cosmological Principle and the isotropy it implies gained much credibility in recent years. The small fluctuations in the CMB ($`\mathrm{\Delta }T/T10^5`$ on angular scale $`10^{}`$) provide the strongest evidence that the universe can be well approximated by the FRW metric on scales larger than $`1000h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ (e.g., Peebles 1993; Wu, Lahav, & Rees 1999)

On smaller scales ($`100h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$) bulk flows of the order $`v/c10^3`$ indicate that this isotropy breaks down. This is also manifested by significant correlation functions of galaxies and clusters on large scales, and structures like the Supergalactic Plane and the Great Attractor. The transition scale to isotropy and homogeneity is still poorly known, and so is the convergence of the acceleration vector of the Local Group with respect to the CMB. It is therefore important to quantify the degree of homogeneity and isotropy as function of scale. Traditionally this was done by searching for anisotropy in the distribution of radio sources and background radiations \[Nan & Cai (1996), Evans (1992), (22)\]. Several new methods have been suggested to test isotropy and homogeneity on redshift scales of $`z0.15`$, such as measurements of in situ CMB temperature \[Songaila et al. (1994)\], the derivation of an independent rest frame from multiple image lens systems \[Kochanek et al. (1996)\], and Faraday rotation signature due to anisotropic magnetic field \[Kronberg (1976), Vallée (1990), Nodland & Ralston (1997)\].

The recent use of SNe as distance indicators \[Phillips (1993), Perlmutter et al. (1995), Riess et al. (1996)\] opened a new opportunity for accurate measurements of anisotropy on cosmological scales that previously have not been accessible. So far the SNe have been used in order to constrain the Hubble constant $`H_0`$ from a nearby sample and combinations of the matter density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$ and the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ utilizing SNe at moderate ($`\begin{array}{c}>\\ \end{array}0.3`$) and high ($`1`$) redshifts. In the future, SNe samples over a wider redshift range will provide separate estimates for the two parameters. It is important to establish the ‘universality’ of the measurements of cosmological parameters from SN, as they are commonly used in joint analysis with other probes such as the CMB, cluster abundance and peculiar velocities \[Efstathiou (1999), Efstathiou et al. (1999), Bridle et al. (1999), (1), Tegmark (1999)\].

Assuming a FRW cosmology, a forth measure can be deduced from the ‘Hubble diagram’ (HD; i.e., the luminosity – redshift relation), the $`\chi _{HD}^2`$ measure for the best fit model. For a perfect distance indicator this measure indicates deviations of the local potential (i.e., at the location of the SN) from a pure FRW geometry. However, in the real universe the deviations can also be due to other sources:

* Intrinsic (astrophysical) scatter in the SN luminosity-light curve relation.
* Scatter due to the location of the SN within the host galaxy & the galaxy type.
* Scatter due to dust absorption in the host galaxy, in the intergalactic medium and in our Galaxy.
* Gravitational lensing along the l.o.s. to the SN (e.g., an overdensity along the l.o.s. will enhance the apparent luminosity of a SN).

Here we explicitly assume that there is no evolution with redshift in the luminosity-light curve relation. Fortunately, most of the abovementioned effects are on the scale of the host galaxy, so with large enough sample they would be averaged out in the calculation of large scale anisotropies. On the other hand, one should worry about ‘anisotropies’ which are simply due to poor matching of different data sets that sample different portions of the sky, or large angular effects due to Galactic extinction.

We also note that some of these effects above might be correlated with other measurements, e.g. if the scatter $`\chi _{HD}^2`$ detected in SN Hubble diagram is affected by fluctuations in the potential, then it would be correlated with Integrated SW (or Rees-Schiama) effect in the CMB fluctuations.

The outline of this paper is as follows, in §2 we present the unified data set we will be using for the isotropy analysis. The results for cosmological parameters from the entire sample are presented in §3, the anisotropy measurement is discussed in §4, and put in a probabilistic context in §5. We conclude our results in §6.

## 2 The Unified Data set

An ideal data set of SNe for the goals we have put forward in the introduction would be a whole-sky homogeneous coverage at various redshifts of SNe. Since such an optimal set does not exist, the closest data set would be the amalgamation of the two existing, published data sets.

We unify the samples of the Supernova Cosmology Project (SCP) \[Perlmutter et al. (1999)\] and that of the High-z Supernova search team (HZS) \[Riess et al. (1998)\]. These include also the data from low redshift of the Calán-Tololo survey \[Hamuy et al. (1996)\]. The two groups have different strategy and different nomenclature for the minimization problem by which the cosmological parameters are derived. We have brought the SCP data to comply with the language of the HZS team

For each SNe we list its (i) $`cz`$ in the CMB frame, (ii) the distance modulus $`\mu =m_B^{eff}M_B^{fiducial}`$, (iii) errors for these two quantities, (iv) Galactic $`l`$ and $`b`$. For the SCP data the fiducial magnitude, $`M_B^{fiducial}`$ (cf. P99), is obtained by comparison of the 18 overlapping low redshift SNe as analysed by the two groups, and equating the distance modulus of R98 (table 10) to $`m_B^{\mathrm{corr}}`$ of P99 (table 2). This procedure is repeated twice, since Riess et al. provide two ways to calculate the distance moduli, “Multi Light Curve Shapes” (LCS) and “Template”. Errors are taken from the tables and a least square minimization is performed in order to obtain the two best fit values of $`M_B^{fiducial}`$ of P99 (and to recover the Hubble constant dependence they omitted in their calculation). The two values are $`M_B^{fiducial}+5\mathrm{log}H_0=19.322,19.453`$ with $`\chi ^2/d.o.f`$ of 0.952 and 0.763 for the LCS method and the TEMPLATE method respectively. The value of $`M_B^{fiducial}`$ is degenerated with $`H_0`$, so different $`H_0`$ calibrations in the two samples get “absorbed” in the value for $`M_B^{fiducial}`$. The unified sample consists of 79 SNe altogether, after the exclusion of 6 SNe from P99 (taking their “model C” version) and including the snap-shot survey from R98 along with 1997ck. Figure 2 shows the SNe distribution in Galactic coordinates.

The sky coverage is clearly inhomogeneous: the SNe deficiency near the Galactic plane is evident and the clustering of a few of the observed SNe due to the detection procedure is clear.

## 3 Cosmological parameters from the unified sample

We follow the statistical analysis as described in R98 and obtain best values for $`H_0`$ and probability contours in the ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_M,\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$) plane after integration (i.e. marginalization) over all $`H_0`$ values and taking into account only physical regions in that plane.

P99 include the error due to redshift measurements and peculiar velocities in their magnitude errors, for R98 we followed their procedure, set $`\sigma _v=200`$ km s-1 for SNe of $`z<0.5`$ and $`\sigma _v=2500`$ km s-1 for SNe with $`z0.5`$, and translated to the distance modulus, $`\mu `$, units according to the assumed cosmological model in the likelihood function. Figure 4 show the results of the likelihood analysis. The maxima of the likelihood functions are obtained for ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_M,\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$) values of ($`0.40,0.82`$) and ($`0.66,1.36`$) for the LCS and TEMPLATE method respectively. The contour lines correspond to the $`68.3\%`$, $`95.4\%`$, and $`99.7\%`$ confidence levels.

## 4 Anisotropy measurement

The natural expansion for anisotropy detection is in spherical harmonics. The current data are too sparse to allow analysis in redshift shells.

We expand the four two-dimensional parameter ‘fields’ (for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`H_0`$, and $`\chi _{HD}^2`$) in spherical harmonics. If the isotropy assumption is valid we expect deviations from the average value to be due to noise, and the angular power spectrum should likewise reflect it. This is unless foreground effects alter the signal significantly.

The operational way to calculate the expansion coefficients $`a_{lm}`$ is as follows.

* Build a random distribution of points (“mask”) on the sphere.
* Assign four best-fit parameters to every point based on minimization over all SNe within angular radius $`\gamma _{min}`$ about this grid point.
* Construct the four residual fields about the global mean, i.e., $`\delta _F=(FF)/F`$, where $`F`$ is $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`H_0`$, or $`\chi _{\mathrm{HD}}^2`$.
* Expand the $`\delta _F`$ values as obtained at each grid point in Spherical Harmonics up to $`l_{max}=\pi /\gamma _{min}`$, i.e.

$$\delta _F(\theta ,\varphi )=\underset{l=0}{\overset{l=l_{\mathrm{max}}}{}}\underset{m=l}{\overset{m=+l}{}}a_l^mY_l^m.$$
(1)

In order to include more than $`2`$ SNe in each smoothing bin (at least two-parameter fit) we obtain $`\gamma 25^{}`$, however the SNe are not distributed uniformly (cf. Fig. 2) and thus a minimum angular resolution of $`60^{}`$ is imposed. That means that for a whole sky coverage the highest significant multipole, $`l`$, is $`l=3`$. There are, though regions that are more densely covered by SNe data and therefore higher multipoles can be assessed as well but at a lower signal-to-noise level.

In order to account for the Poisson noise contribution (and thus to the angular power spectrum in quadrature), we run a set of $`50`$ random “masks” and repeat the $`a_{lm}`$ calculation each time. For each set of $`a_{lm}`$ the power spectrum coefficients, $`C_l=(2l+1)^1_{m=l}^l|a_{lm}|^2`$ are computed.

The angular power spectrum of the $`\delta _{H_0}`$ is an order of magnitude and more smaller than the noise level ($`C_l/(2\pi )5\times 10^5`$), in both methods. Figure 6 shows the angular power spectrum, $`l(l+1)C_l/(2\pi )`$, for the other three fields as calculated from 50 runs with different random mask points. The straight weaker lines show the noise level in each field. The $`\delta _\mathrm{\Omega }`$ fields in both methods show signals that exceed the noise level for the dipole ($`l=1`$) and the quadrupole ($`l=2`$). Two factors contribute to the noise level, the discrete number of SNe, and the scatter in the luminosity — redshift relation. The former is common to both methods (LCS and TEMPLATE) and therefore the order of magnitude higher noise level for the $`\delta _\mathrm{\Omega }`$ fields in the LCS method must be due to the latter. The TEMPLATE method seems to provide smaller errors and a better match between the two data sets, as indicated by the lower $`\chi ^2`$ level of the fiducial magnitude calibration (cf. §2). The $`\delta _{\chi _{\mathrm{HD}}^2}`$ angular power spectrum is similar in shape and magnitude in both methods, and lies an order of magnitude to a factor $`5`$ above its noise level. This may indicate there exists a true dipole (or quadrupole) in this field. From the first multipole of angular power spectrum alone, one cannot deduce what is the dipole direction. We therefore turn to look for the direction by other means.

We search for largest dipole in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`H_0`$, and $`\chi _{HD}^2`$. This has been done in two ways : an actual search over the sky, dividing the SN population in between two hemispheres, and equivalently, by solving a maximization problem of the dipole term with respect to $`(\theta ,\varphi )`$ using the computed $`a_{lm}`$ coefficients. Both methods yield similar results. We then calculate the confidence regions for each hemisphere separately, and look for statistical consistency (overlapping contours). Each test can be applied to each one of the four parameters.

Figure 8 verify the fact that the current SNe data best constrain a linear combination of the cosmological parameters $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. In all four panels the likelihood maxima move along the line (P99) $`4\mathrm{\Omega }_M+3\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=1`$, sometimes with a large distance $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ between the two maxima for the two disjoint hemispheres (quoted on the plots). In three cases the contour levels overlap significantly (see next section for quantitative evaluation). In the case of the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ dipole, using the LCS method, there is no overlap between the $`99.7\%`$ confidence levels of the two hemispheres. The discrepancy stems from the very assymetric distribution of SNe between the two hemispheres (59 on one versus 20 on the other) and only one SN (1995at) with $`z>0.5`$ in the 20 SNe sample. A small error in the distance measurement of this SN, or a systematic deviation of it from the average LCS relation may cause such a discrepancy as we demonstrate in the next section. Elimination of this SN yields a dipole which points $`20^{}`$ away from the original direction, reduced $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ value of $`2.39`$, and almost full inclusion of the $`99.7\%`$ confidence contour for the larger sample ($`56`$ SNe) within the $`95.4\%`$ confidence level of the remaining $`22`$ SNe.

Note that a different “mixture” of redshift distribution to different directions may cause some directions to become more sensitive to one parameter. E.g, SNe at $`z0.40.5`$ are mostly sensitive to the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ combination, as opposed to higher weight on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$ as redshift increases ($`|\mathrm{\Delta }/\mathrm{\Omega }_M|>|\mathrm{\Delta }/\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }|`$). Figure 2 includes the dipole directions (positive) of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ in both methods. We observe no coincidence with any Galactic or CMB direction, moreover not all dipoles point to the same direction.

The dipole of the $`\delta _{\chi _{\mathrm{HD}}^2}`$ field points in both methods toward $`(l=80^{},b=20^{})`$ with $`\chi _{\mathrm{HD}}^2=1.00(1.01)`$ and largest difference of $`0.60(0.63)`$ for the LCS (TEMPLATE) method. This dipole direction is suspiciously close to the Galactic plane.

One worry is that the detected signal is due to the (mis)match between the two data sets. We therefore repeated the computation for each data set separately and verified that though the noise level increases, the results as drawn from each one of the data sets are consistent with the results from the unified set both in magnitude and direction.

## 5 Degree of anisotropy

The results of the last section, regarding the spherical harmonic expansion and the various dipole magnitudes, should now be put in an expected distribution in order to draw conclusions about the degree of anisotropy.

The hypothesis we are trying to address is that the SN data do not falsify the FRW geometry as a reliable description of the $`z1`$ Universe. This strategy is more efficient than addressing specific anisotropic cosmological models \[Célérier (2000a), Célérier (2000b)\]. We therefore compute the probability distribution of the dipole magnitudes within a FRW universe and confront it with the values obtained for the real Universe.

A simple two dimensional Kolmogorov-Smirnov test to falsify the hypothesis that the two contour maps come from the same underlying distribution of cosmological parameters is inadequate here. Since we have used the maximum discrepant values in order to obtain the dipole, the two sub-samples are not randomly selected and therefore can not be confronted in a KS test.

The probability distribution depends on the actual cosmological values and to a lesser extent on the power spectrum (via the scatter due to potential fluctuations). For a self consistency check, the underlying cosmology is taken to be the ”best fit” cosmological model (§3), which we then sample by Monte-Carlo simulations.

To mimic accurately the SN sample, we use the same angular locations and redshift values as of the observed sample. Luminosity distances, magnitude scatter and peculiar velocities are drawn from Gaussian distributions with the appropriate observed standard deviation.

The dipole analysis is repeated for $`200`$ mock catalogs of the SN and the maximal dipole magnitude is calculated to obtain its distribution for the current sampled SNe.

Table 1 shows the rejection levels of the hypothesis that the Universe up to $`z1`$ can be described by a FRW metric. E.g., using the LCS method and the current sample of SNIa we expect in $`19\%`$ of all cases to detect a higher $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ value for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$ dipole, than the observed one.

| Table 1 | | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Isotropy rejection levels using $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | | |
| Cosmological | Method | |
| parameter | LCS | TEMPLATE |
| $`H_0`$ | 33% | 70% |
| $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$ | 81% | 79% |
| $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ | 88% | 64% |

## 6 Discussion

By the exploitation of the current available SNe data we have put constraints on the rejection level of the cosmological principle validity up to $`z1`$. A FRW metric is found to be an adequate description of the Universe. In $`20\%`$ of all realizations of such universes, the dipole signature for anisotropy in the cosmological parameters $`H_0`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ exceeds the observed one.

Even though such dipole magnitudes are reasonable in the framework of the FRW model, they may be indicative of non-cosmological contributions to the angular power spectrum. In §1 we listed possible such contributions. If indeed the Universe up to $`z1`$ is well represented by a FRW metric then we can exclude large coherent structures at $`z\stackrel{>}{}0.3`$. Such are the structures that may lead to dipole and quadrupole signatures due to coherent gravitational lensing magnification/de-magnification and therefore the latter can be excluded as anisotropy contributors.

That leaves small scale (Galactic) foreground effects to be the most likely power contributors. The Galactic disk geometry makes the quadrupole the most significant multipole to be considered, though the solar system offset from the Galactic center may bring about a dipole contribution as well. In the current sample the quadrupole term is only slightly larger than the noise level and does not allow any conclusive results. None of the dipole directions for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ coincides with the Galactic plane and thus they are probably not correlated with it. Multipoles due to dust extinction may be affirmed by multiple expansion of the residual colors after extinction correction (i.e., R98 and P99 appendices).

The one case where two significantly non-overlapping confidence regions are found for two hemispheres that maximize the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ dipole (LCS), is probably due to a single SN (1995at) for which the individual errors have been underestimated. This case is an exception since the overall $`\chi ^2`$ values for the HD fits are statistically acceptable. Nevertheless, this case demonstrates the hazard in the draw of conclusions based on a handful of SNe, for which the error in the error estimate is uncertain.

In general, the TEMPLATE method provides a better statistical agreement of the data with an FRW model and the current SNe data. This is seen from the magnitude match (cf. §2), tighter constraints from the combined set, smaller noise levels for all multipoles, and smaller $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ values for the $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ dipoles.

We conclude that an isotropic $`z1`$ universe cannot be rejected by more than a $`1\sigma `$ level based on the current SNe data.

## Acknowledgments:

This work was supported by the US-Israel Binational Science Foundation, by the Israel Science Foundation, and by grants from NASA and NSF at UCSC.