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# First order phase transitions in a Bianchi type-I universe

## Abstract

Considering the theory of induced gravity coupled to matter fields, taking the $`\varphi ^6`$ interaction potential model we evaluate the one-loop effective potential in a (3+1)dimensional Bianchi type-I spacetime. It is proved that the $`\varphi ^6`$ theory can be regularised in (3+1)dimensional curved spacetime. We evaluate the finite temperature effective potential and study the temperature dependence of phase transitions. The nature of phase transitions in the early universe is clarified to be of first order. The effects of spacetime curvature and arbitrary field coupling on the phase transitions in the early universe are also discussed.

$``$e-mail: minujoy@cusat.ac.in

e-mail: vck@cusat.ac.in

PACS number(s): 04.62.+v, 11.10.Gh, 11.10.Wx, 11.15.Ex

I. INTRODUCTION

In the early universe, symmetries that are spontaneously broken today were restored and during the evolution of the universe there were phase transitions, perhaps many, associated with the spontaneous breakdown of symmetries(SSB) . During such a phase transition it is possible for the field to acquire nonzero vacuum expectation values. In general, a symmetry breaking phase transition can be first or second order. For a first order phase transition the change in $`\varphi `$in going from one phase to the other must be discontinuous, while for a second order transition there is no barrier at the transition point and the transition occurs smoothly. Of particular interest for cosmology is the nature of phase transition, whether it is first order or not. If the phase transition is strongly first order, the Universe may be dominated by the vacuum energy and undergo a period of inflation. In this case, the transition proceeds by the nucleation of bubbles of the true vacuum. If the phase transition is higher order, or weakely first order, thermal fluctuations may drive the transition.

Quantum fields have profound influence on the dynamical behaviour of the early universe \[2-4\]. Quantum field theory in an external classical gravitational field is usually regarded as a first step towards a more complete theory of quantum gravity . At high energies the quantum matter fields are free from all the interactions except the conformal one with an external metric. The requirement of the conformal invariance is especially important for the scalar field, as it fixes the value of the non-minimal parameter of the scalar curvature interaction to the conformal value. The effect of quantum conformal factor leads to a first order phase transition induced by curvature where the scalar field plays the role of order parameter \[6-8\].

The influence of quantum fields and the gravitational effects on the cosmological phase transitions have been investigated by many authors \[9-12\]. From analysis based on the one loop renormalised effective potential it is concluded that the scalar gravitational coupling $`\xi `$and the magnitude of the scalar curvature R crucially determine the fate of symmetry. At the classical level the scalar curvature acts as an effective mass of the field and thus influence the phase transition of the system. The effect of anisotropy on the static spacetimes like Mixmaster or Taub Universe on the process of symmetry breaking and restoration has also been discussed .

In the present work we discuss the quantum field effects on phase transition and the temperature dependence of phase transition for a $`\varphi ^6`$ theory in a Bianchi type-I universe. This is the most general model for a self-interacting scalar field exhibiting $`\varphi \varphi `$ symmetry. Self interactions upto $`\varphi ^6`$ exhibit three lowest levels well separated from the rest . Boyanovsky and Masperi have shown that the nature of phase transitions associated with such a field system may be of first order or second order depending on the relative depths of the wells and the strength of coupling.

One of the simplest models of an anisotropic universe that describes a homogeneous and a spatially flat universe is the Bianchi type-I cosmology. Unlike the FRW model which has the same scale factor for each of the three spatial directions, the Bianchi type-I cosmology has a differrent scale factor in each direction, which produces an anisotropy in expansion. Futamase has considered the effective potential in a Bianchi type-I universe  which reduces to the spatially flat Robertson-Walker model for zero anisotropy. Huang has discussed the fate of symmetry in a Bianchi type-I universe using an adiabatic approximation for a massless field with arbitrary coupling to gravity . Berkin has also calculated the effective potential in a Bianchi type-I universe, for a scalar field having arbitrary mass and coupling to gravity .

$`\varphi ^6`$ model is known to be nonrenormalisable in (3+1)dimensional flat spacetime. Nonrenormalizability of the field theory does not mean that the theory is not interesting and it does not mean, ofcourse, that finite renormalised prescription for the calculation of one-loop effective potential does not exist. Using the present $`\varphi ^6`$ model we have obtained a finite expression for the one-loop effective potential. The present calculations show that the $`\varphi ^6`$ model can be regularised using the effective potential method in (3+1)dimensional curved spacetime. This paper is organised in the following way. In section II we evaluate the one-loop effective potential for $`\varphi ^6`$ theory in a $`\left(3+1\right)`$ dimensional Bianchi type-I spacetime with small anisotropy and discuss the properties of quantum field corrections to the symmetry breaking or restoration. The finite temperature effects on the phase transitions of early universe are discussed in section III and the nature of phase transitions is examined in section IV. The crucial dependence of phase transitions of the early universe on spacetime curvature and the gravitational-scalar coupling is made clear in section V. Section VI is devoted to discussions and conclusions of the present calculations.

II. QUANTUM FIELD EFFECTS ON SYMMETRY BREAKING AND RESTORATION IN BIANCHI TYPE-I SPACETIME

The Lagrangian density $`\mathrm{\pounds }`$ describing a massive  self interacting  scalar field $`\varphi `$ coupled arbitrarily to the gravitational back ground is,

$$\mathrm{\pounds }=\sqrt{g}\left\{\frac{1}{2}[g^{\mu \nu }_\mu \varphi _\nu \varphi \xi R\varphi ^2]\frac{1}{2}\lambda ^2\varphi ^2(\varphi ^2m/\lambda )^2\right\}$$
(1)
where, the classical potential corresponding to this Lagrangian is,

$$V(\varphi )=\frac{1}{2}\xi R\varphi ^2+\frac{1}{2}\lambda ^2\varphi ^2(\varphi ^2m/\lambda )^2$$
(2)
This Lagrangian exhibits $`\varphi \varphi `$ symmetry. The equation of motion associated with the Lagrangian(1) is,

$$g^{\mu \nu }_\mu _\nu \varphi +(m^2+\xi R)\varphi 4\kappa \varphi ^3+3\lambda ^2\varphi ^5=0$$
(3)
in which we put $`m`$$`\lambda =\kappa .`$ We can write,

$$\varphi =\varphi _c+\varphi _q$$
(4)
where $`\varphi _c`$ is the classical field and $`\varphi _q`$ is a quantum field with vanishing vacuum expectation value, $`<\varphi _q>`$ $`=0.`$ Introducing renormalised parameters,

$$\begin{array}{c}m^2=m_r^2+\delta m^2,\xi =\xi _r+\delta \xi ,\\ \\ \kappa =\kappa _r+\delta \kappa ,\lambda =\lambda _r+\delta \lambda \end{array}$$
(5)
the field equaton for the classical field $`\varphi _c`$ becomes,

$$\begin{array}{c}g^{\mu \nu }_\mu _\nu \varphi _c+[(m_r^2+\delta m^2)+(\xi _r+\delta \xi )R]\varphi _c\\ \\ 4(\kappa _r+\delta \kappa )\varphi _c^312(\kappa _r+\delta \kappa )\varphi _c<\varphi _q^2>\\ \\ +3(\lambda _r^2+\delta \lambda ^2)\varphi _c^5+30(\lambda _r^2+\delta \lambda ^2)\varphi _c^3<\varphi _q^2>\\ \\ +15(\lambda _r^2+\delta \lambda ^2)\varphi _c<\varphi _q^4>=0\end{array}$$
(6)
and to the one loop quantum effect, the field equation for the quantum field $`\varphi _q`$ is,

$$g^{\mu \nu }_\mu _\nu \varphi _q+(m_r^2+\xi R)\varphi _q12\kappa _r\varphi _c^2\varphi _q+15\lambda _r^2\varphi _c^4\varphi _q=0$$
(7)
The effective potential V$`_{eff}`$is given by,

$$\begin{array}{c}V_{eff}=\frac{1}{2}[(m_r^2+\delta m^2)+(\xi _r+\delta \xi )R][\varphi _c^2+<\varphi _q^2>]\\ \\ (\kappa _r+\delta \kappa )\varphi _c^46(\kappa _r+\delta \kappa )\varphi _c^2<\varphi _q^2>\\ \\ (\kappa _r+\delta \kappa )<\varphi _q^4>+\frac{1}{2}(\lambda _r^2+\delta \lambda ^2)\varphi _c^6\\ \\ +\frac{15}{2}(\lambda _r^2+\delta \lambda ^2)\varphi _c^4<\varphi _q^2>\\ \\ +\frac{15}{2}(\lambda _r^2+\delta \lambda ^2)\varphi _c^2<\varphi _q^4>\\ \\ +\frac{1}{2}(\lambda _r^2+\delta \lambda ^2)<\varphi _q^6>\end{array}$$
(8)
To make Veff finite, the following renormalisation conditions are used,

$$\begin{array}{c}m_r^2=\left(\frac{^2V_{eff}}{\varphi _c^2}\right)_{\varphi _c=R=0}\\ \\ \xi _r=\left(\frac{^3V_{eff}}{R\varphi _c^2}\right)_{\varphi _c=R=0}\\ \\ \kappa _r=\left(\frac{^4V_{eff}}{\varphi _c^4}\right)_{\varphi _c=R=0}\\ \\ \lambda _r^\mathit{2}=\left(\frac{^\mathit{6}V_{\mathrm{𝑒𝑓𝑓}}}{\varphi _c^\mathit{6}}\right)_{\varphi _c=R=0}\end{array}$$
(9)
To evaluate $`<\varphi _q^2>,`$ $`<\varphi _q^4>,`$ and $`<\varphi _q^6>`$ we adopt the canonical quantisation relations:

$$[\varphi _q(t,x),\varphi _q(t,y)]=[\pi _q(t,x),\pi _q(t,y)]=0;[\varphi _q(t,x),\pi _q(t,y)]=i\delta ^3(xy)$$
(10)
where the conjugate momentum $`\pi _q`$ is defined by $`\pi _q=\frac{\mathrm{\pounds }}{(_i\varphi )}`$ . Due to the space homogeneity we expand the quantum field $`\varphi _q`$ by the summation or integration over modes in the form,

$$\varphi _q(t,x)=C^{1/2}(t)𝑑\mu (k)[a_k\chi _k(t)y_k(x)+a_k^+\chi _k^{}(t)y_k^{}(x)]$$
(11)
where $`y_k(x)`$ is a normalised eigen function of the spatial part of field equation, while $`\chi _k(t)`$ is that of the time part. An explicit functional form of the mode solutions $`\chi _k(t)`$ and $`y_k(x)`$ can only be found after specifying the background spacetime.

We consider a (3+1) dimensional Bianchi type-I spacetime with small anisotropy which has the line element

$$\begin{array}{c}ds^2=C(\eta )d\eta ^2a_1^2(\eta )dx^2a_2^2(\eta )dy^2a_3^2(\eta )dz^2\\ \\ C=(a_1a_2a_3)^{2/3}\end{array}$$
(12)
In this model the mode function can be written in the separated form as
u$`{}_{k}{}^{}=C^{1/2}(2\pi )^{3/2}\mathrm{exp}(i\kappa .x)\chi _k(\eta )`$ and then

$$\begin{array}{c}<\varphi _q^2(\eta )>=\frac{1}{8\pi ^3C(\eta )}d^3k\chi _k(\eta )\chi _k^{}(\eta ),\\ \\ <\varphi _q^4(\eta )>=\frac{1}{64\pi ^6C^2(\eta )}d^3k(\chi _k(\eta )\chi _k^{}(\eta ))^2and\\ \\ <\varphi _q^6(\eta )>=\frac{1}{512\pi ^9C^3(\eta )}d^3k(\chi _k(\eta )\chi _k^{}(\eta ))^3\end{array}$$
(13)
The wave equation Eq. (7) will then lead to

$$\stackrel{}{\chi }+\left\{C\left[m_r^2+(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})R12\kappa _r\varphi _c^2+15\lambda _r^2\varphi _c^4+\underset{i}{}\frac{k_i^2}{a_i^2}\right]+Q\right\}\chi _k=0$$
(14)
where the spacetime curvature function R and the anisotropic function Q are

$$\begin{array}{c}R=6C^1(\stackrel{}{H}+H^2+Q)H=\underset{i}{}h_i\\ \\ h_i=\frac{\stackrel{}{a_i}}{a_i}Q=\frac{1}{36}\underset{i<j}{}(h_ih_j)^2\end{array}$$
(15)
When the metric is slowly varying Eq. (14) possesses WKB approximation solution:

$$\begin{array}{c}\chi _k=(2W_k)^{\frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{exp}(i𝑑\eta W_k)\\ where\\ W_k=\left\{C\left[m_r^2+(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})R12\kappa _r\varphi _c^2+15\lambda _r^2\varphi _c^4+\underset{i}{}\frac{k_i^2}{a_i^2}\right]+Q\right\}^{\frac{1}{2}}\end{array}$$
(16)
Substituting the above solution in Eq. (13):

$$\begin{array}{c}<\varphi _q^2>=\frac{1}{16\pi ^3C(\eta )}d^3k\left\{C\left[m_r^2+(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})R12\kappa _r\varphi _c^2+15\lambda _r^2\varphi _c^4+\underset{i}{}\frac{k_i^2}{a_i^2}\right]+Q\right\}^{\frac{1}{2}}\\ \\ =\frac{1}{16\pi }\{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2+\frac{1}{2}[m_r^2+(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})R12\kappa _r\varphi _c^2+15\lambda _r^2\varphi _c^4+\frac{Q}{C}]\times \\ \\ [1+\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{m_r^2+(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})R12\kappa _r\varphi _c^2+15\lambda _r^2\varphi _c^4+\frac{Q}{C}}{4\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}\right]]\}\end{array}$$
(17)
and similarly,

$$\begin{array}{c}<\varphi _q^4>=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{128\pi ^4C^{\frac{3}{2}}}\{1\frac{\left[m_r^2+(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})R12\kappa _r\varphi _c^2+15\lambda _r^2\varphi _c^4+\frac{Q}{C}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\times \hfill \\ \\ \mathrm{arctan}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\left[m_r^2+(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})R12\kappa _r\varphi _c^2+15\lambda _r^2\varphi _c^4+\frac{Q}{C}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}}\}\hfill \end{array}$$
(18)
where we have introduced a momentum cut-off $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ to regularise the k-integration. From the renormalisation conditions given by Eq. (9), the renormalisation counter terms are evaluated as,

$$\begin{array}{c}\delta m^2=\frac{3(\kappa _r+\delta \kappa )}{4\pi }\left[\mathrm{\Lambda }^2+\frac{1}{2}\left(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C}\right)\left(1+\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C}}{4\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}\right]\right)\right]\\ \\ \frac{15(\lambda _r^2+\delta \lambda ^2)}{128\pi ^4C^{\frac{3}{2}}}\left[\mathrm{\Lambda }\left(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{arctan}\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})^{\frac{1}{2}}}\right]\right]\end{array}$$
(19)
$$\begin{array}{c}\delta \xi =\frac{3(\kappa _r+\delta \kappa )}{8\pi }\left(\xi _r\frac{1}{6}\right)\left[2+\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C}}{4\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}\right]\right]\hfill \\ \\ +\frac{15(\lambda _r^2+\delta \lambda ^2)}{256\pi ^4C^{\frac{3}{2}}}\left(\xi _r\frac{1}{6}\right)\left[\frac{1}{(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})^{\frac{1}{2}}}\mathrm{arctan}\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})^{\frac{1}{2}}}\right]\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C}+\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)}\right]\hfill \end{array}$$
(20)
$$\delta \kappa =\kappa _r\frac{\lambda _r^2}{60\left[\frac{45\lambda _r^2}{4\pi }\left(2+\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C}}{4\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}\right]\right)+\frac{54\kappa _r^2}{\pi (m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})}\right]}$$
(21)
$$\begin{array}{c}\begin{array}{c}\delta \lambda _r^2=\lambda _r^2\hfill \\ \\ +\frac{8\left[\lambda _r^2\pi +27\kappa _r\lambda _r^2\left(2+\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C}}{4\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}\right]\right)+\frac{135\kappa _r^3}{\left(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C}\right)}\right]}{225\left[\mathrm{\Lambda }^2+\frac{1}{2}(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})\left(1+\mathrm{ln}\frac{m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C}}{4\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}\right)+\frac{3\kappa _r}{16\pi ^3}\left(\frac{1}{(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})^{\frac{1}{2}}}\mathrm{arctan}\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})^{\frac{1}{2}}}\right]\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C}+\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}\right)\right]}\hfill \end{array}\\ \\ \\ \frac{1}{\left[\frac{45\lambda _r^2}{4\pi }\left(2+\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C}}{4\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}\right]\right)+\frac{54\kappa _r^2}{\pi (m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})}\right]}\end{array}$$
(22)
Substituting the renormalisation counterterms, we find $`\frac{V_{eff}}{\varphi _c}`$ obtained from Eq. (8) as,

$$\begin{array}{c}\frac{V_{eff}}{\varphi _c}=(m_r^2+\xi _rR)\varphi _c\hfill \\ \\ +\frac{\kappa _r(\frac{n\pi }{2})}{100\pi ^3C\frac{3}{2}\left[(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})+\frac{3\kappa _r}{16\pi ^3(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})^{\frac{1}{2}}}(\frac{n\pi }{2})\right]}\hfill \\ \\ \left\{(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})^{\frac{1}{2}}\left[m_r^2+(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})R12\kappa _r\varphi _c^2+15\lambda _r^2\varphi _c^4+\frac{Q}{C}\right]\right\}\varphi _c\hfill \\ \\ +\left[\frac{(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})}{900}+\frac{(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})\kappa _r(\frac{n\pi }{2})}{200\pi ^3(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})^{\frac{1}{2}}\left[(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})+\frac{3\kappa _r}{16\pi ^3(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})^{\frac{1}{2}}}(\frac{n\pi }{2})\right]}\right]R\varphi _c\hfill \\ \\ +\frac{2\kappa _r\left[m_r^2+(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})R12\kappa _r\varphi _c^2+15\lambda _r^2\varphi _c^4+\frac{Q}{C}\right]}{25\left[(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})+\frac{3\kappa _r}{16\pi ^3(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})^{\frac{1}{2}}}(\frac{n\pi }{2})\right]}\hfill \\ \\ \left[1+\mathrm{ln}\left(m_r^2+(\xi _r\frac{1}{6})R12\kappa _r\varphi _c^2+15\lambda _r^2\varphi _c^4+\frac{Q}{C}\right)\right]\varphi _c^3\hfill \\ \\ +\frac{32\kappa _r\pi }{375\left[(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})+\frac{3\kappa _r}{16\pi ^3(m_r^2+\frac{Q}{C})^{\frac{1}{2}}}\left(\frac{n\pi }{2}\right)\right]}\varphi _c^5wheren=1,2,3\mathrm{}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(23)
The above equation shows that we can obtain finite expression for the one loop effective potential using this $`\varphi ^6`$ model in (3+1)dimensional Bianchi Type I spacetime. Thus it is clear that the $`\varphi ^6`$ theory in (3+1)dimension can be regularised in a curved anisotropic spacetime using the effective potential method. It is to be noted that once we let the anisotropy in the above equation be zero, our result is consistent with that of the symmetric homogeneous case.

Now we are in a position to investigate the gravitational and quantum field effects on the cosmological phase transitions. This can be done by considering the case $`\varphi _c0`$. In the case of conformal coupling ($`\xi _r=\frac{1}{6})`$ or vanishing scalar curvature(R =0) we have,

$$\left(\frac{V_{eff}}{\varphi _c}\right)_{\varphi _c0}m_r^2\varphi _c$$
(24)
which shows that in such situations, the one-loop quantum correction does not change the fate of symmetry. For the other cases, we can find from the above equations that only for some suitable values of scalar gravitational coupling could the symmetry be radiatively broken or restored.

The perturbative method of calculating the effective potential can be improved by using Renormalisation Group(RG) approach. Such RG improved effective potential can be calculated in curved spacetime too . The condition expressing the independence of the effective potential from the renormalisation point leads to Renormalisation Group Equation(RGE) . This property in renormalisable theories may be used for construction of famous RG improved effective potential, which is much more exact than one loop-effective potential, because it takes into account of all orders of the perturbation theory. However, unlike to such multiplicatively renormalisable theories RG improved potential will not give leading log approximation in the present $`\varphi ^6`$ model as the theory is not multiplicatively renormalisable.

III. FINITE TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOUR

The evolution of particles in vacuum and in a thermal bath are very different. Similarly, the nature of evolution of field changes when coupled to a thermal bath.Under certain conditions, the changes may be absorbed in a temperature dependent potential, the finite temperature effective potential. The temperature dependence of finite temperature effective potential in quantum field theory leads to phase transitions in the early universe . In this case the vaccum expectation value is replaced by the thermal average $`<\varphi >_T=\sigma _T`$ taken with respect to a Gibbs ensemble .

In this section we evaluate the effective potential at finite temperature and show that the symmetry breaking present in the model can be removed if the temperature is raised above a certain value called the critical temperature.

Considering the same Lagrangian density as above, the zero loop effective potential is temperature independent,

$$V_0(\sigma )=\frac{1}{2}\xi R\sigma ^2+\frac{1}{2}\lambda ^2\sigma ^2(\sigma ^2m/\lambda )^2$$
(25)
The one loop approximation to finite temperature effective potential has been computed by many authors \[23-26\] and is given by,

$$\begin{array}{c}V_1^\beta (\sigma )=\frac{1}{2\beta }_n\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}\mathrm{ln}(k^2M^2)\\ \\ =\frac{1}{2\beta }_n\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}\mathrm{ln}(\frac{4\pi ^2n^2}{\beta ^2}E_M^2)\end{array}$$
(26)
$$\begin{array}{c}where,E_M^2=k^2+M^2,\\ \\ M^2=m^2+\xi R12\lambda m\sigma ^2+15\lambda ^2\sigma ^4\end{array}$$
(27)
The sum over n diverges; it may be evaluated by the method of Dolan and Jackiw  and we get,

$$\begin{array}{c}V_1^\beta (\sigma )=\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}\left[\frac{E_M}{2}+\frac{1}{\beta }\mathrm{ln}(1e^{\beta E})\right]\hfill \\ \\ =V_1^0(\sigma )+\overline{V}_1^\beta (\sigma )\hfill \end{array}$$
(28)
where,

$$V_1^0(\sigma )=\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}\frac{E_M}{2},$$
(29)
and

$$\begin{array}{c}\overline{V}_1^\beta (\sigma )=\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}\frac{1}{\beta }\mathrm{ln}(1e^{\beta E})\\ \\ =\frac{1}{4\pi \beta ^3}\underset{0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}x𝑑x\mathrm{ln}\left[1\mathrm{exp}(x^2+\beta ^2M^2)^{1/2}\right]\end{array}$$
(30)
where we put x$`{}_{}{}^{2}/\beta ^2=E_M^2M^2.`$ The integral may be evaluated by expanding $`\overline{V}_1^\beta (\sigma )`$ as a Taylor series and in the high temperature limit we find that

$$V_1^\beta (\sigma )=\frac{\pi ^2}{90\beta ^4}+\frac{M^2}{24\beta ^2}\frac{M^3}{12\pi \beta }\frac{M^4}{64\pi ^2}\mathrm{ln}M^2\beta ^2$$
(31)
The critical temperature in the present case is

$$T_c=\left[\frac{\left(m^2+\xi R\right)}{\lambda m}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}$$
(32)
The symmetry breaking present in the model can be removed if the temperature is raised above a certain value called the critical temperature. The order parameter of the theory is temperature dependent.

IV. NATURE OF PHASE TRANSITION

The characteristic of a first order phase transition is the existence of a barrier between the symmetric and the broken phase . The temperature dependence of Veff for a first order phase transition obtained using the present $`\varphi ^6`$ model is shown in Fig.1(a- e). When T$``$T$`_c,`$ the effective potential attains a minimum at $`\sigma =0,`$ which corresponds to the completely symmetric case. When the temperature decreases, a global minimum appears at $`\sigma =0`$ and two local minima at $`\sigma 0,`$ which shows the existence of a barrier between the global and local minima. At T=Tc, all the minima are degenerate, that means the symmetry is broken. For T¡Tc the minima at $`\sigma 0`$ becomes the global one. If for T$`T_c`$ the extremum at $`\sigma =0`$ remains a local minimum, there must be a barrier between the minimum at $`\sigma =0`$ and at $`\sigma 0.`$ Therefore the change in $`\sigma `$ in going from one phase to the other must be discontinuous, indicating a first order phase transition. The phase transition starts at Tc by tunnelling, however, if the barrier is high enough the tunnelling effect is very small and the phase transition does effectively starts at a temperature T$``$Tc . This shows that the present model can describe first order phase transitions which might have taken place during the evolution of the early universe.

V. DEPENDENCE ON SCALAR CURVATURE R AND SCALAR-GRAVITATIONAL COUPLING $`\xi `$

Using this $`\varphi ^6`$ model, it is proved that the curvature can restore broken symmetries for a wide range of parameters from conformal to near minimal couplings, even if the temperature is below critical temperature. Fig. 2 clearly shows that the first order phase transition takes place as R changes.

The saclar-gravitational coupling constant $`\xi `$ is found to play a crucial role in symmetry breaking phase transitions. Classicaly, a positive $`\xi `$ restores symmetry, while the opposite effects are found for negative coupling . Quantum effects depend on the value of $`\xi `$ relative to the conformal value $`\frac{1}{6}.`$ The present calculations show that the symmetry is restored as the scalar coupling constant $`\xi `$ is increased. This phase transition, induced by the coupling constant $`\xi `$ is also found to be of first order. It is clear from Fig. 3 that there is a barrier between the symmetric and broken phases.

VI. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

According to renormalizability considerations, degree of the interaction potential can not be higher than four in (3+1)dimension . The present calculations show that the $`\varphi ^6`$ theory in (3+1)dimension can be regularised in curved spacetime and one can obtain finite expression for the one loop effective potential. In this paper we closely examine and verify the temperature dependence of phase transitions in the early universe and verify their nature to be of first order as the transition is found to be discontinuous.

In most of the works on cosmological phase transitions, the coupling to the background gravitational field is ignored. One deals with the Quantum field theory in flat spacetime at finite temperature and the expansion of the Universe serves only to decrease the temperature. However, at sufficiently early times the spacetime curvature can be expected to be important. Many authors have argued that such effects may be important in the context of cosmological phase transitions in Grand Unified models \[19,29-32\]. Vilenkin and Ford have shown that spacetime curvature can drastically change the behaviour of the system . O’Connor and co-workers have confirmed the effect of spacetime curvature and arbitrary field coupling on the phase transitions of the early universe . Janson , Grib and Mosteparenko  and Madsen  have independently shown that the interaction with the external gravitational field may lead to SSB. The present work proves that the phase transition taking place during such a SSB is first order. It is found that for $`\xi =0`$ or $`R=0`$ the system remains in the symmetry broken state for all values of T$`T_c`$. As the temperature is increased above T$`_c,`$ the symmetry is restored depending on the values of $`\xi `$ and $`R`$ also. It is also found that symmetry can be restored either by increasing the value of $`\xi `$ or by increasing the value of $`R`$ keeping the temperature constant. This shows that the scalar-gravitational coupling and the scalar curvature do play a crucial role in determining the nature of phase transitions took place in the early universe.

These results may be useful for the study of quantum thermal processes in the early universe. To examine the symmetry behaviour of the early universe closely one should take into consideration the effects of spacetime curvature and finite temperature corrections in their full rights.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to the referee for the valuable comments. We thank Prof. T. Padmanabhan and Prof. Maria Lombardo for valuable discussions. One of us (MJ) would like to thank UGC, N. Delhi for financial support in the form of a JRF. VCK acknowledges Associateship of IUCAA, Pune.

Figure Captions

1. Fig. 1a : The behaviour of finite temperature effective potential as a function of $`\sigma `$ for fixed $`m=0.9371`$, $`\lambda =0.008,`$ $`R=11.2,\xi =1.6`$ and $`T=50`$ such that $`𝐓>>𝐓_c,`$for which the symmetry is completely restored.
2. Fig. 1b :The behaviour of finite temperature effective potential as a function of $`\sigma `$ for fixed $`m=0.9371`$, $`\lambda =0.008,`$ $`R=0.8,\xi =0.145`$ and $`T=10.15`$ such that $`𝐓>𝐓_c.`$
3. Fig. 1c : The behaviour of finite temperature effective potential as a function of $`\sigma `$ for fixed $`m=0.9371`$, $`\lambda =0.008,`$ $`R=0.35,\xi =0.004`$ and $`T=8.69`$ such that $`𝐓=𝐓_c.`$
4. Fig. 1d : The behaviour of finite temperature effective potential as a function of $`\sigma `$ for fixed $`m=0.9371`$, $`\lambda =0.008,`$ $`R=0.31,\xi =0.22`$ and $`T=5`$ such that $`𝐓<𝐓_c.`$
5. Fig. 1e : The behaviour of finite temperature effective potential as a function of $`\sigma `$ for fixed $`m=0.9371`$, $`\lambda =0.008,`$ $`R=0.3,\xi =0.3`$ and $`𝐓=\mathrm{𝟎}.`$
6. Fig. 2 : The behaviour of finite temperature effective potential as a function of $`\sigma `$ for fixed $`m=0.9371`$, $`\lambda =0.008,`$ $`\xi =0.1`$ and T$`=1.`$ Starting from top the curves corresponds to the following values of the curvature : R=15,4,2.5,0.5,0.001,-0.9.
7. Fig. 3 : The behaviour of finite temperature effective potential as a function of $`\sigma `$ for fixed $`m=0.9371`$, $`\lambda =0.008,`$ $`R=0.3`$ and $`T=3.`$ Starting from top the curves corresponds to the following values of the curvature:$`\xi `$ = 6.5,2.3,1.25,0.01,-0.3,-0.7.


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# TiO and H2O absorption lines in cool stellar atmospheres

## 1 Introduction

Over the past decade, model atmospheres and synthetic spectra for late-type stars have improved hand-in-hand with higher quality opacities. In 1994, quality lists of transitions of the water vapor molecule based on ab initio molecular calculations became available Miller et al. (1994); Schryber, Miller, & Tennyson (1995); Jørgensen, Jensen, & Sørensen (1994) which allowed the computation of the first Direct Opacity Sampling (hereafter dOS) model atmospheres for late-type dwarfs Allard et al. (1994) and brown dwarfs Allard et al. (1996), later to become the NextGen models described in Hauschildt, Allard, & Baron (1999). Showing a more physical description of their main opacities, the NextGen dOS model atmospheres promised a better description of the Spectral Energy Distribution (hereafter SED) of cool stars. And this appeared to be verified for the infrared SED of M dwarfs Jones et al. (1996); Leggett et al. (1996); Allard et al. (1997).

But despite these fundamental improvements, the NextGen models have failed to match adequately several of the optical (spectroscopic and photometric) properties of late type dwarfs and giants. In fact, the dOS models Brett (1995); Allard et al. (1994, 1997); Hauschildt, Allard, & Baron (1999) provided a worse fit to the optical SED of lower main sequence dwarfs than previous models based on simplified molecular opacities (Allard & Hauschildt, 1995, hereafter, AH95). The models could not reproduce the tight relation formed by M dwarfs in the V-R versus R-I two-color diagram, indicating a systematically shallower slope of the optical SED (defined by TiO absorption) then observed in these stars. A systematic flux excess in the spectral region sampled by the V bandpass ($`0.40.65\mu `$m) was noted as well in dwarfs as in red giants. Baraffe et al. (1998a) observed that this excess in the NextGen dwarf models translated into lower main sequence isochrones deviating progressively to the blue (by up to 1.0 magnitude!) in (MV,V-I) color-magnitude diagrams, for masses lower than about 0.5 M (T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}3800`$K). Baraffe et al. (1997a) examined a variety of globular clusters and showed that this departure of the models decreased in amplitude with decreasing metallicity. The problem seemed therefore confirmed to be caused by a lack of opacity of an oxygen compound111Hydride absorption bands only get stronger relative to the continuum with decreasing metallicity over the range covered by the globular clusters studied in Baraffe et al. (1997a) in the optical spectral range..

Only three independent models of the TiO molecule and corresponding lists of transitions were available so far to the construction of model atmospheres. The first model was constructed over two decades ago by Collins (1975) and was restricted by the computational limitations of the time. The Collins line list was intended to model the extended atmospheres of red giants and did not include high energy and otherwise weak transitions important by their number in the hotter environments of red dwarf atmospheres. It also neglected the red $`ϵ`$ system of TiO. Jørgensen (1994) extended Collins’ work to TiO isotopic transitions, included the $`ϵ`$ system from revised molecular rotational constants, and adopted the laboratory oscillator strengths of Davis, Littleton, & Phillips (1986). It is therefore understandable that the resulting limited list of transitions caused shortcomings in the NextGen model atmospheres. The second TiO list was constructed by Kurucz (1993) and is used in his ATLAS9-12 atmospheres. The third model was constructed by Plez (1992) using also the Davis, Littleton, & Phillips (1986) oscillator strengths, and is used in his version of the MARCS atmosphere code. All three independent models yielded the visual flux excess in different proportions. Plez (1998) suggested that the missing opacity is due to missing TiO band systems in current lists, and added the TiO a-f system at 0.5 $`\mu `$m to his list. However, this helped him only partially to resolve the V-band flux excess problem.

Recently, Langhoff (1997) constructed a new model of the TiO molecule and published new lifetimes and oscillator strengths that improved significantly upon the 1986 values of Davis et al. Valenti, Piskunov, & Johns-Krull (1998); Plez (1998). Schwenke (1998) has subsequently computed a corresponding list of transitions complete to the high energies and therefore more suitable for general model atmosphere applications. In this paper we present the results of including this new TiO line list as well as the new AMES-H2O list in the construction of model atmospheres and synthetic spectra for late-type dwarfs and red giants.

## 2 Model calculations

We have calculated the models presented in this paper using version 10.3 of our general model atmosphere code PHOENIX. Details of the code and the general input physics are discussed in Hauschildt, Allard, & Baron (1999) and references cited therein. The models for M giants were calculated with the same setup, however, they employ spherical geometry (including spherically symmetric radiative transfer). For giant models with low gravities ($`\mathrm{log}(g)3.5`$), this can be an important effect for the correct calculation of the structure of the model atmosphere and the synthetic spectrum Aufdenberg et al. (1998, 1999). The main difference between the models presented in Hauschildt, Allard, & Baron (1999) and the models presented here is the use of the new AMES line lists for H2Partridge & Schwenke (1997) and TiO Schwenke (1998), but we have also adjusted the empirical oscillator strengths of VO and CaH absorption bands to respect their strength relative to TiO bands (note that VO and CaH absorption is still treated in the Just Overlapping Line Approximation due to lack of adequate line data). Our combined molecular line list includes about 500 million molecular lines. These lines are treated with a dOS technique where each line has its individual Voigt (for strong lines) or Gauss (weak lines) line profile (in the standard OS method tables of precomputed opacities are used). They are selected for every model from the master line list to the beginning of each model iteration to account for changes in the model structure, see Hauschildt, Allard, & Baron (1999) for details. This procedure selects about 215 million molecular lines for a typical giant model with $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}3000\mathrm{K}`$ and about 130 million molecular lines for a dwarf model with the same effective temperature. Therefore, we generally use the parallelized version of phoenix Hauschildt, Baron, & Allard (1997); Baron & Hauschildt (1998); Hauschildt & Baron (1999) to perform the calculation efficiently on parallel supercomputers. Details of the TiO and H2O lists are given in the next subsections.

### 2.1 Water lines

The effects of water lines on the M dwarfs SED was discussed in Allard et al. (1994). For the work presented here, we have replaced the UCL water vapor line-list (Miller et al., 1994; Schryber, Miller, & Tennyson, 1995, hereafter: MT-H2O) used in Hauschildt, Allard, & Baron (1999) with the AMES water line-list (Partridge & Schwenke, 1997, hereafter: AMES-H2O). This list includes about 307 million lines of water vapor. For the calculations shown in this paper we have used H$`{}_{}{}^{16}{}_{2}{}^{}`$O and neglected other, much less abundant, isotopes of this molecule.

The water vapor opacity is governed by the completeness of the line list used, but also by the adopted atomization energy. The partition function of the molecule cancels out in the final absorption coefficient, after we have multiplied cross-sections by number densities. But since water is an important chemical equilibrium specie, errors in the partition function can affect indirectly the model structure and spectra. The AH95 models were based on the Ludwig (1971) hot flames water cross-sections in the form of straight means, and used the JANAF partition function for water vapor Irwin (1988). The NextGen models where, on the other hand, computed with the MT-H2O line list and a partition function computed from the MT-H2O levels. We note that the AMES-H2O partition function is practically identical to JANAF values, while the MT-H2O value is smaller than JANAF for temperatures above 3000K, possibly due to the energy levels missing in the MT-H2O data. We have therefore adopted for this and later work the JANAF partition function. We use an atomization energy of $`9.5119`$eV from Irwin (1988) for all models since AH95.

### 2.2 TiO lines

The main point of this paper is the comparison of the model structure and the synthetic spectra obtained by using the list of TiO lines from (Jørgensen, 1994, hereafter: SCAN-TiO) and the new list of TiO lines from (Schwenke, 1998, hereafter, AMES-TiO). The AMES-TiO list includes a total of about 172 million lines, about 44.6 million of these are for the most abundant isotope $`^{48}`$TiO and about 32 million lines for each of the remaining 4 isotopes 46,47,49,50TiO). But beyond the completeness of the line-list, two more considerations affects the overall opacity produced by TiO, and explain systematic differences between model versions and by different authors: the atomization energy ($`D_0^0`$) determines the number density of TiO, and the TiO band oscillator strengths222$`\text{f}\text{el}=f_{\nu ^{}\nu ^{\prime \prime }}/q_{\nu ^{}\nu ^{\prime \prime }}`$, where the $`f`$’s are the oscillator strengths and the $`q`$’s are the Franck-Condon factors of the transition $`\nu ^{}\nu ^{\prime \prime }`$ have been derived from sunspot observations (Davis, Littleton, & Phillips, 1986, hereafter: DLP86), laboratory experiments (Hedgecock, Naulin, & Costes, 1995, hereafter: HNC95), as well as from ab initio calculations (Langhoff, 1997, hereafter L97). (Brett, 1990, hereafter:B90) derived astrophysical fel values by fitting the optical SEDs of red giants, using an atomization energy of $`7.76`$eV. He quoted that reducing this value by $`0.3`$eV would increase his fel by a factor 2.5. The most recent estimate of D$`{}_{}{}^{0}{}_{0}{}^{}`$ for TiO is now $`6.92`$eV, which suggests that the B90 fel values are underestimated by as much as a factor 7! We summarize in table 1 the various sources of oscillator strengths available for TiO.

The models of Allard (1990) used fel values from B90 together with the straight-mean TiO opacities by Collins (1975) and Collins & Faÿ (1974), and assuming an atomization energy of $`6.87`$eV. The first comparison of these models to the SED of M dwarfs Kirkpatrick et al. (1993) revealed the inadequacy of this combination of parameters for TiO which produced far too weak optical opacities. We have therefore, since the AH95 model series, employed the updated value of $`6.92`$eV, together with the larger laboratory fel-values of DLP86. These two modifications combined to significantly increased the strength of TiO opacities in the models, bringing the AH95 and later the dOS NextGen models in improved agreement with the SED of M dwarfs. Any differences in the predictions of the AH95 and NextGen models are therefore purely due to the opacity technique (Straight-Mean versus dOS) and to the completeness of the line-list used. The incompleteness of the SCAN-TiO line-list allows photons to escape between absorption bands (see e.g. Valenti, Piskunov, & Johns-Krull, 1998), and thus leads to systematically and increasingly (with higher $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$) bluer optical colors (V-I) than observed Baraffe et al. (1998b, 1997b). For the current models we therefore explore the use of the more complete AMES-TiO line-list, and the yet larger theoretical fel-values of L97.

## 3 Results

We have calculated a number of model atmospheres using either the SCAN-TiO or the AMES-TiO list of TiO lines and using either AMES-H2O or MT-H2O as source of the H2O lines. All the other input physics is the same for both sets of models. All models have been fully converged with their respective set of parameters. Note that these models have been constructed for the purpose of this paper only and not to model individual stars and thus do not include dust formation and opacities which is important in atmosphere models with effective temperatures below about $`2500\mathrm{K}`$, such models are presented in a subsequent paper. In the following, we will discuss the results for the dwarf and giant models separately. The baseline for our comparisons are the NextGen models Hauschildt, Allard, & Baron (1999) for the dwarfs and the NG-giant models Hauschildt et al. (1999) for the giants.

### 3.1 Effects of different TiO line lists

The models discussed in this section were all calculated using AMES-H2O to isolate the effects of different TiO line lists on the model spectra and structures.

#### 3.1.1 M dwarf models

In Figs. 1 and 2 we show a comparison of model spectra calculated with AMES-TiO (full curves) and with SCAN-TiO (dotted curves) (both using our adopted fel-set, as quoted in table 1) for several effective temperatures. The gravity ($`\mathrm{log}(g)=5.0`$) and abundances (solar) were selected to be representative of M dwarfs in the solar neighborhood. In both figures, the resolution of the synthetic spectra was reduced by boxcar smoothing to $`20\text{Å}`$. At high effective temperatures, the two sets of models are nearly identical due to reduced importance of TiO absorption. At very low $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ the two line lists apparently agree very well since only the lowest levels of TiO remain populated. It is essentially between $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}2000\mathrm{K}`$ and $`3500\mathrm{K}`$ that the largest completeness and quality effects of the TiO line lists are seen.

Fig. 3 indicates the location of each TiO band system for a 2900K model. From this it becomes clear that the addition of a-f transitions, which depress the continuum from 0.4 to 0.5$`\mu `$m, is one of the largest improvements brought by the AMES-TiO list to our models. We note that the entire optical regime from 0.4 to 0.75$`\mu `$m shows generally more opacity in the AMES-TiO models then using the Jørgensen (1994) (hereafter: J94) line list. The $`ϵ`$ bands at 0.82 to 0.88$`\mu `$m have a more precise shape in the AMES-TiO list, and come out stronger as well. This is a result of the completeness of the AMES-TiO list which also removes flux excess escaping between the troughs of the bands. We note however that some regions, such as in the $`\gamma `$ band near 0.78$`\mu `$m, show less opacity in the new models.

The main effect of the new AMES-TiO on spectroscopic and photometric $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ estimates will however be dominated by the change we make to the oscillator strengths. The L97 fel values being generally smaller than the DLP86 values adopted by J94, models of early-type M dwarfs using the new AMES-TiO setup should predict systematically lower effective temperatures then did prior models (NextGen, AH95, etc., see also Fig.10 below). And beyond the enhanced completeness of the AMES-TiO list to high temperature transitions, the need for a cooler model should also contribute to making the TiO bands fit better a given star i.e. larger bands with less flux escaping from deeper, hotter atmospheric regions between them.

We could have opted to use the HNC95 laboratory fel-values as did Plez (1998), but since the L97 ab initio values agree quite well, we decided to keep these, except for the $`\delta `$ and $`\phi `$ band systems. The reason the oscillator strengths for the $`\delta `$ and $`\phi `$ bands are less accurate is that it is very hard to get a good description of the b state, which is the upper state in both bands. For the $`\delta `$ system, L97 derives an oscillator strength which is, as opposed to all other bands, twice as large as the DLP86 value. And the $`\delta `$ and $`\phi `$ fel-values cannot be corroborated by recent experimental values. Such a strong $`\delta `$ band system would be difficult to bring in agreement with M dwarfs observations. Indeed, prior models have all shown a gradually increasing departure to the blue of the main sequence in MV vs $`VI`$ diagrams Baraffe et al. (1995, 1998b). Such departure is significantly improved using the new TiO list if one keeps a weak $`\delta `$ band as indicate preliminary results of evolution models to be published separately (see also Fig. 12 below). We have therefore adopted to keep the DLP86 oscillator strength values for the reddest two TiO bands until new laboratory experiments can either confirm or infirm the L97 predictions. The summary of our adopted set of oscillator strengths for TiO is presented in Table 1.

#### 3.1.2 M giant models

The results for the giant models are similar to the results for the dwarfs. Figures 4 and 5 show synthetic spectra for 3 representative giant models with the indicated effective temperatures. The models have in common the parameters $`\mathrm{log}(g)=0.5`$, $`M=5\text{ M}\text{}`$ and solar abundances. The differences between the AMES-TiO (full curves) and SCAN-TiO (dotted curves) models are somewhat larger for giants than for the dwarfs in the blue spectral region due to an increased sensitivity to the added a-f system opacities in the AMES-TiO line list. It is however somewhat less pronounced in the red spectral region where TiO bands are weaker in giants. The “spikes” that are apparent in the SCAN-TiO spectrum with $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}=3000\mathrm{K}`$ are absent in the AMES-TiO models. These spikes were one of our major problems in fitting observed spectra of giants. For larger $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ the differences between the spectra diminishes quickly as TiO becomes less important in the giants. This happens at lower effective temperatures compared to the dwarfs because of the lower pressures in giant atmosphere which results in smaller partial pressure of molecules as compared to dwarfs.

#### 3.1.3 Model Structures

A comparison of the model structures for both dwarf and giant model reveals only very small differences between structures calculated with AMES-TiO and SCAN-TiO. We plot the differences in electron temperature as well as the relative differences between the AMES-TiO and SCAN-TiO models for dwarfs and giants in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. The changes are generally very small, only in the per-cent range for the gas pressures and about $`10\mathrm{K}`$ maximum difference between the electron temperatures for the dwarf models. For the giant models the differences are somewhat larger. The changes in the opacity averages are generally small but largest for the Rosseland mean opacity in the outer layers of the giant models. The temperatures are higher in AMES-TiO model for both the giant and the dwarf models, however, the gas pressures are lower in the AMES-TiO dwarf model but higher in the AMES-TiO giant model. Overall the changes are modestly small, indicating that the detailed effects of the TiO line lists do not have a large effect on the model structure itself.

### 3.2 Effects of different water vapor line lists

In figure 8 we show the effects of different water line lists on the synthetic spectra for M dwarfs. All models shown in the graph otherwise use the same line-lists (AMES-TiO was used for the TiO lines). In overall, we can see that the changes in the water vapor line lists are of larger amplitude than the changes in the completeness of the TiO line list. The models calculated with AMES-H2O show a totally different shape of the $`1.4\mu `$m band, both weaker and wider then predicted by the MT-H2O model. The completeness of the new line list to high temperatures helps block more flux escaping from deeper, hotter layers of the models around $`1.6\mu `$m, and $`2.2\mu `$m. This promises a much better description of observations in general.

We also find important changes of the model structure as shown in Fig.9. The differences of the electron temperatures can reach $`100\mathrm{K}`$, the gas pressures can differ by $`20`$% and the opacity averages, in particular the Rosseland mean, can differ by close to $`60`$%. These effects are much larger in the outskirts of the atmosphere than the changes in the structures caused by different TiO line lists (see Fig. 6). As a result, the use of the AMES-H2O line list also affects the optical spectra, causing weaker TiO bands than obtained with the MT-H2O line list. Models of early-type M dwarfs based on the AMES-H2O line list therefore systematically predict yet lower effective temperatures for a given star.

### 3.3 Combined effects

In Figs. 10 and 11 we display a comparison between NextGen models (which use MT-H2O and SCAN-TiO) and models that use the AMES-H2O and AMES-TiO. The wavelength range of important filters and band identifications for TiO are given on the figures. The TiO bands in the “AMES-atmosphere” are considerably weaker than those of the NextGen model spectrum as a result of the smaller oscillator strengths used, and the structural effects. On the other hand, the water bands are stronger in the AMES-atmosphere than in the NextGen model. This model has a relatively high temperature, thus the higher energy levels of the water molecule are relatively more important than for models with lower $`\mathrm{T}_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ (however, the concentration of water molecules is reduced so the overall water opacity is smaller than in the cooler models).

To better judge of the impact of these opacity changes on the overall SED of M dwarfs in general, we have computed synthetic photometry as described in AH95 for three sets of models: (1) the NextGen grid based on J94 and MT-H2O (2) the AMES grid based on AMES-TiO and AMES-H2O opacities, and (3) the AMES-MT grid based on AMES-TiO and MT-H2O opacities. The results are compared to a photometric sample of M dwarfs Leggett (1992) in Figs. 12, 13, and 14. Since M dwarfs form a tight sequence in optical VRI two-colors diagram despite the age and metallicity scatter of the sample (see AH95), this diagram imposes a strong constraint on model atmospheres. We find that models based on AMES-TiO opacities are systematically redder in $`VR`$ and $`VI`$ than models based on the J94 line list. The new models agree much better with observations and the new TiO data removes most of the discrepancy shown by the NextGen models in the lower main-sequence. Small remaining discrepancies may be attributed to the JOLA handling of VO and CaH which tend to overestimate slightly their opacities in the present models. Leinert et al. (1999) already studied the low resolution HST/FOS spectra of an M6 dwarf (LHS1070A) and found the AMES-MT models indeed agree quite well both with the observed SED and absolute fluxes within errors on the parallax of the system. They however noticed that some “continuum” flux excess remains important in the visual part of the SED (0.45 to $`0.65\mu `$m). However, there is no a priori reason to assume that the a-f oscillator strengths are inaccurate, and these remaining problems could be related to other effects on the model structure.

The use of AMES-H2O seems also to bring some improvements to the modeling of near-infrared colors. Fig. 13 shows that the late-type dwarfs can be better reproduced by the new water opacities than by the MT-H2O line list. However this diagram is sensitive to both gravity (lower gravity models loop lower) and metallicity, which makes it difficult to constrain the models on the adequacy of the water opacities used with them. Leggett, Allard, & Hauschildt (1998) and Leggett et al. (1999) have already used the AMES models in their analysis of M dwarfs and brown dwarfs, and found an excellent general agreement of the predicted near-infrared SED with observations. However these analyses used the models to derive the parameters of the studied stars and brown dwarfs based on fits to the near-infrared SED or photometry, and could not make an independent statement on the quality of the water line list.

M dwarfs form again a sequence in the mixed-colors IJK diagram (Fig. 14), although less tightly than in the VRI diagram. Unresolved binary stars produce K-band flux excess and lie below the sequence. H2 pressure-induced opacities depress the K-band flux of metal-depleted dwarfs so that they systematically lie above the sequence. But, as opposed to the JHK diagram, this one is not particularly sensitive to gravity in M dwarfs which allows a sequence to be defined. Models should pass therefore through the bulk of early-type M dwarfs at $`JK=0.8`$, and follow a relatively $`JK`$-insensitive sequence towards late-type dwarfs. We find that models based on the AMES-H2O opacities lie, as did the AH95 models before them, 0.2 magnitude in $`JK`$ to the blue of the observed sequence! And our tests show that this result is independent of the TiO opacities used. The NextGen models already reproduced perfectly the location of lower main-sequence stars in this diagram. And AMES-MT models computed using the AMES-TiO and MT-H2O line lists behave adequately both in the optical and infrared. Why? Perhaps the new water vapor line list is still not complete enough to high temperatures and lacks opacity in the $`J`$-bandpass i.e. around $`1.3\mu `$m? Or would it have too much opacity in the $`K`$-window i.e. around $`2.2\mu `$m? Until these questions can be answered, we hope that the two main grids of models we have computed (AMES and AMES-MT) will allow independent detailed confrontations to observations of cool stars that will locate more precisely the source of the problem (e.g. Leinert et al., in preparation).

## 4 Summary and Conclusions

A long standing problem with M dwarf models was that prior TiO line lists were incomplete to high temperatures. The use of “straight means” (AH95 models) helped by the coarseness of the treatment to block flux which otherwise escapes between lines in the incomplete list. But these models also blocked too much flux in most cases, and were only appropriate in late-type M dwarfs when TiO bands are already very strong. Clearly, a more complete line list was needed to model stars from the onset of TiO formation to its gradual disappearance from the gas phase in brown dwarfs. The AMES-TiO list now serves beautifully this purpose. We find that the list provides more opacity in most bands and suppress adequately flux between bands. The new, smaller oscillator strength values also play an important role in systematically assigning cooler models (at least for early type M dwarfs) to a given star, this way contributing to broader bands and lesser inter-band flux as well. These effects combine and should resolve most of the previously observed discrepancy between models and observations in the optical SED and photometry of M stars. Leinert et al. (1999) note however that flux excess remains substantial in the visual spectrum, suggesting some further incompleteness or fel inaccuracies of the new TiO in the a-f system.

In order to better reproduce the observed (V-I) color indices, we had to retain in the present models the Davis, Littleton, & Phillips (1986) fel-values for the two reddest band systems: $`\delta `$ and $`\phi `$. For these two band systems, the theoretical estimates of Langhoff (1997) predicts an unexpectedly large fel-value ratio, while no laboratory estimate Hedgecock, Naulin, & Costes (1995) are available to corroborate this. And we find, as did Alvarez & Plez (1998) in red giants for the $`\delta `$ band, that models based upon the DLP86 fel-values for these two bands reproduce adequately their observed depths in M dwarfs.

The introduction of the AMES-H2O opacities bring solid improvements of the near-infrared SED of late-type dwarfs, but fails as the AH95 models did to reproduce adequately the $`JK`$ colors of hotter stars. Water vapor is a more important factor for the structure of the atmosphere than TiO because its overall opacity is larger and its lines are closer to the peak of the SED than the TiO bands, so the flux blocking effect of water vapor is more important for the temperature structure than that of TiO opacities for these low temperatures. Schwenke and collaborators at NASA AMES are preparing a new dipole moment function for H2O, which may change the high temperature high overtone water bands, and help resolve this discrepancy in the near future.

Until a revised version of the AMES-H2O line list becomes available, we have therefore generated two sets of model atmospheres for cool stars which allow to investigate these issues: the AMES grid based on the new TiO and H2O opacities, and the AMES-MT grid which rely on the AMES-TiO and MT-H2O opacities.

We thank David Alexander for helpful discussions and the referee, U.G. Jørgensen, for his very helpful comments. This work was supported in part by grants from CNRS and INSU, NSF grant AST-9720704, NASA ATP grant NAG 5-3018 and LTSA grant NAG 5-3619 to the University of Georgia, and NASA LTSA grant NAG5-3435 to Wichita State University. This work was supported in part by the Pôle Scientifique de Modélisation Numérique at ENS-Lyon. Some of the calculations presented in this paper were performed on the IBM SP2 of CNUSC, the SGI Origin 2000 of the UGA UCNS, and on the IBM SP2 of the San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC) with support from the National Science Foundation, and on the Cray T3E of the NERSC with support from the DoE. We thank all these institutions for a generous allocation of computer time.

## 5 Tables

## 6 Figures


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# Double Rational Normal Curves with Linear Syzygies

## 1 Introduction

The syzygies for Veronese or Segre embeddings are not known, with some simple exceptions. In very few cases they are ”pure” (cf.  for a list, in which the simple case of the Segre embedding $`^1\times ^2^5`$ is missing, or use  to produce the same list, as ”extremal rings of format 2”) and no other cases are given explicitely in the literature. Already beginning with the Veronese embeddings $`v_d(^2)`$ the syzygies are not linear, excepting some small $`d`$’s. It was shown in  that the first $`3d3`$ syzygies are linear and in  that exactly at the step $`3d2`$ (if $`d3`$) they are failing to be linear. The case $`d=3`$ is easy and already known (cf ), the resolution being pure. The simplest case when the syzygies are not pure is the Veronese embedding $`v_4`$ of $`^2`$ into $`^{14}`$, given by monomials of degree $`4`$ (cf. Lemma 4). The syzygies of the rational normal line ($`^1`$ embedded via the Veronese morphism $`v_d`$ in $`^d`$) are linear and are well understood, being given by the Eagon-Northcot complex. The nilpotent curves which have a rational normal curve as support are far from having quadratic equations or linear syzygies, even when we consider ”mild” nilpotency (locally Cohen-Macaulay or even complete intersections). In this paper we construct, for each d, a family of double structures on the normal rational curve of degree $`d`$ embedded in $`^{2d}`$, which have linear syzygies. More precisely, we consider the embedding of $`^1^{2d}`$ given by $`v_d`$ composed with a linear embedding $`^d^{2d}`$ and double conveniently this curve by the Ferrand’s method (cf. ).

In the last section, which strictly speaking does not interact with the rest of this note, one gives some ”plethysm formulae” for symmetric powers, as consequences of minimal resolutions of Veronese embeddings.

## 2 Preliminaries

We fix an algebraically closed field $`k`$ and all our schemes are algebraic schemes over it.

Let $`X`$ be a subscheme in a projective space $`^n`$ and $`_X`$ its sheafideal in $`𝒪=𝒪_^n`$. By definition, the graded ideal of $`X`$ is $`I_X=_\mathrm{}0H^0((\mathrm{}))`$. To a minimal resolution of the graded ideal $`I:=I_X`$, over the graded ring of polynomials $`R=k[X_0,\mathrm{},X_n]`$, let say of the form:

$$0I_{j=1}^{j=r_1}R(d_{1j})^{b_{1j}}_{j=1}^{i=r_2}R(d_{2j})^{b_{2j}}\mathrm{}$$

written also:

$$0I_{j=1}^{j=r_1}b_{1j}R(d_{1j})_{j=1}^{j=r_2}b_{2j}R(d_{2j})\mathrm{}$$

one associates canonically a resolution of the sheaf of ideals $`:=_X`$ of the type:

$$0_{j=1}^{j=r_1}b_{1j}𝒪(d_{1j})_{j=1}^{j=r_2}b_{2j}𝒪(d_{2j})\mathrm{},$$

which we shall call also  *minimal resolution of*  $``$.

The corresponding resolution of $`𝒪_X`$ :

$$0𝒪_X𝒪_{j=1}^{j=r_1}b_{1j}𝒪(d_{1j})_{j=1}^{j=r_2}b_{2j}𝒪(d_{2j})\mathrm{}$$

will be called  *a minimal resolution of*  $`𝒪_X`$, although it does not corresponds in general to a minimal resolution of the associated graded $`R`$–module $`H^0(𝒪(\mathrm{}))`$. The $`𝒪`$–homomorphisms in these resolutions correspond to matrices of homogeneous polynomials in $`X_i`$, whose degrees are determined by the numbers $`d_{ij}`$.

To a (minimal) resolution of a graded $`R`$–module $`M`$, let say of the form:

$$0M_{j=1}^{j=r_1}b_{0j}R(d_{0j})_{j=1}^{j=r_2}b_{1j}R(d_{1j})\mathrm{}$$

one associates the polynomial in two variables:

$$P_M(x,t)=\underset{ij}{}b_{ij}t^{d_{ij}}x^i$$

which depends only on $`M`$ (cf. ) and contains the whole information as far as the “Betti numbers” $`b_{ij}`$ and the “shiftings” of degrees $`d_{ij}`$ are concerned.

We shall use also a notation for a minimal resolution considered in :

$$0M\underset{j}{}𝐌_{0j}(M)R(j)\mathrm{}\underset{j}{}𝐌_{ij}(M)R(j)$$

where $`𝐌_{ij}(M)`$ are vector spaces, only finiteley many different from $`0`$.

The following lemma should be very well known, but we know no refference for it.

###### Lemma 1

Let $`X`$ be a subscheme in $`^n`$ and consider $`^n`$ embedded linearly in $`^{n+m}`$. If $`P_{X,n}(x,t)=`$ the polynomial associated to the minimal resolution of  $`𝒪_X`$ in  $`^n`$, then the polynomial associated to the minimal resolution in $`^{n+m}`$ is

$$P_{X,n+m}(x,t)=P_{X,n}(x,t)(1+xt)^m$$

Proof. It is enough to prove this lemma for $`m=1`$. Observe that a minimal resolution of the graded module $`M`$ over $`R=k[X_0,\mathrm{},X_n]`$ :

$$0ML_0\stackrel{𝐴}{}L_1\stackrel{𝐵}{}L_2\stackrel{𝐶}{}L_3\mathrm{},$$

where $`L_i=_jR(d_{ij})`$, gives the following minimal resolution of $`M`$ as $`R^{}=k[X_0,\mathrm{},X_{n+1}]=R[X_{n+1}]`$–module:

$`0ML_0^{}\stackrel{\left(\begin{array}{cc}A& X\end{array}\right)}{}L_1^{}L_0^{}(1)\stackrel{\left(\begin{array}{cc}B& X\\ 0& A\end{array}\right)}{}`$
$`L_2^{}L_1^{}(1)\stackrel{\left(\begin{array}{cc}C& X\\ 0& B\end{array}\right)}{}L_3^{}L_2^{}(1)\mathrm{},`$
where $`L_i^{}=_jR^{}(d_{ij})`$ and $`X=\text{multiplication by }X_{n+1}`$ . $`\mathrm{}`$

As it is very well known, the syzygies of the rational normal curve are given by an Eagon-Northcott complex. Let $`X`$ be the rational normal curve of degree $`d`$ in $`^d`$, i.e. $`X=\text{ the image of }^1\text{ under the Veronese embedding }v_d`$. Then one has the following minimal resolution (cf. e.g. , ):

$`0𝒪_X𝒪\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{2}}\right)𝒪(2)2\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{3}}\right)𝒪(3)3\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{4}}\right)𝒪(4)`$
$`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{\mathrm{}+1}}\right)𝒪(\mathrm{}1)\mathrm{}(d1)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{d}}\right)𝒪(d)0`$
For the following considerations we shall need also the resolutions of all line bundels on $`X`$. As $`X^1`$, $`Pic(X)`$. We denote by $`𝒯`$ a line bundle on $`X`$ corresponding to the generator $`𝒪_^1(1)`$ of $`Pic(X)`$. $`𝒯`$ is not induced from any line bundle on $`^d`$, but all powers $`𝒯^\mathrm{}d`$ are, namely $`𝒯^\mathrm{}d=v_d^{}(O_^d(\mathrm{}))`$. For us it is sufficient to know the minimal resolution of $`𝒯`$, $`𝒯^2`$, …, $`𝒯^{d1}`$, but the general case is equally easy.

###### Lemma 2

If $`𝒯`$ is a line bundle on the rational normal curve $`X`$ in $`^d`$, which corresponds to $`𝒪_^1(1)`$, then the minimal resolutions of $`𝒯^j`$ in $`^d`$ ($`j=1,\mathrm{}d2`$), are of the shape:

$`0𝒯^j(j+1)𝒪j\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{1}}\right)𝒪(1)(j1)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{2}}\right)𝒪(2)`$
$`(j2)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{3}}\right)𝒪(3)\mathrm{}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{j}}\right)𝒪(j)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{j+2}}\right)𝒪(j2)`$
$`2\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{j+3}}\right)𝒪(j3)3\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{j+4}}\right)𝒪(j4)\mathrm{}`$
$`(dj1)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{d}}\right)𝒪(d)0`$
and the resolution of $`𝒯^{d1}`$ is of the shape:

$`0𝒯^{d1}d𝒪(d1)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{1}}\right)𝒪(1)(d2)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{2}}\right)𝒪(2)`$
$`(d3)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{3}}\right)𝒪(3)\mathrm{}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{d1}}\right)𝒪(d+1)0`$
Proof. Standard exercise. Observe that only for $`j=d1`$ all the syzygies are linear. $`\mathrm{}`$

## 3 Doubling rational normal curves of degree $`d`$

We recall shortly the Ferrand’s method of doubling (cf. ,  or ). Given a locally Cohen-Macaulay curve $`X`$ embedded in a regular scheme $``$, let $`N_X`$ be the conormal sheaf of $`X`$ in $``$, i.e. $`N_X=/^2`$, where $``$ is the sheaf of ideals of $`X`$ in $``$. Let $``$ be an invertible bundle on $`X`$, $`\omega =\omega _X`$ be the dualizing sheaf of $`X`$, and $`p:N_X\omega `$ a surjective homomorphism. Then the kernel of $`p`$ will have the form $`𝒥/^2`$, where $`𝒥`$ is an ideal in $`𝒪_{}`$, which defines a scheme $`Y`$ having the support $`X`$, but with double multiplicity in every point of $`X`$. One has the following exact sequence:

$$0𝒥/^2N_X\omega 0$$

which gives the exact sequences:

$$0𝒥\omega 0,$$

$$0\omega 𝒪_Y𝒪_X0$$

and

$$0\omega 𝒪_Y^{}𝒪_X^{}0.$$

From the last exact sequence one obtains the exact sequence:

$$H^1(\omega )Pic(Y)Pic(X)H^2(\omega )$$

The curve $`Y`$ is locally Gorenstein and one shows easily that its dualizing sheaf is

$$\omega _Y|_X^1.$$

In the case when the curve $`X`$ is Gorenstein, any locally free sheaf of rank one can be written as $`\omega `$, with $``$ conveniently chosen, so that a doubling of $`X`$ is given by a surjection $`/^2`$, $``$ a locally free sheaf of rank $`1`$. The above exact sequences are written then with $``$ instead of $`\omega `$.

We recall that the normal bundle to the rational normal curve of degree $`d3`$, considered as a bundle on $`^1`$, is

$$(d1)𝒪_^1(d+2)=_{j=1}^{d1}𝒪_^1(d+2)$$

###### Lemma 3

There is no double structure on the rational normal curve of degree d in $`^d`$ whose homogeneous ideal is generated by quadrics and has only linear syzygies.

Proof. Suppose that such a double curve does exist. The case $`d=2`$ being trivial, suppose $`d3`$. Let

$$p:/^2,|_^1=𝒪_^1(r),rd2$$

be the data defining it. Let $`𝒥`$ be the sheaf of ideals of $`Y`$ in $`^d`$. It is easy to see from the exact sequence:

$$0J_{t0}H^0((t))_{t0}H^1(𝒥(t))0$$

that the homogeneous ideal $`J`$ of $`Y`$ has $`\mathrm{depth}(J)2`$, hence the minimal resolution of $`𝒥`$ has length at most $`d1`$:

$$0𝒥b_1𝒪(2)b_2𝒪(3)\mathrm{}b_{d1}𝒪(d)b_d𝒪(d1)0$$

It follows:

$`h^1(𝒥)=h^d(b_d𝒪(d1))=b_d`$
$`H^1(𝒥(1))H^d(b_d𝒪(d))=0`$
The exact sequence :

$$0𝒥0$$
($``$)
gives:

$`b_d=`$ $`h^1(𝒥)=h^0(L)`$ ($``$)
$`0=`$ $`h^1(𝒥(1))H^0(L(1))=H^0(𝒪_^1(d+r)).`$ ($``$)
($``$3) shows that $`r<d`$ and ($``$3) gives then $`b_d=0`$, i.e. $`Y`$ is arithmetically Cohen-Macaulay in $`^d`$. The resolution of $``$ shows that $`H^2()=0`$. Then the exact sequence ($``$3) gives $`H^1(L)=0`$, i.e. $`r1`$. So far we got $`1r<d`$, contradiction. $`\mathrm{}`$

## 4 Rational Normal Curves of Degree $`d`$ Embedded in $`^{d+e}`$

Because of the result of the last section, it remains to look after doublings of rational normal curves lying in a linear subspace of the projective space. To fix the notation, let $`X`$ be the image of the embedding:

$$^1\stackrel{Veronese}{}^d\stackrel{linear}{}^{d+e}.$$

$`X`$ is arithmetically Cohen-Macaulay in $`^{d+e}`$ and, according to Lemma 1, the polynomial associated to the minimal resolution of $`X`$ in $`^{d+e}`$ is the polynomial corresponding to the embedding of $`^1`$ in $`^d`$ multiplied with $`(1+tx)^e`$.

###### Theorem 1

There exist double structures $`Y^{d+e}`$ on rational normal curves $`X`$ of degree $`d`$ in $`^d^{d+e}`$ defined by quadratic equations and having only linear syzygies, only when $`e=d`$ and the line bundle $``$ associated to the doubling is such that $`|_^1=𝒪_^1(1)`$. The minimal resolution is then of the shape:

$`0𝒪_Y𝒪\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2d}{2}}\right)𝒪(2)2\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2d}{3}}\right)𝒪(3)3\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2d}{4}}\right)𝒪(4)`$
$`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2d}{\mathrm{}+1}}\right)𝒪(\mathrm{}1)\mathrm{}(2d1)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2d}{d}}\right)𝒪(2d)0`$
i.e. is that of a rational normal curve of degree $`2d`$ in $`^{2d}`$.

Proof. Like in the proof of Lemma 3, one shows that a double structure $`Y`$ with linear syzygies should be arithmetically Cohen-Macaulay. In this case finding the minimal resolution of $`Y`$ (i.e. of $`𝒥`$) is equivalent to finding the minimal resolution of $`𝒪_Y`$, which should be of the shape:

$$0𝒪_Y𝒪b_1𝒪(2)\mathrm{}b_{d+e1}𝒪(de)0$$

It is easy to see, in fact like in the proof of Lemma 3, that the following vanishings take place:

$$H^1(𝒥(\mathrm{}))=0,H^2(𝒥(\mathrm{}))=0,H^1((\mathrm{}))=0,(\mathrm{}0).$$

It follows that, if $`|_{}^1=𝒪_^1(r)`$, then $`r1`$ and the graded rings $`R(X)`$, $`R(Y)`$ associated to $`𝒪_X`$, $`𝒪_Y`$ and the graded module $`M`$ associated to $``$ fit in an exact sequence:

$$0R(X)R(Y)M0,$$

which comes from the exact sequence:

$$0𝒪_X𝒪_Y0$$

Then we have for each $`j`$ the following exact sequence of vector spaces (cf. ):

$$0𝐌_{0j}\left(X\right)𝐌_{0j}\left(Y\right)𝐌_{0j}\left(\right)𝐌_{1j}\left(X\right)𝐌_{1j}\left(Y\right)𝐌_{1j}\left(\right)\mathrm{},$$

where $`𝐌_{0j}(X):=𝐌_{0j}(R(X))`$, $`𝐌_{0j}(Y):=𝐌_{0j}(R(Y))`$.

In the following we shall denote by $`𝐦_{ij}(\mathrm{})`$ the dimesnsion of $`𝐌_{ij}(\mathrm{})`$. Observe that $`𝐦_{ij}(X)0`$ only for $`j=i`$ and $`j=i+1`$ and $`𝐦_{ij}(Y)0`$ only for $`j=i+1`$.

As $`𝐦_{0r}(X)=0`$, $`𝐦_{0r}(Y)=0`$, for $`r0`$ and $`𝐦_{00}(X)=1`$, $`𝐦_{00}(Y)=1`$, it follows $`𝐦_{00}()=0`$, i.e. $`r<0`$.

The above exact sequence for $`j=1`$ gives $`𝐌_{01}()𝐌_{11}(X)`$ and, as $`𝐦_{11}(X)=e`$, it follows $`e=h^0((1))=h^0(𝒪_^1(d+r))`$. Then $`r+d+1=e`$, i.e. $`r=ed1`$ and $`ed`$. As $`H^0()=0`$ and $`H^0((1))0`$, it follows that $`d<r<0`$. i.e. $`L=𝒯^{e1}(1)`$. Then the minimal resolution of $``$ in $`^d`$ is, for $`ed`$ of the form:

$`0e𝒪(1)(e1)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{1}}\right)𝒪(2)(e2)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{2}}\right)𝒪(3)`$
$`(e3)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{3}}\right)𝒪(4)\mathrm{}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{e1}}\right)𝒪(e)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{e+1}}\right)𝒪(e2)`$
$`2\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{e+2}}\right)𝒪(e3)3\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{e+3}}\right)𝒪(e4)\mathrm{}`$
$`(de)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{d}}\right)𝒪(d1)0`$
and the polynomial attached to the minimal resolution of $``$ in $`^{d+e}`$ is $`(et+(e1)\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{1}\right)t^2x+(e2)\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{2}\right)t^3x^2+\mathrm{}+\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{e1}\right)t^ex^{e1}+\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{e+1}\right)t^{e+2}x^e+2\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{e+2}\right)t^{e+3}x^{e+1}+\mathrm{}+(de2)\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{d}\right)t^{d+1}x^{d1})(1+tx)^e`$. This shows that $`𝐦_{ij}0`$ only for $`j=i+1`$ if $`i<e`$ and $`𝐦_{ij}0`$ only for $`j=i+1`$ and $`j=i+2`$ if $`ie`$. Then one should have the exact sequence:

$$0=𝐌_{d+e1,d+e+1}(Y)𝐌_{d+e1,d+e+1}()𝐌_{d+e,d+e+1}(X)=0\mathrm{},$$

which contradicts $`𝐌_{d+e1,d+e+1}()0`$. It remains $`e=d`$ and $`r=1`$.

We show now that there are rational curves in $`^{2d}`$, which are rational normal curves in a linear subspace $`^d`$ and which have a doubling in $`^{2d}`$ with linear syzygies. For that, consider the Veronese embedding $`v`$ of $`^2`$ given by the monomials of degree $`d`$ in the homogeneous coordinates $`x_0,x_1,x_2`$ on $`^2`$. Then $`u_{i_0,i_1,i_2}=v(x_0,x_1,x_2)`$ are the homogeneous coordinates of $`^N`$, $`N=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d+2}{2}\right)1`$. Let $`P`$ be the image of $`^2`$ in $`^N`$. If we cut $`P`$ with the hyperplane $`u_{00d}=0`$ we get a l.c.i. curve $`Z`$ in $`^{N1}`$ of degree $`d^2`$. The dualizing sheaf of $`Z`$ is

$`\omega _Z\omega _P|_Z𝒪_{^{N1}}(1)\text{ and so}`$
$`\omega _Z|_^1𝒪_^1(3+d).`$
This curve has nilpotents and the reduced structure $`X=Z_{red}`$ is the rational normal curve contained in the linear subspace $`=^d`$ given by $`u_{i_1i_2i_3}=0`$, for $`i_30`$ on which the homogeneous coordinates are $`v_{i_1i_2}=u_{i_1i_20}`$ for $`i_1+i_2=d`$. Consider the point $`u`$ ($`u_{i_1i_2i_3}=0`$, for $`(i_1,i_2,i_3)(d00)`$). Locally in $`u`$, the curve $`Z`$ is contained in $`N3`$ hypersurfaces which are regular in $`x`$. This shows that $`Z`$ is a quasiprimitive structure on $`X`$ (cf. ,  or ). As the degree of $`X`$ is $`d`$, the multiplicity of $`Z`$ in any point is $`d`$. According to loc. cit. the curve $`Z`$ admits a filtration with Cohen-Macaulay curves $`X=Y_1Y_2\mathrm{}Y_{d1}Y_d=Z`$ which are generically l.c.i. and such that there are a line bundle $``$ on $`X`$ and $`d2`$ effective divisors $`D_3`$, …$`D_d`$ on $`X`$ which fit into the following exact sequences:

$$0𝒪_{Y_2}𝒪_{Y_1}=𝒪_X0$$

$$0^2(D_2)𝒪_{Y_3}𝒪_{Y_2}0$$

$$0^3(D_2+D_3)𝒪_{Y_4}𝒪_{Y_3}0$$

$$0^{d1}(D_2+\mathrm{}+D_{d1})𝒪_{Y_d}𝒪_{Y_{d1}}0$$

Consider $`|_{}^1=𝒪_{}^1(r)`$. The above exact equences are possible only for $`r1`$. From the general theory (cf. ,  or ) one has:

$`\omega _Z|_X\omega _XL^{(d1)}(D_2\mathrm{}D_d)\text{ and so}`$
$`\omega _Z|_^1𝒪_^1(2(d1)r\delta _2\mathrm{}\delta _d),`$
where $`\delta _j0`$ are the degrees of $`D_j`$’s.

From the two expressions of $`\omega _Z|_^1`$ one gets:

$$(r+1)(d1)=\delta _3+\mathrm{}+\delta _d.$$

As the lefthandside member of this equality is $`0`$, $`d2`$ and the right one is $`0`$, it follows:

$$r=1\text{ and }\delta _j=0\text{ for all }j.$$

In other words the multiple structure $`Z`$ on $`X`$ is ”primitive” in the terminology of Bănică and Forster. In particular it is l.c.i. and in fact all the $`Y_j`$’s are l.c.i. . $`Y_2`$ is a double structure on $`X`$, of the type we are looking for, because it lies in the linear subspace $`u_{i_1i_2i_3}=0,i_1+i_2+i_3=d,i_32`$.

In the following we shall find all double curves $`Y^{2d}`$ with support $`X`$ and linear syzygies. To fix the notation, take $`X=v_d(^1)^d^{2d}`$ and let $`x_0`$,$`x_1`$ be the homogeneous coordinates on $`^1`$. As already shown, one has to consider doublings $`Y`$ defined by ideals $`_Y`$ which are kernels of surjections $`_X_X/_X^2\stackrel{𝑝}{}`$, where $``$ is a bundle on $`X`$ such that $`|_^1𝒪_^1(1)`$. We have immediately $`H^1(_Y)=0`$.

From the exact cequence:

$$0H^0(_Y(1))H^0(_X(1))H^0((1))H^1(_Y(1))0,$$

as $`\text{dim }H^0(_X(1))=\text{dim }H^0((1))=d`$, in order to have $`Y`$ not lying in a hyperplane, one should take $`p`$ such that the induced map $`H^0(_X(1))H^0((1))`$ is an isomorphism, i.e. one should take $`p`$ such that its component

$$d𝒪_{^{2d}}(1)|_Xd𝒪_^1(d)𝒪_^1(1)|_^1$$

is defined, restricted to $`^1`$, by a basis of the component of degree $`d1`$ of the polynomial ring $`k[x_0,x_1]`$.

From now on we show that such a $`p`$ will produce $`Y`$ with the required properties. The above exact sequence gives $`H^1(_Y(1))=0`$. In the commutative diagram:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}H^0(_X(1))H^0(𝒪_{^{2d}}(t))& & H^0((1))H^0(𝒪_{^{2d}}(t))\\ & & & & \\ H^0(_X(t+1))& & H^0((t+1))\end{array}$$

our choice of $`p`$ and the fact that $`(1)`$ is generated by its global sections show that the bottom morphism is surjective and hence $`H^1(_Y(t+1))=0`$, for all $`t0`$, i.e. $`Y`$ is projectively normal.

In the following we shall show that the minimal resolution of $`_Y`$ is pure and all the syzygies are linear. As $`Y`$ is projectively normal it is the same to show this property for $`𝒪_Y`$.

The minimal resolution of $`𝒪_X`$ corresponds to the polynomial

$`(1+tx)^d(1+\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{2}}\right)t^2x+2\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{3}}\right)t^3x^2+\mathrm{}(d1)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{d}}\right)t^dx^{d1})=`$
$`(1+tx)^d+1/x(1+tx)^d+dt(1+tx)^{2d1}1/x(1+tx)^{2d},`$
the minimal resolution of $``$ corresponds to

$`(1+tx)^d(d\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{0}}\right)t+(d1)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{1}}\right))t^2x+\mathrm{}+\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{d1}}\right)t^dx^{d1})=`$
$`dt(1+tx)^{2d1}.`$
From here it follows that the only nonzero $`𝐌_{\mathrm{𝐢𝐣}}`$ for $`X`$ and $``$ are:

$`𝐌_{ii}(X)`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{i}}\right)\text{for}0id`$
$`𝐌_{i,i+1}(X)`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d}{i+1}}\right)+d\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2d1}{i}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2d}{i+1}}\right)\text{for}1i2d1`$
$`𝐌_{i,i+1}()`$ $`=`$ $`d\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2d1}{i}}\right),`$
where we make the usual convention that the binomial coefficient are zero when they do not make sense. As $`H^1((\mathrm{}))=0`$ for any $`\mathrm{}0`$, from the exact sequence

$$0𝒪_X𝒪_Y0$$

one obtains for each $`j0`$ the exact sequence (cf. ):

$$0𝐌_{0j}\left(X\right)𝐌_{0j}\left(Y\right)𝐌_{0j}\left(\right)𝐌_{1j}\left(X\right)𝐌_{1j}\left(Y\right)𝐌_{1j}\left(\right)\mathrm{}.$$

One gets immediately $`𝐦_{00}(Y)=1`$ and $`𝐦_{0j}(Y)=0`$ for $`j0`$ and from:

$$0𝐌_{01}()𝐌_{11}(X)𝐌_{11}(Y)𝐌_{11}()=0$$

it follows $`𝐌_{11}(Y)=0`$, i.e. $`Y`$ is not contained in any hyperplane. From here $`𝐌_{ii}=0`$ for any $`i1`$. For $`ki+2`$ one has the exact sequence:

$$0=𝐌_{ik}(X)𝐌_{ik}(Y)𝐌_{ik}()=0,$$

which shows that the minimal resolution of $`Y`$ is linear. As the Hilbert polynomial of $`Y`$ is that of a rational normal curve of degree $`2d`$, this proves the theorem. $`\mathrm{}`$

For double rational normal curves one has a similar result to Theorem (3.c.6) in . with the notation for the Koszul cohomology from :

###### Theorem 2

(Strong Castelnuovo Lemma for double rational normal curves)
(i) Let $`\{\mathrm{\Pi }_1,\mathrm{\Pi }_2,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Pi }_e\}^{2d}`$ be a scheme consisting from points and double points (i.e. multiplicity 2 scheme structure on points), lying on a double rational normal curve. Then $`𝒦_{2d1,1}(\mathrm{\Pi }_1,\mathrm{\Pi }_2,\mathrm{},𝒫_e;𝒪_{^{2d}}(1))0`$.
(ii) Conversely, let $`\mathrm{\Pi }=\{\mathrm{\Pi }_1,\mathrm{\Pi }_2,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Pi }_e\}^{2d}`$ be a scheme consisting from points and at most $`d`$ double points, such that, taking the reduced structure one gets points $`P_1,P_2,\mathrm{},P_e`$ in linear general position in a linear subspace $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ of dimension $`d`$, denoted in the following simply $`^d`$. If:

1) the doubling of $`P=\{P_1,\mathrm{},P_e\}`$ takes place outside $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, i.e. scheme-theoretically $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Pi }=P`$, and

2) $`𝒦_{2d1,1}(P)0`$, or equivalently $`𝒦_{d1,1}(P;^d)0`$

then there exists a double rational normal curve which contains the scheme $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$.

Proof. (i) The proof is the same as for the corresponding implication in , Theorem (3.c.6), nameley if $`Y`$ is a double rational normal curve containig $`\mathrm{\Pi }=\{\mathrm{\Pi }_1,\mathrm{\Pi }_2,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Pi }_e\}`$, then the map

$$𝒦_{2d1,1}(Y)𝒦_{2d1,1}(\mathrm{\Pi })$$

is injective.
(ii) Because of the correspondence between minimal resolutions and Koszul cohomology, Lemma 1 shows that $`𝒦_{d1,1}(P;^d)0`$ implies $`𝒦_{2d1,1}(P)0`$. Conversely, if $`𝒦_{d1,1}(P;^d)=0`$, then $`𝐌_{d1,d}(P,^d)=0`$ and so also $`𝐌_{d,d+1}(P,^d)=0`$; then $`𝐌_{2d1,2d}(P)=0`$, i.e. $`𝒦_{2d1,1}(P)=0`$. By this the equivalence in the two conditions in 2) is shown.

Applying , (3.c.6), there is a rational normal curve $`X`$ in $`^d`$ which contains $`P`$. It remains to show that there is a doubling $`Y`$ of $`X`$, such that $`\mathrm{\Pi }Y`$. Suppose that the doubled points are $`P_1,\mathrm{},P_\delta `$. Then $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ corresponds to an exact sequence:

$$0_\mathrm{\Pi }/_P^2I_P/I_P^2\underset{\mathrm{}=1}{\overset{\delta }{}}k_{\mathrm{}}0,$$

where $`k_{\mathrm{}}`$ is the skyscrapper $`k`$ in the point $`P_{\mathrm{}}`$. We have to show that there is a surjection

$$N_{X,^{2d}}:=_X/_X^2$$

such that its restriction to the direct summand $`d𝒪_X(1)`$ of $`N_{X,^{2d}}`$ is also surjective and moreover, the corresponding map $`H^0(d𝒪_X)H^0((1))`$ is an isomorphism. We show this in soundso simple steps.

Step 1. The map $`d𝒪_X(1)_P/_P^2_\delta k`$ is surjective.

It is enough to show that the map

$$_\mathrm{\Lambda }/_\mathrm{\Lambda }^2=d𝒪_\mathrm{\Lambda }(1)d𝒪_X(1)_P/_P^2\underset{\delta }{}k0$$

is surjective. This follows from the commutative diagram with exact rows and columns:

$$\begin{array}{ccccccc}& & & & _\mathrm{\Lambda }/_\mathrm{\Lambda }^2& =& d𝒪_\mathrm{\Lambda }(1)\\ & & & & & & & & \\ 0& & _\mathrm{\Pi }/_P^2& & _P/_P^2& & _\delta k& & 0\\ & & & & & & & & \\ & & _\mathrm{\Pi }/_P^2& & _P/_\mathrm{\Lambda }+_P^2& & _P/_\mathrm{\Pi }+_\mathrm{\Lambda }& =0\end{array}$$

Step 2. There exists a map $`_X/_X^2`$ so that the induced map $`H^0(d𝒪_X)H^0((1))`$ is an isomorphism.

We may suppose that the number of double points in $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is exactly $`d`$, because otherwise we add new (double) points on $`X`$. Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }=_{\mathrm{}=1}^dP_{\mathrm{}}`$ be the divisor on $`X`$ of points which are the support of the double points in $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$. Apply the functor $`\mathrm{Hom}(d𝒪_X(1),\mathrm{?})`$ to the exact sequence on $`X`$:

$$0(\mathrm{\Delta })𝒪_\mathrm{\Delta }0,$$

and get the exact sequence:

$`0\mathrm{Hom}(d𝒪_X(1),(\mathrm{\Delta }))\mathrm{Hom}(d𝒪_X(1),)\mathrm{Hom}(d𝒪_X(1),_dk)`$
$`\mathrm{Ext}^1(d𝒪_X(1),(\mathrm{\Delta }))=dH^1((\mathrm{\Delta })(1))=dH^1(𝒪_^1(1))=0`$
In particular the canonical map $`d𝒪_X(1)_dk`$ factors into $`d𝒪_X(1)\stackrel{p}{}\stackrel{evaluation}{}_dk`$. Restricted to $`^1`$, $`p`$ is given by $`d`$ homogeneous forms of degree $`d1`$. The above composition with the evaluation map will produce a $`d\times d`$ matrix of maximal rank. From here follows that the $`d`$ forms which define $`p`$ are linearly independent.

Step 3. The ideal $`𝒥=ker(_X_X/_X^2\stackrel{p}{})`$ defines a double rational normal curve with the required properties.

Everything follows from the commutative diagram:

$$\begin{array}{ccccccc}& & & & 0& & (\mathrm{\Delta })\\ & & & & & & & & \\ 0& & 𝒥& & _X& & & & 0\\ & & & & & & & & \\ 0& & _\mathrm{\Pi }& & _P& & _dk& & 0\end{array}$$

with exact rows and columns. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Remark 1

The l.c.i. curve $`Z`$ which we used above has the same Betti numbers as the Veronese image of $`^2`$. The syzygies of the $`Y_j`$’s are related by numerous exact sequences of the type we used for $`Y_2`$ but it seems difficult to find this way the Betti numbers of $`v_d(^2)`$. We can use this idea to produce some particular cases, for instance $`d=4`$. But, in fact, the shape of syzygies for $`v_4(^2)`$ can be obtained easier directly:

###### Lemma 4

The minimal resolution of $`X:=v_4(^2)^{14}`$ has the shape:

$`0𝒪_X75𝒪(2)5360𝒪(3)1947𝒪(4)4488𝒪(5)`$
$`7095𝒪(6)7920𝒪(7)6237𝒪(8)3344𝒪(9)1089𝒪(10)`$
$`120𝒪(11)55𝒪(12)24𝒪(13)3𝒪(14)0`$
Proof. By  the syzygies have degrees $`1`$ or $`2`$, by  the first 9 matrices have linear entries. Using the Serre duality and the fact that $`\omega (1)`$ is generated by global sections, the minimal resolution should have the shape:

$`0𝒪_X75𝒪(2)5360𝒪(3)1947𝒪(4)4488𝒪(5)`$
$`7095𝒪(6)7920𝒪(7)6237𝒪(8)3344𝒪(9)1089𝒪(10)`$
$`\begin{array}{c}120𝒪(11)\\ \\ (55+x)𝒪(12)\end{array}\begin{array}{c}x𝒪(12)\\ \\ 24𝒪(13)\end{array}3𝒪(14)0,`$
as we can compute step by step. Now use the $`SL_3`$–invariance of the minimal resolution of $`\omega _X`$ to get $`x=0`$, because the invariant minimal resolution of $`\omega _X`$ begins as follows:

$$\omega _XV𝒪(1)𝕊_{4,1}(V)𝒪(2)\begin{array}{c}(𝕊_{5,3,1}(V)𝕊_{7,1,1}(V))𝒪(3)\\ \\ 𝕊_{8,5}(V)𝒪(4)\end{array}\mathrm{},$$

as one computes directly. Here $`V`$ is a vector space of dimmension $`3`$ and $`𝕊_{\mathrm{}}`$ are Schur functors.

## 5 Plethysm formulae coming from syzygies

If we take the action of the group $`SL_n()`$ on the projective space in which $`^n`$ is Veronese there exists an invariant minimal resolution of the image. This will give recurrence formulae for $`S^m(S^dV)`$, where $`V`$ is such that $`^n=(V^{})`$. Our notation is $`(V)`$ for the space of lines through the origin of $`V`$. So, when the minimal resolution is known, the plethysm is reduced mainly to tensor products, for which one has the *Littlewood-Richardson rule*.

I. We begin with the case of the Veronese embeddings of the line. Let $`^1=(V^{})`$, where $`V`$ is a vector space of dimension 2. The Eagon-Northcott complex recalled in Section  3 can be written invariantly:

$`0`$ $`𝒪_X𝒪\mathrm{\Lambda }^2(S^{d1}(V))𝒪(2)S^1(V)\mathrm{\Lambda }^3(S^{d1}(V))𝒪(3)`$
$`S^2(V)\mathrm{\Lambda }^4(S^{d1}(V))𝒪(4)S^3(V)\mathrm{\Lambda }^5(S^{d1}(V))𝒪(5)\mathrm{}`$
$`S^{d3}(V)\mathrm{\Lambda }^{d1}(S^{d1}(V))𝒪(d+1)`$
$`S^{d2}(V)\mathrm{\Lambda }^d(S^{d1}(V))𝒪(d)0`$
Now, twisting this exact sequence by $`𝒪(\mathrm{})`$, with $`\mathrm{}=2,3\mathrm{}`$ and taking the sections one gets recurrence formulae. For the sake of simplicity, we shall denote $`S^t:=S^t(V)`$ (then, e.g. $`S^r(S^s)S^p(S^q)`$ will replace $`S^r(S^s(V))S^p(S^q(V))`$ ) and make the convention $`S^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{})=0`$ for $`\mathrm{}<0`$. We use also the following formula, valid for $`\mathrm{dim}V=2`$ (cf. , Ex. 11.35 p. 160):

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }^m(S^m(V))=S^m(S^{n1+m})$$

Recall also that the Littlewood-Richardson rule takes for $`\mathrm{V}=2`$ a very simple shape:

$$S^mS^n=S^{m+n}+S^{m+n2}+S^{m+n4}+\mathrm{}+S^{|mn|}$$

Then:

$`\mathrm{}=2`$:

$$S^2(S^d)=S^{2d}+S^2(S^{d2})=0$$

Applying this repeatedly, one gets (cf. also ):

$$S^2(S^d)=S^{2d}+S^{2d4}+S^{2d8}+\mathrm{}$$

$`\mathrm{}=3`$:

$$S^3(S^d)=S^{3d}+S^2(S^{d2})S^dS^1S^3(S^{d3})$$

$`\mathrm{}=t`$:

$`S^t(S^d)=S^{td}+S^2(S^{d2})S^{t2}(S^d)S^1S^3(S^{d3})S^{t3}(S^d)`$
$`+S^2S^4(S^{d4})S^{t4}(S^d)\mathrm{}+(1)^{d1}S^{d3}S^{d1}(S^1)S^{td+1}(S^d)`$
$`+(1)^dS^{d2}S^d(S^0)S^{td}(S^d).`$
###### Example 1

$`S^3(S^3)`$ $`=`$ $`S^9+S^2(S^1)S^3S^1S^3(S^0)=S^9+S^2S^3S^1`$
$`=`$ $`S^9+S^5+S^3`$
$`S^3(S^6)`$ $`=`$ $`S^{18}+S^2(S^4)S^6S^1S^3(S^3)=S^{18}+(S^8+S^4+I)S^6`$
$`S^1(S^9+S^5+S^3)=S^{18}+S^{14}+S^{12}+S^{10}+S^8+2S^6+S^2`$
etc.

II. Consider now the Veronese embedding of $`^2`$ by monomials of degree $`2`$. It is a standard exercise to show that the minimal resolution is pure (cf. , ) and that, invarantly, it has the shape:

$$0𝒪_X𝒪𝕊_{2,2}𝒪(2)𝕊_{2,1}𝒪(3)𝕊_{1,1}𝒪(4)0$$

From here one deduces the following recurrence formula, in the case of $`\mathrm{dim}V=3`$:

$$S^t(S^2)=S^{2t}+𝕊_{2,2}S^{t2}(S^2)𝕊_{2,1}S^{t3}(S^2)+𝕊_{1,1}S^{t4}(S^2)$$

###### Example 2

$`S^2(S^2)`$ $`=`$ $`S^4+𝕊_{2,2}`$
$`S^3(S^2)`$ $`=`$ $`S^6+𝕊_{2,2}S^1(S^2)𝕊_{2,1}S^0(S^2)=S^6+𝕊_{4,2}+𝕊_{2,2,2}`$
$`=`$ $`S^6+𝕊_{4,2}+I`$
$`S^4(S^2)`$ $`=`$ $`S^8+𝕊_{2,2}S^2(S^2)𝕊_{2,1}S^2+𝕊_{1,1}=`$
$`S^8+𝕊_{6,2}+𝕊_{4,1}+𝕊_{4,4}+𝕊_{3,2}+2𝕊_2`$
III. Take now the Veronese embedding of $`^2`$ by monomials of degree $`3`$. The minimal resolution (cf. , ) can be written invariantly:

$`0𝒪_X𝒪𝕊_{4,2}𝒪(2)(𝕊_{5,4}+𝕊_{5,1}+𝕊_{4,2}+𝕊_{2,1})𝒪(3)`$
$`(𝕊_{6,3}+𝕊_{5,4}+𝕊_{5,1}+𝕊_{4,2}+𝕊_{3,3}+S^3+𝕊_{2,1})𝒪(4)`$
$`(𝕊_{6,3}+𝕊_{5,4}+𝕊_{5,1}+𝕊_{4,2}+𝕊_{3,3}+S^3+𝕊_{2,1})𝒪(5)`$
$`(𝕊_{5,4}+𝕊_{5,1}+𝕊_{4,2}+𝕊_{2,1})𝒪(6)𝕊_{4,2}𝒪(7)𝒪(9)0`$
From here it follows the following recurrence formula, valid if $`\mathrm{dim}V=3`$:

$`S^t(S^3)=S^{3t}+𝕊_{4,2}(S^{t2}(S^3)S^{t7}(S^3))`$
$`(𝕊_{5,4}+𝕊_{5,1}+𝕊_{4,2}+𝕊_{2,1})(S^{t3}(S^3)S^{t6}(S^3))`$
$`+(𝕊_{6,3}+𝕊_{5,4}+𝕊_{5,1}+𝕊_{4,2}+𝕊_{3,3}+S^3+𝕊_{2,1})(S^{t4}(S^3)S^{t5}(S^3))`$
$`+S^{t9}(S^3)`$
IV. Consider now the Veronese embedding of $`^2`$ in $`^9`$, by monomials of degree $`3`$. Then the minimal resolution (cf. , ) can be written invariantely:

$`0𝒪_X𝒪𝕊_{2,2}𝒪(2)𝕊_{3,2,1}𝒪(3)(𝕊_{3,3,2}+𝕊_{3,1})𝒪(4)`$
$`𝕊_{3,2,1}𝒪(5)𝕊_{2,2}𝒪(6)𝒪(8)0`$
and this provides the following recurrence formula, valid for $`\mathrm{dim}(V)=4`$:

$`S^t(S^2)=S^{2t}+𝕊_{2,2}(S^{t2}(S^2)+S^{t6}(S^2))𝕊_{3,2,1}(S^{t3}(S^2)+S^{t5}(S^2))`$
$`+(𝕊_{3,3,2}+𝕊_{3,1})S^{t4}(S^2)S^{t8}(S^2)`$
Acknowledgement. A significant part of this paper was written during my visit to Hamburg University (November 1998-February 1999), so many thanks are due to its hospitality and especially to Professor Oswald Riemenschneider. Also I want to thank Oldenburg University, where the final version was written, and especially to Professor Udo Vetter, for the interest in my work and for the nice working atmosphere.