text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

This classic problem has been treated by many authors, perhaps in greatest detail but very succinctly by Routh in article 244 of . About such problems, Lamb  has said, “It is not that the phenomena, though familiar and often interesting, are held to be specially important, but it was regarded rather as a point of honour to shew how the mathematical formulation could be effected, even if the solution should prove to be impracticable, or difficult of interpretation.” Typically, the role of friction was little discussed other than in relation to “rising” . The present paper is motivated by recent discussions  of friction for small angles of inclination of a spinning disk to the horizontal supporting surface.

The issues of rolling motion of a disk are introduced in sec. 2 in the larger context of non-rigid-body motion and rolling motion on curved surfaces, using the science toy “Euler’s Disk” as an example. In our analysis of the motion of a rigid disk on a horizontal plane we adopt a vectorial approach as advocated by Milne . The equations of motion assuming rolling without slipping are deduced in sec. 3, steady motion is discussed in secs. 4 and 5, and oscillation about steady motion is considered in sec. 7. The case of zero friction is discussed in secs. 8 and 9, and effects of dynamic friction are discussed in secs. 6, 10 and 11. Section 12 presents a brief summary of the various aspects of the motions discussed in secs. 3-11.

## 2 The Tangent Toy “Euler’s Disk”

An excellent science toy that illustrates the topic of this article is “Euler’s Disk”, distributed by Tangent Toy Co. . Besides the disk itself, a base is included that appears to be the key to the superior performance exhibited by this toy. The surface of the base is a thin, curved layer of glass, glued to a plastic backing. The base rests on three support points to minimize rocking.

As the disk rolls on the base, the latter is noticeably deformed. If the same disk is rolled on a smooth, hard surface such as a granite surface plate, the motion dies out more quickly, and rattling sounds are more prominent. It appears that a small amount of flexibility in the base is important in damping the perturbations of the rolling motion if long spin times are to be achieved.

Thus, high-performance rolling motion is not strictly a rigid-body phenomenon. However, we do not pursue the theme of elasticity further in this paper.

The concave shape of the Tangent Toy base helps center the rolling motion of the disk, and speeds up the reduction of an initially nonzero radius $`b`$ to the desirable value of zero.

An analysis of the motion of a disk rolling on a curved surface is more complex than that of rolling on a horizontal plane . For rolling near the bottom of the sphere, the results as very similar to those for rolling on a plane. A possibly nonintuitive result is that a disk can roll stably on the inside of the upper hemisphere of a fixed sphere, as demonstrated in the motorcycle riding act “The Globe of Death” .

## 3 The Equations of Motion for Rolling Without Slipping

In addition to the $`\widehat{𝐳}`$ axis which is vertically upwards, we introduce a right-handed coordinate triad of unit vectors $`(\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}},\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}},\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}})`$ related to the geometry of the disk, as shown in Fig. 1. Axis $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}`$ lies along the symmetry axis of the disk. Axis $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}`$ is directed from the center of the disk to the point of contact with the horizontal plane, and makes angle $`\alpha `$ to that plane. The vector from the center of the disk to the point of contact is then

$$𝐚=a\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}.$$
(1)
Axis $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}=\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}\times \widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}`$ lies in the plane of the disk, and also in the horizontal plane. The sense of axis $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}`$ is chosen so that the component $`\omega _1`$ of the angular velocity vector $`\stackrel{}{\omega }`$ of the disk about this axis is positive. Consequently, axis $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}`$ points in the direction of the velocity of the point of contact. (For the special case where the point of contact does not move, $`\omega _1=0`$ and analysis is unaffected by the choice of direction of axis $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}`$.)

Before discussing the dynamics of the problem, a considerable amount can be deduced from kinematics. The total angular velocity $`\stackrel{}{\omega }`$ can be thought of as composed of two parts,

$$\stackrel{}{\omega }=\stackrel{}{\omega }_{123}+\omega _{\mathrm{rel}}\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}},$$
(2)
where $`\stackrel{}{\omega }_{123}`$ is the angular velocity of the triad $`(\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}},\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}},\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}})`$, and $`\omega _{\mathrm{rel}}\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}`$ is the angular velocity of the disk relative to that triad; the relative angular velocity can only have a component along $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}`$ by definition. The angular velocity of the triad $`(\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}},\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}},\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}})`$ has component $`\dot{\alpha }`$ about the horizontal axis $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}`$ (where the dot indicates differentiation with respect to time), and is defined to have component $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ about the vertical axis $`\widehat{𝐳}`$. Since axis $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}`$ is always horizontal, $`\stackrel{}{\omega }_{123}`$ has no component along the (horizonal) axis $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}\times \widehat{𝐳}\widehat{𝐫}`$. Hence, the angular velocity of the triad $`(\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}},\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}},\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}})`$ can be written

$$\stackrel{}{\omega }_{123}=\mathrm{\Omega }\widehat{𝐳}+\dot{\alpha }\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}=\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{cos}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}+\dot{\alpha }\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{sin}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}},$$
(3)
noting that

$$\widehat{𝐳}=\mathrm{cos}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}\mathrm{sin}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}},$$
(4)
as can be seen from Fig. 1. The time rates of change of the axes are therefore

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}}{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{}{\omega }_{123}\times \widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}=\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{sin}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}\dot{\alpha }\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}},`$ (5)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}}{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{}{\omega }_{123}\times \widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}=\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{sin}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{cos}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}},=\mathrm{\Omega }\widehat{𝐫},`$ (6)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}}{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{}{\omega }_{123}\times \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}=\dot{\alpha }\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}+\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{cos}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}},`$ (7)
where the rotating horizontal axis $`\widehat{𝐫}`$ is related by

$$\widehat{𝐫}=\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}\times \widehat{𝐳}=\mathrm{sin}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}+\mathrm{cos}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}},$$
(8)
whose time rate of change is

$$\frac{d\widehat{𝐫}}{dt}=\mathrm{\Omega }\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}.$$
(9)
Combining eqs. (2) and (3) we write the total angular velocity as

$$\stackrel{}{\omega }=\omega _1\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}+\dot{\alpha }\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{sin}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}},$$
(10)
where

$$\omega _1=\omega _{\mathrm{rel}}\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{cos}\alpha .$$
(11)
The (nonholonomic) constraint that the disk rolls without slipping relates the velocity of the center of mass to the angular velocity vector $`\stackrel{}{\omega }`$ of the disk. In particular, the instantaneous velocity of the point contact of the disk with the horizontal plane is zero,

$$𝐯_{\mathrm{contact}}=𝐯_{\mathrm{cm}}+\stackrel{}{\omega }\times 𝐚=0.$$
(12)
Hence,

$$𝐯_{\mathrm{cm}}=\frac{d𝐫_{\mathrm{cm}}}{dt}=a\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}\times \stackrel{}{\omega }=a\dot{\alpha }\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}+a\omega _1\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}},$$
(13)
using eqs. (1) and (10).

Additional kinematic relations can be deduced by noting that the point of contact between the disk and the horizontal plane can always be considered as moving instantaneously in a circle whose radius vector we define as $`𝐫=r\widehat{𝐫}`$ with $`r0`$, as shown in Fig. 1, and whose center is defined to have position $`x_A\widehat{𝐱}+y_A\widehat{𝐲}`$ where $`\widehat{𝐱}`$ and $`\widehat{𝐲}`$ are fixed horizontal unit vectors in the lab frame. Then, the center of mass of the disk has position

$$𝐫_{\mathrm{cm}}=x_A\widehat{𝐱}+y_A\widehat{𝐲}+r\widehat{𝐫}a\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}},$$
(14)
and

$$\frac{d𝐫_{\mathrm{cm}}}{dt}=\dot{x}_A\widehat{𝐱}+\dot{y}_A\widehat{𝐲}+\dot{r}\widehat{𝐫}a\dot{\alpha }\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}+(ra\mathrm{cos}\alpha )\mathrm{\Omega }\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}.$$
(15)
In the special case of steady motion, $`\dot{x}_A=\dot{y}_A=\dot{r}=\dot{\alpha }=0`$, eqs. (13) and (15) combine to give

$$\omega _1=\frac{b}{a}\mathrm{\Omega },$$
(16)
where

$$b=ra\mathrm{cos}\alpha $$
(17)
is the horizontal distance from the axis of the circular motion to the center of mass of the disk. Thus, for steady motion the “spin” angular velocity $`\omega _1`$ is related to the “precession” angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ according to eq. (16). While $`\omega _1`$ is defined to be nonnegative, length $`b`$ can be negative if $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is negative as well.

Except for axis $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}`$, the rotating axes $`(\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}},\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}},\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}})`$ are not body axes, but the inertia tensor $`I_{ij}`$ is diagonal with respect to them in view of the symmetry of the disk. We write

$$I_{11}=2kma^2,I_{22}=kma^2=I_{33},$$
(18)
which holds for any thin, circularly symmetric disk according to the perpendicular axis theorem; $`k=1/2`$ for a disk with mass $`m`$ concentrated at the rim, $`k=1/4`$ for a uniform disk, etc. The angular momentum $`𝐋_{\mathrm{cm}}`$ of the disk with respect to its center of mass can now be written as

$$𝐋_{\mathrm{cm}}=\stackrel{}{\stackrel{}{I}}\stackrel{}{\omega }=kma^2(2\omega _1\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}+\dot{\alpha }\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{sin}\alpha \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}).$$
(19)
Turning at last to the dynamics of the rolling disk, we suppose that the only forces on it are $`mg\widehat{𝐳}`$ due to gravity and F at the point of contact with the horizontal plane. For now, we ignore rolling friction and friction due to the air surrounding the disk.

The equation of motion for the position $`𝐫_{\mathrm{cm}}`$ of the center of mass of the disk is then

$$m\frac{d^2𝐫_{\mathrm{cm}}}{dt^2}=𝐅mg\widehat{𝐳}.$$
(20)
The torque equation of motion for the angular momentum $`𝐋_{\mathrm{cm}}`$ about the center of mass is

$$\frac{d𝐋_{\mathrm{cm}}}{dt}=𝐍_{\mathrm{cm}}=𝐚\times 𝐅.$$
(21)
We eliminate the unknown force $`𝐅`$ in eq. (21) via eqs. (1) and (20) to find

$$\frac{1}{ma}\frac{d𝐋_{\mathrm{cm}}}{dt}+\frac{d^2𝐫_{\mathrm{cm}}}{dt^2}\times \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}=g\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}\times \widehat{𝐳}.$$
(22)
This can be expanded using eqs. (4), (5)-(7), (13) and (19) to yield the $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}`$, $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}`$ and $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}`$ components of the equation of motion,

$`(2k+1)\dot{\omega }_1+\dot{\alpha }\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{sin}\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (23)
$`k\mathrm{\Omega }^2\mathrm{sin}\alpha \mathrm{cos}\alpha +(2k+1)\omega _1\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{sin}\alpha (k+1)\ddot{\alpha }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{g}{a}}\mathrm{cos}\alpha ,`$ (24)
$`\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}\mathrm{sin}\alpha +2\dot{\alpha }\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{cos}\alpha +2\omega _1\dot{\alpha }`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (25)
These equations agree with those of sec. 244 of Routh , noting that his $`A`$, $`C`$, $`\theta `$, $`\dot{\psi }`$ and $`\omega _3`$ are expressed as $`ka^2`$, $`2ka^2`$, $`\alpha `$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\omega _1`$, respectively, in our notation.

Besides the coordinates ($`x_A,y_A)`$ of the center of motion, we can readily identify only one other constant of the motion, the total energy

$`E`$ $`=`$ $`T+V={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}mv_{\mathrm{cm}}^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\stackrel{}{\omega }\stackrel{}{\stackrel{}{I}}\stackrel{}{\omega }+mgz`$ (26)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{ma^2}{2}}\left[(2k+1)\omega _1^2+(k+1)\dot{\alpha }^2+k\mathrm{\Omega }^2\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha +{\displaystyle \frac{2g}{a}}\mathrm{sin}\alpha \right].`$
The time derivative of the energy is consistent with the equations of motion (23)-(25), but does not provide any independent information.

## 4 Steady Motion

For steady motion, $`\dot{\alpha }=\ddot{\alpha }=\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}=\dot{\omega }_1=0`$, and we define $`\alpha _{\mathrm{steady}}=\alpha _0`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{steady}}=\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ and $`\omega _{1,\mathrm{steady}}=\omega _{10}`$. The equations of motion (23) and (25) are now trivially satisfied, and eq. (24) becomes

$$k\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0+(2k+1)\omega _{10}\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0=\frac{g}{a}\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0,$$
(27)
A special case of steady motion is $`\alpha _0=\pi /2`$, corresponding to the plane of the disk being vertical. In this case, eq. (27) requires that $`\omega _{10}\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0`$. If $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0`$, the disk rolls along a straight line and $`\omega _{10}`$ is the rolling angular velocity. If $`\omega _{10}=0`$, the disk spins in place about the vertical axis with angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$.

For $`\alpha _0\pi /2`$, the angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0\widehat{𝐳}`$ of the axes about the vertical must be nonzero. We can then replace $`\omega _{10}`$ by the radius $`b`$ of the horizontal circular motion of the center of mass using eqs. (16)-(17):

$$\omega _{10}=\frac{b}{a}\mathrm{\Omega }_0=\mathrm{\Omega }_0\left(\frac{r}{a}\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0\right).$$
(28)
Inserting this in (27), we find

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2=\frac{g\mathrm{cot}\alpha _0}{ka\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0+(2k+1)b}=\frac{g\mathrm{cot}\alpha _0}{(2k+1)r(k+1)a\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0}.$$
(29)
For $`\pi /2<\alpha _0<\pi `$ the denominator of eq. (29) is positive, since $`r`$ is positive by definition, but the numerator is negative. Hence, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ is imaginary, and steady motion is not possible in this quadrant of angle $`\alpha _0`$.

For $`0<\alpha _0<\pi /2`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ is real and steady motion is possible so long as

$$b>\frac{ak\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0}{2k+1}.$$
(30)
In addition to the commonly observed case of $`b>0`$, steady motion is possible with small negative values of $`b`$

A famous special case is when $`b=0`$, and the center of mass of the disk is at rest. Here, eq. (29) becomes

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2=\frac{g}{ak\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0},$$
(31)
and $`\omega _{10}=0`$ according to eq. (28), so that

$$\omega _{\mathrm{rel}}=\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0,$$
(32)
recalling eq. (11). Also, the total angular velocity becomes simply $`\stackrel{}{\omega }=\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}`$ according to eq. (10), so the instantaneous axis of rotation is axis $`\mathrm{𝟑}`$ which contains the center of mass and the point of contact, both of which are instantaneously at rest.

## 5 Shorter Analysis of Steady Motion with $`b=0`$

The analysis of a spinning disk (for example, a coin) whose center is at rest can be shortened considerably by noting at the outset that in this case axis $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}`$ is the instantaneous axis of rotation. Then, the angular velocity is $`\stackrel{}{\omega }=\omega \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}`$, and the angular momentum is simply

$$𝐋=I_{33}\omega \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}=kma^2\omega \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}.$$
(33)
Since the center of mass is at rest, the contact force F is just $`mg\widehat{𝐳}`$, so the torque about the center of mass is

$$𝐍=a\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}\times mg\widehat{𝐳}=\frac{d𝐋}{dt}.$$
(34)
We see that the equation of motion for L has the form

$$\frac{d𝐋}{dt}=\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_0\times 𝐋,$$
(35)
where

$$\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_0=\frac{g}{ak\omega }\widehat{𝐳}.$$
(36)
Thus, the angular momentum, and the coin precesses about the vertical at rate $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$.

A second relation between $`\stackrel{}{\omega }`$ and $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_0`$ is obtained from eqs. (2) and (3) by noting that $`\stackrel{}{\omega }_{123}=\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_0`$, so that

$$\stackrel{}{\omega }=(\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0+\omega _{\mathrm{rel}})\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}=\omega \widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}},$$
(37)
using eq. (4). Hence,

$$\omega =\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0,$$
(38)
and the angular velocity $`\omega _1`$ about the symmetry axis vanishes, so that

$$\omega _{\mathrm{rel}}=\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0.$$
(39)
Combining eqs. (36) and (38), we again find that

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2=\frac{g}{ak\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0},$$
(40)
As $`\alpha _0`$ approaches zero, the angular velocity of the point of contact becomes very large, and one hears a high-frequency sound associated with the spinning coin. However, a prominent aspect of what one sees is the rotation of the figure on the face of the coin, whose angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0\omega _{\mathrm{rel}}=\mathrm{\Omega }_0(1\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0)`$ approaches zero. The total angular velocity $`\omega `$ also vanishes as $`\alpha _00`$.

## 6 Radial Slippage During “Steady” Motion

The contact force F during steady motion at a small angle $`\alpha _0`$ is obtained from eqs. (6), (13), (20), (28) and (31) as

$$𝐅=mg\widehat{𝐳}\frac{b}{ak\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0}mg\widehat{𝐫}.$$
(41)
The horizontal component of force F is due to static friction at the point of contact. The coefficient $`\mu `$ of friction must therefore satisfy

$$\mu \frac{\left|b\right|}{ak\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0},$$
(42)
otherwise the disk will slip in the direction opposite to the radius vector b. Since coefficient $`\mu `$ is typically one or less, slippage will occur whenever aksinα0

<

|b|

<

𝑎𝑘subscript𝛼0𝑏ak\sin\alpha_{0}\mathrel{\vbox{\kern 0.0pt\hbox{$<$} \kern 0.0pt\hbox{$\sim$} }}\left|b\right|. As the disk loses energy and angle $`\alpha `$ decreases, the slippage will reduce $`\left|b\right|`$ as well. The trajectory of the center of the disk will be a kind of inward spiral leading toward $`b=0`$ for small $`\alpha `$.

If distance $`b`$ is negative, it must obey $`\left|b\right|<ak\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0/(2k+1)`$ according to eq. (30). In this case, eq. (42) becomes

$$\mu \frac{\mathrm{cot}\alpha _0}{2k+1},$$
(43)
which could be satisfied for a uniform disk only for α0

>

π/3

>

subscript𝛼0𝜋3\alpha_{0}\mathrel{\vbox{\kern 0.0pt\hbox{$>$} \kern 0.0pt\hbox{$\sim$} }}\pi/3. Motion with negative $`b`$ is likely to be observed only briefly before large radial slippage when $`\alpha _0`$ is large reduces $`b`$ to zero.

Once $`b`$ is zero, the contact force is purely vertical, according to eq. (41). Surprisingly, the condition of rolling without slipping can be maintained in this special case without any friction at the point of contact. Hence, an analysis of the motion with $`b=0`$ could be made with the assumption of zero friction, as discussed in secs. 8-9. In practice, there will always be some friction, aspects of which are further discussed in secs. 10-11. From the argument here, we see that if $`b=0`$, there is no frictional force to oppose the radial slippage that accompanies a change in angle $`\alpha `$.

## 7 Small Oscillations about Steady Motion

We now consider oscillations at angular frequency $`\varpi `$ about steady motion, assuming that the disk rolls without slipping. We suppose that $`\alpha `$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\omega _1`$ have the form

$`\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`\alpha _0+ϵ\mathrm{cos}\varpi t,`$ (44)
$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0+\delta \mathrm{cos}\varpi t,`$ (45)
$`\omega _1`$ $`=`$ $`\omega _{10}+\gamma \mathrm{cos}\varpi t,`$ (46)
where $`ϵ`$, $`\delta `$ and $`\gamma `$ are small constants. Inserting these in the equation of motion (25) and equating terms of first order of smallness, we find that

$$\delta =\frac{2ϵ}{\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0}(\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0+\omega _{10}).$$
(47)
From this as well as from eq. (44), we see that $`ϵ/\mathrm{sin}\alpha _01`$ for small oscillations. Similarly, eq. (23) leads to

$$\gamma =ϵ\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0}{2k+1},$$
(48)
and eq. (24) leads to

$`ϵ\varpi ^2(k+1)`$ $`=`$ $`(2k+1)(ϵ\omega _{10}\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0+\gamma \mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0+\delta \omega _{10}\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0)+ϵk\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2(12\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha _0)`$ (49)
$`2\delta k\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0ϵ{\displaystyle \frac{g}{a}}\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0.`$
Combining eqs. (47)-(49), we obtain

$`\varpi ^2(k+1)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2(k(1+2\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha _0)+\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha _0)+(6k+1)\omega _{10}\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0`$ (50)
$`+2(2k+1)\omega _{10}^2{\displaystyle \frac{g}{a}}\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0,`$
which agrees with Routh , noting that our $`k`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$, and $`\omega _{10}`$ are his $`k^2`$, $`\mu `$, and $`n`$.

For the special case of a wheel rolling in a straight line, $`\alpha _0=\pi /2`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0`$, and

$$\varpi ^2(k+1)=2(2k+1)\omega _{10}^2\frac{g}{a}.$$
(51)
The rolling is stable only if

$$\omega _{10}^2>\frac{g}{2(2k+1)a}.$$
(52)
Another special case is that of a disk spinning about a vertical diameter, for which $`\alpha _0=\pi /2`$ and $`\omega _{10}`$ and $`b`$ are zero. Then, eq. (50) indicates that the spinning is stable only for

$$\left|\mathrm{\Omega }_0\right|>\sqrt{\frac{g}{a(k+1)}},$$
(53)
which has been called the condition for “sleeping”. Otherwise, angle $`\alpha `$ decreases when perturbed, and the motion of the disc becomes that of the more general case. Further discussion of this special case is given in the following section.

Returning to the general analysis of eq. (50), we eliminate $`\omega _{10}`$ using eq. (28) and replace the term $`(g/a)\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0`$ via eq. (29) to find

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\varpi ^2}{\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2}}(k+1)`$ $`=`$ $`3k\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha _0+\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha _0+{\displaystyle \frac{b}{a}}\left((6k+1)\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0(2k+1){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha _0}{\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0}}\right)`$ (54)
$`+2{\displaystyle \frac{b^2}{a^2}}(2k+1).`$
The term in eq. (54) in large parentheses is negative for $`\alpha _0>\mathrm{tan}^1\sqrt{(6k+1)/(2k+1)}`$, which is about $`60^{}`$ for a uniform disk. Hence, for positive $`b`$ the motion is unstable for large $`\alpha _0`$, and the disk will appear fall over quickly into a rolling motion with α0

<

60

<

subscript𝛼0superscript60\alpha_{0}\mathrel{\vbox{\kern 0.0pt\hbox{$<$} \kern 0.0pt\hbox{$\sim$} }}60^{\circ}, after which $`\alpha _0`$ will decrease more slowly due to the radial slippage discussed in sec. 5, until $`b`$ becomes very small. The subsequent motion at small $`\alpha _0`$ is considered further in sec. 11.

The motion with negative $`b`$ is always stable against small oscillations, but the radial slippage is large as noted in sec. 5.

For motion with $`ba`$, such as for a spinning coin whose center is nearly fixed, the frequency of small oscillation is given by

$$\frac{\varpi }{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}=\sqrt{\frac{3k\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha _0+\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha _0}{k+1}}.$$
(55)
For small angles this becomes

$$\frac{\varpi }{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}\sqrt{\frac{3k}{k+1}}.$$
(56)
For a uniform disk with $`k=1/4`$, the frequency $`\varpi `$ of small oscillation approaches $`\sqrt{3/5}\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0.77\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$, while for a hoop with $`k=1/2`$, $`\varpi \mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ as $`\alpha _00`$.

The effect of this small oscillation of a spinning coin is to produce a kind of rattling sound during which the frequency sounds a bit “wrong”. This may be particularly noticeable if a surface imperfection suddenly excites the oscillation to a somewhat larger amplitude.

The radial slippage of the point of contact discussed in sec. 5 will be enhanced by the rattling, which requires a larger peak frictional force to maintain slip-free motion.

As angle $`\alpha _0`$ approaches zero, the slippage keeps the radius $`b`$ of order $`a\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0`$. For small $`\alpha _0`$, $`b\alpha _0a`$ and eq. (54) gives the frequency of small oscillation as

$$\varpi \mathrm{\Omega }_0\sqrt{\frac{3k+(6k+1)\alpha _0}{k+1}}.$$
(57)
For a uniform disk, $`k=1/4`$, and eq. (57) gives

$$\varpi \mathrm{\Omega }_0\sqrt{\frac{3+10\alpha _0}{5}}.$$
(58)
When $`\alpha _00.2`$ rad, the oscillation and rotation frequencies are nearly identical, at which time a very low frequency beat can be discerned in the nutations of the disk. Once $`\alpha _0`$ drops below about 0.1 rad, the low-frequency nutation disappears and the disk settles into a motion in which the center of mass hardly appears to move, and the rotation frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0\sqrt{g/ak\alpha _0}`$ grows very large.

For a hoop ($`k=1/2`$), the low-frequency beat will be prominent for angles $`\alpha `$ near zero.

## 8 Disk Spinning About a Vertical Diameter

When a disc is spinning about a vertical diameter the condition of contact with the horizontal surface is not obviously that of rolling without slipping, which requires nonzero static friction. Olsson has suggested that there is zero friction between the disk and the surface in this case .

If there is no friction, all forces on the disc are vertical. Then, the center of mass moves only vertically, and there is no vertical torque component about the center of mass, so the vertical component $`L_z`$ of angular momentum is constant.

The equations of motion in the absence of friction can be found by the method of sec. 3, writing the position of the center of mass as

$$𝐫_{\mathrm{cm}}=a\mathrm{sin}\alpha \widehat{𝐳}.$$
(59)
Using this in eq. (22), the $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}`$, $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}`$ and $`\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}`$ components of the equation of motion are

$`\dot{\omega }_1`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (60)
$`(k\mathrm{\Omega }^2+\dot{\alpha }^2)\mathrm{sin}\alpha \mathrm{cos}\alpha +2k\omega _1\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{sin}\alpha (k+\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha )\ddot{\alpha }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{g}{a}}\mathrm{cos}\alpha ,`$ (61)
$`\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}\mathrm{sin}\alpha +2\dot{\alpha }\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{cos}\alpha +2\omega _1\dot{\alpha }`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (62)
According to eq. (60), the angular velocity $`\omega _1`$ about the symmetry axis of the disk is constant. Then, eq. (62) can be multiplied by $`kma^2\mathrm{sin}\alpha `$ and integrated to give

$$kma^2(\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha 2\omega _1\mathrm{cos}\alpha )=L_z=\mathrm{constant},$$
(63)
recalling eq. (19).

In the case of motion of a disk with no friction we find five constants of the motion, $`x_{\mathrm{cm}}`$, $`y_{\mathrm{cm}}`$, $`\omega _1`$, $`L_z`$ and the total energy $`E`$, in contrast to the case of rolling without slipping in which the only (known) constants of the motion are the energy $`E`$ and the coordinates ($`x_A,y_A`$) of the center of motion.

For spinning about a vertical diameter, $`\alpha =\pi /2`$ and $`\omega _1=0`$. For small perturbations about this motion we write $`\alpha =\pi /2ϵ`$, and for small $`ϵ`$ eq. (61) becomes

$$\ddot{ϵ}+\left(\mathrm{\Omega }^2\frac{g}{ak}\right)ϵ=0.$$
(64)
Hence, in the case of no friction, spinning about a vertical diameter is stable for

$$\left|\mathrm{\Omega }\right|>\sqrt{\frac{g}{ak}}.$$
(65)
For a uniform disk with $`k=1/4`$, this stability condition is that $`\left|\mathrm{\Omega }\right|>2\sqrt{g/a}`$.

In contrast, the stability condition (53) for a uniform disk that rolls without slipping is that $`\left|\mathrm{\Omega }\right|>2\sqrt{g/5a}0.9\sqrt{g/a}`$.

As the stability conditions (53) and (65) differ by more than a factor of two for a uniform disk, there is hope of distinguishing between them experimentally.

We conducted several tests in which a U.S. quarter dollar was spun initially about a vertical diameter on a vinyl floor, on a sheet of glossy paper, and on the glass surface of the base of the Tangent Toy Euler’s Disk. (The Euler’s Disk is so thick that when spun about a vertical diameter it comes to rest without falling over.)

We found it essentially impossible to spin a coin such that there is no motion of its center of mass. Rather, the center of mass moves slowly in a spiral before the coin falls over into the “steady” motion with small $`b`$ described in sec. 5. A centripetal force is required for such spiral motion, and so friction cannot be entirely neglected. The occasional observation of “rising”, as discussed further in sec. 10, is additional evidence for the role of friction in nearly vertical spinning.

Analysis of frames taken with a digital video camera  at 30 frames per second with exposure time 1/8000 s did not reveal a sharp transition from spinning of a coin nearly vertically about a diameter to the settling motion of sec. 5, but in our judgment the transition point for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ in several data sets was in the range 1.5-3$`\sqrt{g/a}`$. This suggests that during the spinning about a nearly vertical diameter friction plays only a small role, as advocated by Olsson .

## 9 Small Oscillations About Steady Motion with No Friction

It is interesting to pursue the consequences of the equations of motion (60)-(62), deduced assuming no friction, when angle $`\alpha `$ is different from $`\pi /2`$. For motion that has evolved from $`\alpha =\pi /2`$ initially, we expect the constant $`\omega _1`$ to be zero still. Then, eq. (61) indicates that the value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ for steady motion at angle $`\alpha _0`$ is the same as that of eq. (31). This was anticipated in sec. 5, where it was noted that for $`b=0`$ no friction is required to enforce the condition of rolling without slipping.

We consider small oscillations about steady motion at angle $`\alpha _0`$ of the form

$`\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`\alpha _0+ϵ\mathrm{cos}\varpi t,`$ (66)
$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0+\delta \mathrm{cos}\varpi t,`$ (67)
where $`ϵ`$ and $`\delta `$ are small constants. Inserting these in the equation of motion (62) and equating terms of first order of smallness, we find that

$$\delta =2ϵ\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{cot}\alpha _0,$$
(68)
which is the same as eq. (47) with $`\omega _1=0`$, since eqs. (25) and (62) are the same. Similarly, eq. (61) leads to

$`ϵ\varpi ^2(k+\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha _0)`$ $`=`$ $`ϵk\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2(12\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha _0)2\delta k\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0ϵ{\displaystyle \frac{g}{a}}\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0.`$ (69)
Combining eqs. (68)-(69), we obtain

$$\varpi ^2(k+\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha _0)=k\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2(1+2\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha _0)\frac{g}{a}\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0=3k\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha _0,$$
(70)
using eq. (31). The ratio of the frequency $`\varpi `$ of small oscillations to the frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ of rotation about the vertical axis for $`\alpha _0<\pi /2`$ is

$$\frac{\varpi }{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}=\sqrt{\frac{3k}{k+\mathrm{cos}^2\alpha _0}}\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0,$$
(71)
which differs somewhat from the result (55) obtained assuming rolling without slipping. For very small $`\alpha _0`$, both eq. (55) and (71) take on the same limiting value (56).

Because of the similarity of the results for small oscillations about steady motion with $`b=0`$ for either assumption of no friction or rolling without slipping, it will be hard to distinguish experimentally which condition is the more realistic, but the distinction is of little consequence.

## 10 “Rising” of a Rotating Disk When Nearly Vertical ($`\alpha \pi /2`$)

A rotating disk can exhibit “rising” when launched with spin about a nearly vertical diameter, provided there is slippage at the point of contact with the horizontal plane. That is, the plane of the disc may rise first towards the vertical, before eventually falling towards the horizontal.

The rising of tops appears to have been considered by Euler, but rather inconclusively. The present explanation based on sliding friction can be traced to a note by “H.T.” in 1839 .

Briefly, we consider motion that is primarily rotation about a nearly vertical diameter. The angular velocity about the vertical is $`\mathrm{\Omega }>\sqrt{g/ak}`$, large enough so that “sleeping” at the vertical is possible in the absence of friction. The needed sliding friction depends on angular velocity component $`\omega _1=b\mathrm{\Omega }/a`$ being nonzero, which implies that the center of mass moves in a circle of radius $`ba`$ in the present case. Then, $`\omega _1\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and the angular momentum (19) is $`𝐋\mathrm{\Omega }\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}`$, which is almost vertically upwards (see Fig. 1). Rising depends on slippage of the disk at the point of contact such that the lowermost point on the disk is not at rest but moves with velocity $`ϵa\omega _1\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}`$, which is opposite to the direction of motion of the center of mass. Corresponding to this slippage, the horizontal surface exerts friction $`F_s\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}`$ on the disk, with $`F_s>0`$. The related torque, $`𝐍_s=a\widehat{\mathrm{𝟑}}\times F_s\widehat{\mathrm{𝟐}}=aF_s\widehat{\mathrm{𝟏}}`$, pushes the angular momentum towards the vertical, and the center of mass of the disk rises.

The torque needed for rising exists in principle even for a disk of zero thickness, provided there is sliding friction at the point of contact.

The most dramatic form of rising motion is that of a “tippe” top, which has recently been reviewed by Gray and Nickel .

## 11 Friction at Very Small $`\alpha `$

In practice, the motion of a spinning disk appears to cease rather abruptly for a small value of the angle $`\alpha `$, corresponding to large precession angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. If the motion continued, the velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }a`$ of the point of contact would eventually exceed the speed of sound.

This suggests that air friction may play a role in the motion at very small $`\alpha `$, as has been discussed recently by Moffatt .

When the rolling motion ceases, the disk seems to float for a moment, and then settle onto the horizontal surface. It appears that the upward contact force $`𝐅_z`$ vanished, and the disk lost contact with the surface. From eqs. (13) and (20), we see that for small $`\alpha `$, $`𝐅_zmg+ma\ddot{\alpha }`$. Since the height of the center of mass above the surface is $`ha\alpha `$ for small $`\alpha `$, we recognize that the disk loses contact with the surface when the center of mass is falling with acceleration $`g`$.

Moffatt invites us to relate the power $`P`$ dissipated by friction to the rate of change $`dU/dt`$ of total energy of the disk. For a disk moving with $`b=0`$ at a small angle $`\alpha (t)`$,

$$U=\frac{1}{2}m\dot{h}^2+\frac{1}{2}I_{33}\omega ^2+mgh\frac{1}{2}ma^2\dot{\alpha }^2+\frac{3}{2}mag\alpha ,$$
(72)
using eq. (38) and assuming that eq. (40) holds adiabatically. Then,

$$P=\frac{dU}{dt}ma^2\dot{\alpha }\ddot{\alpha }+\frac{3}{2}mag\dot{\alpha }\frac{5}{2}mag\dot{\alpha },$$
(73)
where the second approximation holds when $`𝐅_z0`$ and $`ma\ddot{\alpha }mg`$.

For the dissipation of energy we need a model. First, we consider rolling friction, taken to be the effect of inelastic collisions between the disk and the horizontal surface. For example, suppose the surface has small bumps with average spacing $`\delta `$ and average height $`h=ϵ\delta `$. We also suppose that the disk dissipates energy $`mgh=mgϵ\delta `$ when passing over a bump. The time taken for the rotating disk to pass over a bump is $`\delta /a\mathrm{\Omega }`$ (at small $`\alpha `$), so the rate of dissipation of energy to rolling friction is

$$P=\frac{mgϵ\delta }{\delta /a\mathrm{\Omega }}=ϵmag\mathrm{\Omega }.$$
(74)
A generalized form of velocity-dependent friction could be written as

$$P=ϵmag\mathrm{\Omega }^\beta ,$$
(75)
where the drag force varies with (angular) velocity as $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{\beta 1}`$. A rolling frictional force proportional to the velocity of the contact point corresponds to $`\beta =2`$; an air drag force proportional to the square of the velocity corresponds to $`\beta =3`$. The model of Moffatt  emphasizes the viscous shear of the air between the disk and the supporting horizontal surface, and corresponds to $`\beta =4`$. A revised version of Moffatt’s model reportedly  corresponds to $`\beta =2.5`$.

Equating the frictional power loss to the rate of change (73) of the energy of the disk, we find

$$\dot{\alpha }=\frac{2ϵ}{5}\mathrm{\Omega }^\beta \frac{2ϵ}{5}\left(\frac{g}{ak}\right)^{\beta /2}\frac{1}{\alpha ^{\beta /2}},$$
(76)
using $`\mathrm{\Omega }^2g/ak\alpha `$ from eq. (31), which integrates to give

$$\alpha ^{(\beta +2)/2}=\frac{ϵ(\beta +2)}{5}\left(\frac{g}{ak}\right)^{\beta /2}(t_0t),$$
(77)
and

$$\alpha =\left(\frac{ϵ(\beta +2)}{5}\right)^{2/(\beta +2)}\left(\frac{g}{ak}\right)^{\beta /(\beta +2)}(t_0t)^{2/(\beta +2)}.$$
(78)
In this model, the angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ obeys

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\left(\frac{5g/ϵ(\beta +2)ak}{t_0t}\right)^{1/(\beta +2)}\left(\frac{C}{t_0t}\right)^{1/(\beta +2)},$$
(79)
which exhibits what is called by Moffatt a “finite-time singularity” at time $`t_0`$  for any value of $`\beta `$ greater than $`2`$.

A premise of this analysis is that it will cease to hold when the disk loses contact with the surface, i.e., when $`F_z=0`$, at which time $`\ddot{\alpha }=g/a`$, or equivalently $`d^2(1/\mathrm{\Omega }^2)/dt^2=k`$. Taking the derivative of eq. (79), the maximum angular velocity is

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{max}}=\left(\frac{k(\beta +2)^2}{2\beta }\right)^{1/2(\beta +1)}C^{1/(\beta +1)},$$
(80)
which occurs at time $`t_{\mathrm{max}}`$ given by

$$t_0t_{\mathrm{max}}=\left(\frac{2\beta }{k(\beta +2)^2}\right)^{(\beta +2)/2(\beta +1)}C^{1/(\beta +1)}.$$
(81)
In Moffatt’s model based on viscous drag of the air between the disc and the surface , $`\beta =4`$,

$$\alpha =\left(\frac{2\pi \eta a}{m}(t_0t)\right)^{1/3},$$
(82)
where $`\eta =1.8\times 10^4`$ g-cm<sup>-1</sup>-s is the viscosity of air, and

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\sqrt{\frac{g}{ak}}\left(\frac{m/2\pi \eta a}{t_0t}\right)^{1/6}.$$
(83)
This model is notable for having no free parameters.

The main distinguishing feature between the various models for friction is the different time dependences (79) for the angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ as angle $`\alpha `$ decreases.

A recent report  indicates that the total times of spin of coins in vacuum and in air are similar, which suggests that air drag is not the dominant mechanism of energy dissipation. Such results do not preclude that air drag could be important for disks of better surface quality, and hence lower rolling friction, or that air drag becomes important only during the high-frequency motion as time $`t`$ approaches $`t_0`$.

To help determine whether any of the above models corresponds to the practical physics, we have performed an experiment using a Tangent Toy Euler’s Disk . The spinning disk was illuminated by a flashlight whose beam was reflected off the surface of the disk onto a phototransistor  whose output was recorded by a digital oscilloscope  at 5 kS/s. The record length of 50,000 samples permitted the last 10 seconds of the spin history of the disk to be recorded, as shown in Figs. 2-4.

The analysis of the data shown in Figs. 2-4 consisted of identifying the time $`t_i`$ of the peak of cycle $`i`$ of oscillation as the mean of the times of the rising and falling edges of the waveform at roughly one half the peak height. The average angular frequency for each cycle was calculated as $`\mathrm{\Omega }_i=2\pi /(t_{i+1}t_i)`$, as shown in Fig. 5, and the rate of change of angular frequency was calculated as $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_i/dt=2(\mathrm{\Omega }_{i+1}\mathrm{\Omega }_i)/(t_{i+2}t_i)`$. The angular frequency of the last analyzable cycle was $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{max}}=680`$ Hz.

The data can be conveniently compared to the result (79) in the form

$$\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }}=\left(\frac{t_0t}{C}\right)^{1/(\beta +2)}$$
(84)
via a log-log plot of $`1/\mathrm{\Omega }`$ vs. $`t_0t`$, given an hypothesis as to $`t_0.`$ Inspection of Fig. 4 suggests that $`t_0`$ is in the range 7.26-7.28 s for our data sample. Figures 6 and 7 show plots of $`1/\mathrm{\Omega }`$ vs. $`t_0t`$ for $`t_0=7.26`$ and 7.28 s, respectively. The straight lines are not fits to the data, but illustrate the behavior expected according to eq. (79) for various values of parameter $`\beta `$.

A larger value of $`t_0`$ has the effect of lowering the apparent value of parameter $`\beta `$ for the last few cycles of the motion. Figure 4 suggests that $`t_0`$ could hardly be less than $`7.26`$ s, for which case a value of $`\beta =2`$ would fit the entire data sample rather well.

In view of the uncertainty in assigning a value to the time $`t_0`$, it is interesting to ask at what time $`t`$ does the time remaining equal exactly one period of the motion, i.e., when does $`t_0t=2\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }(t)`$? For $`\beta =2`$, the answer from eq. (79) is when $`\mathrm{\Omega }=(C/2\pi )^{1/3}`$. From Fig. 6 we estimate that $`C^{1/4}=0.0055`$, and hence $`\mathrm{\Omega }560`$ Hz when the remaining time of the motion is $`2\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }=0.011`$ s. Recall that the last cycle analyzable in our data sample yielded a value of 680 Hz for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. The preceding analysis tells us that time $`t_0`$ cannot be more than about 0.01 s after the last observable peak in the data, which suggests that $`t_0`$ is closer to 7.26 than to 7.28 s, and that Fig. 6 is the relevant representation of the experiment.

For $`\beta =2`$, the spinning disk is predicted by eq. (81) to lose contact with the horizontal surface when $`t_0t=C^{1/3}=0.001`$ s for $`C^{1/4}=0.0055`$. The instantaneous angular frequency at that time is predicted by eq. (80) to be $`\mathrm{\Omega }=C^{1/3}=1030`$ Hz. These values are, of course, beyond those for the last analyzable cycle in the data.

The question as to the value of $`t_0`$ can be avoided by noting  that the time derivative of eq. (79) yields the relation

$$\frac{d\mathrm{\Omega }}{dt}\mathrm{\Omega }^{\beta +3}.$$
(85)
However, $`d\mathrm{\Omega }/dt`$ must be calculated from differences of differences of the times of the peaks in the data, so is subject to greater uncertainty than is $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. Figure 8 shows a log-log plot of $`d\mathrm{\Omega }/dt`$ vs. $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ together with straight lines illustrating the expected behavior for various values of $`\beta `$. Again, $`\beta =2`$ is a consistent description of the entire data sample. The value of $`\beta =0`$ suggested by Fig. 7 based on $`t_0=7.28`$ s is quite inconsistent with Fig. 8.

The results of our experiment on the time history of the motion of a spinning disk are not definitive, but are rather consistent with the dissipated power being proportional to the square of the velocity of the point of contact, and hence the dissipative force varying linearly with velocity. Our experiment cannot determine whether during the 0.01 s beyond the last full cycle of the motion an additional dissipative mechanism such as air friction with power loss proportional to the fourth power of the velocity  became important.

## 12 Summary of the Motion of a Disk Spun Initially About a Vertical Diameter

If a uniform disk is given a large initial angular velocity about a vertical diameter, and the initial horizontal velocity of the center of mass is very small, the disk will “sleep” until friction at the point of contact reduces the angular velocity below that of condition (65) (secs. 8). The disk will then appear to fall over rather quickly into a rocking motion with angle $`\alpha <90^{}`$ (sec. 9). After this, the vertical angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ will increase ever more rapidly, while angle $`\alpha `$ decreases (sec. 5), until the disk loses contact with the table at a value of $`\alpha `$ of a few degrees (sec. 11). The disk then quickly settles on to the horizontal surface. One hears sound at frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }/2\pi `$, which becomes dramatically higher until the sound abruptly ceases. But if one observes a figure on the face of the disk, this rotates every more slowly and seems almost to have stopped moving before the sounds ceases (sec. 4).

If the initial motion of the disk included a nonzero initial velocity in addition to the spin about a vertical diameter, the center of mass will initially move in a circle (sec. 4). If the initial vertical angular velocity is small, the disc will roll in a large circle, tilting slightly inwards until the rolling angular velocity $`\omega _1`$ drops below that of condition (52). While in most cases the angle $`\alpha `$ of the disk will then quickly drop to $`60^{}`$ or so (sec. 6), occasionally $`\alpha `$ will rise back towards $`90^{}`$ before falling (sec. 9). As the disk rolls and spins, the center of mass traces an inward spiral on average (sec. 5), but nutations about this spiral can be seen, often accompanied by a rattling sound (sec. 6). The nutation is especially prominent for $`\alpha 1015^{}`$ at which time a very low beat frequency between that of primary spin and that of the small oscillation can be observed (sec. 6). As $`\alpha `$ decreases below this, the radius of the circle traced by the center of mass becomes very small, and the subsequent motion is that of a disk without horizontal center of mass motion (secs. 4 and 8).

The authors thank A. Chatterjee, C.G. Gray, H.K. Moffatt, M.G. Olsson and A. Ruina for insightful correspondence on this topic.


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# Contents

## 1 Introduction

Recently, it has been realized that string field theory is a useful setup to address questions related to tachyon condensation in string theory . Tachyonic systems, such as the open string tachyon on a D-brane in bosonic string theory as well as on a non-BPS D-brane or a D-brane anti D-brane pair in Type II string theory, have been analyzed in level truncated string field theory . It has also been argued that a co-dimension one D-brane can be considered as the tachyonic lump in bosonic open string field theory . Co-dimension two lump solutions in string field theory have also been explored in a recent papers . Tachyon condensation in the D0/D4 system in the presence of NS B-field has also been studied, using the superstring field theory, in . From the two dimensional conformal field theory point of view, vevs for the tachyonic field corresponds to adding relevant operators to the CFT . In addition to the tachyon, D-branes have massless open string states some of which correspond to exactly marginal operators of the CFT. Such massless states, which correspond to marginal deformations, should correspond to flat directions in the potential of string field theory.

One familiar example of a marginal deformation of the CFT is the Wilson-line, a constant vev of a $`U(1)`$ gauge field along a compact direction. In string field theory, we expect a flat potential for the field $`w`$ corresponding to this marginal deformation. However, in the level truncation scheme, to any finite level, the potential is not expected to be exactly flat. In  Sen and Zwiebach calculated the potential, in the level truncated bosonic string field theory, for the marginal deformation parameter corresponding to the constant vev of the $`U(1)`$ gauge field. They determined the effective potential for $`w`$ by solving the equations of motion for all fields except $`w`$ in terms of $`w`$ and substituting in the potential. They showed that the effective potential becomes flatter as the higher level field and terms in the action are included. The effective potential, as expected, is not flat at any given level. However, as the approximation is improved, the potential becomes flatter.

In section 2, we calculate the effective potential for the Wilson line on a BPS D-brane in Type II string theory by using Berkovits’ open superstring field theory . We work in the level truncation scheme and calculate the potential first at the (0,0) level and then at the (1,2) level. By $`(n,m)`$ level approximation, we mean that we keep the states up to level $`n`$ and terms in the action up to level $`m`$. For the case of the BPS D-brane, we assign level to a state to be equal to its $`L_0`$ eigenvalue. This is different from the level assignments in section 3 as well as the assignments in . At the level (1,2), we did not find different branches of solutions in the BPS case.

In section 3, we analyze the case of the non-BPS D-brane. Here, the tachyon, in the GSO$`()`$ sector survives and has $`L_0`$ eigenvalue $`\frac{1}{2}`$. We assign level of a state with $`L_0`$ eigenvalue $`h`$ to be $`h+\frac{1}{2}`$ so that the tachyon has level 0. A major difference between the BPS and the non-BPS case is the existence of two distinct branches of solutions in the non-BPS case. One branch corresponds to zero vev of the tachyon field,$`t`$, ($`M`$-branch ) and the other branch corresponds to the true vacuum after the tachyon has condensed ($`V`$-branch). That there is a $`t=0`$ branch for all values of $`w`$ is clear form the fact that GSO odd fields appear at least quadratically in the action hence a solution exists to the equations of motion with all GSO($``$) fields set to zero. Hence the effective potential for $`w`$ in the $`M`$-branch is identical to that in the BPS case. However, in the non-BPS case, in addition to the solution with $`t=0`$, there are two solutions with non-zero vev for the tachyon but they differ from each other by a sign. This continues to be the case at non-zero values of $`w`$. This is different from the case of bosonic string field theory where there was no branch in which the tachyon vev was identically zero. The two branches in the bosonic case where not related to each other by an overall sign and were physically distinct. For the non-BPS D-brane, there are really three branches but two of them are trivially related to each other by $`tt`$. As the value of $`w`$ increases, the $`V`$-branch merges with the $`M`$-branch at a particular value of $`w`$. For values of $`w`$ greater than this value, the $`V`$-branch does not exist. However, the $`M`$-branch continues to exist for all values of $`w`$ (at least in the level approximation up to level $`(3/2,3)`$). In section 4 we find the mass of the gauge field in the $`V`$-branch and as suggested by Taylor , we find a non-zero value which seems to stabilize as the level approximation is improved.

## 2 Marginal deformations and Level Approximation on a BPS D-brane

In this section, we will analyze the string fields and the string field action corresponding to CFT marginal deformations. In particular, we will single out a particular coordinate, $`x_9`$ along the world volume of a D-9 brane, and consider giving expectation value to the constant mode of the gauge field component $`A_9`$. This represents a marginal deformation of the BCFT describing the D-brane. We will find the string field corresponding to this deformation in the level approximation. For our purposes, whether or not the $`x_9`$ direction is compact is irrelevant; we give expectation values to the field independent in the $`x_9`$ direction, so that modes carrying non-zero momentum along the $`x_9`$ direction (and other directions) are set to zero. We will use Berkovits’ open superstring field theory for our analysis.

### 2.1 String field theory on a BPS D-brane

In , a string field configuration in the GSO$`(+)`$ NS sector corresponds to a Grassmann even open string vertex operator $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ of ghost and picture number 0  in the combined conformal field theory of a $`c=15`$ superconformal matter system, and the $`b,c,\beta ,\gamma `$ ghost system with $`c=15`$. Here, $`b`$, $`c`$ are the reparameterization ghosts and $`\beta `$, $`\gamma `$ are their superconformal partners. The $`\beta `$, $`\gamma `$ ghost system can be bosonized and can be replaced by ghost fields $`\xi ,\eta ,\varphi `$, related to $`\beta ,\gamma `$ through the relations

$$\beta =\xi e^\varphi ,\gamma =\eta e^\varphi .$$

The SL(2,R) invariant vacuum has zero ghost and picture number.

We shall denote by $`_iA_i`$ the correlation function of a set of vertex operators in the combined matter-ghost conformal field theory on the unit disk with open string vertex operators inserted on the boundary of the disk. These correlation functions are to be computed with the normalization

$$\xi (z)cc^2c(w)e^{2\varphi (y)}=2.$$
(2.1)
The BRST operator is given by

$$Q_B=𝑑zc(T_m+T_{\xi \eta }+T_\varphi )+ccb+\eta e^\varphi G_m\eta \eta e^{2\varphi }b.$$
(2.2)
Here 111We have set $`\alpha ^{}=2`$

$$T_{\xi \eta }=\xi \eta ,T_\varphi =\frac{1}{2}\varphi \varphi ^2\varphi ,T_m=\frac{1}{2}X^\mu X_\mu \frac{1}{2}\psi ^\mu \psi _\mu ,G_m=i\psi ^\mu X_\mu .$$
(2.3)
The normalization of $`\psi ^\mu `$, $`X^\mu `$, $`\varphi `$, $`\xi `$, $`\eta `$, $`b`$ and $`c`$ are as follows:

$$X^\mu (z)X^\nu (w)=\frac{\eta ^{\mu \nu }}{(zw)^2}\psi ^\mu (z)\psi ^\nu (w)=\frac{\eta ^{\mu \nu }}{zw}$$

$$\xi (z)\eta (w)\frac{1}{zw},b(z)c(w)\frac{1}{zw},\varphi (z)\varphi (w)\frac{1}{(zw)^2}.$$

We will denote by $`\eta _0=𝑑z\eta (z)`$ the zero mode of the field $`\eta `$ acting on the Hilbert space of matter ghost CFT.

The expansion of the string field action, relevant for our calculations is given by

$`S`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{g^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(Q_B\mathrm{\Phi })(\eta _0\mathrm{\Phi })+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}(Q_B\mathrm{\Phi })\mathrm{\Phi }(\eta _0\mathrm{\Phi })+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{12}}(Q_B\mathrm{\Phi })(\mathrm{\Phi }^2(\eta _0\mathrm{\Phi })\mathrm{\Phi }(\eta _0\mathrm{\Phi })\mathrm{\Phi })`$ (2.6)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{60}}(Q_B\mathrm{\Phi })\left(\mathrm{\Phi }^3(\eta _0\mathrm{\Phi })3\mathrm{\Phi }^2(\eta _0\mathrm{\Phi })\mathrm{\Phi }\right)`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{360}}(Q_B\mathrm{\Phi })(\mathrm{\Phi }^4(\eta _0\mathrm{\Phi })4\mathrm{\Phi }^3(\eta _0\mathrm{\Phi })\mathrm{\Phi }+3\mathrm{\Phi }^2(\eta _0\mathrm{\Phi })\mathrm{\Phi }^2).`$
$`A_1,\mathrm{}A_n`$ is defined as:

$$A_1\mathrm{}A_n=f_1^{(n)}A_1(0)\mathrm{}f_n^{(n)}A_n(0).$$
(2.7)
Here, $`fA`$ for any function $`f(z)`$, denotes the conformal transform of $`A`$ by $`f`$, and

$$f_k^{(n)}(z)=e^{\frac{2\pi i(k1)}{n}}\left(\frac{1+iz}{1iz}\right)^{2/n}\text{for}n1.$$
(2.8)
### 2.2 String fields for the Wilson line marginal deformation

To study the Wilson line marginal deformations in string field theory, we will restrict the string field to be in the subset of vertex operators of ghost and picture number zero, created from the matter stress tensor ($`T_m(z)`$), its superconformal partner ($`G_m(z)`$), $`\psi ^9(z)`$ and $`X^9(z)`$ (where $`x_9`$ is the compact direction) and the ghost fields $`b,c,\xi ,\eta ,\varphi `$. From now on, we will refer to $`\psi ^9`$ and $`X^9`$ as just $`\psi `$ and $`X`$. In this section, the level of a string field component multiplying a vertex operator will be defined as the conformal weight $`h`$ of the vertex operator 111This is different from the definition of level in the next section and also from the definition of level in . The string field action has a gauge invariance which can be used to choose a gauge in which

$$b_0\mathrm{\Phi }=0,\xi _0\mathrm{\Phi }=0,$$
(2.9)
which is valid at least at the linearized level. All relevant states in the “small” Hilbert space can be obtained by acting with ghost number zero combinations of oscillators $`\psi _r`$, $`\alpha _n`$, $`L_n`$, $`G_{1r}`$, $`b_n`$, $`c_{1n}`$, $`\beta _r`$, $`\gamma _r`$ ($`n1`$ and $`r\frac{1}{2}`$) on $`|\mathrm{\Omega }`$. $`|\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the tachyon state (projected out by the GSO projection). The $`b_0\mathrm{\Phi }=0`$ gauge condition allows us to ignore states with a $`c_0`$ oscillator in them (except when $`L_0`$ eigenvalue of the state is zero). As shown in  and used in , the string field theory action has a $`Z_2`$ symmetry which is a combination of twist symmetry and $`XX`$ and $`\psi \psi `$. Under twist symmetry, string field components associated with a vertex operator of dimension $`h`$ carry charge $`(1)^{h+1}`$ for even $`2h`$, and $`(1)^{h+\frac{1}{2}}`$ for odd $`2h`$. Thus it is possible to consistently restrict the string field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ to be even under this $`Z_2`$ symmetry. We will now work in the level truncation scheme. $`(n,m)`$ approximation means that we keep states up to level $`n`$ and terms in the action up to level $`m`$. States up to level one which can contribute to the potential for the marginal deformation parameter are shown in Table 1. The boxed states are odd under the $`𝖹𝖹_2`$ symmetry mentioned above and therefore can be ignored.

#### 2.2.1 Level (0,0)

Since only GSO(+) sector survives on a BPS D-brane, at $`L_0=0`$, we can construct the state

$`\psi _{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{2}}}|\mathrm{\Omega }.`$ (2.11)
Notice that the state $`c_0\beta _{\frac{1}{2}}|\mathrm{\Omega }`$ has $`L_0`$ eigenvalue zero. However, it is is odd under the $`Z_2`$ combination of twist and parity mentioned above so we can ignore it in our present calculation.

The state $`\psi _{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{2}}}|\mathrm{\Omega }`$ corresponds to the level 0 gauge field zero mode. The string field at this level is given by

$`\mathrm{\Phi }^{(0)}=wW,`$ (2.12)
where

$`W=\xi \psi ce^\varphi ,`$ (2.13)
is a primary field of weight zero. The string field action can be used to obtain the potential

$`V(\mathrm{\Phi })=S(\mathrm{\Phi })=(2\pi ^2M)g^2S(\mathrm{\Phi }).`$ (2.14)
Here $`M=\frac{1}{2\pi ^2g^2}`$:

$`V_{eff}^{(0,0)}(w)=(2\pi ^2M){\displaystyle \frac{3}{8}}w^4`$ (2.15)
We note the absence of quadratic term for $`w`$. This is to be expected since $`W`$ is a marginal operator.

#### 2.2.2 Level (1,2)

At $`L_0=1`$ (level 1), we get four new states 222We have not included states $`\psi _{\frac{1}{2}}\beta _{\frac{1}{2}}\gamma _{\frac{1}{2}}|\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\psi _{\frac{3}{2}}|\mathrm{\Omega }`$ because they are odd under the combination of twist and parity symmetry.:

$`c_1\beta _{\frac{1}{2}}|\mathrm{\Omega },b_1\gamma _{\frac{1}{2}}|\mathrm{\Omega },G_{\frac{3}{2}}|\mathrm{\Omega },\psi _{\frac{1}{2}}\alpha _1|\mathrm{\Omega }.`$ (2.16)
The vertex operators corresponding to these states are:

$`A=\xi \xi c^2ce^{2\varphi },E=\xi \eta ,F=\xi G_mce^\varphi ,P=i\xi \psi Xce^\varphi ,`$ (2.17)
where $`F`$ and $`P`$ are primary fields of conformal weight $`1`$ and $`A`$ and $`E`$ are not primary but transform as ($`f(0)=u`$) :

$`fA(0)`$ $`=`$ $`f^{}(0)\{A(u)\frac{f^{\prime \prime }(0)}{(f^{}(0))^2}cc\xi \xi e^{2\varphi }(u)\}`$ (2.18)
$`fE(0)`$ $`=`$ $`f^{}(0)\{E(u)\frac{f^{\prime \prime }(0)}{2(f^{}(0))^2}\}`$
The string field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is given by

$`\mathrm{\Phi }^{(1)}=wW+aA+fF+pP+eE.`$ (2.19)
We can use this expansion in the string field action (2.6) and truncate the action to terms up to level 2.

The result, with $`S_k`$ denoting the level $`k`$ terms in the action, is

$`g^2S_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{8}}w^4`$ (2.20)
$`g^2S_1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{9}}\sqrt{3}(w^2aw^2fw^2p)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{75}}\sqrt{250+110\sqrt{5}}w^4e`$
$`g^2S_2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}p^2fp2ae5f^2{\displaystyle \frac{83}{24}}w^2ae+{\displaystyle \frac{95}{24}}w^2ef{\displaystyle \frac{39}{8}}w^2f^2`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{15}{16}}w^2p^2+{\displaystyle \frac{19}{48}}w^2ep{\displaystyle \frac{15}{8}}w^2fp+{\displaystyle \frac{19}{48}}w^2e^2{\displaystyle \frac{25}{177}}w^4e^2.`$
$`V(w,a,e,f,p)=(2\pi ^2M)g^2(S_0+S_1+S_2).`$ (2.21)
The equations of motion, $`\frac{V}{a}=\frac{V}{e}=\frac{V}{f}=\frac{V}{p}=0`$ for $`a,e,f,p`$ can be solved to obtain $`a,e,f,p`$ as functions of $`w`$. These can be substituted in $`V(w,a,e,f,p)`$ to obtain the effective potential for $`w`$,

$`V_{eff}^{(1,2)}(w)=(2\pi ^2M){\displaystyle \frac{P(w)}{Q(w)}}`$ (2.22)
where

$`P(w)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{w^4}{106200}}(29344814625w^8131631360\sqrt{3}\sqrt{250+110\sqrt{5}}w^8+68413522000w^6`$
$`296763392\sqrt{250+110\sqrt{5}}w^6\sqrt{3}207831040\sqrt{3}\sqrt{250+110\sqrt{5}}w^4`$
$`+55895956800w^4+17269913600w^246399488\sqrt{3}\sqrt{250+110\sqrt{5}}w^2`$
$`+1232486400)`$
$`Q(w)`$ $`=`$ $`147456+915456w^2+2085184w^4+2049104w^6+723345w^8`$
It is useful to expand $`V_{eff}^{(1,2)}(w)`$ in powers of $`w`$. The result is

$`{\displaystyle \frac{V_{eff}^{(1,2)}(w)}{M}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{17}{216}}w^4({\displaystyle \frac{199}{324}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{675}}\sqrt{3}\sqrt{250+110\sqrt{5}})w^6+O(w^8)`$ (2.23)
The coefficient of the $`w^4`$ term is $`\frac{17}{216}`$ in the $`(1,2)`$ approximation as compared to $`\frac{3}{8}`$ in the $`(0,0)`$ approximation. The potential becomes flatter as we improve the approximation as shown in Fig 1. However, even at the (1,2) level, we did not find multiple branches of solutions or any restriction on the value of $`w`$. This is different for the case of a D-brane in bosonic string theory discussed in .

## 3 Marginal deformations and Level approximation on a non-BPS D-brane

### 3.1 String field theory on a non-BPS D-brane

For a non-BPS D-brane, in addition to the GSO($`+`$) sector, GSO($``$) sector survives. The GSO($``$) states are Grassmann odd and to incorporate them in the algebraic structure of the previous section, internal $`2\times 2`$ Chan Paton matrices were introduced in . These are added both to the vertex operators, $`Q_B`$ and $`\eta _0`$ as discussed in detail in . The complete string field, $`Q_B`$ and $`\eta _0`$ are thus written as

$`\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}=\mathrm{\Phi }_+I+\mathrm{\Phi }_{}\sigma _1,\widehat{Q}_B=Q_B\sigma _3,\widehat{\eta }_0=\eta _0\sigma _3.`$ (3.1)
where the subscripts on $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ denote the $`(1)^F`$ eigenvalue of the vertex operator. The string field action for the non-BPS D-brane up to terms quintic in the string field is given by :

$`S`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2g^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(\widehat{Q}_B\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})(\widehat{\eta }_0\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}(\widehat{Q}_B\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}(\widehat{\eta }_0\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{12}}(\widehat{Q}_B\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})(\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}^2(\widehat{\eta }_0\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}(\widehat{\eta }_0\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})`$ (3.4)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{60}}(\widehat{Q}_B\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})\left(\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}^3(\widehat{\eta }_0\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})3\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}^2(\widehat{\eta }_0\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}\right)`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{360}}(\widehat{Q}_B\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})(\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}^4(\widehat{\eta }_0\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})4\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}^3(\widehat{\eta }_0\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}+3\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}^2(\widehat{\eta }_0\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }})\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}^2).`$
where the correlation function appearing in the above action are defined as

$`\widehat{A}_1\mathrm{}\widehat{A}_n=\mathrm{Tr}f_1^{(n)}\widehat{A}_1(0)\mathrm{}f_n^{(n)}\widehat{A}_n(0).`$
### 3.2 Marginal deformations and Level approximation

In this section we will calculate the potential for the Wilson line corresponding to the constant gauge field in the $`x^9`$ direction. The corresponding massless state in the CFT is $`\psi _{\frac{1}{2}}|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}`$. We will denote the corresponding space-time field by $`w`$. As in the last section $`\psi :=\psi ^9`$ and $`X:=X^9`$.

Since we are on a non-BPS D-brane we also have fields in the GSO$`()`$ sector, especially the tachyon, which contribute to the potential for $`w`$. In the last section we defined the level of the fields to be equal to the $`L_0`$ eigenvalue of the corresponding CFT state. In this section we will have to modify the definition of the level due to the presence of the tachyon. A field corresponding to the CFT state of $`L_0`$ eigenvalue $`h`$ has level $`h+\frac{1}{2}`$.

In our calculation of the potential for the Wilson line we will restrict ourselves to fields of level less than or equal to $`\frac{3}{2}`$ and terms of level 3 or less in the action. The states and the vertex operators contributing to the potential are shown in the Table 2.

Where in Table 2 the boxed states are not invariant  under the combined $`𝖹𝖹_2`$ twist transformation and $`(\psi _{n\frac{1}{2}},\alpha _n)(\psi _{n\frac{1}{2}},\alpha _n).`$ Thus, for example, the field corresponding to the state $`c_0\beta _{\frac{1}{2}}|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}`$ can be set to zero.

#### 3.2.1 Level $`(\frac{1}{2},1)`$

The states contributing at this level and the corresponding vertex operators are

$`|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }},\widehat{T}=\xi ce^\varphi \sigma _1;\psi _{\frac{1}{2}}|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }},\widehat{W}=\xi \psi ce^\varphi I.`$ (3.6)
Plugging the string field $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}=t\widehat{T}+w\widehat{W}`$ in the superstring action eq(3.4) and evaluating the terms up to level 1 we get

$`g^2S=\frac{1}{4}t^2\frac{1}{2}t^4+(\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{2})t^2w^2.`$ (3.7)
Solving for the equation of motion of $`t`$ we get

$$t=0,\text{and}t=t_\pm =\pm \frac{1}{2}\sqrt{1\frac{14}{1+2\sqrt{2}}w^2}.$$
(3.8)
Thus we get

$`V_{eff}^{(\frac{1}{2},1)}(w)`$ $`=`$ $`0\text{for}t=0\text{ (}M\text{-branch)},`$ (3.9)
$`V_{eff}^{(\frac{1}{2},1)}(w)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi ^2M}{32}}(1{\displaystyle \frac{14}{1+2\sqrt{2}}}w^2)^2\text{for}t=t_\pm \text{ (}V\text{-branch)}.`$
These potentials are shown in the Fig 2 below

. Note that in the tachyonic branch the allowed value of $`w`$ is restricted to the interval $`[0.52293,+0.52293]`$. Also the value of the effective potential at $`w=0`$ in the tachyonic branch is equal to the value of tachyon potential at the minimum ($`0.617M`$) calculated in .

#### 3.2.2 Level $`(\frac{1}{2},2)`$

In this approximation we keep the fields up to level $`\frac{1}{2}`$ and terms in the action up to level $`2`$. This gives us one more term in the action,

$`g^2S=\frac{1}{4}t^2\frac{1}{2}t^4+(\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{2})t^2w^2\frac{3}{8}w^4.`$ (3.10)
Solving for the equation of motion of $`t`$ we get,

$`t=0,t=t_\pm =\pm {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sqrt{1{\displaystyle \frac{14}{1+2\sqrt{2}}}w^2}.`$ (3.11)
In the $`M`$-branch ( $`t=0`$ )the effective potential for $`w`$ is

$`V_{eff}^{(\frac{1}{2},2)}(w)`$ $`=`$ $`(2\pi ^2M){\displaystyle \frac{3}{8}}w^4,w[\mathrm{},+\mathrm{}]\text{ (}M\text{-branch)}.`$ (3.12)
In the $`V`$-branch in which $`t`$ is non-zero we get

$`V_{eff}^{(\frac{1}{2},2)}(w)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^2M}{16(1+2\sqrt{2})^2}}\{(48\sqrt{2}88)w^4+(56\sqrt{2}+28)w^24\sqrt{2}9)\text{ (}V\text{-branch)}.`$
and the range of $`w`$ is the same as it was for the $`V`$-branch in the $`(\frac{1}{2},1)`$ approximation. Fig 3 shows the effective potentials in the $`M`$ and the $`V`$-branch.

#### 3.2.3 Level $`(1,2)`$

At this level we have on more state contributing to the potential for $`w`$,

$`\alpha _1|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }},\widehat{Y}=i\xi Xce^\varphi \sigma _1.`$ (3.13)
The string field is now given by $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}=t\widehat{T}+w\widehat{W}+y\widehat{Y}.`$ Keeping terms up to level 2 in the action we get,

$`g^2S=\frac{1}{4}t^2\frac{1}{2}t^4+(\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{2})t^2w^2\frac{3}{8}w^4kyt\frac{1}{4}y^2\frac{5}{4}t^2y^2.`$ (3.14)
We solve for $`y`$ and $`t`$ as a function of $`w`$ by solving for the equations of motion $`\frac{S}{y}=\frac{S}{t}=0`$ and get the effective potential for $`w`$. The effective potential in the two branches is shown in Fig 4 below.

The effective potential in the $`t=0`$ branch is the same as the $`(\frac{1}{2},2)`$ case,

$$V_{eff}^{(1,2)}(w)=(2\pi ^2M)\frac{3}{8}w^4\text{ (}M\text{-branch)}.$$
(3.15)
Although we found an exact analytic expression for the effective potential in the $`V`$-branch, we will not list it here as it is quite complicated. We will just give the first few terms in its taylor expansion:

$`V_{eff}^{(1,2)}(w)=M(0.61685+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2.31822}w^2+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2.33284}w^4+4.450471w^6+O(w^8))\text{ (}V\text{-branch)\hspace{0.17em}.}`$
#### 3.2.4 Level $`(1,3)`$

Including level three terms in the action we obtain one more term as compared to the action at level $`(1,2)`$,

$`g^2S`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{4}t^2\frac{1}{2}t^4+(\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{2})t^2w^2\frac{3}{8}w^4wyt\frac{1}{4}y^2`$
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{5}{4}}t^2y^2+({\displaystyle \frac{1}{8}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sqrt{2})w^2y^2.`$
As before, we can eliminate $`y`$ and $`t`$ by using their equations of motion to obtain the effective potential for $`w`$. In the $`M`$-branch $`t=y=0`$ and the effective potential for $`w`$ is $`(2\pi ^2M)\frac{3}{8}w^4`$. In the $`V`$-branch $`t`$ and $`y`$ are non-zero. In this branch the value of $`w`$ is restricted to lie in the range $`[0.7306,0.7306]`$. At ends of this interval, the $`V`$-branch touches the $`M`$-branch. The expression for the effective potential in the $`V`$-branch is fairly long so we will just give the first few terms in its taylor expansion:

$`V_{eff}^{(1,3)}=M(0.61685+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2.31822}w^2+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4.60253}w^4+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2.82462}w^6+O(w^8))\text{(}V\text{-branch)}.`$
The graph of the effective potential in the two branches is shown in figure 5.

#### 3.2.5 Level $`(\frac{3}{2},3)`$

At this level we have four new fields contributing to the potential for $`w`$,

$`\{c_1\beta _{\frac{1}{2}},b_1\gamma _{\frac{1}{2}},G_{\frac{3}{2}},\alpha _1\psi _{\frac{1}{2}}\}|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}`$ (3.17)
with vertex operators

$`\widehat{A}=\xi \xi c^2ce^{2\varphi }I,\widehat{E}=\xi \eta I,\widehat{F}=\xi G_mce^\varphi I,\widehat{P}=i\xi \psi Xce^\varphi I.`$
The string field up to this level is given by

$`\widehat{\mathrm{\Phi }}=t\widehat{T}+w\widehat{W}+y\widehat{Y}+a\widehat{A}+e\widehat{E}+f\widehat{F}+p\widehat{P}.`$ (3.18)
Using this string field and keeping only terms up to level 3 in the action we get,

$`g^2S_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}t^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}t^4,`$ (3.19)
$`g^2S_{\frac{1}{2}}`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$
$`g^2S_1`$ $`=`$ $`({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sqrt{2})t^2w^2,`$
$`g^2S_{\frac{3}{2}}`$ $`=`$ $`wyt+at^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}et^2+{\displaystyle \frac{5}{96}}\sqrt{50+22\sqrt{5}}et^4,`$
$`g^2S_2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{8}}w^4{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}y^2{\displaystyle \frac{5}{4}}t^2y^2`$
$`g^2S_{\frac{5}{2}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}(9+5\sqrt{5})ew^2t^2+{\displaystyle \frac{4\sqrt{3}}{9}}(aw^2fw^2pw^2),`$
$`g^2S_3`$ $`=`$ $`2aepf{\displaystyle \frac{5}{18}}e^2t^4{\displaystyle \frac{1}{12}}(3+40\sqrt{2})aet^2+{\displaystyle \frac{5}{12}}(10\sqrt{2}1)eft^2`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}(10\sqrt{2}1)ept^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}(4\sqrt{2}1)fpt^25f^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}p^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8}}(4\sqrt{2}1)p^2t^2`$
$`+`$ $`({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}})e^2t^2+({\displaystyle \frac{1}{8}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sqrt{2})y^2w^2{\displaystyle \frac{5}{4}}(4\sqrt{2}1)f^2t^2+{\displaystyle \frac{5}{12}}(\sqrt{2}2)eywt`$
$`+`$ $`({\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{9}{8}}\sqrt{2})(fywt+pywt).`$
$$V(w,t,y,a,e,f,p)=(2\pi ^2M)g^2S$$

We solve equations of motions for $`y,a,e,f,p`$ to obtain the vevs of these fields as functions of $`w`$ and $`t`$. Substituting these vevs in $`V(w,t,y,a,e,f,p)`$, we obtain an effective potential $`V_{eff}(w,t)`$ for $`w`$ and $`t`$. This is shown in Fig 6. To obtain the effective potential for $`w`$, we have to solve the equation $`\frac{V(w,t)}{t}=0`$ for $`t`$ as a function of $`w`$. There is alway a solution $`t=0`$ to this equation. In this branch, the effective potential is given by

$`V_{eff}^{(\frac{3}{2},3)}(w)={\displaystyle \frac{17}{216}}w^4M\text{-branch}.`$ (3.20)
In the $`V`$-branch $`t`$ is non-zero and we numerically find the set of points (other than $`t=0`$) $`(w,t)`$ such that $`\frac{V(w,t)}{t}=0`$. These points are shown in the Fig 7.

From Fig 7 we see that in the $`V`$-branch, the value of $`w`$ is restricted to lie in the range $`[0.6617,0.6617]`$. We numerically find the effective potential for $`w`$ in the $`V`$-branch at this level. It is shown in Fig 8 below. Note that the value of the effective potential at $`w=0`$ is $`0.85446`$ which is equal to the value of the tachyon potential at its minimum at this level .

## 4 Mass of the $`U(1)`$ gauge field

The puzzle involving the fate of the $`U(1)`$ gauge field living on the non-BPS D-brane, as the D-brane annihilates, has been discussed by various authors. In  Taylor calculated the terms quadratic in the gauge field using level truncation in the bosonic string field theory. He showed that the eigenvalues of the mass matrix approach a non-zero value as higher and higher levels are included. Using the effective potential in the $`V`$-branch determined in the last section we calculate the mass of the gauge field in the stable tachyonic vacuum. The mass (squared) is the coefficient of the quaratic term in the expansion of the effective action in powers of $`w`$. The result is given in Table 3.

It seems that the mass of the gauge field approaches a non-zero stable value as the level approximation is improved. However, we will have to include higher level fields and terms in the action to get more evidence for this fact.

## 5 Conclusions

In this paper we calculated the effective potential for the marginal deformation parameter corresponding to the constant vev of the $`U(1)`$ gauge field in the level truncated superstring field theory. We saw that for the case of BPS D-brane that there are no multiple branches of the effective potential at level $`(1,2)`$. Therefore their was no restriction on the range of the marginal deformation parameter $`w`$. This was clear from the beginning since terms at this level were at most quadratic in the fields $`a,e,f`$ and $`p`$ so that equations of motion are linear in these variables and there is a unique vev of these fields in terms of $`w`$. It is possible that if we include level three terms in the action there might be multiple branches of the effective potential since, in this case, we will have terms cubic in the fields $`a,e,f`$ and $`p`$ in the action. For example terms like $`f^3`$, $`p^3`$ and $`f^2p`$ are non-zero and solving for their equation of motion may give multiple solutions. Although determining the contribution of these cubic terms to the action is relatively easy, solving for their equations of motion to obtain the effective potential for $`w`$ seems difficult. However, to find out if the range of $`w`$ is restricted in the BPS case and if there are multiple branches of solutions coming from massive string fields, such a calculation should be performed.

For the non-BPS D-brane, the existence of two branches of solutions is due to to the fact that the tachyon potential at this level has two extrema (up to signs). In the unstable vacuum corresponding to zero tachyon vev ($`M`$-branch) the effective potential for $`w`$ is not restricted and in the approximation we considered is purely quartic with the coefficient becoming smaller as the higher level contributions are included. In the $`M`$-branch, all GSO($``$) fields are set to zero and the effective potential is identical to the BPS case (the effective potential in the BPS case in section 2 is more complicated than the potential found in the $`M`$-branch of the non-BPS case in section 3; this is because the level assignments used in the two cases are different). The $`V`$-branch of the effective potential corresponds to the non-zero tachyon vev and its range is restricted. At the end point of range the $`V`$-branch merges into the $`M`$-branch. At $`w=0`$, the value of the potential in the $`V`$-branch is the same as the value of tachyon potential at the minimum calculated in .

Using the effective potential in the $`V`$-branch we also calculate the mass of the gauge field in the stable tachyonic vacuum. Our results seem to suggest that the gauge field acquires a non-zero mass after the tachyon condenses. However, to obtain better evidence of this, the level approximation should be pushed further.

## Acknowledgements

We thank Barton Zwiebach for useful discussions. This research was supported in part by the US Department of Energy under contract #DE-FC02-94ER40818.